5.

2 understand the light-dependent reactions of

photosynthesis, including how light
energy is trapped by exciting electrons in chlorophyll and the
role of these electrons
in generating ATP, reducing NADP in cyclic and non-cyclic
photophosphorylation and
producing oxygen through photolysis of water
Light-dependent reactions

 The aim of the reaction is to produce ATP and split water into
hydrogen ions
 In cyclic photophosphorylation, a photon hits a chlorophyll molecule
exciting an electron from photosystem II.
 The electron leaves the chlorophyll molecule and is accepted by an
electron acceptor.
 This begins an electron transport chain; a series of redox reaction
resulting in the synthesis of ATP.

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 The electron returns to photosystem II.
 In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, a photon hits a chlorophyll
molecule exciting an electron from photosystem I.
 The excited electron leaves the chlorophyll molecule and is picked up
by electron acceptor NADP.
 H+ ions from dissociated water reduces NADP to NADPH.
 When an electron is excited from Photosystem II, it leaves the
chlorophyll molecule and i7s picked up by an electron acceptor
starting an electron transport chain leading to the production of ATP.
 The transported electron replaces the electron lost from photosystem
I.
 Electrons move along electron carrier system
 Electron from the photolysis of water replaces lost electron from
 Electron carriers pump the hydrogen ions (protons) into the thylakoid
Photosystem II.
(intermembranal) space through the thylakoid membrane
 H+ accumulate in the thylakoid (space)
Photolysis of water
 The splitting of a water molecule using energy from light.  The thylakoid membrane is impermeable to protons, so protons cross
back out almost exclusively via the channels provided by ATP synthases.
 This reaction produces oxygen
 ATPase channels allow hydrogen ions to pass through into stroma
 Two water molecules are needed to form one O2
 H+ release energy as they move into the stroma through ATP synthase
___ → __ + ___ + __
channel

Formation of ATP  Energy released from this movement of hydrogen ions results in
phosphorylation of ADP and reduces NADP

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5.2 understand how photophosphorylation of ADP requires
energy and that hydrolysis of ATP provides an immediate
supply of energy for biological processes
Adenosinetriphosphate (ATP) is made from three components
1. Ribose
2. A nitrogenous base (adenine.
3. Up to 3 phosphate - which the key to the activity of ATP
At each stage of hydrolysis energy is released.
The advantage of using ATP as a power supply for chemical reactions:
• Only a relatively small quantity of energy is released, so, transfer of
energy is efficient and as only a little heat is generated, which would be a
big problem for cells.
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• ATP is regenerated, therefore it doesn’t need to be stored and you don’t
need much of it!
• ATP is soluble
• ATP is small and can pass in / out of cells easily
• You can generate ATP in lots of different ways
The phosphorylation of Adenosine, AMP and ADP requires energy.
This can either come from a reaction with another phosphorylated
molecule (during which the phosphate is “swapped”) = substratelevel
phosphorylation, or by simply adding an inorganic phosphate to
Adenosine, AMP or ADP. This second type of phosphorylation is carried
out by ATP Synthase enzymes, which need a biochemical gradient of H+
(therefore, a source of potential energy) to work.
Formation of ATP
Breakdown of ATP
5. 6 Describe the light-independent reactions as reduction of carbon the building block of carbohydrates, which can be modified into several
dioxide using the products of the light-dependent reactions (carbon organic compounds including lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
fixation in the Calvin cycle, the role of GP, GALP, RuBP and 6. It takes 6 cycles of the Calvin Cycle to produce one molecule of
RUBISCO) and describe the products as simple sugars that are used glucose as only 1 carbon of GALP is used to form it per cycle whilst
by plants, animals and other organisms in respiration and the the other 5 are used to regenerate RuBP
synthesis of new biological molecules (including polysaccharides,
amino acids, lipids and nucleic acids).
1. This stage uses 2 products from the light-dependant reaction: ATP
and NADPH.
2. CO2 diffuses into the stroma and carbon fixation occurs. RUBISCO (an
enzyme) catalyses Carbon fixation. That is, it catalyses the binding of CO2
with a 5 carbon compound RuBP. This produces an unstable 6-
carbon molecule that instantly splits into 2, 3-carbon molecules of
GP.
3. GP is reduced to GALP. This uses H+ from NADPH (which acts as a
hydrogen carrier, transferring H+ ions from water to carbon dioxide). This
reaction is driven by energy from the ATP produced during
photophosphorylation. NADP is oxidised and available for further use in
the light-dependant reactions. Production of other substances from GALP

4. GALP is converted to glucose, The combination of two molecules of

GALP produces a molecule of glucose, which consists of carbon, oxygen
and hydrogen. The carbon and oxygen have been obtained from carbon
dioxide, and the hydrogen has been obtained from water (via photolysis).
5. Most of the carbon atoms of GALP are recylcled to regenerate RuBP
for the cycle to continue (5 out of 6 carbons), the 6th carbon of GALP is
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  Then formation of 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds by condensation reaction
forms polymers
 2 polymers are formed - amylose and amylopectin
 amylose is a straight chain, with 1-4 bonds

First conversion of GALP to glucose

Then glucose is used as the starting point for many different molecules

In the formation of proteins

amino acids made from {hexose / glucose / sugar} and nitrates (1) • amino acids
joined by {peptide bonds / condensation reactions} (1) • glucose respired to
produce ATP for protein synthesis (1)

In the formation of cellulose

Cellulose is a polymer of Beta glucoe
So first, GALP converted to β glucose
formation of glycosidic bonds between C1 and C4 by condensation
These bonds are 1-4 glycosidic bonds
Straight, unbranched chains of glucose are formed

Synthesis of starch
 First conversion of GALP to α glucose

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 amylopectin is a branched molecule with 1-4 and 1-6 bonds

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