HISE Exam Notes

Overview
- The Industrial Revolution, developing first in eighteenth-century Britain. The Industrial
Revolution began in the 1750s. It began when the people in Europe started to use coal and
steam power to drive new machines.
- Gave rise to economic changes that have had an enormous impact on society.
- An obvious result was urbanisation, but the Industrial Revolution also contributed to other
population movements such as the slave trade, emigration, and convict transportation.
- Encouraged European nationalism and imperialism.
- While the Industrial Revolution created wealth for some and support for capitalism, it also
created a new class of urban workers who were forced to endure poor living and working
conditions.
- At the end of this period, a build-up of tensions among Europe's great powers contributed to
the outbreak of World War I, the first global war.
- These international acts encouraged major changes to the workforce in India which occurred
in 1986 when the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act was put into place. This act
prohibited hiring children younger than the age of 14, and from working in hazardous
conditions.
- 1833 the government passed the factory act which prohibited children under the age of nine
from being laboured.

Advantages:

- More technological advances: It fuelled world trade, also infrastructure was rapidly growing.
- Increased job opportunities: People were able to leave their old jobs and find works that
were different to their families.
- Increase in the production of goods: the price of goods declined, and more people could
have access to majority of the goods made. This enhanced living conditions and increased
comfort and quality of life – a higher standard of living.

Disadvantages:

- Hard labour and harsh job conditions: People worked for longer hours under bad conditions,
this led to illness and even death. Some cases included people getting fatal or serious
injuries from uncovered factory equipment. Dust and fumes also impacted the workers’
health.
- Overpopulation: overcrowding led to many slum areas and inefficient hygiene – not having
fresh water, spread of disease etc.
- Losses in craftsmanship: less handmade goods, replaced by mass production.
- Pollution: The smoke and fumes that surrounded the cities massively impacted people’s
health and lifespans to around 30 – 33 years old.

The industrial revolution:

- Machines were invented which replaced human labour

- New energy resources were developed to power the new machinery – water, steam,
electricity, oil (gas, kerosene).
 - Increased use of metals and minerals – Aluminium, coal, copper, iron, etc.

Great Britain’s advantages:

- Plentiful iron and coal

- A navigable river system
- Colonies that supplied raw materials and bought finished goods
- A government that encouraged improvements in transportation and used its navy to protect
British trade.

Term Definition
Revolution A revolution is a sudden change in political or social power. This is usually due
oppression or political incompetence.
Industrial Revolution Great changes that began in Britain in the 18th century. It altered the way goo
made and the way people lived. Gave rise to social, political, and economic cha

Urban Urban means a human settlement with a high population density and infrastru
built environment.
Rural Being in the countryside, or rural area with a low population density and less
infrastructure built.
Nationalism Nationalism is an idea that the nation should be corresponding with the state.

Empire An empire is a "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples

Imperialism Imperialism is a policy or ideology of extending rule over peoples and other co

Mass Production Mass production is the production of large quantities of a standardized goods.
Mechanisation Mechanization is changing from working by hand or with animals to doing that
with machinery.

Trans-Atlantic Slave The Trans -Atlantic Slave trade was the transportation by slave traders of ensla
Trade African people, mainly to America.
Middle Passage The Middle Passage was when millions of enslaved Africans were forcibly trans
to America as part of the triangular slave trade.

Democracy A democratic country has a system of government in which the people have th
to participate in decision-making

Socialism Socialism is characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as o

to private ownership.

1. What do the quotes tell us about the life of workers during the Industrial
Revolution?
The quotes tell us that life was harsh and not very safe. Many of the workers didn’t have
rights and work would be overlooked by the factories master. Most or even all of which
were men and could be abusive at times. Majority of the workers would get seriously
injured or even die from the consequences of the unsafe factory conditions.
2. Based on your earlier studies, how do you think their lives changed because of the
Industrial Revolution?
Yes, I think their lives changed a lot because of the industrial revolution. Changes in their
homes, food, work, and clothing were prominent during this time. Many lived in
overcrowded slums with some not having access to fresh water. Household items and
clothing, even food would have been mass produced and would be cheaper. Work would
have been unsafe and would affect their health, this would be due to the amount of
pollution and toxic fumes in the air around the factories in the cities.
Changes in agricultural production paved the way for the country to expand its population
and its production methods. It was a gradual process, beginning in the middle of the 17th
century and throughout the 19th century. Enclosures were fencing off many small areas of
land, previously shared by the community, to create larger private farms.
Types Define the concept Examples (1 or 2)
Political revolution An upheaval in which the government is replaced, or the The French revolution, the
form of government altered. American revolutionary war.

Social revolution A change in the organization of the society (social The Russian revolution
structure, culture and thinking process of the people of a
nation) and not just a change in the structure of the
government (political revolution).
Industrial revolution Great changes that began in Britain in the 18th century. It The British industrial revolution
altered the way goods were made and the way people
lived. Gave rise to social, political, and economic
changes.
Technological revolution A period in which one technology replaces another more -
advanced technology.

1. What impact did the Agricultural revolution make on farm workers and their families?

Farm workers and their families were forced from their homes, and people moved away
from rural villages to towns and cities in search of work. They began a new class of workers,
providing the labour force needed in the new factories and mills.

Imperialism and (pre) Movement of People

The impact of the Industrial Revolution on the movement of peoples.
Convict Transportation:
Transportation was not formally abolished until 1868, but it had been effectively stopped in 1857
and had become unusual well before that date. Between 1788 and 1868 more than 162,000 convicts
were transported to Australia.

- The industrial revolution had a major impact on convict transportation during the 18th
century.
- Due to overpopulation, unhealthy and overcrowded living spaces was the commonality.
Many were either overworked or unemployed. With little income people turned to the
comfort of drugs and alcohol and crime skyrocketed.
- British authorities sought to start housing convicted prisoners in rotting hulks that were kept
moored in harbours and ports. As hulks became overcrowded and unsafe another solution
was found.
- They decided to transport convicts first to North America then later to the British colonies in
Australia. For example, the first fleet of convict ships to Australia sailed with 751 convicts
and around 250 marines and their families, landing in what has now become Sydney Cove.
- Slowly around the world more and more convicts were transported, and they contributed to
settlements and colonisation that would start the growth of Australia. Hence, the industrial
revolution impacted the movement of peoples and convict transportation.
- Between 1788 and 1868 more than 162,000 convicts were transported to Australia

Free settlers:
- Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries large numbers of
people left their homelands in search of safety and better
opportunities for their families.
- During the 1870s many migrated to Australia during the
gold rush thinking it would be a great opportunity to follow.
- The industrial revolution brough about the notion of
importing and exporting – thereafter the triangular trade
was strongly established with North America and Africa,
other countries that Britain had colonies in were also
included in migration.
- The prospect of cheap or free grants of land drew millions of immigrants away from
overcrowded cities in Europe to the New world. This brought more people to move to
different regions and expand the world as we know it.

The Slave Trade:

- The triangular trade
- Routes included ships loaded with cotton, timber, tobacco, and
furs crossed the Atlantic to Britain and Europe.
- From Britain and Europe, the ships, now loaded with
manufactured goods, headed to Africa
- The final part of the triangular trade route was the return to
America with their holds full of slaves. With the need for the mass
production of goods and trade, the European powers, as well as the Americans needed
people to work as resources on plantations and farms.
 - Historians estimate that over 12 million were transported to the slave markets of Europe
and the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries.

Glossary Definitions
Colony A country or region that is politically controlled by another distant country.
Capitalism An economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are
controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.
Imperialism Imperialism is a policy or ideology of extending rule over peoples and other
countries
Nationalism Being a strong supporter of the rights and interests of one's country. It is also
the belief that nations will benefit from acting independently rather than
together.
Socialism A political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the
means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated
by the community.
Assembly line A series of workers and machines in a factory by which a succession of
identical items is progressively assembled.
Laborious Involving or characterized by hard or toilsome effort
Transportation The action or practice of transporting convicts to a penal colony.
Petty crime A type of crime that is not considered serious when compared with some other
crimes such as theft, trespassing etc.
Constitution A body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which
a state or other organization is acknowledged to be governed.
Suffragist A person advocating the extension of suffrage, especially to women.
Secular Something that has no connection with the church or religion.
Arms Temporary halt to fighting to allow peace negotiations

The Expansion of European Empires

Reasons for European imperial expansion

- Economics — the Industrial Revolution created a huge demand for new supplies and
markets to sell their manufactured goods. Europe needed to gain access to cheap supplies of
raw materials like minerals, rubber, cotton, and tea. New customers were also required for
the purchase of the goods manufactured in Europe.
- Nationalism — the sense of nationhood and great pride in national achievements had
become very strong in Europe during the nineteenth century. Possession of colonies began
to be seen as a sign of national strength and prestige.
- Security — control of overseas territory provided the Europeans with strategic advantages
over their European rivals. Possession of territory in Asia had given the British the control of
straits, seas, and oceans, and provided them with security in times of conflict.
Movement of People
The Main Causes of Migration from 1750 to 1920
- The period from 1750 to 1901 saw an unprecedented increase in the number of people
moving around the world – a process known as migration.
 The Transatlantic Slave Trade
- To be a slave is to be owned by another person.
- A slave is classed as property and works for nothing.
- Slavery refers to a condition in which individuals are owned by others, who control where
they live and at what they work.

