PHOTOSYNTHESIS

2.0
Premed/Prepharm
ETC IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
The electron transport chain (ETC) in photosynthesis
and cellular respiration use electron transport to
create a proton gradient that is used to generate
ATP. However, there are also several key differences
between the two processes:
• Location: In photosynthesis, the ETC is located in the thylakoid
membranes of the chloroplasts, while in cellular respiration, it is
located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
• Electron donors and acceptors: In photosynthesis, the electron
donor is water (H2O), and the electron acceptor is NADP+. In
cellular respiration, the electron donors are NADH and FADH2, and
the electron acceptor is oxygen (O2).
 ETC IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Energy source: In photosynthesis, the energy to drive electron transport
comes from sunlight, which is absorbed by pigments such as chlorophyll.
In cellular respiration, the energy to drive electron transport comes from
the oxidation of glucose or other organic molecules.

Direction of electron flow: In photosynthesis, the electron flow is from

water to NADP+, while in cellular respiration, the electron flow is from
NADH and FADH2 to oxygen

Final product: In photosynthesis, the final product of the ETC is NADPH,

which is used in the synthesis of glucose. In cellular respiration, the final
product of the ETC is ATP, which is used for cellular energy.
Linear Electron Flow
• During the light reactions, there are two
possible routes for electron flow: cyclic and
linear
• Linear electron flow, the primary pathway,
involves both photosystems and produces
ATP and NADPH using light energy
 • A photon hits a pigment and its energy is passed
among pigment molecules until it excites P680
• An excited electron from P680 is transferred to
the primary electron acceptor (we now call it
P680+)

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• P680+ is a very strong oxidizing agent
• H2O is split by enzymes, and the electrons are
transferred from the hydrogen atoms to P680+,
thus reducing it to P680
• O2 is released as a by-product of this reaction
 Primary
Primary 4 acceptor
acceptor
Pq e
2
H2O e
2 H Cytochrome
+ complex
1/ O2 3
2
e Pc
e P700
P680 5 Light

1 Light 6

ATP

Pigment
molecules
Photosystem I
(PS I)
Photosystem II
(PS II)
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
• Each electron “falls” down an electron transport chain
from the primary electron acceptor of PS I to the
protein ferredoxin (Fd)
• The electrons are then transferred to NADP+ and
reduce it to NADPH
• The electrons of NADPH are available for the
reactions of the Calvin cycle
• This process also removes an H+ from the stroma
• Each electron “falls” down an electron transport chain
from the primary electron acceptor of PS II to PS I
• Energy released by the fall drives the creation of a
proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane
• Diffusion of H+ (protons) across the membrane drives
ATP synthesis
FIGURE 10.15

e

e e
Mill
makes
ATP NADPH
e
e
e

e
ATP

Photosystem II Photosystem I
 CYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW

• Cyclic electron flow uses only

photosystem I and produces ATP, but not
NADPH
• No oxygen is released
• Cyclic electron flow generates surplus ATP,
satisfying the higher demand in the Calvin
cycle
• Cyclic electron flow occurs when there is
high light intensities or when the ratio of
ATP to NADPH needs to be adjusted.
FIGURE 10.16

Primary
Primary acceptor
Fd
acceptor Fd
Pq NADP
NADP + H
reductase
Cytochrome NADPH
complex

Pc

Photosystem I
Photosystem II ATP
 A COMPARISON OF CHEMIOSMOSIS IN
CHLOROPLASTS AND MITOCHONDRIA

• Chloroplasts and mitochondria generate ATP by

chemiosmosis, but use different sources of energy
• Mitochondria transfer chemical energy from food to
ATP; chloroplasts transform light energy into the
chemical energy of ATP
• Spatial organization of chemiosmosis differs between
chloroplasts and mitochondria but also shows
similarities

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 • In mitochondria, protons are pumped to the
intermembrane space and drive ATP synthesis as they
diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix
• In chloroplasts, protons are pumped into the thylakoid
space and drive ATP synthesis as they diffuse back into
the stroma

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 Mitochondrion Chloroplast

MITOCHONDRION CHLOROPLAST
STRUCTURE STRUCTURE
H Diffusion
Intermembrane Thylakoid
space space
Electron
Inner Thylakoid
transport
membrane membrane
chain

