Photosynthesis

Lecture 7
 Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy
into chemical energy and storing it in the bonds of
sugar.

• This process occurs in plants and some algae

(Kingdom Protista).

• Plants need only light energy, CO2, and H2O to

make sugar.
 Photosynthesis…

• The process of photosynthesis takes place in the

chloroplasts, specifically using chlorophyll, the
green pigment involved in photosynthesis.
• The chemical reaction involved in photosynthesis
is:
6CO2 + 6H2O + (light energy) C6H12O6 + 6O2
 Photosynthesis…

• Photosynthesis is a two stage process.

• The first process is the Light Dependent Process
(light/photochemical reactions), requires the
direct energy of light to make energy carrier
molecules that are used in the second process.
• The Light Independent Process (dark/
biochemical reactions) occurs when the products
of the light reaction are used to form C-C covalent
bonds of carbohydrates.
 Photosynthesis...

• Photosynthesis consists of photochemical and

biochemical reactions.

• The photochemical reactions convert light-energy

to chemical energy: ATP and NADPH.

• The biochemical reactions use ATP and NADPH

produced by the photochemical reactions to reduce
CO2 to sugars.

• The light / photochemical reactions occur in the

grana (on thylakoid membranes)
 Photosynthesis…

• The dark reactions take place in the stroma of

the chloroplasts.
• This reaction doesn't directly need light in order
to occur, but it does need the products of the
light reaction (ATP and NADPH).
 Photosynthesis…

• Light is captured by antennae complexes on

thylakoids.
• Energy absorbed flows downhill to a special pair of
energy-collecting molecules of chlorophyll a and
associated proteins called a reaction center.

• There are 2 kinds of reaction-center chlorophylls:

Photosystem I associated with P700
Photosystem II associated with P680
 Photosynthesis…

• Photosystem is an arrangement of chlorophyll and

other pigments packed into thylakoids pigments
designed to gather light energy and pass it on to
the P680 or the P700 molecule.
• Photosystem I uses chlorophyll a, in the form
referred to as P700.
• Photosystem II uses a form of chlorophyll a known
as P680.
• Both “active” forms of chlorophyll a function in
photosynthesis due to their association with
proteins in the thylakoid membrane.
 Photosynthesis…

• Only the P680 or the P700 pigment molecules

have the ability to exchange electrons in the
photosynthetic electron transport chain.
• Many Prokaryotes have only one photosystem,
Photosystem II, whereas Eukaryotes have
Photosystem II plus Photosystem I
 Light Dependent Reactions

• Light dependant reactions are insensitive to

changes in temperature.
• Light reaction has two forms of reactions, i.e.
cyclic and non-cyclic reaction.
Cyclic Electron Flow
 Cyclic Electron Flow…

• Light excites electrons from P700, the reaction

center chlorophyll in Photosystem I.
• The electron begins in Photosystem I, passes from
the primary acceptor to ferredoxin (Fd), then to
plastoquinone (Pq), and then down through the
cytochrome complex through plastocynanin, and
finally back to the reaction centre.
 Cyclic Electron Flow…

• In the process, the energy-releasing flow of

electrons is coupled to the energy-requiring
manufacture of ATP from ADP and Pi.

• At each step, electrons lose potential energy,

finally returning to their ground-state energy in
P700.
• Electrons that return to P700 have only about half
of the energy they had when they left, the
remainder of the energy is the photosynthetic pay-
off.
 Cyclic Electron Flow…

• Absorption of more light excites the reaction center

again, restarting the cycle.
• As the electrons again move down the electron
transport chain, ATP forms.
• This process produces neither O2 nor NADPH.
Cyclic Electron Flow…

Primary
accceptor An iron-containing
protein

Fd
A mobile electron
carrier
Pq

2e-
Cytochrome
complex
Sun

Pc
Energy for synthesis of
A copper-containing
protein
ATP

P700

Photosystem I
Non-cyclic Electron Flow
 Non-cyclic Electron Flow…

• Non-cyclic electron flow, is a two-stage process

involving two different chlorophyll photosystems.
• First, a water molecule is broken down into 2H + +
½O2 + 2e- by a process called photolysis.

• The two electrons from the water molecule are

kept in Photosystem II, while the 2H+ and ½O2
are left out for further use.
 Non-cyclic Electron Flow…

• A photon is then absorbed by the chlorophyll core

of Photosystem II, exciting the two electrons which
are transferred to the acceptor molecule.
• The deficit of electrons is refilled by taking
electrons from another molecule of water.
• The electrons are then transferred from the
primary acceptor to an electron transport chain
embedded in the thylakoid membrane.

• The first carrier in the chain, plastoquinone (Pq)

receives the electrons from the primary acceptor.
 Non-cyclic Electron Flow…

• The electrons travel from Pq to a cytochrome

complex, then to plastocyanin (Pc), producing
proton-motive force as with cyclic electron flow and
driving ATP synthesis.
• As these electrons pass, they lose potential energy
until they reach the ground state of P700.
 Non-cyclic Electron Flow…

• Light excites electrons from P700.

• The excited electrons are transferred from P700 to

the primary electron acceptor of Photosystem I.
• The primary electron acceptor passes these
excited electrons to ferredoxin, an iron-containing
protein.
 Non-cyclic Electron Flow…

• The NADP+ reductase catalyzes the redox reaction

that transfers these electrons from ferredoxin to
NADP+, producing reduced co-enzyme NADPH.

• The oxidized P700 chlorophyll becomes an

oxidizing agent as its electron “hole” must be filled.

• Photosystem II supplies the electrons to fill these

holes.
Non-cyclic Electron Flow…

Primary
ADP + Pi Primary
accceptor
accceptor

Pq
ATP
Fd

2e- NADP+ + H+
NADP+
Cytochrome
2e- reductase
complex NADPH
Sun

Sun

Pc

P700
P680

H2 O

Photosystem I
Photosystem II ½O2 + 2H+
Light Independent Reactions
 Light Independent Reactions…

• Melvin Calvin and colleagues provided the understanding of

how plants reduce carbon dioxide to carbohydrate.

• The conversion of C02 to carbohydrates occurs in the stroma

• It is mediated by enzymes that are not bound to thylakoid

membranes

• There are three phases to the light-independent reactions,

collectively called the Calvin Cycle: Carbon Fixation, Reduction
reactions, and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration
 Calvin Cycle
• In the first reaction, one molecule of CO2 is
attached to a five-carbon sugar called ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBp) to produce 2 molecules of a
3-carbon sugar called 3-phosphoglycerate.

• This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme called

rubisco (ribulose carboxylase).

• For every 3 molecules of CO2 that enter the cycle,

6 molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate are produced.
 Calvin Cycle…

• The 6 phosphoglycerate molecules are then

phosphorylated using ATP from the light reactions
to create 6 molecules of the 3-carbon sugar 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate.
• The 6 molecules of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate are
then reduced, using NADPH from the light
reactions, to generate 6 molecules of the three-
carbon sugar glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G-3-P).
 Calvin Cycle…

• The reactions of the Calvin cycle are not

completed by the synthesis of G-3-P.

• Of the 6 molecules of G-3-P produced by 3 rounds

of the cycle, 5 molecules are used to refill the
supply of RuBp in the plant cell.
• This is accomplished by phosphorylating G-3-P in
another enzymatic reaction.
 3CO2

rubisco
6 (3-phosphoglycerate)
6ATP

6ADP
3 ribulose bisphosphate)
6 (1,3-bisphosphoglycerate)

3ADP 6NADPH

6NADP+
3ATP
5 (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) 6 (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate glucose
 Calvin Cycle…

• Therefore, of the 6 molecules of G-3-P produced,

only one molecule is available as a source of
consumable energy for the cell.

• Because these reactions occur continually, the

level of G-3-P (and the level of carbohydrates in a
cell) can accumulate rapidly.
 Calvin Cycle…

• Since the Calvin Cycle takes in only one carbon

(as CO2) at a time, it take 6 turns of the cycle to
produce a net gain of 6 carbons.
• These 6 turns of the cycle require 18 ATPs (3 per
carbon)and 12 NADPHs (2 per carbon).