- The Transatlantic Slave Trade consisted of three journeys:

- The outward passage from Britain to Africa carrying manufactured goods. (London, Bristol,
Liverpool, Glasgow)
- The middle passage from Africa to the Americas carrying African slaves.
- The homeward passage carrying sugar, tobacco, rum, rice, cotton, and other goods back to
Britain.
- If a slave were disobedient, they could be whipped, tortured, or killed. A slave could have
his or her spouse sold to another master and never see them again. If a slave had children,
they were considered the property of the owner and could be sold to someone else. Slaves
were abused physically, emotionally, and sexually, and many would die at the hands of the
person who had bought them.

Thinking Questions:

How do you think Europeans could justify owning other people?

- They could have justified owning other people using religion, law, and common
misconceptions and beliefs that people had at the time.

What were the reasons for the slave trade?

- The reasons for the slave trade included, a shortage of labour and products, racial and
religious attitudes, military factors etc. The British wanted to make profit cultivating crops
like tobacco, cotton, and sugar.
Beliefs Money (economic) Religion
1. Some people thought that slavery 1. Slaves were used to work on 1. Some people thought God
made the Africans happier. plantations in America making approved of slavery.
2. Slavery was not against the law. cotton, sugar, and coffee. The 2. The Bible talks about slavery, so
3. Slave Owners thought the slaves plantation owners made lots of some people believed this
were not like humans, more like dogs money because they didn’t have to meant slavery was ok.
or horses, and that white people pay the slaves any wages.
were superior (better) to them. 2. Slaves could be sold for $1200 each,
4. Some people believed black people so people who brought them from
were not as clever as white people Africa could make lots of money
and needed telling what to do, like 3. The sugar trade in Britain was worth
children. 20 million pounds a year. Sugar and
5. Some people believed blacks were cotton traders made lots of money
lazy and without white people telling and became very rich.
them what to do, would sit around all 4. Many white people liked to have
day doing nothing. black people as servants inside the
6. Some people thought black people house, where they would work for
were dangerous and given half a free.
chance would rob people or worse.
Short- and long-term impacts of slavery
• Kings who had protected their people now traded them into slavery. Men, women, and children
were swapped for European goods. The way tribes governed themselves and dealt with law breakers
changed as enslavement became the punishment for both minor and serious crimes.

• Wars were provoked between the different African kingdoms to provide a constant source of war
captives for the slave trade. The continuous warfare disrupted agriculture and led to famine.

• The traditional African economy was destroyed as communities established business links with
Europeans. Cattle and crops were raised for cash, rather than as the community’s food supply.
Traditional industries, such as the metalwork of Benin, were abandoned as Africans developed
industries to serve the slave trade. Large quantities of goods produced outside Africa replaced local
trade goods.

• Patterns of settlement changed as people were forced to move to more remote areas to escape
the threat of enslavement, or to find work in the new slave trade industries or agriculture.

• European and African diseases spread across the continent as more people came into close contact
with each other.

1. What did the slave trade do for European and American merchants and what did the slave
trade establish?

The slave trade ensured that white colonisers were able to gain access to goods that were not
common in their area. It established trade between Africa, Europe, and America. It also established a
new African economy by destroying their traditional one.

2. What were the consequences of slavery in the United States?

The consequences of slavery, included the huge profit made with cash crops of tobacco, cotton and
sugar cane, America's southern states became the economic engine of the burgeoning nation. It also
created a legacy that is still remembered today, and still impacts the world.

- Profits made in the slave trade provided money for investment in British industry. Slave
trade and European colonialism contributed to the under-development of many African
countries. In North America It allowed the colonies to earn money. There was also a
population increase due to the more wealth.
- Slavery and colonialism exploited Africa’s people and resources, and money and people
were taken from Africa. Some of those people were potential leaders who might have made
a difference for the better had they been able to stay in Africa.
- The slave trade weakened the sense of community within African communities due to
Africans often capturing people from other tribes and then sold them to the Europeans. This
would impact economic growth as unity is an important factor in it. They were therefore less
inclined to look for other ways to generate an income and create wealth.

Impacts of slavery
Environment:

- Slaves cleared and bought under cultivation cast areas of tropical vegetation marshes, and
grasslands, to grow crops of sugar, tobacco, cotton, and rice
 - In the US, places where cotton was intensively cultivated, the topsoil was swashed or blown
away and planters moved further away west, taking more and more of the native Americans’
land.

Society:

- In the USA, slavery contributed great wealth to the economy, but it had a destructive effect
on society.
- Disagreement over slavery was one of the triggers of the American civil war, in which more
than 620000 people died
- As a result of the war, slavery was abolished but its demoralising consequences continued
for another century.
- Freed slaves and their families became a poor underclass in American society, mostly in
southern states
- Subject to all forms of racism, prejudice, and discrimination
- By the end of the 19th century thousands of African Americans moved from the southern
states in search of employment in the industrialised cities of the north.

Impact on Africa:

- Loss of around 12 million people held back the economic growth of West Africa
- Areas where slaves were taken from became impoverished
- With the healthiest and strongest young males and females taken it was impossible for local
agricultural and commerce to develop.

Repatriation:

- To return a person to his or her country

- Two colonies were established in Africa by anti-slavery activists as a home for freed slaves.
- Around 74000 slaves were resettled in Sierra Leone and around 20000 were resettled in
Latvia
- From these places, some slaves found their way back to their original homelands.

Cultural heritage:

- Even though they were treated so badly, they maintained a strong sense of their own
heritage
- Languages, music, customs, and beliefs were passed from generation to generation,
sometimes blended or adapted to create new cultural expressions
- Soul music, jazz, rhythm, and blues and the calypso music of the west indies enjoy
widespread popularity today.
- They all have roots in the human experience of slavery.

When was Slavery Abolished?

Passed by Congress on January 31, 1865, and ratified on December 6, 1865, the 13th amendment
abolished slavery in the United States

The American Abolishment movement

An abolitionist was a person who wanted to do away with slavery and/or contributed to the cause of
freeing slaves in some way (signing petitions, delivering protest speeches, harbouring runaway
slaves, etc.)
 - The main mission of the abolitionist movement was to eradicate slavery, and slave
ownership.

Various tactics used:

- Unite groups of like-minded individuals to fight as a group

- Addressing Congress, flooding representatives with petitions calling for a ban on slavery in
the District of Columbia
- Militant abolitionists felt that violence was the only way to end slavery and resorted to
extreme and deadly tactics, such as inciting violent insurrections.
- Black women spoke from their experience, bringing their stories to audiences to elicit
empathy and action. White women came out of their domestic sphere to support the cause
in various ways.
- Abolitionists grew more militant since every other tactic they used were not acted upon or
considered. They were getting restless and tired of inaction. From that they turned to
violence to get their voice heard.

5. Why do you think the abolitionist movement and the women’s suffrage movement often
joined forces?

Both movements aimed to create equality in society, and for certain rights and legislations to be
granted. When connected they can create more disruptions and bring attention to both
movements on a more widespread and louder platform. They learned to organize, publicize, and
articulate a political protest, from each other, whilst supporting each movement together.

Convicts
The largest and most significant movement of people to Australia in the early years of European
settlement was brought about by the transportation of convicts from Britain.

 The idea of transporting convicts first came about because of significant changes that took
place in Britain and Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. Increasing populations across
Europe and the movement of people to rapidly growing towns and cities were significant
changes brought about by the Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. These
factors combined to produce a further effect: a massive increase in crime rates in Britain.

 It was possible to be sentenced to a prison term (and later, transportation) for stealing
something as small as a loaf of bread for your family.
 One strategy adopted in England after the overcrowding of British jails was to imprison
convicts in hulks. These were decommissioned warships that floated but could not go to sea.
 Conditions on board the floating gaols were appalling. The standards of hygiene were so
poor that disease spread quickly. The sick was given little medical attention and were not
separated from the healthy.
 Mortality rates of around 30% were quite common. Between 1776 and 1795, nearly 2000
out of almost 6000 convicts serving their sentence on board the hulks died.
 Punishment was harsh. Some for example included frequent floggings, extra irons, and
solitary confinement in tiny cells with names like the 'Black Hole'.

James Cook who went to Australia and the South Pacific in 1770, suggested Botany Bay on the coast
of New South Wales as a location for a new penal colony. Britain, soon after this, turned to the
newly discovered land of Australia as a place to send its convicts.
 - Between 1787 and 1869, about 162 000 people were transported from Britain to Australia.

Conditions on board the First Fleet were extremely harsh. Convicts spent most of the
voyage restrained below deck.

Most of the convicts who arrived in 1788 arrived in reasonable condition but must have been
stunned by the sight of their new environment. The seasons were reversed, the heat was unlike
anything they had previously experienced, and the soil seemed too poor to sustain the new colony.

- The First Fleet sailed from England on 13 May 1787 and arrived at Botany Bay eight months
later, on 18 January 1788.

Relationship between Convicts and Aboriginal people.

- While some friendships were made between convicts and Aboriginal people, relationships
were generally poor.
- In the early decades of the 19th century, British officers used Aboriginal men to track
escaped convicts. Convicts, in turn, retaliated against Aboriginal people. This led to a cycle of
revenge assaults and murders.
- Officials issued proclamations about severe punishments for convict and Aboriginal
offenders. But sometimes these violent acts were overlooked.
- Aboriginals were also forced into hardships of fighting for land, hunger, and disease.

3. What are some immediate impacts of the occupation/invasion? Consider a range of

impacts, including environmental, social, cultural, and technological impacts

The aboriginals were met with the impacts of death, and disease from the introduction of
smallpox. It wipes up the first majority of the first Australians in the Sydney region. Some
terrified, carry the disease further into the country where it spreads even more.

Free Settlers
“How did Free Settlers and Convicts significantly contribute to the building of modern Australia?”

Issues included, as the size of the colonies and the number of free settlers and moreover free
citizenry. When it grew in relation to the convicts and military, the colonies needed a democratic
change. Another use being the new farming industry taking a stride in raising cattle and sheep. The
export of wool played a major role income for the colony. In the early 1800’s as the British
government was paying transportations costs for migrants, free settlers were granted free land on
the promise of using it for a productive purpose. With this, convicts were employed to work for
them to establish farms. Also, some free settlers worked in trades, such as carpentry or
blacksmithing. Some also had jobs as doctors, and lawyers. Their skills were highly valued in building
the colony.

The first settlement at Sydney Cove struggled to establish itself and threatened to go into starvation.
Signs of stability were overdue, yet quick to break down with the departure of Governor Phillip due
to illness. As the number of free citizens, made up from free settlers, convicts who had served time,
and merchants, it was the first sign of change. Additionally, as this population grew in relation to the
convicts and military, a democratic change was underway.

Raising cattle and sheep, especially Merinos, created an increase in the export of wool. This became
a crucial point of income for the developing colony.
As most of the free settlers were farmers, they developed the land granted to them, as well as
employing or using convicts as a source of labour to establish farms. The Australian wool industry
rapidly developed and lent to creating mass profits across Australia.

The production of wool was beneficial as it was well suited to the Australian climate. It was able to
produce good length of staple and a soft quality allowing it to be used for processing into material
for the cloth industry.

Some had jobs as tradesmen to support the ever-growing economy, also to provide facilities that
were needed at the time. Their skills were valuable to support the development of modern Australia.
They brought, hospitals, churches, business, and room for exporting and importing to Australia
through their numerous jobs.

It was able to create a society that was functioning and eventually prospered. New democratic laws
and legislations were created to establish the judicial system in colonial Australia, the wool industry
took off, and the work of convict and free settler labourers helped create a working society that was
essential to the advancement of Australia.

Australia At War – WWI

Timeline and the Alliance System
World War I, sometimes referred to as The Great War, was a global conflict that took place between
1914- 1918. Two opposing forces, The Triple alliance, and the Triple Entente. Australia was a part of
the Triple Entente.

Triple Entente Triple Alliance

France Germany

Russian Empire Italy

Great Britain Austro- Hungarian Empire/Bosnia

Timeline of the long and short term causes of

WWI
 LONG TERM CAUSES OF - WWI M.A.I.N (MILITARISM,
ALLIANCE SYSTEM, IMPERIALISM & NATIONALISMS)
Militarism The belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a
strong military capability and be prepared to use it to defend/promote national
interests. Major European powers were competing for military dominance through
an arms race and ‘the race to the sea’ i.e., the increase of their armies, and navy

Alliances Agreements between nations to support and protect each other as well as advance
the interests they share. When an alliance is signed, those countries become known
as allies.

Imperialism A policy of extending a country’s power and influence through diplomacy or

military force. As we’ve learned in the Movement of People’s Unit, powerful
European nations (alliance members) were travelling to new lands and colonising or
conquering these to acquire power and new resources

Nationalism A sense of national identity and a desire to work with others to achieve a common
national goal (at times regardless of impact on other countries/nations).
Nationalism is to do with one’s pride for their nations. Militarism and imperialism
drove national pride. European nations became competitive with one another.

Significant Individuals and Events Significant events, such as the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand acted as a
catalyst (an event that speeds something up) for the start of World War I

- Leading up to WWI under the rule of Field Marshal von Moltke the Elder in the 1850’s
Prussia’s army implemented new strategies, improved training for its officers, introduced
advanced weaponry and effective forms of communication. These things were crucial to the
growth of their beliefs in militarism and their added push from German nationalism
following the German unification, meant that it became the most dangerous and effective
military force in Europe.
 - The British attitude to the military change was more subtle than Germany, however not
completely subdued. In the 1800s attitudes changed as in they no longer thought of the
army and navy as evil and populated by failures and lower classes. Now they were thinking
of their military more of a noble sacrifice for their country. The concept of soldiers as heroes
were the overall concept introduced at this time.

The Arms Race: The arms race was essentially a competitive gaining of military power and resources
between two or more countries. It is a display of power and nationalism through the spend age of
millions trying to revamp their own countries military.

The ‘July Crisis’ of 1914

The start of World War I was marked by Germany’s declaration of war against Russia and France,
followed immediately by its decision to invade Belgium. While these events all took place in the first
days of August 1914, they were the direct result of several events that took place earlier that year.

- On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria–Hungary, and his
wife were assassinated in the city of Sarajevo. At that time, Sarajevo (now the capital of
Bosnia and Herzegovina) was part of Austria–Hungary. The assassination led to a frantic and
confused period of bluff, threat, and negotiations between several European powers in July
1914. This period became known as the ‘July Crisis’ of 1914.

Austria–Hungary blamed the government of neighbouring Serbia for the assassination. The
Austrians, with the support of their ally Germany, issued a series of 10 harsh demands to Serbia.
Serbia agreed to nine of the 10, but to accept all the demands would have meant that Serbia lost any
real independence. Serbia turned to its ally Russia for support. Russia promised to protect Serbia
against any threat from Austria–Hungary and Germany.

When Russia offered to support Serbia against Austria–Hungary, Germany threatened Russia. Russia
responded by calling on its ally France.

A month after the assassination, Austria–Hungary declared war on Serbia. From that point on, a
localised conflict in the Balkan region of south-eastern Europe became a general European war. The
key to the spread of the conflict into a world war was the complex ‘system of alliances’, that
developed in Europe between the 1870s and 1907.

- Germany was faced with hostile forces preparing for war on both its Eastern and Western
borders.
- The German response was to devise a special military plan known as the Schlieffen Plan
- The aim of the Schlieffen Plan was to put a quick end to the threat from France before the
huge Russian army was ready for war.

For the Schlieffen Plan to work, the German army needed to attack France by passing through
neutral Belgium. However, although it was not a member of the Triple Entente, Belgium had an
alliance with Britain. When the German army invaded Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany.

LONG TERM CAUSES OF WWI M.A.I.N IMPERIALISM

- The main advantage of imperialism includes the fact that developing countries have access
to new technologies, further access to resources, increased efficiency of military, and
military strategies. Further pros include defensive networks being created through
imperialism, and that it exposes people to new ethnicities and cultures.
“The scramble for Africa”:

- The motivation behind the colonization of Africa and Asia by Europe was fuelled essentially
by their need for an increase in territory. This need for a land grab was based on an
overdrive for s each tried to obtain more land for economic, political, and strategic reasons.
The European nations used imperialism to gain what they wanted. These things included
natural resources of the lands they conquered and the forced labour of the people from
whom they took the land. Africa was a key target in the European land grabs, this event is
called ‘the scramble for Africa’. This stemmed from rising nationalism and increasing
demand for land and dwindling opportunities at home.

Essentially, Imperial rivalry and competition for new territories and possessions fuelled tension
between major European nations and became a factor in the outbreak of war.

PART 3 NATIONALISM
- Characteristics of growing nationalism includes being intense, an exaggeration on the
importance of their home country, feelings of superiority over other nations, fierce, loyal,
feeling as though beyond fault.
- Three contributors of nationalism include military over confidence, a by-product of
economic and imperial expansion, and their attitudes to war.
- Nationalism is closely linked to militarism as it fosters delusions about nations military
strength compared to other nations. Due to the rhetoric that some nations were militarily
superior and better equipped to win a future war in Europe, it greater supported the rise in
militarism and their pride and loyalty to their country.

The British, for example, thought their naval power, with the size and resources of the British
Empire, would help them in war. Another example is the French placing their faith in the country’s
heavy industry, which had expanded rapidly in the late 1800s.

- Nationalism fuelled a continental delusion that contributed to the growing mood for war.
- The German government fuelled nationalism by promoting and celebrating German culture
– from the poetry of Goethe to the music of Richard Wagner. German nationalism was also
enforced by German militarism.

Pan- Slavism: It’s the union of all Slavs or all Slavic peoples. Pan-Slavism was particularly opposed to
the Austro-Hungarian Empire and its control and influence over the region. Aggravated by Vienna’s
annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina they joined the Black Hand.

- The black Hand was responsible for the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

Why was Russia concerned about the Ottoman Empire joining the Triple Alliance?

- The Ottoman Empire controlled the Dardanelles and could block Russian access to the Black
Sea.
10. Place these events in their correct chronological order, numbering from 1 for the earliest to 5
for the most recent:

3) Russia amasses troops along the German and Austro-Hungarian borders

2) The Austro-Hungarian Empire declares war on Serbia

5) Britain declares war on Germany

4) Germany declares war on France

1) Archduke Franz Ferdinand is assassinated

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie are shot to death by a Bosnian Serb
nationalist during an official visit to the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo on June 28, 1914.

The War Plans - Germany's Schlieffen Plan and France's Plan

The Germans started creating and organizing the Schlieffen plan before the war. They created the
plan so they wouldn’t have to fight a battle on two fronts at the same time. The person who created
the Schlieffen Plan was Alfred Von Schlieffen.

The Schlieffen Plan was an offensive plan to knock France out of the war before the Germans turned
their attention to the Russians. The General’s plan was to capture Paris and the French Army in the
west in Six (6) weeks. Once the Germans captured France, they would turn their attention east to
Russia and conquer them as well. The foundation of this plan was the Germans though that Russia
would take Six (6) weeks to mobilise their army, giving them plenty of time to seize the capital city
Paris, France.