ATP
synthase
Matrix Stroma
ADP  P i
ATP
Key Higher [H ] H
Lower [H ]
THE C ALVIN CYCLE USES THE CHEMIC AL ENERGY OF
ATP AND NADPH TO REDUCE CO 2 TO SUGAR

• The Calvin cycle, like the citric acid cycle, regenerates

its starting material after molecules enter and leave
the cycle
• The cycle builds sugar from smaller molecules by
using ATP and the reducing power of electrons
carried by NADPH
 • Carbon enters the cycle as CO2 and leaves as a
sugar named glyceraldehyde 3-phospate (G3P)
• For net synthesis of 1 G3P, the cycle must take place
three times, fixing 3 molecules of CO2
• The Calvin cycle has three phases
• Carbon fixation (catalyzed by rubisco)
• Reduction
• Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP)

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

FIGURE 10.19-1
Input
3 (Entering one
CO2 at a time)

Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Rubisco
3 P P
Short-lived
intermediate
3P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP)
FIGURE 10.19-2
Input
3 (Entering one
CO2 at a time)

Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Rubisco
3 P P
Short-lived
intermediate
3P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP) 6 ATP
6 ADP

Calvin
Cycle
6 P P
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
6 NADPH

6 NADP
6 Pi

6 P
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Phase 2:
(G3P) Reduction

1 P
G3P Glucose and
(a sugar) other organic
Output compounds
FIGURE 10.19-3
Input
3 (Entering one
CO2 at a time)

Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Rubisco
3 P P
Short-lived
intermediate
3P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP) 6 ATP
6 ADP

3 ADP Calvin
Cycle
3 6 P P
ATP
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
6 NADPH
Phase 3:
Regeneration of 6 NADP
the CO2 acceptor 6 Pi
(RuBP)
5 P
G3P
6 P
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Phase 2:
(G3P) Reduction

1 P
G3P Glucose and
(a sugar) other organic
Output compounds
ALTERNATIVE MECHANISMS OF C ARBON FIXATION
HAVE EVOLVED IN HOT, ARID CLIMATES

• Dehydration is a problem for plants, sometimes

requiring trade-offs with other metabolic processes,
especially photosynthesis
• On hot, dry days, plants close stomata, which
conserves H2O but also limits photosynthesis
• The closing of stomata reduces access to CO2 and
causes O2 to build up
• These conditions favor an apparently wasteful process
called photorespiration
 ALTERNATIVE MECHANISMS OF
C ARBON FIXATION HAVE EVOLVED
IN HOT, ARID CLIMATES

• Dehydration is a problem for plants, sometimes

requiring trade-offs with other metabolic
processes, especially photosynthesis
• On hot, dry days, plants close stomata, which
conserves H2O but also limits photosynthesis
• The closing of stomata reduces access to CO2
and causes O2 to build up
• These conditions favor an apparently wasteful
process called photorespiration
 Photorespiration
•In most plants (C3 plants), initial fixation of
CO2, via rubisco, forms a three-carbon
compound (3-phosphoglycerate)
•In photorespiration, rubisco adds O2 instead
of CO2 in the Calvin cycle, producing a two-
carbon compound
•(phosphoglycolate (or 2-phosphoglycolate)
• Photorespiration consumes O2 and organic
fuel and releases CO2 without producing
ATP or sugar
PHOTORESPIRATION
• Photorespiration is a process that occurs in plants when
they undergo photosynthesis under certain conditions,
such as when the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) is
low or the temperature is high. During this process, instead
of fixing CO2 during the Calvin cycle, the enzyme Rubisco
catalyzes the addition of oxygen (O2) to ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate (RuBP), a key molecule in the Calvin cycle.
• This results in the production of a molecule called 3-
phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) and a molecule called glycolate,
which is toxic to plants if it accumulates.
 ALTERNATIVE
PATHWAYS
Plants in some climates have alternative ways of doing photosynthesis to help
them survive better.
Other type of photosynthesis