- The Germans were going to go through the neutral country of Belgium to get to Paris. To the
Germans disbelief Belgium resistance (they put up a fight), which surprised the Germans.
- Russia on the other hand mobilized their army much faster than the Germans anticipated!
They were ready in ten (10) days instead of six (6) weeks.
- This forced the Germans to split their army that was supposed to only go to France. 90% of
Germany’s army would attack France.
- As the Germans forced their way through Belgium, they met the French who fought hard to
defend their country; the Germans were surprised by their power. The French were not
 fighting alone; they had the British helping them fight along with their empires, which
included Australia. Instead of a cheap, victorious campaign as anticipated, Germany's attack
on France became a long, costly—and horrible—war
- General Joseph Joffre gave final approval of the plan, which would enhanced the
effectiveness of the Schlieffen Plan as Germany had hoped to use an extensive number of its
reserve army on the French resulting in them having to applying defensive
tactics rather than an offensive tactic as it had hoped. In addition, Plan XVII essentially lead
the French army deeper into the German trap as it had not considered Germany’s bold move
to attack through neutral Belgium.

Assumption Reality Impact on Plan

Russia would take at Russia mobilized their army in Germany had to send more troops from the West to
least 6 weeks to just 10 days the East, and they had to use more firepower to
mobilize fight against the Russians.
France would be easily It took just over 6 weeks. It took longer for the plan to be successful, and
defeated in the span of Though it was difficult, and troops were lost.
6 weeks took longer than expected
Belgium would not Belgium denied Germany It took a further 2 months for Belgium to be
resist any German entry and defended its’ defeated, and because of its firepower and troops
attack country. were decreased.
Britain would remain British forces entered the Since Britain was a superpower at the time,
neutral front in Belgium due to their Germany was now up against a bigger and stronger
previous alliance. enemy who had strong alliances with other enemy
countries. Germany was now beginning to be at a
disadvantage, they would also have felt threatened
heavily. Also, more troops on the other side, meant
the potential loss of their own troops. They would
also need more firepower if they wanted to win the
war.

Australia joins the Great War

- Australian army formed = 1901
- 20, 000 troops were initially promised to be recruited for the British Empire.
- Overseas military force = AIF (Australian Imperial Force)
- They were first sent to Egypt for their first mission/training
- The ANZACS were sent to Gallipoli
- They fought the Battle of Gaza at Palestine
- In 1918 they were sent to France
- Australia contributed 300, 22000 soldiers in WWI, 210000 were casualties and 60000 were
killed.

When World War I broke out, Australia had been a united (federated) country for only 13 years.
Although Australia was self-governing, it was still a dominion of the British Empire and was obliged
to follow Britain’s instructions in many areas of government. When Britain declared war on
Germany, the Australian Government legally obliged to join in.
Thousands rushed to join up to the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). Very few Australians had been
engaged in wars and, possibly because of this, there was a perception that war was glorious,
exciting, and heroic. The people who joined had many different reasons for what they called “signing
on”, but they were enthusiastic at first. Within days, there were 40,000 volunteers, double the
number the government had offered to send to Britain. By December 1914, 52,000 men had
volunteered to serve in the AIF.

Reasons Australia wanted to go into war:

- Australians wanted to stand beside Britain. Most people in Australia in 1914 had strong links
to Britain, which was known as “The Motherland”.
- Some men wanted adventure and incentive to earn an income. Travelling, especially
overseas, was a luxury most people couldn’t afford. Joining the AIF meant travel around the
world and getting paid for it.
- Helping their mates. There was a strong feeling of helping the boys who were in the trenches
of Europe. The idea of “Aussie mateship” became a symbol of Australians through the
fighting, especially in Gallipoli.
- Some men were shamed into going. Women would put white feathers in the mailboxes of
men who hadn’t joined, calling them cowards.
- Hating the Germans. As the war progressed, hatred of the enemy also became a motivation
to enlist. Australian propaganda showed the Germans as monsters who enjoyed killing
babies. Men were eager to go and fight the Germans who were nicknamed the “Hun”.
- Doing their duty. Some men felt patriotic and were happy to fight in their Prime Minister
asked them to.

Trench warfare is a type of combat in which the opposing sides attack, counterattack, and defend
from relatively permanent systems of trenches dug into the ground.

Why did the Allies want to capturer Gallipoli?

The allies wanted to gain territory, and capture Gallipoli for a few reasons. The initial allied plan was
to seize control of the Dardanelles and to access the Black Sea to open a path for their supply ships
to reach Russia. Thus, effectively enabling the allied powers to create a safe supply route between
Russia and Britain. Furthermore, as the Balkans were mostly neutral for the most part of WWI,
Britain wanted to gain Turkish land to persuade the Balkans to join forces. This alliance would have
ensured that Germany and Austria – Hungary was outnumbered and was facing a greater threat. The
Gallipoli campaign was thought to have been another vantage point, to win the war due to the
stalemate at the Western front. Therefore, due to the reasons provided, the allies wanted to capture
Gallipoli.

What was the result of the attack on Gallipoli?

The result of the attack on Gallipoli was tremendous. Overall, it was a failure on the British and
ANZACS part, though was deemed a huge success from the Turkish forces. The British and ANZAC
troops were forced to evacuate due to the little progress made on the war front over the eight-
month campaign. By January 1916 the last British and ANZAC troops were withdrawn, and the
campaign was abandoned. The deaths and casualties faced during the campaign is still considered
one of the worst incidents in Australian history, as many soldiers died on foreign soil, many of their
bodies unable to be identified and sent back home. By the time the campaign ended, more than
130,000 men had died: at least 87,000 Ottoman soldiers and 44,000 Allied soldiers, including more
than 8700 Australians. There were huge losses on both sides, including the Turkish forces. Gallipoli
though having little significance to the course of WWI, has a profound importance to the national
identity of both Australia, New Zealand, and Turkey.

What mistakes did the allies make at Gallipoli?

The allied forces made a few mistakes that impacted the outcome of the Gallipoli campaign. This
includes reasons such as, the campaign being poorly planned, the British army being underprepared,
inferior leadership, the Turkish forces were well led and experienced. Firstly, the priority that was
the Western front, ensured that Gallipoli expedition could never be given sufficient men and guns to
have any chance of success. This was mostly because the British forces severely underestimated the
Turkish forces. They were determined and refused to lose on their homeland. The terrain was
familiar to the Turkish troops, unlike the ANZAC forces who had never set foot on such terrain. Also,
the troops at Gallipoli were inexperienced, and the supply of artillery, rations, water, and
experienced gunners were non-existent. A lack of realistic goals and no coherent plan would be the
driving mistake that forced the evacuation of the ANZAC and British troops. Soldiers would get lost,
and get killed faster and easier, as there were inadequate logistical and medical arrangements.
Moreover, during the first campaign, a failure to comprehend or properly disseminate maps and
intelligence, was also a main factor that created the failure that is Gallipoli. The Anzac forces landed
about a mile north of the loosely planned landing site, this would mean they were faced with steep
cliffs, and a jagged mountain terrain immediately after coming ashore. Therefore, Gallipoli was a
series of mistakes, that led to many casualties and deaths, and eventually the complete evacuation
of Allied troops.

Who was to blame for the failure of the Gallipoli campaign?

First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill was to blame for the failure of the Gallipoli campaign.
As the head of the naval forces, Churchill orchestrated the entire Gallipoli campaign. He rushed into
a confrontation, without researching nearly enough of the soldiers they would be fighting, or
organizing their attacks well enough, therefore the Turks were underestimated and key information
about the terrain, and attack plan was overlooked. Churchill’s plan relied heavily on the success of
various attacks, this was incohesive as if one of them failed, the others would follow, and it would
end in an overall disaster. His knowledge of tactics was virtually non-existent. Hence, the blame of
the failure of Gallipoli should be placed on Churchill, as he being the highest commander failed to
plan the campaign proficiently and without mistake.

- WW1 = 1914 to 1918

- The ottoman empire joined the war in 1914 on the side of the central powers. (Germany and
the Austro – Hungarian Empire – also Bulgaria from October 1915)
- The Allied powers wanted to control the sea route from Europe to Russia and to capture
Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire.
 The Gallipoli campaign sometimes called the Dardanelles campaign was a unsuccessful
attempt by the allied powers to control the sea route from Europe to Russia during World
War 1
 The campaign began with the failed naval attack by British and French ships on the
Dardanelles Straits in February – March 1915 and continued with a major land invasion of
the Gallipoli peninsula n April 25, involving British and French troops as well as divisions of
the ANZACS. Lack of sufficient intelligence, and knowledge of the terrain, along with a fierce
Turkish resistance, hampered the success of the invasion.
 By mid – October, Allied forces had suffered heavy casualties and had made little headway
from their initial landing sites.
  Evacuation began in December 1915 and was completed early in the following January.
 During February March 1915 British and French navies bombarded coastal forts and artillery
positions along the Dardanelles Straits, hoping to force their way through Constantinople.
 On March 18 five allied warships were sunk and disabled, Allied commanders decided troops
would need to attack the Gallipoli peninsula to disable the ottoman defences before ethe
naval attack could proceed.
 Before dawn on 25th April the ANZACS land on the Gallipoli peninsula. The ottoman
defences were well prepared, and the ANZACS were injured and killed as they landed. The
ottomans also suffered heavy losses.
 8700 Australians and 2700 New Zealanders died fighting.

Topic One: Sustainable Biomes

Spices:
Space - Place - Interconnection – Change- Environment – Scale – Sustainability

SPACE:

- Everything has a location on the space that is the surface of the Earth, and studying the
effects of location, the distribution of things across this space, and how the space is
organised and managed by people, helps us to understand why the world is like it is.
- A place can be described by its absolute location (latitude and longitude) or its relative
location (distance)

PLACE:

- The world is made up of places, so to understand our world we need to understand its
places by studying the variety, how they influence our lives and how we create and change
them.
- Places are parts of the Earth's surface that are identified and given meaning by people.
- Places can be natural or built
- Places determine our relationships with one another

INTERCONNECTION:

- People and things are connected to other people and things in their own and other places,
and understanding these connections helps us to understand how and why place are
changing.
- No place or thing on Earth exists in isolation!
- All environments on Earth and every living and non-living thing found within them are
interconnected!
- These connections can be local or global level
- Geographers use the concept to understand the links between natural and human processes
that shape our earth

CHANGE:

- The Earth is constantly changing

- Change helps us to understand what is happening around us and see the world as a dynamic
place
- Over millions of years, the earth has been shaped and changed by natural forces
- Change takes place on many different levels e.g., local
ENVIRONMENT:

- People live in and depend on environment, so it has an important influence on our lives. The
world is made up of many different environments:
- Some are natural such as deserts.
- Others have been changed by humans such as cities.
- Some environments have both natural and human features.
- The study of environments helps us understand natural processes e.g., how are mountains
formed?

SCALE:

- Looks at geographical phenomena from different spatial levels

- Personal: farmers working for livelihood. Issues faced by farmers- need for more land
- Regional: needing trucks and food for cows
- National: issues on trade and export (exporting meat)
- Global: environmental issues (climate changes: infertility of soil)

SUSTAINABILITY: (take care of the planet)

- Maintaining the environment in such a way that it is still there (sustainable) for future
generation
- Recycling
- Renewable energy

Factors influencing biomes

There are five major types of biomes: aquatic, grassland, forest, desert, and tundra, though some of
these biomes can be further divided into more specific categories, such as freshwater, marine,
savanna, tropical rainforest, temperate rainforest, and taiga. Aquatic biomes include both
freshwater and marine biomes. https://sciencing.com/different-biome-types-6872242.html

The climate and geography of a region determines what type of biome can exist in that region. The
same biomes can also be found in different parts of the world.

Biomes exist in different parts of the world because of variations in the conditions which affect plant
growth.
Factors affecting spatial distribution
Spatial distribution simply means how the biomes are located all over the globe.

What things determine whether a biome is where it is?

Temperature and precipitation

How hot it is (temperature) and how much rainfall (precipitation) are the major factors that
determine what type of biome and how those biomes are located over the Earth.

Climate affects the location of biomes and the flora and fauna found within them. This is because of
the differences in temperature and precipitation patterns (figure 1). For instance, hot desert biomes
have high temperatures but not enough precipitation to sustain an abundance and diversity of life.
On the other hand, tropical rainforests have an abundance of heat and precipitation making them
plentiful in plant and animal communities.

Sunlight and rainfall affect the ability of plants to use the sun’s energy to convert carbon dioxide into
food for plant growth

How Altitude and Latitude affects biomes

- Latitude describes how close to the Equator a place is.
- 0˚ latitude is on the Equator – here we find hot biomes.
- Altitude describes how high above sea level a place is.
- As we move further upwards (elevate) temperatures become cooler. In very hot areas, we
may even sea snow covered mountains – because the top of these mountains can get very
cold.

Latitude:

The sun’s rays are more direct at the equator. With more energy focused on that region, it heats up
more quickly. As you move away from the equator to the mid and higher latitudes, the curvature of
the Earth makes the sun’s rays travel through more atmosphere and the heat spreads over a larger
area. As a result, the energy from the sun does not heat up the Earth as effectively, and the closer to
the poles you travel the cooler it becomes.

The tilt of the Earth on its axis also has a part to play. When a hemisphere tilts towards the sun, the
sun’s rays hit it more directly. This means that a larger space is in more intense sunlight for longer.
The days are longer and warmer, and the hemisphere experiences summer. The reverse is true when
a hemisphere tilts away from the sun in winter. This has created distinct climate zones based on
latitude. There is a relationship between climate zones and the type of biomes located within them

Whilst the altitude of ranges can affect temperature, the location of mountain ranges affects the
amount of precipitation that reaches inland areas. They prevent the moisture laden prevailing winds
from reaching inland areas by creating a barrier. Rain falls on the windward side of a mountain and
rain shadows form on the leeward side of mountains. Desert biomes often form in rain shadows.

Biomes resulting from changes in latitude and altitude

Tropical Rainforests:

- Hot all year-round temperatures

- High rainfall - Which creates dense rainforest growth
- Tall trees with an understory of palms and ferns, which provide habitat and food for
rainforest animals.

Tundra:

- Cold temperatures (as low as -25˚C in winter)

- Low rainfall (as little as 150-250mm per year) mostly as snow
- Soils are frozen for most of the year, known as permafrost making it difficult for plants to
grow. The vegetation of the Tundra is adapted to the cold dry environment and exists largely
as lichens, moss, grass, and small shrubs.

There are other factors that influence climate and play a role in the development of biomes. Two of
these are ocean currents and air movement. When cold ocean currents flow close to a warm land
mass, a desert is more likely to form. This is because cold ocean currents cool the air above, causing
less evaporation and making the air drier. As this dry air moves over the warm land, it heats up,
making it less likely to release any moisture it holds making areas it reaches arid. For example, cold
ocean currents flow off the coast of Western Australia, while on the East coast of Australia the
Pacific Ocean currents are warmer. As a result, Perth on average receives less rainfall than Sydney.

Why do soils differ?

Biomes located in the high latitudes (those farthest from the equator) have lower temperatures and
less exposure to sun-light than biomes located in the low latitudes (those close to the equator).
There are also variations in the amount of precipitation that biomes receive. This is determined
partly by their location in relation to the equator.

Soil moisture, its nutrient content and the length of the growing season also play key roles in soil
development and, ultimately, the biodiversity of a biome.

Soil is more abundant in biomes that have both high temperatures and high moisture than in cold,
dry regions. This is because erosion of bedrock is more rapid when moisture content is high, and
organic material decomposes at a faster rate in high temperatures. The decomposition of organic
matter provides the nutrients needed for plant growth, which in turn die and decompose in a
continuous cycle.
Human impacts on biomes:
Humans use biomes for many different reasons and in doing so they impact on the environment.

The impacts they have include:

- Vegetation removal
- Agriculture
- Land terracing
- Irrigation
- Mining
- Land clearing

Changing Biomes
Change in Agriculture:

In the past:

- The type of food grown depended on the biome you lived in.
- People lived where the land was productive.
- The grassland biomes of Europe and Africa supported large populations, and this is where
“civilisation” first began.
- The type of crop grown depended on soils, rainfall, and temperature.

Today farmers can use new technologies to grow crops in many areas.

Title: Crops growing in the desert.

Technologies that farmers use to grow crops in unsuitable areas include:

• fertilisers,

• plant breeding,

• genetic engineering,

• irrigation.

Technology can be used to grow crops anywhere. Scientists are even building green houses that can
grow vegetables on the moon.
Productivity
Agriculture depends on four main factors:

- Biophysical – such as climate, rainfall, temperature, wind and humidity, soil, and landforms.
- Socio Economic – choices of people and trends in food, money to buy materials and
resources and workers.
- Technological – irrigation, computer technologies, genetic changes to plant breeding and use
of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilisers.
- Political – relating to the decisions made by governments and between nations, such as
trade agreements, import quotas, subsidies.

Patterns of Production
The environmental, political, social, economic, and technological factors work together to create
patterns of agriculture.

How is food produced?

Food is produced through farming and agriculture methods that focus on food production.

How does food production affect biomes?

Food production affects biomes through numerous ways including, deforestation, irrigation, species
destruction, habitat loss etc.

What methods do we use to increase food production?

The improvement of crop breeding, soil and water management, irrigation, land reforms, plant
tolerant plants rather than plants that need to adapt, fertilizer, pesticides, hormones, GMO’s, etc.

Anthromes: Biomes for food

ANTHROPOGENIC BIOMES OR ANTHROMES: biomes influenced by humans through land use,
population density, transport systems and settlement.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED BREEDS: breeds of plants or animals that have had their DNA altered by the
addition of a gene from other organisms to correct or modify defects

AGRICULTURAL YIELD: Measurement of grain or seeds generated from a unit of land.

INDUSTRIAL MATERIAL: Materials used in the manufacture of ‘hard’ goods that would be durable
machines and equipment produced for industry and consumers. Aluminium comes from a type of
clay called bauxite. Glass comes from a type of sand called silica. Paper comes from trees. Almost
half of our rubber comes from a tree called the hevea tree.

FIBRE: A natural thread or filament, from which a vegetable tissue, mineral substance or textiles is
formed. The cotton in jeans and shirts comes from cotton plants. Wool comes from sheep or goat
hair.

HUMANS NEED FOOD & RESOURCES

Humans want food and resources. These are divided into food, industrial material, and fibre. There
are two ways to get these:

1. Hunting animals that are already there naturally or gathering food that naturally grows
(what we did since humans were humans). This is adapting to the environment. It means
that we must rely on skills and luck to survive (and sometimes only barely surviving).
2. Altering/changing the environment to give us exactly what we want, the amount we want
and at the time we want it.
SO HOW DO HUMANS ALTER BIOMES FOR FOOD? BY ALTERING THE
ENVIRONMENT?
Vegetation removal:

- Instead of finding food in forests (which is difficult and does not give you a lot of food),
humans either cut down or burn massive areas of land to make way for either:
- Farms; or
- Land for animals to graze.

Agriculture:

- ‘Agriculture’ just means ‘farming’. Farms don’t just happen – they are built specifically to
grow certain crops.
- Some crops are for food (e.g., sugar cane) and some are for fibres or industrial materials
(e.g., cotton plants or rubber trees).

Land terracing:

- A food like rice needs a lot of water and flat land.

- In areas where there is plenty of water but no flat land, people have worked out that they
can cut into hills to make “steps” of flat land to grow rice.
- These are called ‘terraces.

Irrigation:

- Supply of water to land or crops to help growth at a consistent rate.

Mining:

Industrial materials that we need (e.g., oil/petrol, coal, iron ore to make steel) do not just sit on top
of the Earth’s surface. We must dig into the ground to get them. This sometimes involves digging
shafts and sending people down into the mine. Sometimes we just blow a massive hole using
dynamite and then dig a round ramp to get trucks down to the bottom to get the minerals we need.

TYPES OF FARMING TECHNIQUES USED AROUND THE WORLD

INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE:

- An agricultural production system characterized by the high inputs of capital, labour, or

heavy usage of technologies such as pesticides and chemical fertilizers relative to land area.
- Commercial farming: The production of crops for sale, crops intended for widespread
distribution to wholesalers or retail outlets (e.g., supermarkets), and any non-food crops
such as cotton and tobacco. Commercial agriculture includes livestock production and
livestock grazing. Commercial agriculture does not include crops grown for household
consumption (e.g., backyard garden or from a vegetable garden or a few fruit trees.)

NOMADIC GRAZING:

- An agricultural production system that uses small inputs of labour, and capital, relative to
the land area being farmed. It most commonly refers to sheep and cattle farming in areas
with low agricultural productivity.

ORGANIC FARMING:
 - Relies on crop rotation, green manure, compost, biological pest control, and mechanical
cultivation to maintain soil productivity and control pests, excluding or strictly limiting the
use of synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides, plant growth regulators, livestock feed
additives, and genetically modified organisms.

SHIFTING CULTIVATION OR SUBSISTENCE FARMING:

- Is self-sufficient farming in which farmers grow only enough food to feed their family or
small community.
- The typical subsistence farm has a range of crops and animals needed by the family to eat
during the year.
- Planting decisions are made with an eye toward what the family/community will need
during the coming year, rather than for commercial purposes/market price.
- Subsistence farming happens in the places like the tropics/Amazon rainforest where land is
cleared every few years, used and then forest regrows.

PASTORAL FARMING/GRAZING FARMS:

- Is farming related to livestock. The livestock usually graze on naturally grown grass and other
vegetation. Some pastoral farmers grow crops, but instead of selling the harvest, they feed it
to livestock (cattle, pigs, sheep etc.) so that they stay healthy for optimum production of
meat, wool, milk, and eggs.

Cropland Cropland is open land used for the growing of commercially consumed
products such as corn, soybeans, wheat, and any other kinds of grain.

Pasture: Pasture is land that is used for the raising of livestock usually consisting of open
grassy areas. Land used for pasture usually has poor soil quality or located on
slopes that create challenges for crop production.

What is biofuel?
Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow
natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels.
Explain why plants, rather than animals, dominate as the major staple foods of the world.
We can feed many more people in plant foods than on animal foods. At present we have two
population explosions - that of humans, and that of farm animals which compete with us for food,
land, water, and many other commodities.

Factors impacting food production

World food production has grown substantially in the last century. Increased fertiliser application
and more water usage through irrigation have been responsible for over 70 per cent of crop yield
increases. The Second Agricultural Revolution in developed countries after World War II, and the
Green Revolution in developing countries in the mid-1960s, transformed agricultural practices, and
raised crop yields dramatically.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:

- In the past, growth in food production resulted mainly from increased crop yields per unit of
land and to a lesser extent from expansion of cropland. From the early 1960s, total world
cropland increased by only nine per cent, but total agricultural production grew nearly 60
per cent.

Increases in yields of crops, such as sweet potatoes and cereals, were brought about by a
combination of:

- increased agricultural inputs

- more intensive use of land
- the spread of improved crop varieties.

In some places, such as parts of Africa and South-East Asia, increases in fisheries (areas where boats
catch fish) and expansion of cropland areas were the main reasons for the increase in food supply. In
addition, cattle herds became larger. In many regions — such as in the savanna grasslands of Africa,
the Andes, and the mountains of Central Asia — livestock is a primary factor in food security today.

ECONOMIC FACTORS:

- From the 1960s onward, there has been significant growth of the world trade in food and
agriculture. Food imports to developing countries have grown, together with imports of
fertilisers, thus reducing the likelihood of developing countries suffering from famine.

GREEN REVOLUTION:

The Green Revolution was a result of the development and planting of new hybrids of rice and
wheat, which saw greatly increased yields (crop production) In developing countries.

- This is achieved using artificial fertilisers, pesticides and high-yield crop varieties.

There have been several green revolutions since the 1950s, including those in:

- The United States, Europe, and Australia in the 1950s and 1960s
- New Zealand, Mexico, and many Asian countries in the late 1960s, 1970s and 1980s.

With its high-yield varieties of cereals, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and irrigation, the Green
Revolution has had a very positive effect on global food production
The Green Revolution saw a rapid increase in the output of cereal crops — the main source of
calories in developing countries. Farmers in Asia and Latin America widely adopted high-yielding
varieties.

- Governments, especially in Asia, introduced policies that supported agricultural

development.
- In the 2000s, cereal harvests in developing countries were triple those of 40 years earlier,
while the population was a little over twice as large.
- Yield gains accounted for much of the increase in cereal output and calorie availability.
Planting of these varieties coincided with expanded irrigation areas and fertiliser use.

HOW ARE BIOMES MODIFIED FOR AGRICULTURE?

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY
In the last century, rapid global population growth gave rise to serious concerns about the ability of
agriculture to feed humanity. However, additional gains to food production have come from newer
processes and technology.

How do we use technology for food production?

Across the world, humans have modified biomes to produce food through the application of
innovative technologies. In general, the focus of agriculture is to modify water, climate, soils, land,
and crops.

HOW DO WE MODIFY CLIMATE?

IRRIGATION THEN & NOW
- Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil to supplement natural
rainfall. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops to increase food production in
dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.
- In flood irrigation, water is applied and distributed over the soil surface by gravity. It is by far
the most common form of irrigation throughout the world, and has been practiced in many
areas, virtually unchanged, for thousands of years.
- Modern irrigation methods include computer-controlled drip systems that deliver precise
amounts of water to a plant’s root zone.

GREENHOUSES
- Another way of modifying climate is with the use of greenhouses (or glasshouses) used for
growing flowers, vegetables, fruits, and tobacco.
- Greenhouses provide an artificial biotic environment to protect crops from heat and cold
and to keep out pests. Light and temperature control allows greenhouses to turn non-arable
land into arable land, thereby improving food production in marginal environments.
- Greenhouses allow crops to be grown throughout the year, making them especially
important in high-latitude countries.
- The largest expanse of plastic greenhouses in the world is around Almeria, in south-east
Spain. Here, since the 1970s, semi-arid pastureland has been replaced by greenhouse
horticulture (see figure 2). Today, Almeria has become Europe’s market garden. To grow
food all year round, the region has around 26 000 hectares of greenhouses.

HOW DO WE MODIFY SOIL

- Fertilisers are organic or inorganic materials that are added to soils to supply one or more
essential plant nutrients. Fertilisers are essential for high-yield harvests, and it is estimated
 that about 40 to 60 per cent of crop yields are due to fertiliser use. It is estimated that
almost half the people on Earth are currently fed because of adding fertiliser to food crops.

FOOD PRODUCTION IN AUSTRALIA

- Modern food production in Australia can be described as commercial agricultural practices
that produce food for local and global markets. Farms may produce single crops, such as
sugar cane, or they may be mixed farms that produce sheep and cereals, for example. Farms
use sophisticated technology, and in many cases are managed by large corporations with an
agribusiness approach.
- There is a wide range of types of agriculture in Australia, as shown in figure 3 below. These
types occupy spaces across all biomes found in Australia, from the tropics to the temperate
zones. The location of farms in Australia shows that there is a change in the pattern of
farming types, from the well-watered urban coastal regions towards the arid interior.
Because much of Australia’s inland rainfall is less than 250 millimetres, farm types in these
places are limited to open-range cattle and sheep farming.

Farms:
INTENSIVE FARMS
- Intensive farms are close to urban centres, producing dairy, horticulture, and market
gardening crops. They produce milk, fruit, vegetables, and flowers, all of which are
perishable, sometimes bulky, and expensive to transport. The market gardens are capital
and labour-intensive because the cost of land near the city is high, and many workers are
required for harvesting.

PLANTATION FARMS
- This form of agriculture is often found in warm, well-watered tropical places. Plantations
produce a wide range of produce such as coffee, sugar cane, cocoa, bananas, rubber,
tobacco, and palm oil.
- Farm sizes can be 50 hectares or more in size.
- Although many such farms in Australia are family owned, in other parts of the world they are
often operated by large multinational companies.
- Biomes that contain plantations are mainly tropical forests or savanna and require large-
scale clearing to allow for farming. Cash returns are high, and markets are both local and
global.

Challenges to Food Production.

Water scarcity:
Pollution:

Land degradation:
Competing land uses:
Land grabs:

Biofuels:

Urban expansion:

Climate change:

,
Food security
Food security defined:

- The state where all people always have access to enough safe, nutritious food to sustain a
healthy life. For a person, community, or country to have a secure food supply they must
have 3 things:

• Food Availability- means having enough food of appropriate quality available on a consistent basis.

• Food accessibility- means physical and economic access to food.

- The ability and resources to use food appropriately- means using food safely and applying
knowledge about nutrition, clean water and sanitation when preparing food.

Humanitarian/Food Aid

- The World Food Program (WFP) is a voluntary arm of the United Nations. It reaches more
than 80 million people, in more than 82 countries, with food assistance after disasters and
conflicts.
- Food aid is food, money, goods and services given by wealthier, more developed nations to
less developed nations for the specific purpose of helping the poor.
Sustainable Agriculture
There has been some fascinating research on how sustainable farming can increase crop yields.

- Conventional -- also called "industrial" -- farming methods rely heavily on synthetic inputs,
like fertilisers and pesticides. In the short term, this increases yields, but over time, it harms
soil health and even contributes to the growth of "superweeds" -- weeds that are resistant
to pesticides.
- Sustainable farming focuses on soil health and natural pest control, rather than synthetic
chemicals.
- For example, spraying pesticides as-needed, rather than preventively. Overuse of pesticides
is bad for the soil and bad for crops in the long term.

Focusing on soil health is the number one way to increase yields and this approach could double
Africa's food production in just 10 years.

Organic farming has also seen some impressive results when it comes to increasing yields.

- Long-term research on organic farming methods that focus on improving soil health, found
that organic farms yielded almost the same amount of food as conventional farms in
wealthy countries and up to 20 percent more food in developing countries.
- Organic farming focuses on farming without synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Grow Different Crops, and Grow Them Differently

What we grow is as important as how we grow it, and some researchers are looking to hardy food
crops and biodiversity as a solution to help increase yields.

- Our industrial food system focuses on what's called monocropping, which means that
farmers plant the same crops on the same land year after year.
- Monocropping means less biodiversity in the field, which over time is bad for yields. A large-
scale 2009 study in China found a 33.2 to 84.7 percent increase in production when farmers
grew a mix of crops in their fields, rather than focusing on just one.

Some experts advocate a switch from annual crops to perennial crops. Annual crops like corn need
to be re-planted year after year, but perennials come back without replanting. As Shulman points
out, that makes them hardy, so they use less fertilizer and less water. The extreme summer drought
of 2012 destroyed the corn crop, but perennial grains didn't have this problem. Perennial grains
could also help increase yield by making crops more weather-resistant, using less water, and
reducing soil erosion, thanks to their deeper roots. Perennial hybrids, like wheat- wheatgrass, are
hardier and use less water and can be made into flour, just like the annual wheat we're used to
seeing in fields now.

Urban farming
Urban farming takes advantage of unused and blighted urban/urbane areas to grow food. With
more than half of the world population now living in urban areas, it makes sense to start growing
food where more and more people are living.

Not all cities have huge expanses of vacant land, and that's where vertical farming comes in.

- Vertical farming refers to growing food on rooftops and even on walls, using vertical space to
grow more food with less hectares.

Cut the meat

Livestock farming is terribly inefficient, whether you're raising animals for their meat or the food
they produce, like eggs or milk. Rather than feeding grains to hungry people, we feed them to
animals to produce meat, eggs, and dairy products.

Not only is raising plant foods more efficient, but animal agriculture's environmental impacts are
contributing to climate change. People love meat and eggs, and they love cheese, but some
scientists say that water shortages and a growing population will force all of us to eat about 75
percent less meat in the next 40 years as raising animals for meat and meat by-products will become
more and more expensive.

Topic 2: Changing Places

Changing Places Glossary
- Arable: (of land) used or suitable for growing crops.
- Country: the area of land, river and sea that is the traditional land of each Aboriginal
language group or community; the place where they live
- development corridor: area set aside for urban growth or development
- ecological footprint: the amount of productive land needed on average by each person in a
selected area for food, water, transport, housing and waste management
- EU European Union — an economic and political union of 28 member states, mostly in
Europe.
- fly-in, fly-out (FIFO): system in which workers fly to work in places such as remote mines
and after a week or more fly back to their home elsewhere
- food miles: the distance food is transported from the time it is produced until it reaches the
consumer
- geographical factors: reasons for spatial patterns, including patterns noticeable in the
landscape, topography, climate and population
- high-density housing: residential developments with around more than 50 dwellings per
hectare
- Indigenous: native to or belonging to a particular region or country
- Infrastructure: the basic physical and organizational structures and facilities. For instance,
buildings, roads, power supplies) needed for the operation of a society or enterprise.
- Investment: an item that is purchased or has money dedicated to it with the hope that it will
generate income or be worth more in the future
- Livelihood: job or skill that supports a person’s existence, so that they can have the
necessities of life
- low-density housing: residential developments with around 12–15 dwellings per hectare;
usually located in outer suburbs
- medium-density housing: residential developments with around 20–50 dwellings per
hectare
megacity: a very large city, typically one with a population of over ten million people.
- Megaregion: area where two or more megacities become connected as increasing numbers
of towns and ghettos develop between them
- metropolitan region: an urban area that consists of the inner urban zone and the
surrounding built-up area and outer commuter zones of a city
- migration: to move from one country, place, or locality to another.
- population density: the number of people living within one square kilometre of land; it
identifies the intensity of land use or how crowded a place is
- population distribution: The way people are spread over a particular area.
- pull factor: favorable quality or attribute that attracts people to a particular location
- push factor: unfavorable quality or attribute of a person’s current location that drives them
to move
- quality of life: your personal satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) with the conditions under
which you live
- rebate: a partial refund on something that has been bought or paid for
- retrofitting: adding a component or accessory to something that did not have it when it was
originally built or manufactured
- road intersections: where two or more roadways cross
 - sanitation: conditions relating to public health, especially the provision of clean drinking
water and adequate sewage disposal.
- sea change/tree change: movement of people from major cities to live near the coast or
forests, to achieve a change of lifestyle
- slum: An overcrowded urban street or district inhabited by very poor people.
- triple bottom line: an accounting term for measuring the success of a city, country or
organisation by the health of its environment, its society and its economy
- urban: relating to a city or town. The definition of an urban area varies from one country to
another depending on population size and density.
- urban sprawl: the spreading of urban areas into surrounding rural areas to accommodate
an expanding population
- urbanization: The process by which large numbers of people become permanently
concentrated in relatively small areas, forming cities.

Changing places: Push and pull factors

Modern Urbanization:
- There are three main causes of urbanization continuing to occur today.
Push factors:
- lack of resources in rural areas pushes people to move to cities
Pull factors
- People believe the standard of living is better in cities, so are forced to move
Natural increase:
- higher birth rates and lower death rates lead to an increase in population

1. In 3-4 sentences, discuss how farming techniques have developed/created cities.

Farming enabled people to grow all the food they needed in one place, with a much smaller group
of people. This led to massive population growth, creating cities and trade. Farming led to dense,
settled populations, and food surpluses that required storage and could facilitate trade.
2. Reliable food supplies allowed humans the luxury of free time, which provided the
opportunity to produce items for trade. Describe how the production of goods contributed
to the growth of cities.
The process of being able to create reliable food supplies has historically led to urbanization by
creating economic growth and job opportunities that draw people to cities. The rise of mills and
factories drew an influx of people to cities—and placed new demand on urban infrastructures.
3. Experts predict that the global population will top out around 10 billion people, with 7
billion of those people living in cities. What are some of the opportunities and challenges
that cities will face as the population increases?
Poor air and water quality, insufficient water availability, waste-disposal problems, and high energy
consumption occur by the increasing population density and demands of urban environments. The
rapid growth of populations results in significant challenges in accommodating people.
Homelessness, squatting and slum areas will all be commonplace. Though these are true there are
advantages that include that a growing population can generate economic growth.

Why are people moving from rural areas to urban areas?

- The population growth in cities in developing countries is caused by the arrival of migrants
from smaller cities and rural areas.
- This phenomenon is called internal migration. These migrants come in search of
employment and education opportunities and a better standard of living.

Pull factors attract people to a new place.

The main pull factors for cities are:

•Employment opportunities

•Promise of higher standard of living

•Entertainment

•Medical facilities

•Educational opportunities

Push factors motivate people to leave their place of residence.

The main push factors for cities are:

•Landlessness

•War and civil disobedience

•Intolerance of alternative lifestyles

•Desertification

•Rapid population growth

•Rural poverty

•Transfer of land from subsistence to commercial (export-oriented)

Production

Quality of life and standard of living

- Quality of life refers to the happiness, wellbeing, and satisfaction of a person
- A standard of living is measured in terms of a person’s possessions – such as a house, car
and computer.
- While these possessions can indicate a high standard of living, they cannot guarantee a high
quality of life.

Social advantages of cities

Cities generally offer more social advantages than rural areas because there is a higher
concentration of people in a smaller area. These advantages are:

- Access to services: schools, hospitals, and other essential services such as water, electricity,
communications such as internet & phone, public transport etc.
- Cultural enrichment: access to a wider range of products & services including non-essentials
such as shopping, movies, art galleries, sports, entertainment events.
- Social interaction: so many people to interact with and opportunity for people to find a
neighborhood or community with a shared culture or value system.

Social disadvantages of cities

- Over-crowding – people living very close together
- Rising costs of houses, food and utilities are the result of more people competing for
resources that can be supplied
- Traffic congestion - the result of too many people using the roads at the same time
- Waiting times for schools, public transport, and medical care - the result of more people
trying to access these services
- Stress: financial, time-consuming commutes, traffic and finding a parking spot
- Crime - the result of unemployment
- Isolation - Large cities sometimes lack a sense of community, so people can feel lonely

Environmental impacts on cities

Economic advantages of cities
•Benefits to people:

•Access to employment & income

•Access to infrastructure

•Benefits to companies:

•Access to workers

•Access to a large customer base

•Access to transport links for trade

Economic disadvantages of cities

•Inequality is increasing in urban areas.

•Housing prices are increasing which can cause financial hardship for those on minimum wages

•Fewer workers in rural or regional areas

What is Infrastructure?
Infrastructure refers to the basic facilities and installations that help a government or
community run. Infrastructure includes roads, schools, hospitals, phone lines, sewage
treatment plants and gas & electricity generation.
Activity 1: Media article and questions
1. Comment on the overall trend of urbanization for the world.

Urbanization for the world has been slowly increasing over the years. From 1900 to 2016 there was a
huge spike in urbanization around the world though it was less than the western population.

2. What are the figures for urbanization in Australia and China?

By 2017, 58% of Chinese people were living in cities. This is much less than the 79% for Western
Europe and 86% for Australia.

3. What was the focus of the National Urbanization Plan China (2014-2020) released?

The focus was on the quality of Chinese urbanization and public spaces. So, the policymakers’
concern is not solely with the economic development of China’s cities but also a healthier built
environment and increased well-being for its citizen.

4. Explain how Chinese city design could be improved.

Connecting urban planning and architecture, public spaces and private buildings, metropolitan scale
and street scale, urban design can help to balance private interests and public needs while
developing urban areas.

5. Explain how China is being affected by urbanization.

Urbanization has led to changes in patterns of human activity, diet, and social structures. China also
faces intensified resource scarcity and environmental degradation. Urbanization has lifted many out
of poverty and helped to raise GDP per capita, ultimately bettering the living standards for millions
of people in China.

6. Categorize the different consequences for economic, environmental, and social.

Economic: resource scarcity, GDP per capita, less poverty

Social: increase of living standards, changes in human activity, diet, and social structures.

Environmental: Environmental degradation, more urban environments, impact on climate change.

7. Discuss ways the Chinese government is addressing the issues. Compare and contrast the
difficulties facing China and Australia regarding urbanization.

The Chinese government has also developed a substantial green policy. China’s urbanization strategy
has been the hukou, or household registration system to control migration and to try to channel
migrants to small or medium-sized cities. Also, China’s successful urbanization is the devolution of
public services and many administrative functions to city governments.

China vs Australia
Urbanization has had a massive social, economic, and environmental impact on China. The country
has had a rapid increase in the population’s internal migration from rural regions to urban areas
starting from the 1800s. By 2017, 58% of Chinese people were living in cities, which is less than
western civilization, however for a newly urbanized country the numbers significant. This rapid
urbanization has resulted in the change of a huge portion of Chinese life. Chinese cities face battles
with pollution and climate change, with it being a huge issue regarding the environment. Though,
the Chinese government has also developed a substantial green policy. Furthermore, economic
growth has resulted in more jobs and education opportunities and boosted by population growth
urban poverty has been contained. Urban sprawl also needs to be contained because it will be
important to have enough arable land in China for agriculture, given high goods prices and increasing
consumerism. Social impacts include the change urbanization has brough to social structures and the
borders between wealth and poverty. Though, rural areas tend to be neglected due to urbanization
and can create isolation within the country. This lack of equity proves to boost poverty levels, thus
bringing down the country’s society. Therefore, these have impacted China through their increasing
efforts to urbanize.

The impacts of urbanization on Australia includes the different levels of social, economic, and
environmental advantages or disadvantages. As 86% of Australians live in urban areas, the
population faces these impacts daily, and it has changed the lives of numerous generations of
Australians. The diversity of Australian guidelines means that urban design research is very active
and responsive to the evolution of technologies, lifestyles, and expectations. Australian cities usually
do well in rankings of urban quality of life. For example, Melbourne, Adelaide, and Sydney are
consistently ranked in the top ten of the Global Livability Index. These fall under economic and social
impacts, two of the major categories Australia is affected by. An environmental impact includes the
increase of Australia’s ecological footprint. The Australian population has an extremely large
ecological footprint compared with other countries around the globe, which is indicative of our
unsustainable consumption patterns, and reflective of the impact we have upon our surrounding
environments. Our ecological footprint is in fact the eighth highest in the world, at 7.4 hectares per
person. Subsequently these heavily impact Australia and its development of urbanization.
Causes and consequences of Indonesia’s urban explosion
Many people do not realize that the fourth most populated country in the world is one of our
nearest neighbors. Indonesia’s current population of more than 249 million people lives on a chain
or cluster (an archipelago) of more than 18 000 islands.

Indonesia’s population is not evenly distributed. Only about 11 000 of the islands are inhabited. Sixty
per cent of Indonesia’s population is concentrated on only seven per cent of the total land area —
on the island of Java.

Indonesia has changed from a rural to an urban society quite recently. In 1950, only 15.5 per cent of
its population lived in urban areas. In 2020, this had increased to almost 56.6 per cent which is
roughly the same as the world’s urban population rate of 56 percent. Like many countries in Asia,
Indonesia has a high concentration of its urban population in a few large cities. In 1950, there was
only one city that was home to more than one million people in Indonesia: Jakarta. That had
increased to four cities by 1980, eight by 1990 and ten by 2000. In fact, more than one-fifth of the
Indonesian urban population now lives in the Jakarta metropolitan area (JMA)..

Causes of urbanization
More than one-third of Indonesia’s urban population growth resulted from natural increase. In the
early 1970s, Indonesia’s birth rate was very high — 5.6 children per woman. Although the growth
rate has fallen dramatically (from 2.3 per cent in 1970 to about 1.04 per cent today). The Indonesian
government placed few restrictions on rural–urban migration. Most of the migration movement
consisted of the rural poor moving into cities and especially into slums, leaving their families behind
in the villages. On top of this, in recent years about 20 000 foreigners per year have obtained work
permits for Indonesia.

Investment from within Indonesia and from other countries has tended to occur mainly in the large
urban areas, because these areas can supply the workers, transport (by sea and over land), water
and electricity that are needed by industry. The first president of Indonesia wanted Jakarta to be like
the world’s great cities, such as Paris and New York, as well as a focus for other Indonesian cities.
President Sukarno therefore built broad avenues, highways and electric railway lines, luxurious
housing estates, high-rise buildings, universities, and industrial estates in Jakarta.

Consequences of urbanization
Growth of Jakarta. One of the consequences of urbanization in Indonesia has been the dramatic
growth of Jakarta, Indonesia’s capital, and largest city. The central island of Java is the world’s most
populous island, having a population density of 1000 people per square kilometer. The JMA is now
one of the world’s largest urban centers. In 1930, Jakarta’s population was around half a million
people. By 1961 it had grown almost six-fold to 2.97 million. By 2005, it was almost 9 million. Today,
Jakarta’s population is over 10 million and the city controls around 70 percent of Indonesia’s
economy. Jakarta is the only megacity in Indonesia. A megacity is defined as a city or metropolitan
area with a population of more than 10 million people. There were 34 megacities in 2020. Jakarta
was ranked 31st in terms of population. Tokyo has the highest population of any city in the world.

Jakarta’s urban growth

1976 (population 6 million) 1989 (population 9 million) 2004(population 13 million)

Loss of land: Prime agricultural areas have been lost and have become residential and industrial
areas. Urban land is worth more than agricultural land. As Jakarta has become more urbanized,
there has been a decrease in the amount of open green space
— from nearly 30 percent of the city’s total area in 1984 to less than 10 per cent today.

Environment: Indonesia’s level of sewerage and sanitation coverage is very low. Sewage from
houses and from industry as well as industrial effluents and agricultural run-off are polluting the
surface and groundwater. Air pollution levels are high, with traffic and industrial fumes combining
with smoke from fires set by farmers and plantation owners in rural areas clearing forest lands for
agricultural use.

Food production: Because young people, especially young men, migrate to Indonesia’s cities in
search of better job opportunities, there are fewer people taking over their families’ farms. This
could lead to the possibility of a food crisis if food production levels are not increased.

Job opportunities: Laborer’s who lived in Java and did not own land used to have very few sources
of income. Now, most landless rural families on Java have at least one person working outside the
village in a factory or service job. Today, less than 20 percent of households depend on agriculture
for their livelihood.

Subsidence: Land has been subsiding because more groundwater is being extracted, and because of
the additional load that the ground must bear because of an increased volume of construction.
Subsidence causes cracking of buildings and roads, changes in the flow of rivers, canals, and drains,
and increased inland and coastal flooding. In some parts of Jakarta, land has subsided by 1–28
centimeters per year.

New urban areas: new towns and large-scale residential areas have been developed in and around
Jakarta. Heavy flows of commuter traffic have led to increased levels of traffic congestion between
the scattered new towns and the cities.