•C4 and CAM are two different types

of photosynthesis that some plants
have developed as adaptations to
deal with high temperatures and/or
low water availability in their
environments.
C4 Plants
• C4 plants minimize the cost of
photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into
four-carbon compounds in mesophyll cells
• This step requires the enzyme PEP
carboxylase
• PEP carboxylase has a higher affinity for CO2
than rubisco does; it can fix CO2 even when
CO2 concentrations are low
• These four-carbon compounds are exported
to bundle-sheath cells, where they release
CO2 that is then used in the Calvin cycle
Figure 10.20a

C4 leaf anatomy

Mesophyll cell
Photosynthetic
cells of C4 Bundle-
plant leaf sheath
cell

Vein
(vascular tissue)

Stoma
 The C4 pathway
Mesophyll
cell CO2
PEP carboxylase

Oxaloacetate (4C) PEP (3C)

ADP
Malate (4C) ATP

Pyruvate (3C)
Bundle-
sheath CO2
cell
Calvin
Cycle

Sugar

Vascular
tissue
CAM Plants
• Some plants, including succulents, use
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to fix
carbon
• CAM plants open their stomata at night,
incorporating CO2 into organic acids
• Stomata close during the day, and CO2 is
released from organic acids and used in the
Calvin cycle
Figure 10.21

Sugarcane Pineapple
C4 CAM CO2
CO2
1 CO2 incorporated
Mesophyll Organic acid (carbon fixation) Organic acid Night
cell

CO2 CO2
Bundle- 2 CO2 released Day
sheath Calvin Calvin
Cycle to the Calvin Cycle
cell
cycle

Sugar Sugar
(a) Spatial separation of steps (b) Temporal separation of steps
 C4 Photosynthesis
• C4 photosynthesis is a type of photosynthesis that occurs in certain plants,
particularly in tropical regions.
• The main difference between C4 and C3 photosynthesis is that in C4 plants,
the carbon fixation and carbon reduction processes occur in separate cells. In
C3 plants, these processes occur in the same cells.
• C4 plants have a specialized type of leaf anatomy, where there are two types
of photosynthetic cells, the mesophyll cells and the bundle sheath cells.
• C4 photosynthesis is believed to be more efficient in hot and dry
environments, as it reduces the amount of photorespiration, which is a
process that occurs in C3 plants and can be wasteful in certain conditions
• C4 photosynthesis is a process used by some plants, such as corn, sugarcane,
and sorghum, to minimize photorespiration and improve carbon fixation
efficiency
CAM photosynthesis
• CAM photosynthesis (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) is a type of
photosynthesis that some plants use in order to minimize water loss by
opening their stomata at night instead of during the day
• This process allows plants to survive in arid conditions where water is scarce.
• In CAM plants, carbon dioxide is fixed at night and stored as an organic acid,
then used during the day to run the Calvin cycle. This separation of the
carbon-fixing and carbon-reducing reactions in time allows CAM plants to keep
their stomata closed during the day to conserve water and open them at night
when temperatures are lower and humidity is higher, reducing water loss
through transpiration.
• CAM is used by some plants, such as cacti, pineapple, and some orchids
Alternative Pathways

Alternatives
Rate of Photosynthesis
• Light intensity, carbon dioxide
levels, water availability, nutrient
and temperature effect the rate
of photosynthesis
• As light increases, rate of
photosynthesis increases
• As CO2 increases, rate of
photosynthesis increases
• Temperature Low = Rate of
photosynthesis low
• Temperature Increases = Rate of
photosynthesis increases
• If temperature too hot, rate drops
Chemosynthesis
• Chemosynthesis is a biological process by
which certain microorganisms, usually
bacteria or archaea, generate energy by
oxidizing inorganic chemicals such as
hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and
methane, instead of sunlight. The energy
generated by this process is used by the
microorganisms to produce organic
compounds, such as sugars and amino
acids, from carbon dioxide and water.
• They use chemicals instead of
water as an electron donor
before the electron transport
chain
• Chemosynthesis is
important in
environments where
sunlight is not available,
such as deep-sea
hydrothermal vents and
other extreme
environments, where it
provides the basis for
food chains that support a
variety of organisms.
Chemosynthesis Equation
• 12 H2S + 6 CO2 → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 H2O + 12 S

• Chemosynthesis is important in environments where

sunlight is not available, such as deep-sea hydrothermal
vents and other extreme environments, where it provides
the basis for food chains that support a variety of
organisms
 LECTURE PRESENTATIONS
For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION
Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

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Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick