ICAO Doc 9184 Airport Planning Man Part 1 Master Plann 2nd Ed

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I C A O 9 3 8 4 PART*L 4841426 0 0 5 8 5 0 9 05L
Doc 9184-AN/902
Part 1
AIRPORT PLANNING
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MANUAL
PART 1
MASTER PLANNING
SECOND EDITION - 1987
Approved by the Secretary General

and published under his authority
INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION
Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

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I C A O 9 3 8 4 PART*L ** m 484141b 0058533 70T m
Airport Planning
Manual
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(Doc 9184AN/902)
Part 1
Master Planning
Second Edition - 19437

I C A O 9184 P A R T * L ** 4 8 4 1 4 L b 0 0 5 8 5 3 2 646
AMENDMENTS
The issue of amendments is announced in the E A 0 Journal and in the monthIy

supplements to the Catalogue of ICAO Publications, which holders of this
publication should consult. These amendments are available free upon request.
Els==l
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Entered by No. Date Entered by
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FOREWORD
The Council af ICAO on 10 March 1967 (EX-8) approved International, Inc.; British AirportsAuthority; Dallas-
a proposal of the Secretary General that guidance material FortWorth Regional AirportBoard;Department of
be prepared to assist States in planning the expansion Transport, Canada; International A i r Transport Associ-
of existing international airports and the construction of ation; University of California. Additionally, a substantial
new ones. amount of work was done on it by the regular Secretariat.
This project was conceived in the realization of the In 1976 a general revision of the manual was prepared
major impact that expansion of air transport was having by the Air Navigation Bureau, assisted under contract by
and would continue to have on facilities throughout the the firm TCB/MorrisInternational, and by the Air
world, it being recognized that, in addition to the major Transport Bureau whichrevised Chapters 3 and 4. The
problems of great expansion in absolute volume of intent of this revision wasto incorporate experience gained
passengers, cargo and air traffic, the introduction of very from use of the original Manual, experience from the
large-capacity aircraft was likely to cause special problems introduction intoservice of large-capacity aircraft and new
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at an increasing number of airports. Existing programmes planning technology. This second editionincorporates
of ICAO did not provide airport authorities with guidance changes and additions resulting from an over-all review
for the development of airport master plans in all their made by the Secretariat.
aspects, nor had it been intended that they should.
It is important to note that thematerial contained in this
The first manual entitled Manual on Airport Master manual does not necessarily reflect the views of ICAO nor
Planning was written by three professional airport those who have assisted in its development. It deals in
planners recruited exclusively for this purpose. An many areas in which there is as yet no certaintyor precision
advisory group composed of representatives of the and it is planned to update the material in the future. Any
following organizations provided invaluable assistance in suggestions which may assist in improving and updating
defining the structure of the manual and reviewing this material would, therefore, be greatly appreciated.
material: ACroport de Paris; Aerospace Industries Associ- These should be directed to the Secretary General of
ation of America, Inc.; Airport Operators Council ICAO.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page pas
SECTION ONE . AIRPORT PLANNING Chapter 4 . Financirrl Arrangements and

PROCESS ................................. 1-1 Controls ................................... 1-23
4.1 About this Chapter .................. 1-23

Financing Arrangements .............
Chapter 1 . Introduction .................... 14
4.2
4.3 and Accounting .....
Financial Control
1-23
1-28
1.1 Airport Master Planning Objectives ... 1-4
References ................................. 1-33
1.2 Manual ..................
Use of this 1-4
1.3 Organization of this Manual .......... 1-4
.
Chapter 5 Airport a t e Evaluation and
selection .................................. 1-34
Chapter 2 . Preplanning Considerations ....... 1-7 5.1 Chapter ..................

About this 1-34
5.2 Broad Determination of the Land
2.1 About this Chapter .................. 1-7 Area Required ...................... 1-34
2.2 Preplanning Co-ordination ........... 1-7 5.3 Evaluation of Factors Affecting
2.3 Information Requirements ........... 1-7
Airport Location .................... 1-39
2.4 Preliminary Economic Feasibility ..... 1-7 5.4 Preliminary Study of Possible
2.5 The Roleof Financing in Airport Airport Sites ....................... 1-39
Planning ........................... 1-8 5.5 Site Inspection ...................... 1-39
2.6 The Planning Team ................. 1-8
5.6 Environmental Study ................ 1-43
2.7 The Planning Organization ........... 1-9
5.7 Review of Potential Sites ............. 1-43
2.8 Planning Procedure ................. 1-9 5.8 Preparation of Outline Plansand
2.9 Goalsand Policy Objectives .......... 1-11
Estimates of Costs and Revenue ...... 1-43
2.10 Use of Consultants .................. 1-12
5.9 Final Evaluation .................... 1-44
5.10 Report and Recommendatious ........ 1-44
References ................................. 1-12
References ................................. 1-44
Chapter 3 . Forecasting for Planning Purposes 1-13
3.1 About this Chapter .................. 1-13 SECTION TWO .AIR SIDE
3.2 The Requirements ................... 1.13 DEVELOPMENT .......................... 1-46
3.3 Forecasts Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
3.4 Accuracy and Limitations of Forecasts . 1-16 Chapter 6 . Runways and Taxiways .......... 1-47
3;5 Converting Annual Traffic Forecasts
into Planning Criteria ............... 1-17 6.1 About this Chapter ................... 1-47
3.6 Factors Affecting Traffic Growth . . . . . 1-18 6.2 Runway and Taxiway Physical
3.7 Principles of Forecasting ............. 1.19 . Characteristics ...................... 1-47
3.8 Forecasting Methods ................ 1-20 6.3 Airport Capacity .................... 1-54
3.9 Presentation of Forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-22 6.4 Typical Phased Development Plan . . . . 1-58
References ................................. 1-22 References ................................. 1-58
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ICAO 9 3 8 4 P A R T t 3 t f 4 8 4 L 4 3 b 0 0 5 8 5 3 5 355
1-(vi) Airport Planning Manual
Page Page
Chapter 7 . Aprons ........................ 1-59 9.10 Passenger Amenities and Other
PassengerBuilding Services . . . . . . . . . . 1.108
7.1 About
this
Chapter .................. 1-59 9.11 Consideration of Disabled and Elderly
7.2 Planning
Parameters ................ 1-59 People in Passenger Building Planning . 1-1 11
7.3 Passenger
TerminalApron ........... 1-62
7.4 Cargo
Terminal
Apron .............. 1-66 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.113
7.5 MaintenanceTerminal Apron ......... 1-66
7.6 Parking
Apron ..................... 1-66 Chapter 10 . Cargo Facilities ................ 1-115
7.7 Holding Bays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-66
7.8 General
Aviation
Apron ............. 1-67 10.1 AboutthisChapter ................ 1-1 15
7.9 Helicopter
Apron ................... 1-67 10.2 Sound Cargo Facilities Planning . . . . ~ 1-115
7.10 Apron
Security ..................... 1-67 10.3 Siting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
16
7.1 1Fixed Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-67 10.4 Systems Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-117
7.12 Apron Taxiways and Aircraft Stand 10.5 TheCargo Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-119
Taxi
Lanes ......................... 1-67 10.6 CargoApron ...................... 1-120
7.13 Apron Service Roads and Ground 10.7 Cargo Facility Requirements . . . . . . . . 1-120
EquipmentParking Areas ............ 1-68 10.8 CargoTerminalArea Access . . . . . . . . 1- 121
10.9 CargoTerminalParking ............ 1-122
References ................................. 1-68 10.10 Control
Authorities Inspection ...... 1-122
References ................................. 1.122

.
Chapter 8 Air and Ground Navigation and
Traffic Control Aids at Airports ............. 1-69
Chapter 11. Ground Transport and Internal
Aboutthis
Chapter .................. 1-69 Airport Circulation and Parking .............. 1-123
8.1
8.2 Visual Aids ......................... 1-69
11.1 AboutthisChapter .................. 1-123
8.3 Radio
Navigation
Aids .............. 1-69
11.2 Airport Access - Automobile and
8.4 Buildings forRadioNavigationAids .. 1-70 Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Public 1-123
8.5 DemarcationofCritical
Areas ........ 1-71
11.3 Airport
Traffic
Data ................ 1-123
8.6 Air
Traffic Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71 11.4 InternalAirportRoadwayCirculation . 1-124
8.7 Searchand Rescue Services . . . . . . . . . . . 1-72
11.5 Passenger Building Curb . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1- 124
8.8 Apron
Management Service . . . . . . . . . . 1-72
11.6 Vehicle Parking ..................... 1-124
8.9 Communications .................... 1-72
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.125
References ................................. 1-72
SECTION FOUR . AIRPORT SUPPORT

ELEMENTS ............................... 1-126
SECTION THREE . LAND SIDE
DEVELOPMENT .......................... 1-73 .
Chapter 12 Airport Operations and Support.
Facilities ................................... 1-127
Chapter 9 . Passenger Building .............. 1-74
12.1 About :his Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-127
9.1 About this Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-74 12.2 Administration and Maintenance
9.2 General
Considerations .............. 1-74 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-127
9.3 Passenger Building Connexion with 12.3 Medical Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-127
Access System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-86 12.4 Ground Vehicle Fuel Stations . . . . . . . 1-127
9.4 Passenger Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-88 12.5 Generating Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-127
9.5 Baggage
Processing .................. 1-94 12.6 Water Supply and Sanitation . . . . . . . . 1-128
9.6 Waiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Passenger 1-99 12.7 Flight Catering Kitchens . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-128
9.7 GovernmentFrontierControls ........ 1-100 12.8 Meteorological Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-128
9.8 Passenger Connexion with Aircraft . . . . 1-103 12.9 Aircrew Briefing and Reporting . . . . . . 1-128
9.9 TransitandTransferPassengers ...... 1-107 12.10 Aircraft Maintenance Area . . . . . . . . . . 1-129
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I C A O 9184 P A R T * L *X = 4 8 4 1 4 1 b OD585hb 291
Part 1 . Master Planning I-(vii)
Page Page
12.11 Rescue and Fire Fighting Services .... 1-129 Chapter 14 . Security Considerations ......... 1-134
12.12 General Aviation Facilities . . . . . . . . . . 1-129
References ................................. 1-130 14.2 Land Side Security .................. 1-134
14.3 Air Side Security .................... 1-136
Chapter 13 . Aircraft Fuel Facilities .......... 1-131
References ................................. 1-137
13.2 Storage Capacity .................... 1-131 APPENDICES
13.3 Location of Storage ................. 1-131
13.4 Fuellingof Aircraft ................. 1-131 Appendix A . Glossary of Terms ............. 1-139
13.5 Safety and Special Design Require-
ments Related to Fuelling Systems .... 1-132 Appendix B . Other ICAO Publications
Related to Aerodrome Master
References ................................. 1-133 Planning ..................... 1-142
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SECTION ONE - AIRPORT PLANNING PROCESS
INTRODUCTORY NOTES apron

configurations, passenger
buildings, ground
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transport links and internal roads, car parks and cargo

Therapidgrowth of airtransport is overtaxingthe areas, to permit phased development of the master plan.
capacity of many airports andgiving cause for reconsider-
ation of concepts, processing methodsand facilities. An airport master plan should be the most effective
Increasing passenger and cargo traffic will make further framework within which theindividual facilities can
demands on airports, although aircraft movements may operatetheirseparate funct.ions atthe highestpossible
increase more slowly owing to the introduction of larger levels of efficiency. As explained above, it is not always
aircraft. possible for the best plans for individual facilities to be
fitted together ina total plan for the airports without some
The result is that the administrations
responsible for the modifications to make them compatible with each other.
world’s airportsarefaced withaheavy programme of This often means someloss of perfection in the individual
improvement and construction to meet these needs in the plans but good planning strikes an optimum balance so
most efficient manner possible. that a total plan is produced which is more effective in its
operation,andtherefore
has a higher capacity and
efficiency, thanwouldbethe case if there were no
This manual is intended to assist airport authorities in
reconciliation between the plans of the individual facilities.
thecomplex task of preparingmasterplansforthe
Care must be taken, however, to ensure that compromises
expansionof existing airports and construction of new
do not adversely affect safety.
ones. The manual outlines the planning system and the
developmentoflong-termforecasts covering aviation
operations,economicfactorsandotherconsiderations Planning Philosophy
involved inmasterplanning.It explains the need for
consultation and co-operative planningby all the agencies The most efficient plan for the airport as a whole is that
concerned, including aircraft operators, national andlocal which providestherequiredcapacityforaircraft, pass-
government planners,
government control
authorities enger,cargoand vehicle movements, with maximum
(customs,immigration,health, etc.), nationaland local passenger, operator and staff convenience and at lowest
transportauthorities,aircraftandequipmentmanufac- capital and operating costs.
turers and international aviation agencies.
Flexibility- and expansibility should beconsidered in
conjunction and are fundamental to all aspects of plan-
Guidance is given on deciding the type of airportwhich
ning. Particularfeatures of some sitesmay make it
mayberequired to meet the needs of a community or
necessary to decide that expansibility is not possible but
region and on theselection and evaluation of airportsites.
that the plan shouldstill proceed. This is a matter for local
Stress is laid on the importance of making an economic
judgement relative t o local conditions. However,it is never
appraisal when deciding on the provisionof an airport and
necessary to abandon the requirement for flexibility. Most
assessing its worth to the community in comparison with
airports canbe planned with inherent flexibility, even
other projects.
though expansibility may not be possible.
The need for a systems approach to preparation of the

master plan is demonstrated together with the method of The Planning System
preparing the plan, thedisciplines needed and the elements
to be taken into account. The importanceof balancing the Planning of airports is complicated by the diversity of
respective capacities of the manyelements and of ensuring facilities and services which are necessary for the move-
flexibility and expansibility to meet changing needs is mentofaircraft, passengers andcargoandtheground
shown,together with methods of achievingthese objec- vehicles associated with them, and
the necessity to
tives. Guidance is provided on assessing the capacity of integrate their planning. These facilities i.~cluderunways
individual facilities and on planning runway, taxiway and and taxiways, aircraftaprons, buildingswhere aircraft
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I C A O 9184 PARTS3 ** E 4843436 0 0 5 8 5 3 8 Ob4
1-2 Airporl PlunninE Munuul
operators deliver and receive passengers,where govern- 3) determination of the environmental effectsof airport
ment control authorities undertake their inspections and construction and operation; and
amenities for passengers’ comfortandassistanceare
provided. Additional requirementsare buildings and 4) establishment of access requirements of the airport.
parking areas for aircraft maintenance, roads and parks
for vehicles used by passengers, visitors, aircraft operators Actual construction of each physical facility designated
andalloccupants of the airport, and buildings for the on the master plan shouldbe undertaken only when traffic
dispatch and receipt of air cargo. volumesandeconomicsindicatethatsuch facilities are
required to meet the demand. Therefore, the master plan
The operation of an airport essentially integrates the should establish a schedule of priorities and phasing for
functions of many of these facilities and, therefore, they the various improvements described in the master plan. A
should not be planned as separate units. Aircraft apron furthereIaborationofwhatmasterplanning is may be
areas have to be functionally integrated with the buildings
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found below.
with whichthey areassociated.Similarly, vehicle parks
need to be related to the activities of the people who use I. General considerations
them and the buildings which those people occupy.
A. An airport master plan is a guide for:
Airportplanning is theevolution of acompromise - development of on the
physicalfacilities
between the conflicting features of the best plan for each airport
of theindividual facilities. The essentialdegree of pre- - development of land uses for areas surround-
cision and balance in the overall plan varies with the scale ing the airport
of activity which the airport is intended to support. As the - determination of environmental effects of
rate of aircraft,vehicle and passenger movements increases aerodrome construction and operation
itbecomes more necessary forairportplans to be the - establishment of airport access requirements.
optimumcompromise, so thattheplanningof all the
individual facilities contributes and combines into the most B. Among other things, an aerodrome master plan is
efficient total plan andprovidesthegreatest degree of used to:
flexibility and expansibility for future development. - provide short- and long-range policy/decision
guidance
Purpose of a Master Plan - identify
potential
problems
as well as
opportunities
- assist in securing financial aid
Definition and planning considerations
- serve as a basis for negotiations between the
A generallyaccepted definitionstatesthatanairport aerodrome authority/concessionaire interests
- generate local interest and support.
masterplan“presentstheplanner’sconception of the
ultimate development of a specific airport. It effectively 11. Types of activity involved in the muster plan process
presents the research and logic from which the plan was
evolved and artfully displays the plan in a graphic and A.Policy/co-ordinativeplanning:
written report. Master plans are applied to the modern- - project goals and objectives
izationandexpansionof existing airportsandtothe - developworkprogrammes,schedules,and

construction of new airports, regardless of their size or budgets
functional role.” - prepare an evaluation and decision.format
- establish
co-ordination
and
monitoring
Inthe context of thisdefinitiontheterm“develop-
procedures
ment” is taken to mean inclusion of the entire area of the
- establish data management and public infor-
airport - bothaviationandnon-aviation uses. It also
includes suggested land use on land adjacentto the airport. mation systems.
B. Economicplanning:
It is important to recognize that an airport master plan - prepare an analysis of aviation market charac-
is only a guide for: teristics and forecasts of aviation activity
- determinerepresentativebenefitsand costs
1) development of physicalfacilities of an airport -
aviation and non-aviation use; associated with airportdevelopmentalterna-

tives
2) development of land uses for areas surrounding an - prepare an assessment of impact on area
airport; economy of various alternatives.

I C A O 9 3 8 4 P A R T f I , f t H 484141b 0058539 T T O
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Physical planning includes development of: I. Select most acceptable andappropriatealterna-

- airspace and air traffic control provisions tive. Modify as necessaryin response to review
- airfield configuration (including approach process and prepare in final form.
zones)
- terminal complex IV. Plan update recommendations
- circulation, utility and communications
networks A. Master plan and/or specific elements should be
- support and service facilities reviewed at least annually andadjusted as
- ground access systems appropriate to reflect conditions at the time of
- over-all land use patterns. review.
D. Environmental planning: B. Master plan should be thoroughly evaluated and

- prepare an assessment of natural environ- modified every five years, or moreoften if
mental conditions associated with the airport changes in economic, operational, environmental
“impact” area (plant and animal life, climate, and financial conditions indicate an earlier need
topography, natural resources, etc.) for such revision.
- document present and projected development
patterns of relevance to the impact area
- determine community attitudes and opinions. Limitations of a master plan
It has been stated that a master plan is a guide and nothing

E. Financial planning:
more. It is not an implementation programme. The
- determine airport funding source and
development of an implementation programme follows the
constraints
development of the guidelines of the master plan, but it is
- prepare a financial feasibility study of various
only in those phases of airport planning that follow the
airport development alternatives
master plan stage that specific improvements are actually
- prepare preliminary financial plans and
designed and implemented. A master plan, therefore, does
programmes for the finally agreed upon
not develop specifics with respect to improvements; it is
concept.
only a guide to the types of improvements which should be
undertaken. For example, the financial plan developed in
111. Steps in the planning process
the master plan is a presentation of alternatives, not a
specifically tailored financial programme. The master plan
A. Prepare a master planning work programme.
points the direction of development. It does not present a
detailed programme of how to get to the actual funding
B. Inventory and document existing conditions.
stage of improvement projects.
C . Forecast future air trafficdemand.
The completed master plan
D. Determine gross facility requirements and pre-
liminary time-phased development of same. To effectively utilize the master plan, the execution of
improvements may require parallel planning while the
E. Evaluate existing and potential constraints. master plan is in process. To make themaster plan a useful
guideline, it should stress particular local problems and
F. Agree upon relative importance or priority of prospects.
various elements:
- airport type In preparing the final master planning document, a
- constraints principal goal to keep in mind is that it should be
- political and other considerations. developed in such a way that its adoption by appropriate
officials and the general public can be assured.
0. Develop several conceptual or master plan
alternatives for purposes of comparative analysis. Having completed the master plan the appropriate
authorities must now take the broad guidelines of the
H . Review and screen alternative conceptual plans. master plan and translate them into a programme which
Provide all interested parties with an opportunity recognizes specific constraints and opportunities presented
to test each alternative. in the competitive world in which the airport must exist.

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIRPORT MASTER PLANNING consideredinisolation. Thus this manual includescon-

OBJECTIVES sideration of factorsbeyondtheairportboundary, but
onlytothe extent necessary forairportplanning, as
1.1.1 This manual is directed atauthorities respon- detailedconsideration of allaspects of theseassociated
sible for the planning and development of airports and factors would be impossible and inappropriate.
particularly
those which may not have experienced
planning departments or staff. It is compiled in a manner 1.1.5 Design solutions are not dealt with. Planning is
intended to be suitable for useby these authorities and a specialized phase ofairport development which is
their planning staff in such matters as supportingrequests necessary before design can begin. A clear recognition of
to higher authorities for finance and in advising airport the distinction between planning and design is essential for
consultants, engineers, and planners of the airport auth- the most beneficial use of this manual.
orities’ requirements for development work.
1.1.2 In this manual, problems of airport planning are

analysed. The widest and most general aspects are treated 1.2 USE OF THIS MANUAL
first, followed by more detailed consideration of specific
areas and facilities. From basic premises deductions are 1.2.1 The chapters in this manual can be read as self-
made and conclusions drawn by process of analysis and contained treatmentsof the subjects coveredby their titles.
this is continued through all relevant stages.This approach However, cross references are provided for the benefit of
is applicable to both existing and new airports regardless of authorities which may be planning more than one airport
size or location,and to the initialplanning and also element, and to avoid duplication and repetition. Refer-
subsequent development and expansion of facilities. ences to other ICAO documents and to other significant
publications are given at the end of each chapter. These
1.1.3 One of the problems of airport planning is that references are intended to supplement this manual, giving
basic facts and principles have not been presented compre- guidance on the use of specialized skills and methods for
hensively. This is especially true in respect to passenger airport planning.Aglossary of aeronauticalterms is
facilities. Formal analysis is essential for any reasonably presented in the appendix foruse by those who may not be
satisfactory future development. Therefore, basicfacts familiar with a particular technical terminology.
need to be stated so that they can be challenged and tested
throughout the world and, if found incorrect, replaced by 1.2.2 The document does not attempt to duplicate the
others which can be similarly tested until a faultless body largebody of informationalready available on airport
of data is compiled. The deductions made and the prin- design. Its aimrather is to assist in the definition of
ciples established should be similarly arrived at by analysis requirements and in the logical analysis and solution of
so that the present situation of conflicting “options” is problems associated with the preparation of a basic over-
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replaced by data. It is hoped that the method of presen- all framework or plan. This, in turn, provides the sound
tation used here may help to lay the foundation for a set foundation necessary for realization of the maximum
of agreed facts andprinciples on which a general approach advantages of good design, prudent investment and
to airport problems can be based. From such facts more efficient operation and management.
functional airports may evolve.
1.1.4 Flow planning is the basis of transport, and thus

of airport development. Therefore, throughout
the 1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THIS MANUAL
document the parts of an airport are dealt with as flow
routes and facilities are considered attheappropriate 1.3.1 This manual is comprised of four principal
functional stage on the flow routes. Air transport is part sections, namely: AirportPlanning Process; Air Side
of the world’s transport system and airports cannot be Development; Land Side Development; and
Airport
I-4

=
~ ~~
ICAO 9384 PART*& ** 4 8 4 3 4 3 b 0058523 b59
Part I . Muster I-5
Support Elements. Chapters are arranged within each of meet, concepts for the various operational systems have to
these sections to present related subject matter in a logical be considered and compared.
order.
1.3.5 The principal factors to be considered are
outlined in this section. Because of their physical charac-
Section One - Airport Planning Process teristics and the land required and all the other factors
which affect them and limit free choice of layout, runways
1.3.2 This section outlines the planning process and and taxiways are the first to be considered. After deter-
the important factors which authorities must consider in mination of the dimensional criteria, pavement strength,
preparing an airport master plan. It explains the import- and airfield capacity and configuration, other elements of
ance of consultation and co-operative planning and the the air side of the airport, namely the apronand navigation
need to develop a systematic approach in determining and traffic control aids are covered in turn.
futureairport requirements. Further,the purpose and
objectives of an airport master plan are described together Chapter 6 - Runways and Taxiways. Because of the
with guidance as to how the master plan should be used, large areas of land they require and their relationship to
once it has been completed. the large airspaces necessary for aircraft operations,
runways and their associated taxiways serve as a starting
1.3.3 Within Section One are four chapters describing
point for consideration of airport layout.
the significant features of the airport planning process.
A substantial body of information exists on the subject
Chapter 2 - Preplanning Considerations. The purpose of planning and design of airport runways and taxiways.
of this chapter is to identify the most important of pre- Theinformation contained in this chapter serves the
planning considerations which, if followed, will provide purpose of informingtheairport planner on matters
the framework for an effective and feasible airport master pertaining to dimensional criteria, pavement strength,
plan. runway length, and airfield capacity. It illustrates the
relationship and importance of these elements in the
Chapter 3 - Forecasting f o r Planning Purposes. overall airport master planning process.
Aviation forecasts provide basic data for determining the
needs and required capacity of an airportand are the basis Chapter 7 - Aprons. The greater portion of this
for projection of airport revenues. chapter brings together, in a capsulized manner, the
significant concepts and considerations needed to satisfy
Chapter 4 - Financial Arrangements and Controls. the planning objectives for aircraft aprons. The chapters
The economic analysis establishes a programme for cover, inter alia: locations, layouts, number of stands
providing the necessary funding of the aerodrome. This required, facilities for passengers and cargo to board and
chapter delineates the more significant elements which leave aircraft, and facilities for aircraft servicing.
need to be considered relative to forecasting and economic
planning.
Chapter 8 - Air and Ground Navigation and Traffic
Chapter 5 - Airport Site Evaluation and Selection. In Control Aids at Airports. Planning of airports must
include provision for facilities which will support the air
order for the airportto have the longest possible useful life
trafficcontrol system, for navigation aids foraircraft
and in order to maximize the substantial capital investment
approaching the airport,and finally for control of aircraft
required in airport development, sufficient ground area
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and vehicles on the surface of the airport. The purpose of

should be available to accommodate progressivedevel-
this chapter is to describe the requirements for such control
opment commensurate with the growth in air traffic. This
aids as they pertain to airport master planning.
chapter describes the process of site selection and evalu-
ation including an assessment of the shape and size of the
area required for the airport, the location of sites having
Section Three - Land Side Development
potential for development, and an examination and
evaluation of alternative sites.
1.3.6 This section provides specific planning guide-
lines for that area of the airport towhich the non-travelling
Section Two - Air Side Development public has free access, as well asforthe non-public
portions of airline operations and cargo facilities, airport
1.3.4 Before plans can be developed for facilities for administration and government facilities. Major elements
the many functional requirements which an airport has to comprising land side development include the passenger

~~
I C A O 9384 P A R T 8 1 ** 484L4Lb 0058522 595
I-6 Airport Planning
building, cargo facilities, and ground transport and

vehicle of an airport. The need for all or some of the buildings
circulation and parking. described in this section will vary from airport to airport,
as will the specific spacerequirements. In general,their
Chapter 9 - Passenger Building. This chapter deals numberand complexity will depend onthe volume of
with planning for facilities to accommodatethose activities traffic. Their locations in the airpor, or individual master
associated with thetransfer of passengers and their plans should be determined by the functions they are to
baggage from the point of interchange between ground fulfil and their compatibility with the major featuresof the
transportation and the passenger building to the point of plan.
connexion with theaircraft,and with thetransferof
connecting andin-transit passengers and theirbaggage 1.3.8 This section further describes the importance of
between flights. For many airports t o which this manual is making adequate provision for airport security.
directed, passenger facilities will be contiguous with one
generallocation ontheairport. However, in certain Chapter 12 - Airport Operations and Support
circumstances, particularfunctions, such as air cargo Facilities. Buildings for a variety of operational purposes
processing, may be situated at locations remote from the are required at an airport. These include accommodation
main passenger building. Planning principles, factors for meteorological, air traffic control, communications,
affecting the type and scale, and specific planning details rescue andfire fighting services, fuel depotand all the
of various passenger building functionsareamongthe facilities for
administration
andmaintenance,staff,
topics covered in this chapter. aircraft operators, general aviation facilities and poiice,
etc.,and sometimesa hotel. This section describes the
Chapter I O - Cargo Facilities. The sameconsider- function of each of these support facilities and their
ations which influence the siting of the passenger facilities relationship with other elements of the airport covered in
also apply to the cargo area. The priority accorded to this this manual.
area in deciding the compromise necessary to achieve over-
all compatibility will depend on the nature of the traffic Chapter 13 - Aircraft Fuel Facilities. The handling of
for which theairport is intended. Thepurpose of this fuel at airports is an important subject to be taken into
chapter is to examine some aspects of problems likely to be account when planning airport facilities since special
found when planning cargo facilities. One of the main requirements have to be met with regardtosafety,
considerations involved is the spacerequired for this minimizing aircraft gate occupancy times, and movements
facility. of large andheavy vehicles. This chapter describes storage
capacity, location of fuelstorage, various systems for
Chapter 11 - Ground Transport and Internal Airport fuelling of aircraftand design requirementsrelated to
Vehicle Circulation and Parking. This chapter deals with fuelling systems.
the planning of that element of theairport which will
accommodate the ground transport passengers,
of baggage Chapter 14 - Security Considerations. All airports
and employees to, from and within the airport. Planning require that a level of security be maintained, the exact
of roadways and vehicle parkstoaccommodate these level being dependent on thesituation existing in a
airport users will
be based upon forecasts developed particular State. In order for security to beeffective,a
according to Chapter 3 and upon surveys conducted at the systems approach is required and this includes the basic
airport. plan for the design of the airport. All the measures listed
in this chapter need not be implemented at every airport
but they should be considered against the level of security
Section Four - Airport Support Elements which it is desired to effect and they should be implemen-
ted in such a way as will cause a minimum of interference
1.3.7 A number of buildings and operationsfor with, or delay to, passengers, crew, baggage, cargo and
special purposes are necessary to support the functioning mail.
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I C A O 9184 P A R T * L ** m 4B4L41b 0058523 421 m
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Chapter 2. PREPLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER stoppage, of future airport development. Therefore, it is

essential thatthe master planningteamco-ordinate its
Successful expansion of existing airports and
the efforts and seek the advice of these interest groups prior to
development of new airports will result from guidelines and during the critical stages of the master plan. This co-
established in an airport master plan. Accordingly, if a ordination will help assure acceptance and permit import-
master plan is to be useful to airport authorities certain ant input fromorganized interests which will lead to a well
preplanning
requirements
must be understood and integrated and implementable plan.
followed. It is the purpose of this chapter to identify the
most important of these preplanning considerations which,
if followed, will provide the framework for an effective
and implementable airport master plan. Preplanning 2.3 INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS
considerations include the following:
2.3.1 Thepreparationand collection of meaningful
a) preplanning co-ordination data on the usage of an airport and its components are
basic tosound master planning, which also requires
b) information sources reliable forecasting techniques and meaningful statistical
data onwhich future planning can be based. The nature of
c) goals and schedules the data tobe collected should not only cover the physical
facilities of the airport but should also
provide measures of
d) land requirements utilization, volume and composition of traffic, the cost of
transportation andrelated tariffs, thefinancial situation of
e) financing considerations the airlines using the airport, and government transpor-
tation policies and regulations.
f ) planning team
2.3.2 Sources of reliable data are many andvaried and
g) planning organization include, inter alia, national banks, international financial
institutions,
national
and local
government
agencies,
h) planning procedure International Air Transport Association (IATA) regional
offices, Director General Civil Aviation (DGCA) offices,
i) environmentalconsiderations U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, airlines, aviation
trade associations, the United Nations and its affiliated
agencies, local and national planning agencies, and other
ICAO publications. Also, where master planning is being
2.2 PREPLANNING CO-ORDINATION undertaken for an existing airport, records kept by the
airportmanagement, airlines andothertenantscan be
In the airport master planning process the roles of aviation useful. Finally, references listed at theend of each chapter
interests as well as appropriate non-aviationinterests must of this manual can provide specific relevant information.
be considered. The airport master plan, with its
recommended development projects, will be of interest to
adiversity of people andorganizations including, inter
alia, private citizens, locar andnationalorganizations, 2.4 PRELIMINARY ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
aerodrome users, planning agencies, conservation groups,
ground transportation officials,concessionaireinterests, 2.4.1 The financial burden of major airport expansion
and airline and other aviationinterests. I f these groups are or development of a new airport can be formidable. In
not consulted prior toandduringthe masterplanning order to determine the significance of this burden and the
programme there will be great risk of delay, or even problems of financing such development, very early
1-7

I C A O 9384 P A R T * L ** 484L4Lb 0 0 5 8 5 2 4 368 =
1-8 Airport Planning Manual
determination of economic feasibility is advisable. Since operationandmaintenance of theprospectiveairport

this is a preliminary consideration, only broad order-of- facilities and services. Government grants or loans (some-
magnitude costs arenecessary. Such estimates will indicate times available in turn frominternationalfinancial
:o localofficials thattheproject is workableornot institutions),andto a lesser extentcommerciallynego-
workable.Moreover, these
preliminary estimates will tiated loans, will be likely to constihte thesole sources for
provide a reasonable basis for discussion with agencies or financing capital costs both in the case of construction of
financial institutions which are likely to be involved in the a new airportand in the case of major extension of
financing of improvements recommended by the master facilities at anyexisting airport where such reserve funds as
plan. mayhave been accumulatedproveinsufficientforthe
purpose. Once the availability of adequate capital has been
2.4.2Economic feasibility should be determinedfor established, a realistic assessment needs t o be made of the
each element (runways, buildings, etc.) of the master plan, financial provision that would be required annually if the
over a selected time period. A comparison of quantifiable airport authority is to discharge its debt obligations (i.e.
economicbenefitsandcosts,computed by using the capitalrepaymentandinterestcharges)and build up
appropriate opportunity cost of capital (available from the replacement reserves: for these calculations,theuseful
national government or from the World Bank,see Chapter economic life of the various facilities contemplated
4) should be made and the benefit/cost ratio and the rate shouldbe closely estimated takinginto
account the
of return applicableto the anticipated development should differing rates of their anticipated physical depreciation
be estimated. and obsolescence.
2.4.3 Capital costs to be considered at this stage are 2.5.2 For practicalplanning,carefulconsideration
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broadorder-of-magnitudeestimates, over a period of must be given to the future ability of the airport to meet
years. These include, inter
alia, land acquisition (if these annual capital charges and defrayits direct operating
required),construction,equipment,partsandmainten- and maintenance costs. This must be done from the outset
ance,administrationandoperating costs, andfinancing in order that the scale of facilities and services contem-
fees. Benefits should include increased airport capability/ plated shall not at a later stage prove toexceed the bounds
capacity, increased safetyand reliability, andimproved offinancialpracticability. Aside fromanycontinuing
public service. Where practicable, an estimate should be governmentgrantsorcontributions pledged fromother
madeofthe saving accruing to passengers, cargoand sources,the chief revenue-earningmeansavailableto
aircraftas a result of theproposedinvestment.These an airport, are, in order of importance: charges for the use
savings, including those of time, should be expressed in of landing and
associated facilities; the
granting
of
monetary values. Additionally,the likely impact of the concessions;andtherentalofpassenger-buildingspace
master plan recommendations on the over-all economy of and other airport accommodation andservices. The traffic
theStateshouldbeindicated,includingeffectsonthe forecasts utilized in planning the facilities and services to
balance of payments and employment, among others. be provided should be seen as serving the double purpose
of enablingprojectionsto be made of theincomethe
2.4.4 All of the broad estimates of feasibility made at airportmight expect to derive fromlandingandother
this early stage of the master planningprocess will indicate charges, the calculations being made for various levels of
the propriety of continuing or changing the scope of the charges as a basis for judging what proportion of costs
master plan. Itwill also set the generalguidelines for extent remainingto berecovered by such means would be an
of development possible, consideringtheavailability of achievable target. The extent of the contribution to costs
funds to finance recommended development. Guidance on realizable from such charges must, of course, depend on
financing arrangements and theneed for financial control the assessment made by the airport authorities concerned
andaccountingduringtheplanningandconstruction ofwhat level of charges it would be practicableand
phases is given in Chapter 4 of this manual. reasonable to impose on users, having regard to the nature
of the traffic served and the variety of other circumstances
peculiar to the particular airport.
2.5 THE ROLE OF FlNANClNG IN

AIRPORT PLANNING
2.6 THE PLANNING TEAM
2.5.1 Indispensable to the over-all planning process is
the determination of the sources andextent of the financial 2.6.1 The skills necessary for airport planning follow
means available for the initial provision and continuing fromtheprincipalsubjects which have tobecovered.

I C A O 9384 P A R T * Z ** 4 8 4 3 4 3 6 0058525 2 T 4
Part 1. Master Planning 1-9
These may include economicand operational forecasts for airports, organization and effectiveness of central and
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basic and detailplanning, operational research surveys, local government land planning and transport authorities,
analysis of statistical and sociological data, cost-benefit and the agency legally responsible for financing the
analyses of alternative solutions, aircraft operations in the planning project.
air and on the ground, building construction and traffic
and road planning. The planning team should not include 2.7.2 A most effective organization will be one that is
every specialist whose advice may from time to time be capable of 1) establishing policy which is acceptable within
requiredbutshould be restricted to those necessary to the airport community, 2) bringing together for advisory
cover the primary planning aspects, and who are involved and co-ordinative purposes all appropriate aviation and
at allstages of planning. For example, mechanical non-aviation related interests, and 3) assuring a planning
engineering systems can affectthe size and layout of process that is technically sound and responsive to policy
related areas in addition to the specific area in which they andthe co-ordinativeprocess. Most importantly,the
are contained and have to be consideredin the basic arrangement should be such that the master plan can be
determination of the over-all operating system for established as an effective, continuing programme capable
passenger or cargo areas.The disciplines which should of implementation.
generally be considered for inclusion in a planning team
are statistician, economist, financier, operational research 2.7.3 Unless effective organization, in the above
scientist, architect, civil, mechanical, electrical and traffic terms, is established at the outset, the goals of airport
engineers, pilot, air trafficcontroller and airportmanager. master planning may not be completely fulfilled. A poorly
The advice of all other specialists shouldbesought as organized effort will resuir in 1) fragmented public
necessary. Of course the specific skills appropriateto support, includingavoidable or uninformed public
particular projects depend upon the scale of the traffic for controversy, for the master plan’s recommendations, 2)
which theairport is intended, butit is increasingly unrealistic recommendations that are not acceptable to the
necessary with the growth of traffic toutilize the skills of aviation community or to those responsible for compre-
as many of these specialists as possible. For over-all co- hensive andsurfacetransportation planning, 3) a com-
ordinationanddirection, aplanningteamrequiresa pleted study of no further use, which is not updated in a
planning co-ordinator who should be anexpert in manage- timely fashion and, most importantly, not implemented.
menttechniques and who should have a wide aviation Thus, the importance of effectively organizing the airport
background. This co-ordinator should be responsible for master planning effort cannot be over-emphasized, as it
the evolution of the optimumoverall plan, its progressand may be the most critical step in the process.
cost control. Frequently an aviation consultant will fill this
role. 2.7.4 In general, the organization should be structured
to perform three principal functions, namely, policy
2.6.2 Airport planning should be
undertaken in formulation, advice andco-ordination,and technical
consultation with all other interested agencies and carried planning, as generally described in Figure 2-1.
out in the closest liaison with national and loca1 govern-
ment transportand planningauthorities andaircraft
operators.The civil aviation authorities should act as
leaders in bringing together the government-control 2.8 PLANNING PROCEDURE
authorities with the aim of ensuring a high degree of
facilitation in passenger handling. Figure 2-1 describes the 2.8.1 A master plan for the whole airport should be
relationship of the planning team with the over-all plan- prepared, defining the basic concepts and over-all layout
ning organization. which will best exploit the potential of the site. The master
plan should evolve through consideration of all the factors
which affect air transportand which will influence or
impinge on thedevelopment and use oftheairport
2.7 THE PLANNING ORGANIZATION throughout its working life.
2.7.1 Establishment of aplanningorganization for 2.8.2 The plan shouldprovideaframework within

the development of anairport masterplan will vary which future development and expansion can take place
considerably fromone State toanotherand frequently and indicate the ultimate over-all size. It should define the
among different airport locations within a given State. aircraft, passenger, cargo and ground vehicle capacities,
Variability will result from political/jurisdictional make- together with an indication ofthemajor phases of
up, the nature of ownership andcontrol over existing construction which are possible in physical and economic

I C A O 9384 P A R T P L *X D 4 B 4 1 4 1 b 0 0 5 8 5 2 6 130 =
1-10 Airport Planning
I
I
GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT CONTROL I
I
I
I AVIATION POLICY
AIRPORT AUTHORITIES (CUSTOMS, I
I MASTERIMMIGRATION,
PLAN SECURITY,
ETC.) I
I DEPARTMENT
I
I MILITARY (IF NEEDED) I
------------ 7
USER AIRCRAFT OPERATORS I

AND REPRESENTATIVE I
ORGANIZATtONS I
AIRCRAFT AND EQUIPMENT
I MANUFACTURERS I
L--,-,--------l
PLANNING TEAM
DIRECTOR
b
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PLANNING TEAM STAFF
1
1
CENTRAL AND LOCAL AND AIRPORT
LOCAL GOVERNMENT NATIONAL AVIATION
MANAGEMENT
LAND PLANNING TRANSPORT CONSULTANT
STAFF
AUTHORITIES AUTHORITIES
TECHNICAL PLANNING
_-------------- POLICY
------- ADVISORY AND CO-ORDINATIVE
Figure 2-1. Typical airport master planning organization

I C A O 7384 P A R T f L ff 484L4Lb 0058527 077 D
Part I . Muster Planning I-I I
terms andthe dates bywhich they are forecast to be c) Protect and enhance the environment through the
required. Planning procedures for the individual facilities location and expansion of aviation facilities in such
which make up a total airport are the same as for the a way that impairment of the ecology and the
airport master plan. These major stages are: intrusion of unacceptable levels of noise andair
pollution into the community are avoided.
Forecasts: Develop long-term forecasts covering
aviation operational, economic and other factorson d) Promote the establishment of an effective govern-
which future planning can be based. mental organization for implementing the master
plan in a systematic fashion.
Systems concepts: Develop concepts for the basic
systems of operation and identify the developments that Ensure compatibility with the content, format,
will be required to meet the forecast needs of aI1 airport standards,and criteria of governmental aviation
users. policy departments, ICAO and IATA, among
others.
Airport master plan: Determine an ultimate over-all
layout that will best exploit the potential of the site, Co-ordinate the specific airport master plan with the
making the fullest use of any natural features. state airport system and regional air transportation
plans, when they exist.
2.8.3 At all stages of planning, reasons for particular
decisions and the influences supporting particular concepts g)Serve as a basis for co-ordinating plans forair
and lines of progress should be stated and recorded. At navigation facilities, airspace use, and air traffic
subsequent stages the reasons should be tested to ensure control procedures.
that they remain valid and form acoherent and continuous
pattern. Through the long and complex process of devel- h) Inform public and private aviation interests, 8s well
oping airport plans it is easy to make decisions based on as the general public, of aviation requirements, and
judgements which are entirely validinthemselves but create a general awareness of the need for a system-
which conflict with the reasoning for earlier decisions. atic
approach to planning and developing the
Throughout the planning of a project it is important to airport.
ensure that policies, concepts and lines of reasoning are
understood and continuously followed. i) Develop the aviation portion of long-range state
plans and establish appropriate priorities for airport
financing in short-term governmental budgeting for
public facilities.
2.9 GOALS AND POLICY OBJECTIVES j) Optimize the use of land and airspace resources
which are inherently limited in some areas.
Goals k) Use airtransportation facilities to help guide the

growth pattern of the area and the state, according
2.9.1 The airport master planning process involves the to comprehensive planning goals and objectives
preparation of both broad andspecific policies, plans, and promulgated by local authorities.
programmes needed to establish a viable airport. Thegoals
of the airport master planning process should be to: 1) Provide a planning organization which enables
affected political entities to participate in the
Provide for the orderly and timely development of planning of the airport.
an airport adequate to meet the present and future
air transportation needs of an area or State.
Place aviation in its proper perspective relative to a Policy Objectives

balanced, regional or national multi-modal, trans-
portation system plan or to an area-wide plan. Also 2.9.2 Having organized for the planning effort and
to provide a basis for co-ordinating airport plans arranged for financial support, the pianning process can
with other planning efforts - local, regional, and begin. The process starts with the development of general
national. criteria and policy objectives (sometimes called“policy
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I C A O 9184 P A R T t l t t = 4 8 4 1 4 l b 0058528 T O 3
formulation”) and the study design. After these two steps budgetingthat is consistent with theairportfinancing
are completed, thetechnical planning phase begins with an programmes at the national level, and the local budgeting
inventory of existing facilities. Next, a forecast of aviation process.
demand is made in order to determine the future facility
requirements.Alternative systems to meet thefuture
facility requirementsarethen developed andevaluated. 2.10 USE OF CONSULTAN‘TS
While this ends the initial planning process, a continuing
planning process following these same general procedures 2.10.1 The retention of consulting services by airport
is established while implementation of the long-range plan management usuallyinvolves explaining to higher auth-
is underway. ority the need for such services, as well as justifying the
expenseinvolved. However,atacertainpoint in the
2.9.3 The first step in the master planning process is preplanning considerations, employing a consultant is not
the establishment of ground rules which may be termed only desirable but may even be essentiaI.
policy objectives. For example, it is necessary to state at
the outset the time frame, or planning horizons, for which 2.10.2 Onecommonreasonforretainingconsultant
planning is to be accomplished. The geographic limits of services is a lack of technical expertise within the internal
the planning area must also be established in order to guide structures of organizations. It is, most often, not practical
such elements as data collection, forecasting, and potential for a civil aviation agency or authority to maintain, on a
siteselection. Whetheradherencetonational or inter- permanent basis, all of the skills required to manage all
nationalairportdesign/dimensionalstandards will be phases of a large master planning programme. Consultants
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required, should be determined. are often usedwhen the airport management has insuf-
ficient manpower to perform work ofa temporary nature.
2.9.4 In general, there should be an attempt to relate Rather than increase the permanent staff, consultants are
the
communities’individual
and
sometimes
unique hired to provide additional manpower fora limited period
objectives to the goals in 2.9.1. One should not assume of time. There are also circumstances when assignment of
that all policy can be established at the outset. Airport in-house staff to solve a specific problem would derogate
policy development may take place at several points in the the permanent, long-termmission of the staff. Consultants
master planning process: during preparation, discussion, may be engaged for their experience in areas with which
andinitialadoptionofanairportmasterplan;during the airport management staff is not familiar.
majorreconsideration of theentireplan;andduring
consideration of theday-to-daydevelopmentmatters 2.10.3 Airport projectsmay involve tasks
pro-
which call for the review of general long-range policies. grammed over several years. When there is turnover in the
airport staff, such long-term programmes canbe disrupted
2.9.5 Thelong-rangetimeperiodfortheplan is by a lack of a single management/planning group with
generally 20 yearsandshouldincluderecommended responsibilityforthetotalprogramme,fromstartto
development,timing
of
development,and
order-of- finish.
magnitude costs. Precisedevelopment needs andcosts
should not be required, althougha reasonable estimate of 2.10.4 If, in the planning process, decisions are to be
needs should be expected. Since it may take as long as made whichinvolve considerablerisk,theconsultant’s
10 years for a major airport to be established after its need contribution may be most valuable in the capacity of a
has been identified, a 20-year horizon is not unrealistic. In judgewhocanprovidebothtechnicalexpertiseandan
establishing the length of time for the long-range planning impartial viewpoint. Consultantscanalsoprovidean
period,considerationshould be
given toother local element of objectivity in aidingairportmanagersto
planning efforts such as the transport and land use plans, present their requirements to higher authority.
with consistency as an objective. The intermediate range is
normally for a 10-year period and should more precisely References
determine development requirements and associated cost
estimates than specified in the long-range period. “Airport Master Plans”, U.S. Federal Aviation Adminis-
tration, AC 150/5070-6A, June 1985.
2.9.6 Theshort-range period is normallyfor t w o to
five years and planning should include a detailed treatment “Planning and Completing Airport Improvements”,G . H .
of facility needs and cost estimates. The latter should be Hogarty, Jr., in Proceedings of a Short Course for Airport
sufficiently accurate to permitfinancialplanningand Managers, Texas A&M University, March 1974.

Chapter 3. FORECASTING FOR PLANNING PURPOSES
3.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER airports, forecasts are generally produced on an annual
basis (forecasting smaller time periods is more complex
This chapter describes the role of forecasting in airport and feasibility is also limited by data availability). But,
master planning. It discusses why forecasts are needed, since capacity utilization of airport facilities becomes most
what forecasts are needed and what they are needed for, critical during daily and hourly traffic peaks, it is the peak
where they fit into the planning functions, and how their demand ratherthantheannual demand that mustbe
validity and contribution might be assessed. The chapter is determined in order to evaluate facility requirements. The
thus one of the philosophy underlying forecasting pro- basic forecasts thus have to be converted into information
cesses and of practical application of the forecasts them- relating to peak periods forbothaircraft movements
selves, rather than an exposition of forecasting techniques. (which define runway, taxiway, air trafficcontrol and
Descriptions of some techniques are given in the comp- apron requirements) and for passenger, cargo and mail
lementary ICAO Manual on Air Traffic Forecasting, throughput (which defines terminal and accesssystem
hereafter referred to as the “Forecasting Manual”. requirements when additional analyses concerning
numbers of visitors accompanying passengers, spectators,
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airport and associated workers have been incorporated).

3.2 THE REQUIREMENTS
3.2.4 Once facility requirements havebeen estab-
3.2.1 Forecasting is the heart of planning and control lished, capital costs can be determined, and subsequently
processes. Forecasts are necessary to define the facilities recurrent costs, for which the original traffic forecasts are
that will be required, the scale of such facilities, and the used to evaluate total annual handling costs. The original
time at which they willbe required. The objective of traffic forecasts are also used in determining annual
forecasting is not to predict the future with precision, but income frombothprimary sources (handling) and sec-
to provide information that can be used to evaluate effects ondary sources (concessions, etc.). The information on
of uncertainty about the future. Thus, both for physical facilities to be provided, the cost of providing the facilities
planning and for financial assessment purposes, consider- and services and the income from their provision may now
ation should be given not only to the implications of the be compared with the objectives of the airport and the
forecasts themselves but also to the implications of lack of provisional plan, and a cost/benefit analysis carried out if
precision in the forecasts and in the conversion of the required.
forecasts into planning criteria.
3.2.5 If a systematic planning process is established,
3.2.2 In order to ensure consistency in relation to the the effects of changes in the socio-economic factors which
assumptions underlying the master plan, the forecasts influence the forecasts, the effects of imprecise forecasts,
should be fully integrated into the planning process and or the effects of alternative policies, may be evaluated.
independent development of forecasts should be treated
with caution. Figure 3-1 shows how the forecasting activity
might fit into an airport master planning process. Once the
objectives (both short- and long-term) of the airport have 3.3 FORECASTS REQUIRED
been determined (see 2.9 above), a broad, provisional plan
can be drawn up and evaluated in relation to traffic
’ 3.3.1 The items to be forecast and the units in which
forecasts. While such forecasts will be influenced by the forecasts are to be made relate to the planning require-
specific aspects of the plan, they will be largelydetermined ments of the individual airport. They are not immediately
by socio-economic factors which lie outside the framework obvious from consideration of aviation generally. Thus,
of the plan. statistics and forecasts indicating world growth of traffic
in terms of passenger- or tonne-kilometres, or proportions
3.2.3 For periods as far ahead in time as those of total world aircraft movements defined in terms of jet
involvedbetween the planning and commissioning of and propeller aircraft, length of flight sector, or various
I-I3

Objectives necessary if Revise objectives
- ---- 1
A
airport
i
Capital and recurrent
cast
evaluation A-
master
Airportplan
I
t
I
I Air and ground navigation
~~ ~~
II
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
; and traffic control aids, Comparison of

results with
Facility I runway, taxiway, aircraft
4 requirements: I
I
stands -+ c objectives
(and costlbenefit
-B
Traffic
forecasts
(limited controi
within plan)
forecasts to
typical peak
hour:
1
I
1
Passengers,
freight and
throughput
mail i I
I
I
I
I
analysis)
I
I
I
I
I
i
4 Income
evaluation
0
0
W
-
1 0
Revise plan if necessary
Figure 3-1. The relationship of forecasting to an airport master plan

I C A O SL8g P A R T * 1 ** W 4 8 4 L 4 L b 0058531 5 T 8
Part I . Master Planning 1-15
categories of aircraft ownership, are of little use for airport Types of aircraft using theairport, including the
planning purposes other than’ to point out over-all trends total numbers of each major type and their ratio at
in the development of aviation. Such trends serve only as busy times.
general indicators for the longest term considerations and
donot provide a basis for the planning of individual Number of aircraft to be based at the airport by
airports. scheduled, and non-scheduled carriers and by
general aviation. Base and line maintenance require-
3.3.2 The primary forecast is usually developedin ments of these and other aircraft (broad estimates
terms of passenger and cargo throughput, since historical only required to evaluate airline service area and
data for these items are generally available and the basic access requirements).
demand for use of airport facilities are defined by them.
Access system requirements between the airport and
This demand is mainly determined by factors external to
the region which it serves, since this may affect the
the airport planning process itself and hence provides a
airport layout onboth the air side (e.g.iffeeder
cornerstone from which to build the plan.
services are anticipated) and the land side.
3.3.3As already mentioned, facility requirements are Number of visitors and number of airport workers
defined by peak period throughput, and mainly by that in by category (for use in facilities planning, possibly
the “typical peak hour”. In order not to cater unnecess- including housing requirements).
arily for rare occurrences, the “typical peak hour” is not
defined as the peak hour for the year, but is commonly 3.3.4 Specific categorization may need to be made of
accepted asthe 30th or 40thbusy hour. Similarly the cargo. Arrival and departure characteristics of cargo often
“typical busy day” is the 30th or 40th busy day. An differ appreciably in volume, in timing and in facility
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
important relationship which has to be established is that requirements. Where cargo is expected to arrive or depart
between the primary forecast (Item 1 in the list below) and on all-cargo aircraft as well as in combination aircraft
the typical peak hour forecasts (Item 2 below), a subject (passengers and cargo), categorization is necessary to plan
which is discussed later in 3.5. The list below also includes cargo terminal and handling requirements, and the
other items whichmay require to be forecast. Some of transfer of cargo fromthe combination aircraft to the
them will help to define the above relationship, and indeed cargo terminal. Cargo handling areas are generally
most of them are interdependent. Provided suitable base planned on the basis of a square metre per tonne handled
dataare available, it is worth forecasting major items per unit of time, but this ratio can vary with the traffic
independently as wellas establishing their interaction in mix, degree of containerization etc, and further categor-
order to provide a cross-check on the validity and consist- ization may be necessary (usually based on analyses of air
ency of the forecasts. way-bills). The availability of off-airport consolidation
depots can affect the type and duration of throughput. All-
Annual throughput of passengers, cargo and mail, cargo aircraft movements themselves should be forecast
categorized by international and domestic, by separately as such aircraft can often be directed away from
scheduled and non-scheduled, and by arrivals, peak hours byuseof suitable policies, although such
departures, transit and transfer/trans-shipment. efforts may be limited by night curfews.
Typical peak hour aircraft movements and through- 3.3.5 Since volumes of mail trafficare currently
put of passengers, cargo and mail, preferably relatively small and are generally carried on combination
categorized by arrivals and departures as well as aircraft, a forecast is necessary only to determine space
combined (the typical peak hour may occur at requirements in the: terminal building. If policies for the
different times for each item and categorization). furthertransfer of surface mail to air become more
established in the future, planning for mail can be handled
Average day of peak month aircraft movements and in a similar manner to cargo.
throughput of passengers, cargo and mail, categor-
ized as in 1) above (for use in facilities planning). 3.3.6 Specific attention may also need to be given to
general aviation and charter activities. General aviation
Number of airlines serving the airportand their route activities are particularly difficult to forecast, since theydo
structures, both domestic and international, in not necessarily reflect socio-economic characteristics of the
relation totheairport(for provision of check-in, region or show smooth trends. However, both general
office and maintenance facilities and for cross- aviation and non-scheduled activities can again usually be
checking 1) to 3) above). redistributed away from the peak.

1-16 Airport Planning Monual
3.3.7 Selection of the forecasts requiredin a particular exceeds the physical ability for provision at an existing
case, and, sequencing of the forecasting tasks in line with airport, the unit of capacity again becomes large. Greater
proposed methods and activity requirements for the plan, accuracyintheforecast(andgreater flexibility in the
are important featuresof the forecasting process. The level master plan) is similarly required for apron requirements.
of detail of the forecast requirements will differ with the
time scale. For example,only broad indications will be 3.4.2 Financial feasibility is a much moreuncertain
required in the first phase determination of land require- factorthantheestimation of physical requirements.
mentsforairportsite selection or expansion.These Financialresults dependonthe margin between total
forecasts should be madeforat least 20 years ahead. revenues and totalcosts which are cumulativeover time. A
Naturally, long-term forecasts of thisnaturecannot be relatively small change in trafficforecastscan havea
expected to be precise, particularly as they need to relatively great effect on finances.
anticipate technological change.
3.4.3 The accuracy of forecasts themselves is subject
3.3.8 Thefuturerequirementsfor handling traffic to a large number of factors, and it is very difficult to
over the projected life of the airport can only be broadly estimate precisely the timing and size of future require-
judged, but they can afford to be somewhat optimistic so ments. The longer the period of the forecast the more there
thatanarea is protected sufficiently toensurethat is scope for variations in factors which affect the results
reasonable development potential of the site is preserved. andthegreaterthefinancial risk involved inerror(a
It may take a longer or a shorter period than forecast for consistent annual 2 per cent traffic growth under-rating
demand todevelop to the foreseen levels, but this is not of becomes a 49 per cent error after 20 years).
majorimportance provided suitable land
areas
are
available to permit development whenrequired (and canbe 3.4.4 The increasing sophistication of forecasting
put to good use in the meantime). methodologyandan increasingsignificance of“objec-
tive” factors in such methodology should
improve
3.3.9 Actualconstructionshouldbecarriedoutas accuracy in the future. Nevertheless, there will always be
proven necessary by the growth of traffic and short-term a numberoffactors which will make forecasting an
forecasts which are less susceptible to major errors. Thus imprecise science. Such factors include:
long-term forecasts provide the broad guidance necessary
for master planning. Shorter-term forecasts, say three to poor forecasting method;
five years in advance, provide thebasis for actual develop-
ment work, while medium-termforecasts (from 5 to poor base data;
20 years,usually in five-year intervals for convenience)
bridge the gap to thelong-term and provide interim infor- poor forecasts of the socio-economic factors which
mation on probable subsequent phases of development. are considered most likely to affect the demand for
air transport;
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
unpredictedintroduction of new socio-economic
3.4 ACCURACY AND LIMITATIONS influencing factors not previously considered to have
OF FORECASTS been of prime importance; and
3.4.1 The degree of accuracy warranted in forecasting the influence of factors which are difficult to
can be defined in relation to the increments in capacity for quantify.
which it is practicabletophaseairport developments.
These will vary to some degree between airports. If the As long as the above limitations are recognized as such,
increments are such that there is no critical dependence on somethingcan be doneaboutthem by examining their
the accuracy of the forecasts, a simple (and inexpensive) likely effects in the planning process.
forecasting system may then suffice. In forecasting aircraft
movements the accuracyrequired is associated with the 3.4.5 Therearetwomajorapproachestohandling
capacity offered by each additional runway. In forecasting limitations i.n forecasting. In order to deal with item 1) in
passenger and freight trafficthroughput somegreater 3.4.4 above, andto some extent with item 2 ) , the approach
accuracy is desirable because the units of capacity in which is to carry out sensitivity tests to establish the range of
terminal buildings can be built and/or extended are smaller accuracy that can be expected in a single forecast - in
than the units of capacity resulting from the addition of other words, to evaluate the probable errors inherent in the
runways. However, if an additional terminal requirement forecasting process given the base data used. The second

I C A O 5384 P A R T * & ** m L(BL(1L)Lb 0058533 370 w
Part I. Master Planning I-I 7
approach deals with item 3), and to some extentwith 3.5.2 It is not possible to laydownspecific methods
item 4), and is to prepare alternative sets of assumptions for conversion processes as the method will depend on the
under which the forecasts are made - in other words, to individual situation, and will be related to the forecasting
build up alternative pictures of the future socio-economic method(s) used and vice versa (for example, seasonal
environment and/or policy and hence alternative sets of rather than annual passenger forecasts might be developed
estimates of traffic. It maybe that one factor alone is for the short-term as a means of arriving at more accurate
considered critical (for example airline operating costs, peak information).At large airportsa systematic pro-
and hence fares and rates) and changes are made to this cedure can perhaps be used to translate annual data to
factor while leaving the others unchanged. hourly peaks, but at small airports a single movement of
an aircraft could change the whole situation. Indeed the
3.4.6 One feature of the results of establishing profile over the day might be as important a featureas the
alternative sets of traffic estimates is that the upper limit peak hour itself as this profile would determine policy and
so determined is not necessarily (and indeed not usually) requirements if congestion occurs in the peak hour.
the same amount above the “most likely” estimate as the Nevertheless, some useful guidelines (on both conversion
lower limit is below. This is an important point, as it has and on data requirements) are given by the methods used
an effect on the risks involved in investing in too much to obtain primary criteria from annual data quotedbelow:
capacity as against those involved in investing in equival-
ently too little capacity. Fof assessing financial feasibility A. Estimates ofpeak hour aircraft movements
it is useful to present the most likely forecasts and the
ranges in terms of a time scale (as well as in terms of the Total annual seats from the airport for the most
various volumes of traffic estimated at a particular point recent year for which actual data is available (the
in time). For example: “It is most likelythat a throughput “base” year) are forecast to increase at the same
of 3 million passengers will be reached in 1995; the earliest rate as the forecast of the enplaned passengers (i.e.
that it will probably be reached is 1992, andthe latest no change in enplaned* load factor).
1997”.
Total seats so forecast are then distributed among
3.4.7 Extra work is involved in producing alternative the types of aircraft the carriers are expected to
forecasts, but such work is usually marginal in comparison operate in the forecast year. Seat totals by aircraft
with the work involved in establishing the primary fore- type are divided by average seating capacities to
cast, particularly if a systematic procedure isset up. A obtainthe number of aircraft operations. Total
compromise mayneed to be made between applying annualaircraft
operationsare determined by
resources to refining the primary forecast or to producing summing the operations by aircraft type.
series of alternative forecasts. With alternative sets of
forecasts available, it is possibleto use the planning system The number of seats required during the peak hour
to evaluate the risks involved in investing according to the forthe forecast year are determined by first
criteria suggested by the primary forecast. Estimation of multiplying the annual seats required by the ratio
the planning parameters from the forecasts is, of course, of seats in a typical busy day in the base year to
also subject toerror,afactor which should also be seats in the base year as a whole.
considered in the risk analysis.
The busy day seats required are then multiplied by
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the base year peakhour percentage of the busy day.
3.5 CONVERTING ANNUAL TRAFFIC The peak hour seats required are allocated among
FORECASTS INTO PLANNING CRITERIA the various types of aircraftthe carriers are
expected to operate during the forecast year, based
3 . 5 . 1 As mentioned in 3.2.3, it is the peak rather than
theannual demand which defines facility requirements.
Intensified effort to produce a quality forecast can be
negated by poor translation of the forecast into facility
requirements - a chain is as strong as its weakest link. Of
paramount importance is the conversion of the passenger
traffic forecast intoannual, seasonal and peak aircraft * Attention is drawn to the distinction between enplaned passenger
movement projections, as well as into seasonal and peak loadfactor and the passenger load factordefinition generally used
passenger
flow projections. carriers by (passenger-krn divided by available seat-km).

I C A O 9384 P A R T * L X* 4841416 0058534 207
on the distributionof total seats offeredby aircraft availabilitymaybe a majorfactor in determiningthe

type during the base year. method used). Further analyses may alsoneed to be carried
out regarding variationsin the peak due todelays, weather
5 ) The seats requiredby aircraft type are thendivided restrictions, etc. Again, as long as the inadequacies of the
by anaveragecapacity to determine the aircraft methodchosenare recognized, they need notpose a
operationsrequired.Thetotalnumber of peak problem in that alternatives andcross-checking procedures
hour aircraft operationsis the sum of operationsby may be developed. In specific cases, aspects that should be
aircraft type. treated with particuIarcarearethefactthatthedistri-
bution of traffic categories may differ between the peak
andotherperiods;andthatparticularlysharppeaking
B. Example of peak hour planning methods appearstobeendemictolong-hauloperations,as a
consequence of time zones and the advantages of main-
Identifythepeakday(foraircraft movements)over taining high aircraftutilization.Sharppeakingoften
several
also
occurs
years. local
where out carried
operations
are pre-
dominantly by carriers based at the airport in question
Analysethe peak daymovementsanddetermineby (e.g. morning departure and evening arrivalpeaks).
inspection the peak hour forpassenger movements
onthe basis of therecordedaircraft passenger
manifests.
Relate the
total
peakhour passenger traffic 3.6 FACTORS AFFECTING TRAFFIC GROWTH
recorded on the peak day over several years to the
total peak day traffic,
to
obtain a weighted 3.6.1 Muchofthedevelopmentworkinthefore-
proportion of peak hour/peak day traffic. casting field is aimed at making forecasts more explana-
tory rather than simply descriptive. There is naturally a
Determine the two peak traffic months in the year greater feeling of confidence in a forecast based on an
from an analysis of seasonal variations. understandingofthe process generatingthe observed
traffic variables. The preliminary phases in a forecasting
Calculatethenumberof passengersusing the procedurearethususuallyconcerned with identifying,
airportontheaveragedayduringthetwo peak isolating and quantifying the effects of the factors under-
months;hypothesizethat
this
average
day is lying air traffic activity.
representative of the 30th - 40th busy day of the
year. 3.6.2 Such factors may be classified into four broad
subject headings: economic, social/demographic, techno-
Relatethe peak hourtrafficratiotothetypical 1ogicaVsystems andcornmercial/political.General indi-
busy day,todeterminethe typicalpeak hour cators in each of these areas are often used for determining
passenger figure by type of service. totalnationalandinternationalairtraffic activity (for
example,grossnationalproduct is often used asone
Divide the typical peak hour by the average number economic indicator), but more specific indicators at a
of enplaning/deplaning passengers per movement regional oreven finer level may need to be examined in the
todeterminethe typicalpeak hourmovements case of a particular airport. I t is preferable where possible
figure,notingthatthe“average” is likely to be to categorize the air traffic demand itself by ‘reason i-or
higher than usual during peak periods. travel.since themotivations,and hence theunderlying
indicators, will differ (for example, between business and
3.5.3 There is also a technique commonly referred to non-business trips, between high-income and low-income
as the “triggering” method for adding flight fcequencies traveilers, betweenemergency andplannedair freight
on a route segment. This method is based on the assump- movements, etc.).
tion that when traffic reaches a level which impi’ies some
specified averageloadfactor,anadditional flight is 3.6.3 In the Forecasting Manual there is a table lisring
triggered on that segment. a number of factors thought io influence the demand for
air transport, categorized by specific aspects. ‘These were
3.5.4 Each of thesemethodsand/orothermethods limited to those whose values over a period of time are
can obviouslynot be precise, andeachcouldleadto often readily available from published data, and are again
different results from a given set of data (and, indeed, data intended only as a guideline. Use of a single indicaior or
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I C A O 9384 P A R T * L *X 4841416 0058535 143
Part 1. Master Planning ‘ I-I9
group of indicators, particularly if chosen by reason of objective is to estimate the trafficwhich the airportshould
measurability, should not preclude further examination of serve adequately. This means if past traffic trends are to
be
the activity which it represents. For example, while the used in the forecasting process, they should be adjusted
gross nationalproduct of aparticular country might where necessary for congestion effects.
continue to grow according to historical precedent, the
effects of inflation and floating currencies might affect its
relationship to air traffic growth. Similarly, international
air freight is particularly affected by specific trade tariff
and quota changes. 3.7 PRINCIPLES OF FORECASTING
3.6.4 Factors connected with

consumer decision- 3.7.1 The process of forecasting is usually one of co-
making processes are particularly difficult to quantify. The ordinating a number of inputs (including historical traffic
“quality” of service defined in terms of speed, regularity data, historical and anticipatedinfluencingfactors) and
and convenience is one factor which appears to be carrying out analyses to measure their relative impact on
significantly
changed by technological development. futureairtraffic flows. It may be likened to piecing
Where considered important, its impact may have t o be together a jigsaw puzzle. In general it is.more important t o
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
assessed on subjective
a basis, perhaps founded on take into account all the significan: factors than to use
precedent and/or sophisticatedconcepts (e.g. “value of elaborate methods when dealing w~th-some of them.
time”).
3.7.2 The method(s) of forecasting will depend on the
3.6.5 It is important todistinguish between exogenous available data, on the time and resources available to carry
factors (thoseexternal to the planning function, which out the forecast, andon the purpose forwhich the forecast
cannot healtered within thiscontext) and endogenous is being developed (with which are associated the accuracy
factors (which can be influenced by the plan, up to and requirements discussed under 3.4 above). A forecast or
possibly including public transport policy of the region in forecasting system has therefore usually to be tailor-made
question). to the needs of a situation. It is therefore only possible to
make general observations ratherthan point out any
particular method or procedures.
3 A.6 Assessing the role which an individual airport is
going to play in relation to other airportsmay prove to be 3.7.3 The forecaster should endeavourtake
to
an intricate task. The distribution of the population and advantage of all the significant statistics and other
the locations of theairports in relation t o prevailing information which may be produced in order to approach
directions of the air traffic flows will be important factors. the problem from many sides and check the results of each
Apartfromthe local interaction between neighbouring approach.Inordertoobtain a reliable background of
airports,thefuture relative roles of theairports in a economic, demographic, trade and technical forecasts to
network may depend on demographic developments, on support the demandforecasts, a close liaison with planning
regional developments of business, on the relative growth bodies in other fjelds is highly desirable. A list of scurces
rates for thedemand and the aircraftsizes, on thedevelop- of reliable data was given in 2.3.2. If resources are
ment of aircraft flying ranges and on therelative develop- available,such sources can besupplemented forfore-
ments of terminal costs and en-routecosts for the aircraft.
casting purposes by market analyses of existing data from
Because of the sensitivity of demand t o frequency of carriers (for example, of passenger ticket coupons and/or
service and to the “quality” of services
the being supplied, air way-bills) and/or by setting up market surveys.
a small change in the relative demand at two airports (e.g.
due t o demographic changes or due to a changed accessi- 3 . 7 . 4 As previously discussed, thesophistication of
bility of one of them) may be greatly amplified by resulting the method used should be determined with a view to the
differences in the services being supplied. This may inevitable margin of error in the final result.Different
ultimately lead to a substantial redistribution of the roles methods might be used for the short and long term time-
for the two airports. scales, since a mure accurate peak traffic flow could be
produced if forecasts incorporating seasonality trends are
3.6.7 The efficiency of existing airports is also a factor used in the short term.
which may require particular examination. In a demarid
forecast which is to be used for technical planning of an 3.7.5 An important distinction can he drawn between
airport, effects of congestion and/or other inadequate “top down“ and “bottom up” forecasting. “Top down”
functioning should not be taken into account, since the methodsproject an aggregate figure and then use frac-

--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I-20 Airport Planning Manual
tional coefficients and other approaches t.o break it down 3.8.2 Informed judgement of an individual or group
into lower level estimates. “Bottomup” forecasting of people is the original forecasting “method”, and it is
consists of synthesizing forecasts of categorized units. It still the most comprehensive in that it usually implies the
has the advantage of being more easily relatable to cause consideration of a wide range of variables. A large amount
and effect, but the categorized activities are often subject of personal judgement is inevitable, whatever the basic
to wide fluctuations, summation of a number of forecasts forecasting method used. Judgement can introduce
leads to a wider variation in the confidence limits of the subjective and often unsubstantiatedbias, but is useful for
aggregate, andthe cost of processing alot of finely checking thatthe results of other forecasting methods
disaggregated data is high. “Bottomup” forecasts are make sense, and in estimating effects of factors which are
usually more accurate and useful in the short term, and difficult to quantify. One specific feature which might be
“topdown” in the longer term. Wherefeasible, both worth incorporating in the forecasting process is a check
approaches may be used and theresults compared. Indeed, that the evaluation of the long term is not influenced too
it generally is a good idea touse more than one approach greatly by recent or current short-term events.
to forecasting, bothas a cross-check procedureand in
orderto estimatepossible variationsduetoinaccurate 3.8.3 Trend extrapolation consists of trying to
forecasting methodology. identify some long-term underlying growth pattern of a
form which fits the behaviour of air trafficin the past. The
3.7.6 A specific
distinction
must
also be
drawn growth pattern considered over time is usually a straight
between forecasting foran existing airportandforan line (implying a constant absolute changebetween success-
entirely new airport. In cases where the airport concerned ive time periods), or asymptotic (implying that develop-
has been in operation for several years, where the region ment proceeds towards some limiting level at a gradually
to be served is in a state of stable development, and where decreasing rate). A time series of historical data has first
the aircraft operators’network connecting the airport with to be smoothedtoaccountforunusual effects such as
others is well developed, the forecasting may largely be labour strikes, special events,etc. The chosen growth
based on historical data for the airport, the air transport pattern is then fitted to the smoothed data andprojected.
system and the region concerned. Fairly reliable prelimi- Fitting can be done using statistical techniques, but can
nary forecasts may be made by projection of past traffic also be carried out roughly by eye on graphical plots of
trends, and refined forecasts may be developed by analys- historical traffic data. Trend extrapolationassumes that all
ing the factors that have affected the past development. factors influencing airtraffic in the past (except the
unusual effects mentioned above) will continue to operate
3.7.7 An entirely different problem is toproduce in the same way in the future. This is often not the case.
forecasts for a new airport, particularly if the transport Trendextrapolationalso poses problem
a when the
environment is unstable and the region is in a stage of historical data shows a recent kink, asshown in Figure 3-2.
rapid economic development. In such cases the methods Nevertheless, trend extrapolation is a useful tool, in that it
and approacheswill also have to be entirely different. The introduces a degree of objectivity into forecasting. It is
assessment of central traffic flows may prove to be more also relatively easy to carry out andimposes a discipline in
critical than the forecast itself. The approaches used for presenting the situation in a simple form which can aid
new airports include ratio methods (relatingcategorized further analysis and/or providea basis from which to
levels of aviation activity for a particular airport to thatof check the validity of forecasts developed independently by
the region or nationas a whole) and cross-sectional other techniques. Indeed if described as trend analysis it
analyses (analyses and comparisons with otherairports becomes a valuable analytical tool in its own right.
and environments). In the case of a new airportthe
role of market analyses and market surveys is likely t o be 3.8.4 Econometric modelling is one approach used to
significant. attemptto explain airtraffic developmentsinterms of
underlying causes. By using statistical techniques, it has
been shown thatjust a few of thequantifiablemajor
factors influencing air transport demand can explain most
of the variation in this demand, and the contributory effect
3.8 FORECASTING METHODS of each factor can beisolated to acertainextent. The
method can be used both for historical time-series data
3.8.1 As mentioned in 3.1, the Forecasting Manual and/or
for “cross-sectional” data. Forecasts of the
exists as a handbook on techniques; only a brief resume of contributory factors,which are generally less sensitive than
some of those which are relevant toairport master those of air transport demand itself, can then be used to
planning is given here. produce an air transport forecast. Econometric modelling

--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
has technical limitations. Also thefactors chosen for 3.8.7 Whatever method is selected, it is likely that
inclusion are a reflection of the model-builders’ represen- data gathering and analysis (such as validity testing and
tation of cause and effect, and toomuch confidence can be smoothing) will take up most of the time allocated to the
attached to the action of easily quantifiable factors to the forecasting activity.
detriment of less readily quantifiablefactors. But such
models do have a particular value in planning processes
since, once they have been developed, it is a relatively
3.9 PRESENTATION OF FORECASTS
simple matter to assess the sensitivity of the forecasts to the
various input factors and the effects of alternative policies.
3.9.1 Within the limits of available resources, it is
As noted in the Forecasting Manual, data and resource
helpful to use more than onemethod in producing a
availability, and the specialized nature of many operations
forecast. Whether one or several methods is or are used,
restrict the effective useof econometric modelling to a
however, it is essential to record explicitly and clearly the
limited number of airports.
assumptions, data used, and technique(s) on which each
forecast is based. Any adjustments made on the basis of
3.8.5 Market survey methods are used to obtain
personal judgement should be clearly stated.
primary data from the source of the demand for airport
facilities - the users themselves. Surveys are probably the
3.9.2 The forecasts should be presented in a consistent
only methods that have universal application, and surveys
form which allows for periodical updating. The forecasts
of passengers, shippers and airlines can be a very effective
should be reviewed annually if possible, and revised if
tool for the airportplanner. However, satisfactory and
necessary (possibly leading to revision o f general or
meaningful surveys depend upon properly structured
specific aspects of the master plan itself). Deviations of the
questions, the elimination of bias, and last but not least,
forecasts from actual data, or anticipated changes in the
the calibre of the individuals devising and carrying out the
assumptions relating to influencing factors may well
surveys. Surveys are also relatively expensive. Market
suggest reviews of the forecasting method as well as of the
surveys havebeen used, both directly in the design of
forecasts.
airports to reduce subjective bias in other forecasting
methods by testing theories, and as a basis themselves for
forecasting airport traffic.
References
3.8.6 In the situation of developing countries, as
mentioned in the Forecasting Manual, a preferred Manual on Air Traffic Forecasting (Doc 8991).
approach is to base forecasts on market studies, including
examination of the development of the structure of the “Planningand Design of Airports” (Third Edition),
economic activity in the country, its policy with regard to Robert Horonjeff and Francis X. McKelvey, McGraw-Hill
tourism, and its trade pattern. Book Company, 1983.
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I C A O 9 3 8 4 PART*L X* 4 8 4 1 4 3 b 0058539 8 9 9
Chapter 4. FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS AND CONTROLS*
4.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER once the project, o r any part of it (e.g. the first of two
planned runways), becomes operational. These two kinds
This chapter explains the significance of financing of costs involve differentfinancingconsiderations and
arrangementsand financial controland accounting in hence need to be dealt with separately.
airport master planning, and provides guidance for
developing practical approaches in these matters. It
discusses the financing of projects in terms of capital and Capital Costs
operational costs, the requirements for domestic and
foreign funds tofinance the capital investment, the various 4.2.2 As far as capitalcosts are concerned(oper-
channels and arrangements through which such financing ational costs are dealt with in 4.2.22 and 4.2.23), the
may be secured, and the sources of income available to an financing plan needs to provide such basic information as:
airport for defraying its costs onceit becomes operational.
The treatment of financial control and accounting brings a)
estimates of thecomponent costs (i.e. labour,
out the close relationship of these two functions and also materials, equipment, etc.) of each distinct part of
the purposes that financial control serves. Alternative the over-all project;
systems of accounting for recording expenses by cost item
or by airport area andservice are described in some detail b) the amounts of funds requiring to be disbursed at
and their relative merits examined. The presentation of various stages in the project’s progress;
assets and liabilities in balance sheet form is described and
a final section devotes itself to budgeting as the medium c) the currencies in which payments are to be made; and
through which financial control is accomplished.
d) the sources from which the funds are to be forth-
coming, and the applicable conditions (i.e. interest
rate, repayment period, etc.).
4.2 FINANCING ARRANGEMENTS
4.2.3 No furtherelaboration seems called for con-
4.2.1 The preplanning consideration given to the cerning a), the estimation of costs having already received
questions of economic feasibility and financing (see 2.4 adequate treatment, orb), since the relevance of such data
and 2.5) should have produced order-of-magnitude is self-evident. Something does however need to be said
estimates of the costs that will be incurred over time by the about currencyrequirements, item c), and sources of
proposed airport development projectandshould also funds, itemd), even though suchguidance as can be
have broadly identified possible sources of thefunds offered in these matters will necessarily have t o be of a
required todefray thosecosts. As the masterplanning generalized nature.
process proceeds, the magnitude of such costs and when
they will be incurred become more definitive. Forecasts of
expected traffic volumes and the definition of potential Currency requirements
revenue sources also
become more detailed, making
meaningful revenue projections possible (see 3.2). These 4.2.4 Where, as will often be the case,project costs
data in turn become essential inputs into the preparation of call for payment in foreignfunds and the national currency
the project’sfinancingplan. The financing plan is in is not freely convertible, it is essential to establish at an
essence a blueprint indicatinghow the costs associatedwith
the project aretobedefrayed,andin its preparation
thought therefore has to be given to both capital costs and
operational costs: theformerconstitutethe investment * ICAO is in the process of developing a manual on airport
that the project represents up to its completion, and the economics. This Chapter has therefore not been revised pending
latter are the costs that are incurred on a continuing basis completion of that manual.
1-23
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ICAO 9LB4 PART*L X* = 4 8 4 1 4 L b 0058540 500

-
early stage that it will be practicable ti) obtain the foreign d) wages, salaries, allowances and other related costs of
exchange required. The provision of such exchange will expatriate personnel; and
need to be examined with the appropriatefiscal authorities
of thegovernment,andfor thispurpose a statement e) interest on foreign credit.
should be prepared detailing as fully as possible both the
foreigncurrencypayments involved andthe extent to Note.- Policy directives and contractual arrangements
which prospective sources of financing for the project can seeking maximum use of domestic labour and materials
be expected to accommodate foreign exchange problems: can effective
be restraints on foreign currency
While arrangements securing the loan of foreign funds or requirements.
even the provision of foreign goodsand services on
extended credit terms, serve initially to reduce exchange
problems, ail such arrangements nevertheless remaina Sources of funds
legitimate concern of the fiscal authorities of government
since repayment of the debtinvolved ultimately constitutes 4.2.8 A survey of potential sources of funds to finance
a demand on foreign exchange reserves. the project and the selection of which to approach, should
be done as early as possible in the planning process. It is
4.2.5 The extent to which payment of projectcosts important to do so in order to have from the outset an
can be made in domestic currency or will involve foreign indication of the probability of financing being available;
exchange, depends on the many and varied factors present to provide adequate time for completion of the usually
in each situation, and it is therefore only possible to give lengthy preliminaries preceding the conclusion of specific
the following general guide as to the kinds of costs that financial arrangements;andto become versed in the
might typically be expected to fall into each category. procedural and other requirements of such arrangements,
in time to incorporate thoserequirements directly into the
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planning process itself wherever compliancetherewith

4.2.6 Costs typically payable in domesticcurrency
would be facilitated by so doing.
include:
4.2.9 Potential sources of funds will vary considerably
a) construction work and other services performed by
domestic contractors and firms; fromStatetoState. Which of suchsources are to be
approached has to be studied and decided individually for
each project with particular reference to the domestic and
b) land acquisition including associatedcosts of any
easements (e.g. rights of way over another’s foreign currency requirements in each case.
property), etc.;
c) salaries, wages and other related costs of national Domestic financing

employees;
4.2.10 Costs to be met in domesticcurrency may be
financed by variousmeansavailable within the country
d) domestic materials, suppliesand equipmentof which
itself, and include loansand sometimes grantsfrom
the country is not a net importer;
government sources, commercial loans negotiated through
banks and other domestic financial institutions, and the
e) interest on domestic credit; and
extension of credit by contractors and other firms engaged
in the project. The higher rates of interest attaching to
f) taxes.
commercial loans will usually make these the most
expensive form of financing. Government assistance in the
4.2.7 Costs typically payable (wholly or partially) in form of interest-free loans or even grants can appropri-
foreign currency include: ately be sought in recognition of the local, regional and
national benefits derived from the airports’ existence and
a) construction work and other services performed by development. Where, as is presently the situation at most
foreign contractors and firms; international airports, revenues are insufficient to cover
total operationalcosts, including depreciationand interest,
b) imported equipment, materials and supplies; the execution of any new development project will
inevitably
depend on government assistance in some
c) domesticmaterials of which thecountry is a net measure, and in securing such assistance the benefits just
importer; mentioned could therefore well play a role of particular

I C A O 9384 P A R T * 3 ** = 4B4L4Lb 0058541 4 4 7
Purr 1. Master Planning 1-25
importance.Theirevaluation, even though onlyprac- including the financing one: for the latter purpose the bids
ticable in broad terms, should therefore not be neglected should of courseberequired toquote supply prices
(see 2.5). Financialassistance in recognition of such separate from the financingcharges involved, in order that
benefits may of course be sought from government at both such charges may be compared with the cost of financing
national and local levels (e.g. state, provincial, municipal), through any alternativesource. In the financing of costs in
but in so doing the airport should be prepared to demon- sucha mannerthere is, however,a hazard particularly
strate that the particular communities falling within such needing to be guardedagainst,and this is that in the
jurisdictions doin fact derive distinct benefitsadditional to process of selecting bids a firm’s financing capability may
those realized nationally. be allowed to assume an importance disproportionate to
that of other considerations more basic to the project’s
4.2.11 Where an
airport seeks commercial loans successful execution.
directly from banksor other domestic financial institutions
it can expect that forecastsof its future operatingcosts and 4.2.15 Banks, investment houses and other traditional
revenues will be required as a basis for assessing its ability commercialcredit institutionsoperating in theprivate
to repay such loans. Where thatability is judged adequate, sector of the country of the contractor providing goods
such commercialfinancing will probably be obtainable and services for theairportproject, may of course
against an appropriate pledge of future airport revenues, themselves be approached directly for financing assistance
but to theextent that it is found lacking it is likely that the but the cost and other terms of suchcredit as may be
loan will only be forthcoming if repayment is backed by obtainable in this manner are in general likely t o be more
government or some other acceptable guarantor. onerousthanthoseprocurablefromthevarious public
sources which are mentioned hereafter. Commercial
Foreign financing institutions of the kind just mentioned exist in a variety of
forms in differentcountries,andforanyparticular
4.2.12 Project costs payable in foreign funds consti- country the specific ones likely to assist with an airport
tute a demand on the State’s reserves of foreign exchange project areprobably best ascertained directly fromthe
and assuch their financing will usually have to be arranged government concerned.
through, or with the approval of, the appropriate fiscal
authorities of government. 4.2.16 Foreign financing may also be available from
foreign governments in theform of loans negotiated
4.2.13 Depending onthemagnitudeofthe costs directly with the government of the recipient country, or
involved and the state of exchange reserves, it may prove mayotherwise be facilitated by particular agencies of
possible toobtainthe requiredfinancing through such government which have been established for the primary
domestic institutions . a s havealready been mentioned purpose of promotingthenation’s export trade.The
above, but more often than not this will not be thecase and development of transport facilities and the consequential
foreign sources will need to be found. In any event, quite benefits to the national economy as a whole which are
apart from foreign exchange considerations, such sources envisaged as resulting from any given project, may evoke
should always be explored as a matter of course, since the provision of suchassistance forvariousreasons,
financingmay be availablefromthemontermsmore among thembeing the desire to promote trade and cultural
favourable than those procurable from domestic institu- relations between thetwo countries. Additionally, as
tions (i.e. lower interest rate, repaymentoveralonger mentioned, the wish to facilitate the export of technology
period, etc.). and equipment required for theproject and availablein the
assisting State, may be a further reason for interest.
4.2.14 One of the simplest ways of dealing with costs Usually the availability of such assistance, as wel! as any
payable in foreign funds is to place the responsibility for negotiations subsequently involved, will need to be
financing arrangements on foreign contractors
and pursued through the appropriate governmental authorities
suppliers who stand tobenefit directly from the project. In of the State in which the project is being undertaken.
foreigncommercialdealingsit is oftenthe practice for
suppliers to be required to state as part of their bid the 4.2.17 In the case of developing countries in particu-
financing arrangements they are prepared to extend, and lar, suchassistance may be forthcomingthrough the
for contractors to be given the responsibility of securing specific aid programmes which certain governments have
the most favourable terms. When applied, such practices established to promote economic and social development
wiiI not onlyhelp to reduce thefinancing problems in various areas of the world; these programmes extend
encountered in airport projects, but will also enable the assistance in such forms as loans on preferential terms and
acceptability of bids to be evaluated from all aspects, the directprovision of supplies, equipmentand tech-
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~~ ~~
I C A O 9184 PART*cL X* m 4 8 4 1 4 L b 0058542 383 m
nology. Illustrative of programmes of this nature are those the various development banks, the InternationalDevelop-
administered by the Canadian International Development ment Association or the European Development Fund will
Agency, the Overseas EconomicCo-operationFund of inevitably entail government involvement. In general, this
Japan,andtheUnitedStates Agency forInternational likely will be so for two reasons. First, any loan or grant
Development. For projectsnotqualifyingforaidfrom that may be extended will be made elther to a government
such sources as these, assistance in meeting the require- or government agency, or to a privateentity with the
ments for €oreign financing may otherwise be available support and guaranteeof the government. Second,usually
through the special export-promoting agencies created by the first test of suitability of a project is whether the sector
certain governments: assistance from these sources takes of the economy inwhich it falls, and the project itself, are
various forms, including direct loans by the agency itself, of high priority for development and are so recognized in
guarantees covering private loans, and insurance of the the government’s development plans.
risk assumed by national enterprises in providing goods
and services on credit terms. Examples of agencies of this 4.2.20 The International Finance Corporation, for its
characteraretheExport Development Corporation of part, has a quite distinct role, which supplements that of
Canada,theExport-Import Banksof Japanandthe the International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop-
United States, and the Export Credits Guarantee Depart- ment, its purpose being to further economic development
ment of the United Kingdom. by encouraging the growth of productive private enterprise
in member countries,particularlyinthe less developed
4.2.18 Additionally and, over-all, probablyof most areas. Briefly, the means selected for achieving this aim
importanceamong the possible
sources of foreign are: to assist, in association with private investors,with the
financingavailable to developingStates, arethe inter- financingof suchprivateenterprise by making invest-
national institutions that have been established to assist in ments, without guarantee of repayment by the member
the financing and execution of projects seeking to promote government concerned, in cases wheresufficientprivate
national economic development. Prominent among these capital is notavailable on reasonableterms; to seek to
are
the
International Bank for Reconstructionand bring togetherinvestment opportunities,domesticand
Development and its affiliates - the International foreign capital, and experienced management; and to seek
DevelopmentAssociation andtheInternationalFinance to stimulatetheflow of domesticand foreign private
Corporation; the various regional development banks; and capital into productive investment in member countries.
the Commission of theEuropeanCommunitiesforthe The Corporation’s roleis clearly such that airport projects
European Development Fund.Thelocations of these cannot be expected to attract any direct financing assist-
particular institutions are as follows: ancefrom this source,but conceivably there could be
situations where domesticfinancialinstitutions, endeav-
ouring to find foreign capital for projects of this nature,
International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, Washington, D.C., United States might find themselves able to benefit from its services.
International Development Association,Washington,
4.2.21 Finally, to beborne in mind by developing
D.C., United States
International Finance Corporation, Washington, D.C., countriesas a source of assistance in financing airport
United States project costs payable in foreigncurrencyas well as in
African Development Bank, Abidjan, C6te d’lvoire nationalcurrency, is theUnitedNations Development
Programme(UNDP).Thevarious kinds of expertise
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Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines
Caribbean Development Bank, Bridgetown, Barbados required for the consideration, planning and execution of
Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, D.C. airport development projects, such as will be entailed in
United States the necessary feasibility and cost-benefit studies, in the
Commission of the EuropeanCommunitiesfor the preparation of master plans and in the actual construction
European Development Fund, Brussels, Belgium. phaseitself,mayall be requested fromthecountry’s
programme of UNDP funded technical assistance. As well
as expertise, funding for necessary airport equipment may
4.2.19 As in the case of financing by foreign govern- also be obtained through theUNDP. Where such technical
ment, the possibilities of financial assistance being forth- assistance is to be soughtforanyairport development
coming fromtheaboveinstitutionsforanyparticular project the specificrequirements will need to be formu-
airport development project,andtheprocedures to be lated andsubmittedtothenationalgovernmentfor
followed in applying for such assistance, will need to be approval within the country’sover-all programme of
ascertained throughthe government of thecountry in development projectsfor which technicalassistance is
which the project is being undertaken. Any approach to being requested.

Part I . Master Planning 1-2 7
Operational Costs passengers and cargo (often such facilities are not the
subject of separate charges but are included in the cost
4.2.22 Brief mention has already been made in 2.5 of base used for setting landing charges)
the need for carefulconsideration to be given in the
planning process to the future ability of the airport tomeet Parking and hangar charges: covering the use of
the recurring costs which have to bedefrayedonce the parking space and airport-owned charges hangars, and
airport project, or any part of it, becomes operational. the provision of associated aircraft towing service.
Broadly, such costs comprise operating, maintenance and
administrative costs; interest and depreciation or amortiz- 4.2.26 No precise guidance can be given for setting the
ation chargeable in respect of capital assets; interest on level of such “user” charges as the foregoing, since this
investment; and any taxes that may be payable on income will depend in each case on the magnitude of the airport’s
or property. For convenience these may be collectively operational costs, the income it derives from other sources
termed operational costs. They will be found described in (particularly those of a “non-aeronautical” nature dealt
more detail asto their components in 4.3.14 through with later), the volume and character of the air traffic it
4.3.18. serves, and a variety of other considerations. Certain
principles and other guidelines relating in particular to the
4.2.23 Consideration of the means by which such bases on which “user” charges should be established, have
operational costs are tobe financed needs to be undertaken however been developed by ICAO‘for application t o
on the basis of as close an estimation of their expected international civil aviation, and this material, to be found
magnitude, year by year, as can be made in the planning in Statements by the Council to Contracting States on
process. Indispensable to such estimation will, of course, Chargesf o r Airports and Route Air Navigation Facilities
be the traffic forecasts prepared for the project and the (Doc 9082), should in itself prove useful toairport
adjustment of operational costs otherwise needing to be authorities in general when they come to determine which
made on account of anticipated changes in future price costs are to be recovered through such charges and which
levels. With the magnitude of costs established,the sources particular kinds of charges they should establish for this
of revenue available to the airport for defraying them have purpose.
then to be identified and, this done, the yields expected
from such sources will need also t o be estimated as closely 4.2.27 Theother source from which earned income
as possible, with the traffic forecasts again being used for can be derived by the airport consists of what has been
this purpose. collectively referred to above as its ancillary or non-
aeronautical activities. Described in more detail in 4.3.12,
Sources of income the various revenues accruing from these activities include:
4.2.24 The sources of earned income, as distinct from 1) concession fees from aviationfuel and oil companies
any grantsor subsidies forthcoming from governmental or and othercommercial concerns doing business at the
other sources, which are available toanairportare airport;
various. For purposesof considering the financing of costs
it will be useful to classify these according to the two broad 2) revenue from therental of airport land,premises and
kinds of activity engaged in by an airport, namely its air equipment;
trafficoperationsandits ancillary(non-aeronautical)
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operations. 3) income derived directly fromtheairport’s own

operation of shops and services; and
4.2.25 Charges for facilities and services provided to
meet the basic operational needs of aircraft operators will 4) fees charged the general public for escorted tours and
usually constitute the main sourceof earned income which for admission t o reserved areas.
is available to an airport for financing its costs. Typical
and of principal importance among such charges, are: 4.2.28 The kinds of concessions and commercial
concerns operated at airports throughout the world exhibit
Landingcharges: covering the useof approach, great variety, ranging from the commonplace ones, suchas
landing and take-off facilities and services (i.e. air duty-free shops, restaurants, bars, parking facilities and
traffic control, runways, taxiways, aprons, etc.) fuel concessions, to those less usual, such as dry-cleaning
establishments, dance studios, swimming pools and tennis
Passenger and cargocharges: covering the use of courts. Which particular ones are likely to be themost
terminal andother facilities for charges processing appropriateand of optimum financial benefit for any

I C A O 9384 PART*:L ** m 484141b 0058544 156 m
1-28 Airgort Planning Manual
given airport, is somethingthateachairport has to comprisesfirstly a comparison of actual revenues and

determinefor itself in the light of its own operational expenses with those planned, and secondly, where the two
circumstances. differsignificantly, a determination as to whether the
cause lies within the budget itself or in the implementation
4.2.29 In their over-all planning of financing arrange- of the project, and what corrective measures need to be
ments, airports should bear in mind that user charges and taken.
revenues from non-aeronautical sources constitute means
not onlyfordefrayingoperationalcostsbutalsofor 4.3.3 Financial accounting on the other hand refers to
earning foreign exchange.Thus, to theextent that costs, as the system, scheme, or pattern according to which
well as payments falling due in respect of capital loans, revenues and expenses are recorded and then ccllated so as
haveto be met inforeigncurrencyandthecountry is to present a n over-all picture of the financial situaiion of
experiencing a scarcity of foreign exchange, the condition theprojectto which they relate. How elaborateand
may be imposed that user charges collectible in respect of detailed an accounting scheme should be depends on the
international operations*, as well as rental or other fees extent of the information sought fromit and the size of the
due from concessionaires of foreign ownership, shallbe airport project concerned.
paid in otherthannationalcurrency.Wherepayments
made in this form come from such foreign enterprises as 4.3.4 At the end of the accounting period, which as a
areaccumulatingearnings in nationalfundsfromtheir rule covers a one-year period, the entries in all individual
business activities in the country, the net effect of such a financialaccountsaretotalledforpresentation in two
condition will be an increase of foreign exchange resources complementary formsor
tables,
theprofit
and loss
available to the State. statement and the balance sheet. The former summarizes
all revenues and expenses with the difference between the
two totals being either profit or loss. The baiance sheet on
the other hand summarizes assets and Iiabilities with the
4.3 FINANCIAL CONTROL AND ACCOUNTING
difference between the two being an increaseor decrease in
the net worth of the airport. Since this change in the nei
4.3.1 Theremainderofthischapter describes the
worth depends o n whether a profit or loss was made during
scope, interrelationship and purposes of financial control
theaccountingperiod,thebalancingitemonboththe
and accounting in airport planning and management, and
profit and loss statementandthebalance sheet will be
examines in this context the practical applications of data
identical.
entered in the financial accounts. Broad descriptions are
given ofaccounting systemsdesigned to serve specific
functions, but no attemptis made to describe in detail any
Relationship Between Financial Control
specific accounting scheme or the mechanics of managing
and Accounting
it:forthispurposethereader is invited to consultthe
extensive reference materialexisting, in the field of
4.3.5 Financial control
andaccounting,
although
accountancy, a selection of which appears at the end of the
separableasconcepts,are, of course,interrelated since
chapter. It should be noted that in the guidance material
management cannot exercise financial control effectively
that follows, the financial control and accounting mechan-
without having at its disposal the data made available by
isms outlined are intended to serve the needs of manage-
a sound financial accounting system. Thus it is essential
ment while the project is under planning and construction
that any procedure being established to provide financial
as well as when it has become fully operational.
control be accompanied by a thorough examination of the
accounting system to ensure that the latter can adequately
Scope of Financial Control and Accounting serve this purpose.
4.3.2Financialcontrolofanairportprojectmeans 4.3.6 If the planned airport project is an extension of

the monitoring of its progress in financial terms so as to an existing airportora new airportcomingunderan
ensure that the magnitude of expenses, and when and at airportauthorityalreadyoperatingotherairports,an
which location they were incurred, are in accord with a accounting. system most likely already exists andthe
previously designed plan, and that the inflow of income is examinationtherefore involves determiningwhether it
behaving equally according to design. Such a previously
conceived plan expressedin monetary terms is normally * To avoid conflict with Article 15 of the Chicago Convention, such
referred to as a budget and is discussed later in 4.3.21 to a condition would need to apply tointernationaioperations in
4.3.23. Thus, in essence, the exercise of financial control general, not just those performed by foreign operators.
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Purl 1. Muster Planning 1-29
adequately serves the basic requirements for effective involves its own expense which may become substantial,
financial control of the new airport project. If not, the particularly when electronic data processing and com-
decision will have to be made as towhat modifications are puterization are involved. The basic decision to be made in
required so as to enable the extraction of the data required this context is therefore what financial information is a)
for the degree of financial control sought. On the other essential and b) desirable or optional. Thechoice of design
hand, if the project is new, it will then be necessary to of the system to be instituted should focus primarilyon its
design an accounting system that meets the project’s ability to generate theinformation under a). As it is,
requirements. however, always possible to design a basic system in more
than one way, some variant may be found which lends
itself to extension insucha way asto yieldb) type
Purposes of Financial Control and Accounting
information at little or even no added expense. In general,
any basic system can of course be amplified to provide
4.3.7 The purposes of financial control are many, but
additional data, but given that accounting remains a tool
the basic one is to ensure that all the resources are being
of financial control, thecriterionjustifyingmorecom-
prudently, effectively and honestly utilized. Ensuring such
plexity must always be that the addedcost entailed will be
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control is not only of primary concern for those directly
commensurate with the value of the extra data obtained.
involved in the management of the airport project, but is
also animportant prerequisite for obtaining outside 4.3.10 Accounting data have two primary uses. The
financing for the project on the most favourable terms. If first, and generally the better known, is in presenting the
there is a sizeable difference between theactualand financial position of a project, i.e. to show the profit or
planned (or budgeted) costs of any part of the project, loss situation during a given period and the status of the
management must determine whether the original plan or project with regard to its assets and liabilities. The second
budget contained inaccuracies or was unrealisticin its and equally, if not more, important use is to serve as a
predictions, or whether there were other causes accounting basic tool for financial control of the project, as has been
for the difference, so that steps may be taken to avoid mentioned earlier.
discrepanciesarising elsewhere for similarreasons.Any
substantial divergence from theoriginal budget for a 4.3.11Ageneralstatement which can be made with
specific portion of the project will itself also normally call respect to airport accounting is that the identification and
for review of the whole budget so as to determine whether subsequent recordingof items can, asa rule, be more easily
this divergence will alter the over-all costs of the airport accomplished for revenues thanfor expenses. This is
project. To the extent that such reviews disclose chiefly because airport revenue sources tend to be fewer in
deficiencies in the original planning of capital numberthan expense items, and because each revenue
requirements, they will also be useful in providing lead- item, with few exceptions, is often easily identifiable with
time for procuring the additional financing found to be oniy one source, whereas one expense item can frequently
required. This will be of particularbenefit where the be identified with several major expense categories. The
shortfall would otherwise ultimately
cause delays in information required in an airport accounting system can
execution of the project. vary considerably in detail and layout, but there is a basic
itemization of revenues and expenses that may perhaps be
considereda minimum and this is described in the
Accounting following sections.
4.3.8 The first step in establishing a basic knowledge Revenues

of the financial situation of any project is to develop a
structure for identifying various types of financial outlays 4.3.12 The itemization of revenues detailed below
and receipts, otherwise known as the accounting system. may be considered essentialto meet the basic data needs of
Basically this involves drawing up a number of individual an airport management.
accounts, each showing a specific type of revenue, 1. Air traffic operations
expense, asset or liability. The number of accounts
established forany specific system will depend on the 1.1Landingcharges (including
degree of detail sought, i.e. the more elaborate thesystem, lighting charges)
the greater will be the subdivision of accounts established. 1.2Passenger andcargo charges -
1.3 Parkingandhangar charges __
4.3.9 It should not be assumed that an elaborate and 1.4 Other charges on air
highly sophisticated accounting system is always the most traffic operations
desirable. The managing of any accounting system Total

I C A O 7184 P A R T t L t t = 4 8 4 L 4 1 b 0058546 T27
1-30 Airport Planning Mama!
2. Ground handling charges 3.3 Rentah: rentals payable by commercial enterprises and
other entities for the use of airport-owned building space,
land or equipment.Suchrentalsshould include those
3. Ancillary operations payable by aircraft operators for airport-owned premises
and facilities (e.g. check-in and sales counters and
3.1 Aviation fuel and oil concessions administrative offices) other than those already covered
(including throughput charges) - under air traffic operations (see item t above).
3.2 Other concessions
3.4 Other revenues from non-aeronautical activities: all other
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3.3 Rentals revenues the airport may derive from non-aeronautical

3.4 Other revenues from activities. These include gross revenues earned by shops
non-aeronautical activities or services operated not by concessionaires but by the
Total airport itself. Also included are any public admission fees
charged for entryto areas of special interest (e& terminal
observation areas) or for guided tours within the airport
4. Grants and subsidies
area.
5 . Other revenues 4. Grants and subsidies: any payments received and not requiring
the transfer of assets or provision of services in return.
Total revenues
Expenses
Explanation of items 4.3.13 Accounting

airport
for expenses can be under-
taken in twodifferent ways, either by expenseitem
Air traffic operations: (salaries, supplies and services, etc.), or by the airport area
or service to which the expenses relate (aircraft movement
1.1 Landing charges inc1udir.g lighting charges: charges and areas, passenger and cargo terminals, etc.). The former
fees collected for the use of runways, taxiways and apron method has the advantage of being mechanically simpler
areas, including associated lighting.
since each expense incurred can asa rule be entered under
1.2 Passenger and cargo charges: charges and fees collected one item,e.g. the purchase of cement can be entered under
for the use of air terminal and other passenger-processing supplies and services. The shortcoming of this method of
facilities (e.g. for passengers embarked or disembarked), cost accounting is that it does not permit management to
and any charges collected in respect of cargo for the use
be readily aware of the development of costs incurred for
of the airport’s freight-processing facilities and areas.
each of the major functionscarried out at the airport.For
1.3 Parkingand hangar charges: charges coIlected from thisreason, there is an increasing number of airports
aircraft operators for the parking of aircraft and their opting for the second type of accounting scheme, where
housing in airport-owned hangars, including any rentals each expense is allocated to the airport function it serves,
from the leasing of such hangars to aircraft operators.
that is to say by airport area or service (e.g. the recording
Towing charges, if imposed, should also be included
under this heading. of a salary would dependon where attheairport the
individual receiving it worked). To explain more specifi-
1.4 Other charges on air traffic operations: all other charges cally the distinction between the two systems, examples
and fees collected fromaircraftoperators for facilities basically typical of each are provided hereunder.
and services provided at the airport for the operation of
the aircraft.
4.3.14 Expenses by item. An accounting system based
Ground handling charges: charges and fees collected from on expense items would inasimple formcontainthe
aircraftoperatorsforthe use of facilities and services provided individual accounts indicated and described below.
at the airport for the handling of aircraft.
1. Salaries
Ancillary operations:
3. I Aviation fuel and oil concessions (including throughput 2 . Supplies and services
charges): all concession fees, including any throughput
charges, payable by oil companies for the right to sell 3. Depreciation and/oramortization
aviation fuel and lubricants at the airport.
4. Interest
3.2 Other concessions: fees payable by other commercial
enterprises for the right to sell goods and services at the
airport. overheads 5 . Administrative

Part 1. Muster N a m i n g 1-31
6. Taxes be made at the same time where any cost is of a non-

recurring nature, but where particular costs are repetitive,
7 . Other expenses such as salary payments, and are attributableto more than
one area, thenecessary cross-entries to subsidiary accounts
Total expenses may be done periodically, say monthly, to economize on
the work of prorating.
Explanation of items 4.3.16 A useful minimum classification of subsidiary

accounts for an accounting system recording costs by area
1. Salaries: dire& remuneration to personnel and such other costs and service would be as indicated below:
as social and medical insurance, pensions, remuneration in
kind (e.g. boardandaccommodation), travel subsistence
1. Aircraft movement areas (e.g. runways,
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allowances, etc.
taxiways, aircraft parking areas) and
2. Supplies and services: costs of spareparts and consumable their associated lighting
materials actually incorporated or expended in providing all
airport facilities and services and in operating and maintaining 2. Passenger and cargo terminal facilities
fixed assets (including durable equipment such as vehicles,
(owned by the airport)
machinery, furniture and fixtures, tools, etc.). Included also
are the costs of supplies and services required for heating, air-
conditioning, lighting, water, sanitation, postage, etc. 3. Hangar and maintenance areas
Payments made to other agencies or enterprises for provision (owned by the airport)
of airport facilities and services should also be included under
this item.
4. Fire-fighting, ambulance and
3 . Depreciation and/or amortization: the amount by which the security services
value of theassets has decreased during the year due tophysical
deterioration, obsolescence and such other factors aslimit their 5. Air traffic control (including
productive life. Also to be included are amounts bywhich communications)
intangible assets (e.g. developmental and training costs) have
been written off during the year.
6. Meteorological services
4. Interest: interest paid or payable on debt during the year as well
as any interest computed on capital assets. 7. Other expenses
5 . Administrative overheads: the costs of common administrative

Total expenses
services such as over-all management, economic planning, etc.,
to the extent that they are not included under items I and 2.
6 . Taxes: any national or other governmental taxes (e.g. property

and income taxes) payable by the airportas a taxable entity and Explanation of items
not already reported elsewhere. Not to be included are any
sales or other taxes collected from third parties on behalf of The following explanations point out the more significant elements
government taxing authorities (e.g. sales tax on goodsand of maintenance, operatingand administrative costs typically
services sold in airport-operated shops and income tax associated with the areas and services enumerated above. Intended
deductions from staff salaries). merely as aguide, they are farfrom being exhaustive of the variety
of costs falling within these particular expense categories.
Not mentioned in the notes, but dealt with in 4.3.14 in the expla-
4.3.15 Expenses by area or service. An accounting nation of items 3, 4 and 7 are depreciation and/or amortization,
system design to reflect costs by airport area and service interest and taxes. It should be understood that these costs will also
entails the maintenance of two sets of accounts, namely, need to be redistributed from the main to the subsidiary accounts
main accounts devoted toparticular cost items asjust if a comprehensive record of the full costs attributable to each area
and service is to be established.
described, and subsidiary accounts devoted to the various
areas and services under which it is intended to redistribute I . Aircraft movement areas: all maintenance, administrative and
the costs recorded in the main accounts. Thus,for operating costs attributable to these areas and their associated
example, salaries paid to maintenance staff wouldbe vehicles and equipment, including the expense of all labour
entered both in the main account for salaries and also in (skilled and unskilled), maintenance materials, power and
fuels.
the subsidiary accounts for different areas on a prorated
basis according to the hours of maintenance devoted to 2. Passenger and cargo terminal facilities (owned by the airport):
each. Entries in the main and subsidiary accounts will best all maintenance, operating and administrative costs for

1-32 ~-
Airport Planning Manual
terminal facilities, including, where applicable, such expenses Assets and liabilities
as relate to any airport-operated shops and services located in
the terminals (e.g. staff salaries, costs of stock sold and any 4.3.19 The systematic presentation of assets and
spoilage, and the cost of utilities and general upkeep provided liabilities in the form of a balance sheet is a less common
in such cases), but excluding any costs of work which, under
particular !easing arrangements, are borne by lessees. practice among airports thant h e preparation of statements
ofrevenues and expenses. An importantreason is that
3. Hangar and maintenance areas (owned by the airport): all airports are for the most part not operated as private or
related maintenanceoperating
and
administrative costs, stock companies, but tend to be part of a department or
excluding any costs of work which, under particular leasing agency of government whose accountingrequirements
arrangements, are borne by lessees (e.g. maintenance of
hangars).
normalry d o not call for preparation of a formal balance
sheet.However,airportsrun by public orotherauton-
4. Fire fighting. ambulance and security services: all operating, omous bodies are generally more likely to provide thistype
maintenance and administrative costs attributableto these of information since in many instances there wili exist a
services, including staff salaries and the expense of maintaining statutory requirement for them to do so.
the associated vehicles and equipment.
5 . Air traffic control (including communications, i.e. fixed and 4.3.20 While assets and liabilities may not generally be
mobile services and radio navigation aids): all related as readily availableas revenue and expense data,any
maintenance, operating and administrative costs, including in airportmanagementshouldhavecertain basic compi-
particular the expense of power and anyspareparts consumed lations of such data at its disposal. The most significant
by radars, receiving and transmitting stations, NDBs, VORs,
ILS, and other equipment employed. items would generally be such as indicated below:
6 . Meteorological services: all operating,

maintenance
and ASSETS
administrative costs of any meteorological services provided by
the airport itself.
1. Current assets
2. Reserve and other special funds

4.3.17 From the foregoing explanationsit will be clear
thatthetwo systemsdescribed may be regarded as 3. Depreciated value of fixed assets
alternatives, the accounting forexpense? by airport area or
service being in essence a regrouping of the various sub- 4. Investments
items constituting an
accounting system
recording
expenses by item. In the case of the latter, the individual 5 . Other assets
accounts indicated in the example given in 4.3.14 above
do, of course, represent a basic minimum, and where as Total assets
will generally be thecase, greater accountingdetail is called
for, theirfurther subdivision into sub-items will be
necessary. Salaries for examplemay be subdivided into Explanation of items
direct remuneration, social and medical insurance, pension
fund payments, etc., and further subdivided by employee 1. Current assets: cash and bank balances available for current
expenses and debts; accounts and notes receivable due within
group or airport area, etc. Similarly, supplies and services
one year, less reserves provided for bad debts, and short-term
and other main items may be broken down into numerous investments also due within one year; interest and dividends
other accounts. receivable; grants due from public funds; the cost of all tools,
materiats, supplies, etc., in stock, and any amounts expended
on uncompleted work for others; prepayments of salaries,
insurance, interest, taxes; other current and accrued assets.
4.3.1 g The extent to which the accounting for costs by
expense items is developed depends on the information an 2. Reserve and other special funds: any funds that may be specifi-
cally set aside (in special bank accounts, investments, etc.) to
airportmanagement considersessential for monitoring provide for such future commitments as additions and
purposes,
and similar considerations will determine improvements to existing fixed assets, debt servicing and
whetherthe accounting system is t o be established on
an retirement,
etc.
exDense item basis or anairDort area andservice basis. The
system of accounting by area and service is more complex 3. Depreciated value of fixed assets: the aggregated book value of
all fixed assets as depreciated up to the end of the current year.
and hence more costly to operate, and this added expense
is something needing to be assessed and carefully weighed 4. Investments: any investment in stocks,bondsand long-term
when the type of system to be introduced is being decided. notes other than those already included in item 2.
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ICAO 9384 PART*& ** m 4 8 4 3 4 3 6 0058549 738 m
LIABIL,ITIES ensure theaffinity in make-up between budgeted and

actual figures that is essential to give validity to compari-
1. Current liabilities sons between the two, and in so doing will obviate the
troublesome reconciliation of disparate figures that would
2 . Long-term debt otherwise have to be undertaken. Some latitude in con-
2.1 owing to governments (federal, formity between the individual accounts and the budget
state, municipal, e:c.) itemization can, however, be allowed to the extent that
2.2 owing to others comparability ofthe figures is notjeopardized. For
example, where the accounting system is extremely detailed
3 . Other liabilities with an extensive breakdown of accounts into various sub-
accounts, the budget estimates may not always need to be
Total liabilities broken down tothe sameextent since theeffortand
consequential expense involved may not justify
the
information required.
Explanation of items
4.3.23 Finally, in budgeting it mustbe remembered
1. Current liabilities: accounts and notes payable due within one that a budget is built up on a foundation of sub-item data.
year;
salaries
andwages
accruedand unpaid; interest, The reliability of the over-all budget and any financial
dividends, insuranceandtaxesaccruedandunpaid;other obligations based thereon depend on the reliability of the
current and accrued liabilities.
procedures employed in predicting the monetary magni-
2. Long-term debt: thevalue(excludingaccruedinterest) of tude of the budget’s sub-items. If the procedures and scope
mortgages, bonds, trust certificates, debentures. notes and are not systematically and carefully designed at the outset,
other long-term debt (i.e. contracted for a term exceeding one the budgeting process will fail or even mislead manage-
year) issued or assumed by the airport, in the hands of others. ment inits decision making, since sophisticatedapplication
of data cannot compensate for unreliability in the data
Budgeting itself.
4.3.21 A prerequisite for effective financial control is

the establishment of a budgeting process as a complement
to whatever accounting system is instituted. Essentially, a References
budget is a projection of expected revenues and expenses
over a pre-determined period of time, and as such, serves
it “Fundamental Accounting Principles”, William W. Pyle
not only as an instrumentfor financial control, but also to and
John
Arch
White; Richard D. Irwin, Inc.,
establish a series of financialobjectives to be achieved Homewood, Illinois, 1969.
during thebudget period. Budgeting thus has tobe seen as
a continuing operation which should be instituted at the “Comptabilitt de l’entreprise”, Jean-Claude Dischamps;
outset of the planning process and continued through both Editions Cujas, Paris, 1972.
the constructionphase of theairport project and its
operational future. “Eltments decomptabilitk, Ctude d’un systkme”, Henry J.
Kaluza; McGraw-Hill du Canada, Lirnitke, 1971.
4.3.22 The budget should
be structuredon
the
accounting system employed for recording revenues and “ComptabilitC, introduction et analyse”, Rkginal Dugrt et
expenses, and itsitemization should basically identify with Pierre VCzina; Centrede psychologie et de pkdagogie,
the variousaccountscomprising that system. This will Montreal, 1965.
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I C A O 7384 PART*kL X* 484L4Lb 0058550 4 5 T
Chapter 5. AIRPORT SITE EVALUATION AND SELECTION
5.1 ABOUT THISCHAPTER c) preliminary office study of possible sites;

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5.1.1 The provision of a new airport or

the d) site inspection;
development of an existing one involves substantial capital
investment and large-scale construction work. In order to e) environmental study;
avoid premature obsolescence and waste of valuable
financial and materialresources, it is important that they 0 review of potential sites;
should have the longest possible useful life. To achieve
this, sufficient groundareashould be
available for g) preparation of outline plans and estimates of costs
progressive development in step with growth in air traffic and revenues;
demand. In addition to sufficient ground area it is also
necessary, for realization of maximum benefits from the h) final evaluation and selection;
investment, to emure the safety of aircraft operations and
to avoid hazards or discomfort t o the surrounding i) report and recommendations.
community without limitingthe growth orthe efficiency of
an airport. Therefore, sites should be chosen with land
areas which offer the best potential
for long-term
development at least financial and social cost.
5.2 BROADDETERMINATION OF THE
5.1.2 The starting point in selection of an airport site LAND AREA REQUIRED
or theassessment of the suitability of an existing site is the
definition of the purpose forwhich the airport is required. 5.2.1 Beforeinspection of anypotential sites,
This requiresconsideration of forecast futuredemands includingexistingsites, it is necessary to make a broad
and the quantity and typeof traffic to be accommodated. assessment of the land area likely to be required. This can
These
details are derived from theoperational
and be achieved by considering the space necessary for runway
economic forecasts(Chapter 3). It is then necessary to development which generally .forms the major proportion
define the type of airport and the operationalsystems for of land required for an airport.This requires consideration
the forecast passenger andcargotraffic. Based on this of the following factors:
information, the actual process of site selection falls into
several major steps commencing with an assessment of the - runway length;
shape and size of the area required for the airport, the
location of sites with potential for development, followed - runway orientation;
by examination and evaluation of these sites.
- number of runways;
- combination of length, number and orientation of

Major Steps in the Site Evaluation and runways toformanoutline runway scheme for
Selection Process rough assessment of the order of magnitude of land
required.
5.1.3 The major steps involved in any site evaluation
or selection process whether for an existing airport or for
an entirely new airport include: Runway Length
a) broad determination of the land area required; 5.2.2 The ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual,
Part 1 - Runways, provides anexplanation of the
b) evaluation of factors affecting airport location; parameters
affecting
runway
length
together with
I-34

ICAO 9384 P A R T * l ** 48Ltl141b 0 0 5 8 5 5 3 3 9 6
Purl I . Master Planning 1-35
nomograms for calculation of runway lengths for specific maximum allowable cross-wind depends not only on the
aircraft for airport planning purposes. It also explains the size of the aircraftbut also on thewing configuration and
concept of using a combination of runway, stopway and the conditionof the pavement surface. Transport category
clearway as a stage in long-term development. aircraft can manoeuvre in cross-winds as high as 56 km/h
(30kt), but it is quite difficult to do so; hence lower values
5.2.3 To avoid imposing unnecessary aircraft are used for airport planning.
operating restrictions and incurring disproportionate
construction and maintenance costs, adequate space 5.2.8 Annex 14 specifies that runways should be
should be provided to permit runways to be developed to oriented so aeroplanes may be landed at least 95 per cent
meet long-term requirements. Consequently, the perform- of the time with cross-wind components as follows:
ance characteristics ofbothcurrentandfuture critical
aircraft, i.e. those with the maximum requirements within Cross-wind component Aeroplone reference field length
the broad groupof aircraft anticipated to use the airport,
are significant. Even if aircraft planned for introduction 37 km/h (20 kt) 1 5 0 0 m or over
within the foreseeable future when operating over similar 24 km/h (13 kt) 1 200 m orupto but
stagelengths were nottorequire longer runways than not including 1 5 0 0 m
current large civil aircraft, such factors as the
possibility of 19 km/h (10 kt) less than I 200 m
longer direct flights and relegation of currentlarge aircraft
to secondary routes, with a need for runway extension and An exception to the above forrunways 1 500 m or over is
development, requires consideration. that when poor runwaybraking action owing toap
insufficient longitudinal coefficient of friction is experi-
5.2.4 For long-term planning detailed runway length enced with some frequency, a cross-wind component not
requirements cannot bedefined with certainty. Never- exceeding 24 km/h (13 kt) should be assumed.
theless, planning would be seriously deficient unless
reasonable provision were made for the future. Adequate 5.2.9 After
the maximum permissible cross-wind
landshould be acquired or protected to provide for component is selected, the mostdesirabledirection of
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possible ultimate
runway
development, including runways for wind coverage can
be
determined by
protection of approachesand provision for associated examination of the wind characteristics for the following
visual and radionavigation (non-visual) aids. When conditions:
consideringlong-termrequirements, advice should be
obtained from the aircraft operators regarding their future a) The entire wind coverage regardless of visibility or
aircraft operating characteristics. Although itis possible cloud ceiling; and
that all the land reserved for long-term use may not be
required, errors of underestimation may prove insoluble. b) Wind conditions when ceiling is between 60 m and
300 m and/or the visibility is between 0.8 km and
Runway Orientation 4.8 km.
5.2.5 Annex 14, Chapter 3 and Attachment A, The first condition represents the entire range of visibility,
provides details of variousaspectsconcerningrunway from excellent to very poor. The next condition represents
orientation. various degrees ofpoor visibility requiring the use of
instruments for landing. It is importantto know the
5.2.6 In broad terms, runways should be oriented so strength of the winds when the visibility is restricted.
thataircraftarenot directedoverpopulated areasand Normally when the visibility approaches 0.8 km and the
obstructions are avoided. Subject to all other factors being ceiling is 60 m, there is very little wind present, the visi-
equal theyshould be oriented in the direction of the bility being reduced by fog, haze, smoke, or smog.
prevailing wind when it blows consistently fromone Sometimes the visibility may be extremely poor, yet there
direction. is no distinct cloud ceiling; for that matter, noclouds need
be present at all.Examples of thiscondition are fog,
5.2.7 As a general rule, theprimaryrunway atan smoke, smog, haze, etc.
airport should be oriented as closely as practicable in the
direction of the prevailing winds. When landing and taking 5.2.10 The “95 per cent” criterion recommended by
off, aircraft are able manoeuvre
to on a runway as long as ICAO is applicable to all conditions of weather; never-
the wind component at right angles to the direction of theless, itis still useful to examinethe data in parts
travel
(defined as cross-wind) is not excessive. The whenever this is possible.

I C A O 9184 P A R T * L ** 4 8 4 1 4 L b 0 0 5 8 5 5 2 222
5.2.1 1 Weather records can usually be obtained from data for all conditionsof visibility arethose shown in
government weather bureaux. The velocities are generally Table 5-1. From these data a wind rose can be plotted as
divided into 22.5 degree increments (16 points of the shown in Figure 5-1.
compass). The weather records contain the percentage of
time certain combinations of ceiling and visibility occur 5.2.14 The percentage of winds which corresponds to
(e.g. ceiling, 500 to 274 rn; visibility, 4.8 to 9.7 km), and a given direction and velocity range is marked in the proper
the percentage of time winds of specified velocity occur sector on the wind rose. Optimum runway directions can
frcrn different directions, (e.g. NNE, 4.8 to 8.5 km/h (2.6 be determined from the wind rose by the use of a strip of
:o 4.6 kt)). The directions are ir! reference to true north. transparent material on which three parallel and equally
spaced lines have been plotted. The middle line represents
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5.2.12 Often wind data for an entirely new location therunway centre line, andthe distance between the
have not been recorded. If that is the case,records of outside lines is, to scale, twice the allowable cross-wind
nearby measuring stationsshould beconsulted. If the component (in the example, 48 km/h or 26 kt).
surroundingarea is fairly level, the records of these
stationsshould indicate the winds atthe site of the 5.2.15 Thetransparentstrip is placedover the wind
proposed airport. If the terrain is hilly, however, the wind rose in sucha manner that the centre line on the strip
pattern is oftendictated by thetopography,and it is passes through the centreof the wind rose. With the centre
dangerous to utilize the records of stations some distance of the wind rose as a pivot point, the transparent overlay
from the site. In that event, a study of the topography of is rotated until the sum of the percentages included
the region and consultation with long-time residents may between the outside lines is a maximum. When one of the
prove useful. outside lines on the transparent strip divides a segment of
wind direction, the fractional part is estimated visually to
5.2.13 The directions of the runways can
be the nearest 0.1 per cent. This procedure is consistent with
determined graphically as follows. Assume that the wind the accuracy of the wind data.
Table 5-1. Wind data
Percentage of winds
7-24 km/h 26-37 km/h 39-76 km/h
direction
Wind (4-13 kt) (14-20 kt) (21-41Total
kt)
N 4.8 1.3 0.1 6.2
NNE 3.7 0.8 ___ 4.5
NE 1.5 0.1 ___ 1.6
0.3 ENE 2.3 --- 2.6
0.4 E 2.4 ___ 2.8
ESE 5 .O 1.1 --- 6.1
SE 6.4 3.2 0.1 9.7
7.7 SSE 7.3 0.3 15.3
S 4.4 2.2 0.1 6.7
ssw 2.6 0.9 ___ 3.5
0.1 sw 1.6 --- 1.7
0.4 wsw 3.1 --- 3.5
W 1.9 0.3 --- 2.2
W NU' 5.8 2.6 0.2 8.6
2.4 NW 4.8 0.2 7.4
NNW 7.8 4.9 0.3 13.0
Calms - ( 0 6 km/hr (0-3 kt)) 4.6
Total 100.0

Part I . Master Planning 1-3 7
5.2.16 The next step is to read the bearing of the to the percentage segment between the 19 km/h (10 kt)
runway on the outerscale of the wind rose where the centre circle and the 24 km/h (13 kt) paral!el lines and added to
line on the transparent strip crosses the direction scale. the percentage lying within the 19 kmih (10 kt) circle.
Because true north is used for published wind data, this
bearing usually willbe differentfromthat used in Low visibility wind analysis
numberingrunways which are based onthe magnetic
bearing. In reference to Figure 5-1, it will be noted that a 5.2.18 The next step is to examine wind data during
runwayoriented 150 te 330 degrees (S30"E true) will the restricted visibility conditions cited previously and plot
permit operations 95 per cent of the time with the cross- a wind rose for this condition. From this analysis it can be
wind components not exceeding 24 km/h or 13 kt. ascertained whether the runways are capable of accepting
aircraft at least 95 per cent of the time when restricted
5.2.17 Thus far the procedure has been illustrated as visibility conditions prevail. The analysis will also yield
it applies to wind records with a velocity break at 24 km/h information on thepercentage of the total time each of the
or 13 kt. However, it can also be used to obtain estimates conditionsprevails. An example of theformon which
of wind coverage for any other velocity break. The restricted visibility data are
tabulated is shown in
concentric circles on the wind rose are drawn to scale and Figure 5-2. Figure 5-2 represents observations of winds in
represent breaks in the wind velocity data. Suppose the one compassdirection only, in this instance fromthe
break was at 19 km/h instead of 24 km/h (10 kt instead of northeast.Thetotalnumber of observations for all
13 kt). Then the twoparallel lines representing the 24 km/h compass directions is 24 081, of which 1 106 are for winds
or 13 kt maximum allowable cross-wind component would from the northeast.To complete the analysis, charts of this
not be tangent to the 19 km/h or 10 kt circle but would lie type would have to be plotted for
other compass
outside of it. Anestimate must then be made of the directions. For the purpose of the example it was assumed
fractional percentage segment between the 19 km/h (10 kt) that a ceiling of 290 m was equivalent to 300 m. Thecircled
circle ahead of the 24 km/h (13 kt) parallel lines and added number 7 means that there were seven observations made
A 4.6% calm s, Om6 kmlh
Figure 5-1. Typical wind rose
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I C A O 9384 P A R T Y 3 YY 484l14Lb 0 0 5 8 5 5 4 O T 5
1-38 Airport Pianning Manual
I NE wind Total observations: 24 081 1+

Visibility - metres
Ceiling Velocity
groups groups Total
in metres in km 0-400 400.~800 8 0 0 . ~ 1200 1 200-1 600 1 600-2 400 2 400m4 800 4 800+ obs.
10 I 4 I 14
% by
velocity
1 1.6-7 km
10
Observations to be considered because of ceiling conditions

1 8-15 krn
19 1 16-23 km
12 I 24-47 km
5 I 48km I I /
-h Observations to beconsidered because of visibilityconditions
Observations to be considered because of ceiling and visibility conditions
Figure 5-2. Sample o f data for analysing wind coverage in a specific direction
during periods of restricted visibility
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~~ ~
I C A O 9144 P A R T * 1 ** 48414Lb 0058555 T 3 L
Part 1. Master Pluming 1-39

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when the wind was fromthenortheast with velocities variations in weather pattern, prevailing winds, fog,
varying from 8-15 km/h (4t o 8 kt), ceiling between 0 and low cloud, rainfall, snow, turbulence, etc.
30 m, andvisibility between 0 and 400 m. The crosshatched
area
conformsto
the ceiling and visibility criteria Accessibility to ground transport- note the location
previously cited. of roads, railways, and public transport routes.
Number of Runways Availability of land for expansion of an existing

airport or fora new airport - availability of suitable
5.2.19 Annex 14, Chapter 3 and AttachmentA, landforthefutureexpansionofanairport is
contains information regarding the factors affecting the necessary. Study aeronautical, land, road and topo-
number of runways. A sufficient number of runways is graphical maps and aerial photographs, etc. Study
required to meet the forecast aircraft traffic demand, i.e. topographical maps to ascertain areas with suitable
the number of aircraft, mixture of aircraft types and the slopes and drainage. Review geological maps
mixture of arrivals and departures to be accommodated in showing distribution of soil and rock types.
one hour during the busiest periods. Ascertain location and availability of construction
materials,quarries, etc.
Ascertain
general land
5.2.20 The 95 per cent usability specified in Annex 14 values forvariousareasand usage (residential,
with regard to surface cross-wind velocity is a minimum. agricultural, pastoral, industria1, etc.).
At busy airports, an inability to operate for the remaining
period of 5 per cent, potentially 18 days per year,can Topography - note significant factors affectingcost
represent
serious
a disadvantage. Consequently, in of construction such as the need for excavation or
addition to the primary runways, one or more secondary filling, drainage and poor soil conditions,
runways may need to be planned to accommodate aircraft
trafficunderstrong cross-wind conditions.Secondary Environment - note locations of wildlife reserves
runways may be provided where airport maintenance work and migratory areas. Also note noise-sensitive areas
is considered likely to prove disruptive to the regularity of such as schools and hospitals.
air service desired. However, as cross-wind runways would
require to be used only under high headwind components, Presence of otherairports - notelocations of
their length can be considerably shorterthanthemain existing airports and ATS routes together with their
runways. associated airspace and any future plans to change
them.
5.3 EVALUATION OFFACTORS Availability of utilities - notelocations of main

AFFECTING AIRPORT LOCATION power and watersupplies, sewage and gas mains,
telephone services, fuel, etc.
When a general assessmenthas been made of the land area
required, based on a tentative layout capable of satisfying
the airport master plan, collection of background material 5.4 PRELIMINARY STUDY OF
is begun. This information can beequally useful in evalu- POSSIBLE AIRPORT SITES
ating an existing airport site or a potential site for a new
airport. Factors on which information should be collected After the approximate size and type of airport has been
and evaluated include: determinedasin 5.2 andlocationalfactors have been
tabulated asin 5.3,the next step is to analyse these factors,
and having done so, to plot possible new airport sites or
Aviation
activity - consult aircraft
operators, additional land requirements for an existing airport, on
potential operators, and pilot organizations. charts and maps. This preliminary study should eliminate
undesirable sites or determine the adequacy of an existing
Development of surrounding area - contact
site before costly site inspections are undertaken.
planning authorities and agencies to obtain plans of
existing and future land use.
5.5 SITE INSPECTION
Atmospheric conditions - obtain data on presence
of fog, haze, smoke, etc., which may consequently 5.5.1 After listingall the potentia1 sites considered
reduce visibility and the capacity of an airport. List worthy of further investigation, a thorough field and aerial
any speciallocal
weather factors; for example, inspection is required to provide a basis fcr assessment of

I C A O 9184 P A R T r l C
*y 484L4Lb 0 0 5 8 5 5 b 7 7 8
-
1-40 - Airport Planning Manual
:he advantages and disadvantages of eachsite. Airports need t o be avoided. It is important to maintain clearance
should be sited so that aircraft operations can be carried from masts and similar inconspicuous skeletal structures
aut efficiently and safely, so that they are compatible from because,althoughmarking and lighting can assist in
a social viewpoint and so that the cost of development is directingattention to them, it doesnotoffercomplete
kept at the optimum level, taking all factors into account. protectionparticuIariy
during
conditions of reduced
The factors of major importance may be grouped under visibility.
operational, social and cost considerations.
5.5.6 Any objects which limit the available flight path
may limit the efficiency of operations. If tall structures
Operational Considerations exist in, or near, areas otherwise suitable for instrument
approaches, non-standard procedure heights may need to
Airspace beadopted, with consequenteffect on theduration of
approach procedures and the demand of useful altitude
5.5.2 Annex 14 and theProcedures f o r Air Navigation allocations to aircraft in associated holding patterns. Such
Services - Aircraft Operations contain detailed infor- structuresmayfurthermore limit desirable flexibility of
mation on holding and approach-to-land procedures and radar vectored initial approaches and the ability to turn en-
instrument approach systems and aids - procedures and route during the departure climb.
obstacle clearances.
5.5.7 In assessing the potential of any site to provide
5.5.3Adequate airspace is so importantfor
the clear approaches, the approaches should be gauged against
efficient operation of an airport that special attention is the maximum runway lengths envisaged in the master plan.
required t o ascertain that each site is satisfactory in this If the site is suitable for maximum planned lengths, it wili
regard and, if not, to determine the extent and likely effect likely place few restrictions, if any, on earlierphases of the
of any restrictions. A site close to a demand centre butwith plan.
some restrictions on airspace may be preferable to a site
with no airspace restrictions but so remote or difficult of
access that it creates little or notrafficdemand.Such Hazards
factors have to be weighed tc achieve the bestbalance.
5.5.8 Local factors can be important in relation to the
When two airports have to share the same airspace, their
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locationofindividual sites. For instance,industrycan
combinedaircraftmovementratesmaybe restricted.
producesmoke which maybeconcentrated in certain
Instead of being able to operatecompletely independently
directions by the prevailing wind. As a result, visibility in
of each other to the limit of their individual capacities it
someareas
may be
restricted and VFR operations
will be necessary to phase aircraft movements, each airport
precluded. Sites adjacent to wildlife reserves, lakes, rivers
with the other, in order to maintain the necessary physical
and coastal areas, refuse dumps and sewage outfalls, etc.,
separation between aircraft. Therefore, new airports
may not be desirable because of the danger of aircraft
should be located so that any overlap with the airspace
collision with birds. This is of special importance where
required €or aircraftusing other airports, and the resultant
faster, larger aircraft are involved. The location of sites
limitation of total capacity, is minimized. For the same
relative tothemigratorypatternsandroutes of birds,
reason, potential airport sites need to be studied in relation
to ATS routes so that similar problems are avoided. especially large birds such as swans andgeese a!so requires
consideration.The Airport Services Manual, Part 3,
contains detailed informationon assessing thepotential
bird hazard at a site.
Obstacles
5.5.4 Details of obstaclerestrictionrequirementsare Weather

includedin Annex 14, Chapter 4. The Airport Services
Manual, Part 6 - Control of Obstacles, provides further 5.5.9 Weather conditions
can
vary
significantly
information including guidance on obstacle surveys. between sites in the same general area. Wind distribution
in association withvisibility and ceiiing are of primary
5.5.5 In general, because ofthelargeareas of land importance indeciding on runway orientation and the need
involved - 15 km on theaxes of runways from the airport to make provision for operations underall-weather or only
boundary, it is difficult to obtain sites which provide all visual conditions. Particular localitiesmaybe subject to
the clearances desired and, consequently, features such as fogs,turbulence or higher rainfall which can affect the
high terrain, trees and structureswhich constitute obstacles efficiency and regularity of operations.

Approach and landing aids inefficient or inadequate transport systems which do not
permit smooth flow of traffic at all times will necessitate
5.5.10 For details of visual aids, see Annex 14, expenditures to overcome these deficiencies. Locations
Chapter 5 and the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 4. See offering convenient connexion to an adequate
road
Annex 10 for references regarding siting and clearance network, and, as appropriate railways and waterways, are
requirements for radio-navigation (non-visual) aids. Aids preferable, all other factors being equal.
to navigation, approachand landing are an essential
element of the air transportsystem. Non-visual (electronic) 5.5.14 The authorities responsible for
roads
and
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aids for guidance, especially under low cloud ceiling and public transport systems should be informed of any
restricted visibility conditions, are more significant from proposals for construction ofnew airportsandmajor
an airport siting viewpoint because of the clearances extensions to existing airports during the early stages of
required from objects (power lines, large buildings, investigation. Their assistance should be sought in
moving vehicles, etc.), which can affect their reliability of acquiring details of existing facilities and their planned
operation. They have to be sited relative to the airports, development. This will ensure that these authorities are
airspace and aircraft flight paths to be served and potential fully informed andwill establish an environment for future
sites should include suitable areas for their installation. co-operation.
5.5.15 When ground travel times are approximately

Social Considerations equal between several potential sites, the journey cost is a
major factor. The convenience of passengers who travel by
5.5.1 1 Airports need to be sited very carefully relative surface to the airport is also a point for the most careful
toadjacent populated areas,and runways should be consideration. For example, a multi-lane road with limited
aligned so that flight paths do not pass over concentrations cross traffic is obviously preferable to a congested road
of population while aircraftare below certain heights. with numerous traffic lights or anarrowmountainous
However, airports also need to be located adjacent to the road. In addition to private motor vehicles, it is important
towns and commercial areas theyserve. Generally, a to take account of public transport systems such as public
compromise between these two opposing principles will be bus, rail, taxi or, in certain cases, vertical or short take-off
required to obtain the site with the best over-all merit. (V/STOL) aircraft.
Proximity to demand centres Noise
5.5.12 Airports should be conveniently situated in 5.5.16 Aircraft noise in the vicinityof airports is a
terms of travelling time and distance from both existing serious problem. Factors tobe included in airport planning
andfuture population centres and the commercial and include the measurement and description of aircraft noise,
industrial areas whichthey are intended to serve. The land-use control,ground
run-up
and flight noise
location of potential sites requires consideration, abatementoperating procedures, aircraft noise certifi-
therefore,from the over-all viewpoint of passengers, cation,human tolerance to aircraft noise, the effect of
shippers of air cargo, aircraft operators and staff, labour increased traffic and the introduction of future aircraft
force, erc. The acceptability of the location of a site types on noise in the vicinity of airports.
relative to the areas it serves can be measured in terms of
journey time and cost. As a guide to the relative merits of 5.5.17 It is not always feasible to site an airport
individual locations, time contours for the various travel sufficiently far away from population centres to prevent an
modes can be drawn in relation tothe centres of the adverse social reaction. Remotely located airports are both
various areas of demand. For example, by considering unrealistic and costly and defeat the objective of reducing
road transport and the speed lihits on roads connecting over-all door-to-door travel times. It is important,
the areas of demand, time contours in convenient therefore, to obtain or control sufficient land to overcome
increments of, say, 5 to 10 minutes can be plotted for both or reduce the noise problem for both the airport and the
present and future. population. The potential degreeof noise disturbance
needs to be assessedin terms whichwill indicate the
Ground access relationship between the level and duration of the noise
exposure and human reaction.
5.5.13 Fast and convenient access facilities for
passengers and freight are essential for an airportto 5.5.18 In attempting to assess the extent offuture
provide efficient service. Potential
airport sites with noise disturbance at potential sites, the forecast aircraft

movement rate andtiming of airport development, and the should be located so that the cost of development work is
aircraft types and hours during which aircraft operations minimized. Thus, topography, soil and construction
will take place are important. However, long-term materials, availability of services and land values are of
estimates and assessments of noise disturbance can be particular importance.
expected to be somewhat speculative and less reliable than
those for a short term. More detailed information on noise
Topography
evaluation may be found in Annex 16, Volume I -
Aircraft Noise. 5.5.23 Topography is important because the slope of
the terrain, the location and variation of natural features
5.5.19 The noise level produced by aircraft operations such as trees and water courses, andthe existence of
at and aroundthe airport is generally considered a primary structures such as buildings, roads, overhead lines, etc.,
environmental cost associated with the facility. Most noise can affect the requirements for clearing, filling, grading
exposure lies within the land areaimmediately beneath and and drainage. Natural slope and drainage of the land are
adjacent to the aircraftapproachanddeparturepaths. important from a design and construction point of view
Noise levels are generally measured through some because they determine the earthworks and
grading
formulation ofdecibellevel, duration,and number of operations necessary to produce the desired gradients and
occurrences. A large number of noise measuring thus the cost of preparing the site. Terrain which conforms
techniques exist (see Annex 16). Proper site selection and closely to desirable levels and which is well drained may
adjacent land use planning can serve to greatly reduce, if produce significant cost advantages.
not eliminate, the noise problem associated with the
airport. 5.5.24 In areas where tropical diseases are endemic,
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airport planning should include the practical consider-

Land use ations whereby the possibility of disease vectors
penetrating into aircraft is nil, taking into account inter-
5.5.20 The advantages and disadvantages of different nationally accepted mosquito flight ranges. Recommen-
sites will be influenced by the surrounding forms of land dations in this respect are specified in the World Health
use. Airports should be located so thatacompatible Organization’s Guide to Hygiene and Sanitation in
situation is created or preserved and existing forms of land Aviation referring to vector control at airports. To keep
use arenotaffected by aircraftoperations. This may the area within the perimeter of an airport free from aedes
obviate the need for costly land acquisition and facilitate aegypri in their larval and adult stages it is necessary to
the introduction and
administration of land control maintain active anti-mosquito measures within a protective
measures whichmaybe considered necessary to avoid area extending for a distance of at least 400 m around that
noise or obstruction problems. In general, sites with
perimeter. Water areas which cannot be eliminated and
approaches over water, but free of bird hazards, and where may breed mosquitos will need to be treated accordingly.
aids to approach can be installed wherenecessary etc.,
should prove preferable to those locations adjacent to
residential areas. Soil and construction materials
5.5.21 In the case of a potential site where changes of 5.5.25 Classification of natural soils at potential sites
land use are necessary, there may be obvious social is important from a cost viewpoint. General soil surveys
problems and also legal and economic difficulties. and sampling are necessary to allow the mapping of
Purchase or compulsory acquisition with theattendant various soil types and tolocate extensive areas of rock. The
legal technicalities and delays may be necessary in certain location of water supplies is also relevant because their
instances, but
arrangements with theappropriate availability and the distance over which they have to be
authorities to exert control of development to preserve carried will affect the cost of construction. Expert advice
existing compatible land use may offer less of a future should be sought in these matters.
problem. The Airport Planning Manuol, Part 2, provides
more detail on land use. Services
5.5.26 Potentialairport sites should, if possible, be

Cost Considerations adjacent to power and water supplies, sewage and gas
mains, drainage and telephone lines, etc. Availability of
5.5.22 Inorder to achieve suitablereturnsfromthe these servicesmay eliminate the need to provide them
investment necessary for their construction,airports specifically for the airport and so reduce costs.

Land values 5.6.2 Aircraft noise is the most severe environmental
problem to be considered in the development of airport
5.5.27 Airportsrequireadequate space forfuture facilities. Much has been done to quietengines and modify
development andthe value of land is a factortobe flight procedures, which has resulted in substantial
considered. In general the demand forairtransport is reductions in noise. Another effective means for reducing
related to the population it serves, and, as a result, a large noise is through properplanning of land w e for areas
proportion of futureairport development work can be adjacent to the airport.For an existing airport this may be
expected adjacent to metropolitan areas.With the growth difficult as theland may have already been built up. Every
of urban populations, rising standards of living and more effort shouldbe made toorient air trafficaway from built-
extensive road systems, areas occupied by metropolitan up areas.
districts will continue to expand. Land values generally
increase significantly as areas change from rural to urban 5.6.3 Otherimportant environmental factors include
use so that earlyreservation of suitable sites will often air and waterpollution, industrial wastes and domestic
enable airports to be better located and at lower costs. sewage originating at the airport, and the disturbance of
natural environmental values. An airport can be a major
5.5.28 Constructionof new roads and utilities contributorto water
pollution if suitable treatment
required for an airport oftenpass through, or adjacent to, facilities for airport wastes are not provided. The
unused land which then becomes attractive to develop. The environmental study must consider how water pollution is
number of personnel employed at larger airports creates a to be overcome.
demandfor housing and servicing industries which, if
allowed to develop indiscriminately, could adversely affect 5.6.4 The construction of a new airport orthe
the efficiency of the airport. When the suitability of a site expansion of an existing one may have a major impact on
is being considered, unless planning control over the area the natural environment. This is particularly true for large
can be exerted to prevent its development for incompatible developments where streams and major drainage courses
purposes, the question may arise whether adequate land may be changed, the habitats of wildlife disrupted, and
for future development is available. Initial acquisition of wilderness and recreational areas reshaped. The
all land considered necessary safeguards the possibility of environmental study should indicatehow these disruptions
future expansion and may often prove to be the cheapest might be alleviated.
course of action. However, simply comparing the
estimated costsof purchasing land at thepresent and in the
future ignores the important factor of time and is not a
satisfactory basis for deciding whether to buy land in 5.7 REVIEW OF POTENTIAL SITES
advance.Moneypaidimmediately is worthmorethan
money spent in thefuture because if expenditure is At this stage, sufficient information should be available to
deferred,the money can be invested and produce an reduce the number of sites to thosemeriting detailed
immediate return. A sound basis for decisions can be consideration. At this point the planner should review the
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provided by converting future payments to a common time results of the office study andfield investigation. Based on
basis of present worth. Current land values and this review, sites which are unsuitable and which do not
movements in property prices andthe possibility of warrant further examination should be omitted.
housing, industrial,agricultural or other developments
which may increase values require consideration.
5.8 PREPARATION OF OUTLINE PLANSAND

5.6 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY ESTIMATES OF COSTS AND REVENUE
5.6.1 Environmental factors should be carefully Consideration of therelative merits of the remaining sites
considered in the development of a new airport or the requires:
expansion of an existing one, Studies of the impact of the
construction andoperation of a new airportorthe - detailed site surveys, including obstacle surveys;
expansion of an existing one upon acceptable levels of air
and water quality, noise levels, ecological processes, and - preparation of outline airport layouts for each site;
demographic development of the area must be conducted
to determine how theairport requirementscan best be - preparation of broad cost estimates covering the
accommodated. totalcapitalandoperating expenditurerequired

including all associated off-airport items such as determine cost-benefit ratios which serve as a guide to the
access roads, communications to population centres, value of the project and the choice of the best site.
planning control of surrounding areas and estimates
of annual percentage changes in land values for the 5.9.3 Two different types of cost-benefit analysis are
probable life of theairport;andtheanticipated necessary - an operationalcost-tenefit analysis and a
phasing of expenditure. social cost-benefit analysis. The final evaluation requires
a n assessment based on the comparison of operational,
social and cost efficiencies:
- when expansion or abandonment of existing sites is
in question, the determinationof the depreciated and
Operational:
current values of any existing installations together
with the value of all otheroff-airport associated
- land availability;
assets including easements, public utilities, noise
- airspace availability;
zones, etc.
- effect of any restrictions on operational
efficiency;
- potential capacity.
5.9 FINAL EVALUATION

Social:
5.9.1 At this stage when a number of alternative sites
- proximity to demand centres;
are under consideration, the question of cost plays a large
- adequacy of ground access;
part in the final choice. If all potential sites were of equal
- potential noise problems;
merit, logical decisions would be possible on the basis of
- current land use and need for control measures.
least cost. Unfortunately, a clear-cut situation does not
normally arise in practice and it is usually necessary for
cost:
varying degrees of advantageanddisadvantageto be
weighed before reaching a decision. Economic factors are
- cost-benefit analysis.
of great importance because the rate and patternof growth
of an economy are influenced not only by the levelof
capital investment but by the manner in which capital is
used. Generally, capital is scarce and can be employed in 5.10 REPORT AND RECOMMENDATiONS
a number of alternative ways. Capital can be wasted by
diversion to uneconomic uses but when employed intelli- A comprehensive reportsupported by drawings, etc.,
gently and efficiently, a lesser amount may achieve a given should be prepared, containing:
result.
1) the results of the site inspection and evaluation;
5.9.2 The authority responsible for financing airport
development may face at a n y time requests to increase 2 ) ranking of sites in order o f merit, supported by
expenditure for many other purposes. Whatever the reasons for selection; and
intrinsic merit of individual projects when considered in
isolation, the problem which often occurs is that not all 3) recommendations for further action.
proposals can be accommodated simultaneously within the
over-all finances available. Proposals for expenditure on
airports need to be considered on their own merits, but it References
may also be necessary to consider them against the relative
merits of competing proposals. The need for cost effec- Annex 10 - Aeronautical Telecommunications.
tiveness has led to increasing attention being given to the
measurement and weighing of benefits and costs through Annex 14 - Aerodromes.
the technique known as cost-benefit analysis. Cost-benefit
studies endeavour to compare benefits from projects with Annex 16 - Environmental Protection.
their costs in a way which overcomes the difficulties
associated with the time phasing of theproject. By Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157).
analysing the estimated stream of benefits and costs over
the anticipated useful life of the airport it is possible to Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137).
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I C A O 9 L B q PART*:L ** m 484L4Lb 0058563 235 m
PANS-OPS - Aircraft Operations (Doc 8168). “Planning

and Design
of Airports”, 3rd Edition, Robert
Horonjeff and Francis X. McKelvey, 1983, McGraw-Hill
“Airport Master Plans”, U.S. Federal Aviation Book Company.
Administration, AC 150/5070-6A, June 1985.
“Airport Planning Manual”,Part 2 - Land-Use and “Airplane Characteristics”, Manuals published by all
Environmental Control,
ICAO Doc 9184, Second airframe manufacturers, detailing aircraft size,
Edition, 1985. dimensions, operations, etc.
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I C A O S L B 4 PART*:L ** 484111Lb 0058562 171 =
SECTION TWO - AIR SIDE DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTORY NOTES runways and taxiways are the first to be considered. After
determination of the dimensional criteria, pavement
strength,and airfieldcapacity andconfiguration,other
Before plans can be developed for facilities for the many
elements of the air side of the airport, namely, the apron
functional requirements which anairporthasto meet,
and navigation and traffic control aids arecovered in turn.
concepts for the various operational systems have to be
considered andcompared.Atthe earliest stagesome The forecasts will have indicated the rate of aircraft
concepts for individual systems may be incompatible but movements for which theairport shouldprovide, the
among
those which are compatible
the
optimum nature of the traffic,type of aircraft, and the other factors
combination canonly be determined asthe individual
which have to be taken into accountin planning the layout
plans and the master plan develop in parallel.
and dimensions of the runways, access taxiways, and
aprons. When over-all layoutsfor runway and taxiway
The principal factorsto beconsidered are outlined systems and aprons have been developed, all the possible
herein butsome aspects of the plan mayrequire more primary schemes should be considered in conjunction with
detailed and intensive study with reference to local passenger and cargo buildings and aircraft maintenance
conditionsandotherfactors. Because of their physical areas so as to choose the best schemes and to identify the
characteristics andthe landrequired and all theother areas where compromise may be necessary to integrate the
factors which affect them and limit free choice of layout, planning of the individual facilities.
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I C A O 9L8q PART*cL *X 9 8 4 1 4 L b 0058563 008
Chapter 6. RUNWAYS AND TAXIWAYS
6.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER 6.2 RUNWAY AND TAXIWAY

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
6.1.1 The statement of policies and long-term

forecasts provide a broad guide to identification of the Dimensional Criteria
facilities necessary to meet the future demands on the air
transport system. Although the demand is defined basi-
cally in terms of passenger and cargo, it has to be expressed Runways
in various forms depending on the particular element of
the airport under consideration. Considerations of airport 6.2.1 In order to provide a guide for airport planners
layout
are necessary to produce a framework to andacertainamount of uniformity in airport landing
accommodate the
major facilities required, including facilities, criteria have been established by ICAO
provision for their expansion. Schemes for an airport (Annex 14). Any criteria involving widths and gradients of
should be restricted to the optimum stage of development runways andotherfeatures of thelandingarea must
so that large additional costs are not incurred without incorporate wide variations in aircraft performance, pilot
producing comparable advantages. However, subject to technique, and weather conditions.
this provision, planning should provide, unless there are
good reasons to the contrary, for development up to the 6.2.2 Forthepurpose of identifying standardsfor
practical limit of capacity of an individual airport site. various sizes of airportsand the functions they serve,
reference codes have been developed. The intent of the
reference code is to provide a simple method for inter-
6.1.2 Because of the large land area and airspace relating thenumerous specifications concerning design
requirements, runways and their associated taxiways serve characteristics so as to provide a series of airport facilities
asastartingpointfor consideration of airportlayout. that are matched to the aeroplanes that can operate on the
They have to be planned, however, in relation to the other runway. The basis for the code is the runway basic length,
majoroperating elements such as passenger andcargo and wing span and wheel span of aircraft as shown in
areas including apronsand buildings, vehicle parking, Table 6-1.
ground access and air traffic services, with the objective of
maintaining all parts of the system in balance. This is a 6.2.3 Runways are normally identified by the
process requiring continuing reviews and adjustments in following principal elements:
order to produce anairportconfigurationofferingthe
maximum over-all efficiency. Since runways and taxiways the
a) structural pavement which supports the
are the least flexible oftheairport elements, they are aeroplane load;
considered first.
b) the shoulders adjacent to the structural pavement,
which are designed to resist erosion due to jet blast
6.1.3 A substantial body of information exists on the andto accommodate maintenance equipment and
subject of planning and designof airport runways and patrol;
taxiways. The information contained in this chapter serves
the purpose of informing the airport planner on matters c) the runway strip, which includes thestructural
pertaining to dimensional criteria, pavement strength, pavement, shoulders, and an areathat is cleared,
runway length, andairport capacity. It illustrates the drained, and graded. This area should be capable of
relationship and importance of these elements in the over- supportingfire,crash, rescue, and snow removal
all airport master planning process. Formore detailed equipment under normal conditions as well as
information, the reader is referred to Annex 14 and the providing support for aircraft in case they veer off
Aerodrome Design Manual, Parts 1 and 2. the pavement;
1-47
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Table 6-1. Aerodrome referencecode
CODE ELEMENT I CODE ELEMENT 2

Code Aeroplane reference Code Outer main gear
number field length fetter Wing span wheel span0
(3) (4) (5)
1 Less than 800 m A Up to but not Up to but not

including 15 m including 4.5 m
2 800 m up to but not B I5 m up to not

but 4.5 rn up to not
but
including I 200 m including 24 m including 6 m
3 1 200 rn up to but
not C 24 m up to not
but 6 rn up to but not
including 1 800 m including 36 m including 9 m
4 1 800 m and over D 36 m up to but not 9 m up to not

but
including 52 m including 14 rn
E 52 m up to but not 9 m up to but not

including 65 m including 14 rn
a. Distance between the outside edges of the main gear wheels.
the blast pad, which is an area designed to prevent mass of aircraft by using the length of the runway
erosion of surfaces adjacent to the endsof runways plus the length of the stopway to calculate the total
which are subjected to sustained or repeated jet length of pavementavailablein the event ofan
blast. This area is either paved or planted with turf; aborted take-off. A detailed description of stopway
requirements can be found in the Aerodrome Design
Manual, Part 1.
the runway end safety area is an area intended to
reduce
accidents of
aircraft undershooting or
overrunning the runway.Some of the
runway g) A clearway is an unobstructed, unpaved area also
specifications adopted by ICAO are summarized in beyond the end of the runway which is controlled
Table 6-2. For additional information the planner is andmaintained by theairport
authority. By
directed to Annex 14 andthe Aerodrome Design designating an area off the end of the runway as a
Manual, Part 1. clearway an aircraft
operator can increase
the
allowable take-off mass of an aircraft because the
climb rate requirement of the aircraft can be reduced
a stopway is an additionallength of pavement which because the operator is assured that no obstructions
extends beyond the end of the runway. The stopway exist in the clearway.Adetaileddescription of
pavement must have adequate strength to support clearway requirements can be found in the
occasional aircraft loadings. The length of the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 1. It should be
stopway is not included in the published length of the noted. that the use of clearways and stopways in
runway; however, the airport authority can specify determining allowable take-off mass for an aircraft
that the stopway may be used by aircraft operators is not common operatingprocedure for most aircraft
to determinethe allowabletake-off mass foran operators; however, they can be effective methods
aircraft.Theadditional take-offpavementlength for increasing allowable take-off mass under certain
will permit aircraft-operators toincrease the take-off conditions.
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Part 1 . Master Planning 1-49
Table 6-2. Runway and runway strip specifications
Code number
I 2 3 4
Width of runway
Code letter A 18 m 23 m 30 rn -
Code letter B 18 m 23 m 30 m -
Code letter C 23 m 30 m 30 rn 45 m
Code letter D - - 45 rn 45 m
Code letter E - - - 45 m
Width of runway plus shoulders Where the code letter is D or E, the over-all width of
the runway and its shoulders shall not be less than 60 rn
Runway
maximum longitudinal slope 1.5% 1.5% 1.25 vo 1.25%
maximum effective gradient 2 Qo 2 070 1vo 1Qo
maximum longitudinal slope change 2 070 2 070 1.5% 1.5%
maximum transverse slope 2% where the code letter is A or B; and 1.5% where
the code letter is C , D, or E
Width of runway strip

precision and non-precision runway 150 m 150 m 300 m 300 m
non-instrument runway 60m 80 m 150 m 150 m
Strip
maximum longitudinal slope 2 Yo 2 070 1.75% 1.5%
maximum transverse slope 3 YO 3yo 2.5% 2.5%
Taxiways taxiways can be placed at right angles to the runway or at

some other angIe. When the angle is 25 to 45 degrees, the
6.2.4 Since the speeds of aircrafton taxiways are term rapid exit taxiway is used to denote thatit is designed
considerably less than onrunways, dimensional criteria are for higher speeds than other exit taxiway configurations. It
notasstringentasfor runways. Also the lowerspeeds is important to provide a straight distance after the turn-
permit the width of taxiways to be less thanthat of off curve on a rapid exit taxiway to allow an exiting
runways.Taxiway width standards
are described in aircraft to come to a full stop clear of any intersecting
Table 6-3. taxiway or runway.
6.2.5 Taxiway shouldersareconstructed because jet 6.2.7 The location of exit taxiways depends on themix
blast from taxiing aircraft cause the areas adjacent to the of aircraft, the approach and touchdown speeds, the exit
taxiways toerode.The requirement to buildtaxiway speed, the rate of deceleration, which in turn depends on
shoulders will depend on the frequency of jet operation, the condition of the pavement surface (wet or dry) and the
the condition of the soil, and the cost of maintaining the number of exits. The rapidity and the manner in which air
grassareasadjacenttothe taxiways. More detailed traffic
control
can process arrivals is an extremely
importantfactor in establishing thelocation of exit
discussion of taxiway shoulders can be found in Annex 14
and the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 2 . taxiways. The location of exit taxiways is aiso influenced
by the locationof the runways relative to the terminal area.
6.2.6 The function of exit taxiways, or turnoffs, is to 6.2.8 In over-all taxiway

system
planning efforts
minimize runway occupancy time by landingaircraft. Exit should be made to avoid unnecessarytaxiingsince this
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I C A O 9 3 8 4 PART*L ** = 4 8 4 1 4 L b 0 0 5 8 5 6 6 817
2-50 Manual Airport Planning
Table 6-3. Taxiwaywidth
Over-all width of
taxiway and its
Code letter Taxiway width shoulders
~~~~ ~
A 7.5 m -
B 10.5 m -
C 15 m if the taxiway is intended to be used by 25 m

aeroplanes with a wheel base less than 18 m;
18 m if the taxiway is intended to be used by aeroplanes
with a wheel base equal t o or greater than 18 m
D 18 m if the taxiway is intended to be used by aeroplanes 38 rn

with an outer main gear wheel span of less than 9 m;
23 m if the taxiway is intended to be used by aeroplanes
with an outer main gear wheel span equal to or greater
than 9 m
E 23 m 44m
N O te.- A bove figures are for straight portion of a taxiway.
increases taxiing time, fuel consumption and aircraft wear, normally muchsmallerin size. Inorderto presenta
and extremely long distances may result in dangerous high perspective of the variety of aircraft which make up the
temperature tire conditions. airline fleet, Table 6-4 summarizes their principal charac-
teristics in terms of size, mass, capacity, and necessary
Pavement Strength runway length. The list is by no means complete, but it
does include the principal aircraft in use. In asimilar
6.2.9 The operation of an aircraft cannot be under- manner some typical general aviation aircraft (including
taken with safety, in so farasground handling is those used for corporatepurposes) are shownin Table 6-5.
concerned, without full knowledge of the loading charac- It is important to recognize that such items as operating
teristics of the aircraft and the load bearing properties of mass empty, passenger capacity, and runway length can be
theairport pavement on which it is tooperate.The approximated only in a very general way since there are
evaluation of pavements is a very complex process, with many variables which can affect these items.
several possible analytical approaches; these are described
in the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 3. 6.2.11 The characteristics shown in Tables 6-4 and 6-5
are important in the following manner for the design of
airports:
Aircraft Characteristics, Performance and
Runway Length a) Mass. Aircraft mass is important for determining the
thickness of runway, taxiway, and apronpavements.
Aircraft characteristics
b) Size. The wingspan and the fuselage length influence
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6.2.10 A general knowledge of aircraft is essential in the size of parking aprons which in turn influences
planning facilities for their use. Aircraft used in airline theconfiguration of the passenger buildings. Size
operations have passenger capacities ranging from 20 to also dictates width of runways and taxiways as well
over 500. General aviation aircraft, on the other hand, are as distances between these traffic ways.

I C A O 9184 P A R T * Z ** m 484141b0058567753 m
Part 1. Masrer Planning 1-51
Table 6-4. Characteristics of principaltransportaircraft
~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~
Max. structural Max. landing No. and type No. of

Aircraft Manufacturer Wingspan Length takeoff mass mass seats2of engine1
(kg) (kg) (m) (m)
A-300 Airbus lndustrie 44.83 54.08 165 Do0 138 000 2TF 267-375
A-310 Airbus lndustrie 43.89 44.66 153 000 123 000 2TF 210-280
8707-1208 Boeing 39.88 44.22 116 727 86 183 4TF 137-174
8707-3208 Boeing 43.41 46.61 151 318 67 132 4TF 141-189
87208 Boeing 39.88 41.68 106 277 79 379 4TF 131-149
8727-200 Boeing 32.92 46.69 76 657 68 039 2TF 134-163

8737-200 Boeing 28.35 30.48 45 586 44 452 2TF 86-125
8737-300 Boeing 28.88 32.18 61 220 51 700 2TF 122-149
B747SP Boeing 59.64 53.82 294 835 204 117 4TF 288-364
8747-1008 Boeing 59.64 69.80 351 534 255 826 4TF 362-513
8747-300 Boeing 59.64 69.80 340 100 255 800 4TF 522-624
8747-400 Boeing (62. )3 (69.8)a (386 000)3 N.A. 4TF N.A.
8757-200 Boeing 38.06 46.97 108 800 89 800 2TF 178-217
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8767-200 Boeing 47.57 47.24 142 900 123 400 2TF 216-290
8767-300 Boeing 47.57 54.94 159 210 136 070 2TF 254-312
BAC 111-200 BAC4 26.97 28.19 35 834 31 298 2TF 65-79

BAe 146-100 BAe 26.34 26.19 37 308 32 817 4TF 82-93
BAe 146-200 BAe 26.34 28.60 40 579 35 154 4TF 82-109
Caravelle-B Aerospatiale 34.29 32.99 56 001 49.501 2TF 86-104
Concorde BAC Aerospatiale 25.55 61.65 176 447 108 862 4T 108-128
Dash 7 De Havilland 28.35 24.58 19 958 19 051 4TP 48-52

Canada
DC-10-10 Douglas 47.35 55.55 195 045 164 881 3TF 270-345
DC-10-30/40 Douglas 50.39 55.35 251 744 182 798 3TF 270-345
DC-8-61/71 Douglas 43.41 57.12 147 418 108 862 4TF 196-259
DC-8-62/72 Douglas 45.23 46.18 158 757 108 862 4TF 189
DC-8-63/73 Douglas 45.23 57.12 161 025 117 027 4TF 196-259
DC-9-32 Douglas 28.44 36.37 48 988 44 906 2TF 115-127
DC-9-50 Douglas 28.44 40.23 54 431 49 895 2TF 130
F-27-500 Fokker 29.00 25.06 20 41 2 19 051 2TP 52-60
F-28-6000 Fokker 25.07 27.40 33 112 31 300 2TF 65-85
Ilyushin-62 USSR 43.21 53.11 161 937 105 233 4TF 168-186
L-1011 Lockheed 47.35 53.75 195 045 162 386 3TF 256-330
M D 81 Douglas 32.87 45.06 63 503 58 060 2T F 115-172
MD 82 Douglas 32.87 45.06 67 812 58 967 2TF 115-172
MD 83 Douglas 32.87 45.06 72 575 63 276 2TF 155-172
MO 87 Douglas 32.87 39.75 63 503167 812* 58 06(3/58 967' 2TF 109-130

Mercure Dassault 30.53 33.99 52 000 49 002 2TF 124-134
Super VC-I 0 BAC4 42.67 52.32 151953 107 501 4TF 100-163
Trident 2E Hawker Siddley 29.87 34.98 65 091 51 256 3T F 82-1 15
Ttipolev-154 USSR 37.54 47.90 90 000 84 000 3TF 128-158
1. T = turbojet; TF = turbofan; TP = turboprop

2. Approximatenumber of seats;dependsonseating configuration andlocation of galleys
3.Preliminary figures only
4. British Aircraft Corporation
Optional

I C A O 918Y P A R T * % X* 4 8 4 1 4 1 b 00585L8 b9T
Table 6-5. Characteristics of general aviation and commuter aircraft
Max. take-off Max. no. of No. and type Runway

Aircraft Wingspan Length mass seats’ of engirlez length3
(m) (m) (kg) (m)
Beech 23-Musketeer(s) 9.98 7.62 997.90 4 1P 420
BeechV35-Bonanza 10.19 8.03 1 542.21 6 1P 400
Beech 58-Baron 11.53 9.07 3 073.09 6 2P 7254
Beech 880-Queen Air 15.32 10.82 3 991.61 11 2P 550
BeechB2OO-Super King Air 16.61 13.34 5 670.00 8674 15 2TP
BeechModel 1 900 16.61 17.63 7 530.00 21 2TP 994

Bellanca 260C 10.41 6.99 1 360.78 4 1P 305
Cessna 150 9.96 7.01 725.75 2 1P 420
Cessna 172 Skyhawk 10.90 8.20 1 043.26 4 1P 465
Cessna 180 Skylane 10.92 8.53 1 338.10 4 1P 410
Cessna T310 8.99 11.25 2 494.76 6 2P 545

CessnaConquest I I 15.04 11 .a9 4 468.00 11 2TP 751
CessnaCitation 111 16.31 16.90 9 525.00 11 2TF 1 435
Dassault-JetFalcon20T 16.54 18.29 13 199.54 28 2TF 1 350
Gulfstream II 20.98 24.36
22 081.56 26 2TF 1 240
Lear Jet 25 10.85 14.50 6 803.89 8 2T 1 580

Lockheed Jet Star 16.59 18.42 19 050.88 12 4T 1 490
North American Sabreliner-60 13.54 14.73 9 071.85 12 2T 1 485
Piper PA-23-250 Aztec 11.33 9.22 2 358.68 6 2P 380
Piper PA180 Cherokee Archer 9.75 7.32 1 110.00 4 1P 495
PiperPA-28R-201Cherokee
Arrow 111 10.67 7.62 1 247.00 4 1P 488
Piper Twin Comanche
7.67 C 10.97 1 632.93 6 2P 570
Piper PA-31T2 12.40 11.18 4 297.00 a 2TP 896
Piper PA-42 14.53 23 13 5 080.00 9284 11 2TP
Piper T 1040 12.52 11.18 4 082.00 11 2TP a08
1. Number of seats includes pilot

2. P = piston engine; T = turbojet: TF = turbofan; TP = turboprop
3. Maximumdistance in nearest 5 m to reachheight of 15 m for take-off or land from height of 15 rn
4. Landing length governs
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~~
I C A O 9384 P A R T * L ** 4 8 4 1 4 1 b 0058569 52b
c) Capacity. The passenger capacity has an important main engine. A fan can be thought of as a small-diameter
bearingon facilities within andadjacent to the propeller driven by the turbine of the mainengine. Nearly
passenger building. all airline transport aircraft arenow powered by turbofan
engines for the reason just cited.
d) Runway IengtkThe length of runway influences a

large partof the land area required at an airport. The
Aircraft performance
lengthsprovided inTables 6-4 and 6-5 areonly
approximate. For more precise values appropriate 6.2.14 The factors which have a bearing on runway
references listed at the end of this chapter should be length may be grouped into three general categories:
consulted. It is also of
utmost
importance to
determine specificair carrier requirements atthe 1) performance requirements imposed by the govern-
earliest possible date. ment on aircraft manufacturers and operators;
6.2.12 An examination of Tables 6-4 and 6-5 reveals 2) environment at the airport;
the following. Maximum take-off mass of principal airline
aircraft varies from 33 0oO to 351 OOO kg. For small 3) those items which establish the operating take-off
general aviation aircraft the range in mass is from 900 to and landing gross mass for each aircraft type.
3 600 kg, while corporateaircraftvaryfrom 6 800 to
25 800 kg. The maximum number of passengers carried by
airline aircraft varies from 20 to over 500. On the other 6.2.15 Certain conditions at the airport also influence
hand, smallgeneral aviationaircraft seat from 2 to runway length. The more important of these conditions
6 people, andcorporateaircraftfrom less than 10 to are:
nearly 30 persons depending on the configuration of the
interior. Runway lengths for typical airline aircraft vary a) Temperature. The higher the temperature,
the
from 2 100 to 3 600 m, but it is important to note that it longer therunway requiredbecause high temperatures
is not valid to assumethatthe larger the massof an reflect lower air densities,resulting in lower outputof
aircraft, the longer the runway length required. For large thrust. For a more detaileddiscussion of temperature
aircraft, especially, thetrip length has an influence on effect on aircraftperformanceand
definition of
take-offmass andalsotherequiredrunway length. “aerodrome reference temperature” refer to Annex 14 and
Therefore in the analysis of runway length requirements, the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 1.
an estimate oftrip length is very important.Runway
lengths for small general aviation aircraft seldom exceed b) Surface wind. Thegreaterthe headwind down a
600 m, while for corporate aircraftthey are about 1 500 m. runway the shorter the length, and conversely, a tailwind
increases the length ofrunwayrequired.Forairport
planning purposes, it is desirable to use no wind, particu-
6.2.13 In Tables 6-4 and 6-5, aircraft are referred to larly if only light winds occur at the airport site.
according to the type of propulsion and thrust-generating
medium. The term
“piston engine”
applies to all c) Runway slope. An uphill gradient requires more
propeller-driven aircraft powered by gasoline-fed runway length than a level or downhill gradient;the
reciprocating engines. Most small general aviation aircraft specific amount depends on the elevation of the airport
are powered by piston engines. The term “turboprop” andthetemperature. Reference should be made to the
refers to propeller-driven aircraft powered by turbine average correctionfactors in Annex 14. Forairport
engines. A few twin-engine general aviation aircraft and a planningpurposesonly, Annex 14 uses an“average
few of the earlier airlineaircraftare powered in this longitudinal slope” defined as the difference in elevation
manner.Theterm“turbojet”has reference to those between the highest and lowest points on the actual runway
aircraft which are not dependent on propellers for thrust, centre line divided by the length of the runway.
but which obtain the thrust directly from a turbine engine.
The early jet airline aircraft, particularly the Comet,B707 d) Airport altitude. All other things being equal, the
and DC-8, were powered by turbojet engines, but these higher the altitude of the airport, the longer the runway
were discarded in favour of turbofan engines principally required. For planning purposes an increase from sea level
because the latter are far moreeconomical. When a fan is of 7 per cent/300 m of altitude will suffice for most airport
added in the frontor rear of a turbojet engine, it is referred sites except those that experience very hot temperatures or
to as a “turbofan”. Most fans are installed in front of the are located at high altitudes.
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e) Condition of the runway surface. A contaminated Airport temperature 16°C

runway surface will increase the length of runway required Operating mass empty 61 235 kg
for take-off or landing. The specific amount depends on Payload 16 330 kg
the type of contaminant. A study of the climatologicalreserveFuel 5 443 kg
condition will indicate whether water, snow, slush, ice, etc.
may be expected to be frequently found on a runway. Step The operating mass empty is 61 235 kg.
How much these conditions affect runway length can only Step The payload is 16 330 kg.
be approximated; however, “orders of magnitude” can be
beneficial for planning and are therefore presented in that Step The fuel reserve is 5 443 kg.
context.
Step The landing mass is 61 235 + 16 330 + 5 443 =
Run way length determination 83 008 kg. It does not exceed the maximum
structural landing mass which is 97 522 kg.
6.2.16 Compute runway length at airport “A” based
upon an aircraft flight from airport “A” to airport “B” Step 5 Fuel required to climb to cruise altitude is equal to
as follows: 4 5 6 0 kg; to descend to the airport, 545 kg; and to
cruise at an altitude of 9 450 m at a speedof
1) obtain operating mass empty of aircraft; Mach 0.82, 34 020 kg. Total fuel burnout is then
equal to 4 560 + 34 020 + 545 = 39 125 kg.
2) determine payload;
Step 6 The take-off mass is equal to 83 008 + 39 125 =
3) determine fuel reserve; 122 133 kg. This does not exceed the maximum
structural take-off mass, which is 151 3 17 kg.
4) add items I ) , 2) and 3). This is the landing mass of
the aircraft atcity B. This mass should not exceed the Step The airport conditions are listed in the statement
maximum structural landing mass of the aircraft; of the problem.
5 ) compute fuel requirements for climb, cruise, and Step Using the approved flight manual for the
descent; Boeing 707-320B (advanced), check if the climb-
limited mass is less than 122 133 kg. In this case
6) the take-off mass of theaircraft is obtained by it is not and one can determine the runway length
adding item 5) to item 4). This should not exceed the using the airport conditions cited in the problem.
maximum structural take-off mass of the aircraft; The required runway length is 2 135 m.
7) determine temperature, surface wind, runway slope,

and altitude at airport of departure; 6.3. AIRPORT CAPACITY
8) with the data outlined in items 6 ) and 7), and by 6.3.1 The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has
using the approved flight manual for the specific a procedure to compute airport capacity and aircraft delay
aircraft, determine the runway length. for airport planning and design. It defines “capacity” as
the
throughput
rate, i.e. the maximum number of
These steps can be illustrated by an example using a Boeing operations that can take place in an hour, and “delay” as
707-320B for a 3 OOO nautical mile trip between airport the difference in time between a constrained and an
“A” andairport “B”, under the following assumed unconstrained aircraftoperation. These definitions take
conditions: into account that delays occur because of simultaneous
demands on the facility. The acceptable level of delay will
Cruise altitude 9 450 m vary from airport to airport.
En-route, climb, and descent standard conditions
Headwind in cruise 37 km/h (20 kt)
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Background
Speed 0.82 Mach
Airport altitude sea level 6.3.2 Thethroughput method for calculating airport
Airport surface wind zero capacity and average delay per aircraft is derived from
Runway slope level computer models usedby the FAA to analyse airport

I C A O 9184 P A R T * 1 ** m Lt8414Lb 0058571 184 m
Part 1 . Master Planning I-55
capacity and reduce aircraft delay. Calculations of hourly d) when demand reaches or is expected to reach 75 per
capacity are needed to determine average delay. Since cent or more of the capacity of the existing parallel
airportandairport component hourly capacities vary runway configuration within five years, ashort
throughouttheday due to variations in runway use, parallel runway can be extended to increase capacity;
aircraft mix, ATC rules, etc., a number of calculations
may be needed. Figure 6-1 provides the ranges of hourly e) although intersecting or open V rulwaysare not
capacity and annual service volume for different runway generally recommended for the purposeof increasing
use configurations. The values vary within each range capacity, consideration of terrain, noise, obstacles
depending ontheaircraft mix, percentage of arrivals, may make these layouts more practical. It should be
visibility, etc. for each runway use configuration.For shown thattheconfiguration chosen will provide
details refer to FAA Advisory Circular “Airport Capacity sufficient runway capacity t o accommodate demand
and Delay”. into the foreseeable future or will provide a
substantial increase in runway capacity at a much
reduced cost compared to a parallel runway. A
Runway Capacity comparisonof capacities with a parallel runway
configuration should be made.
6.3.3 The annual capacity of a single runway airport
configuration could exceed 195 OOO operations with
suitable taxiway, apron and air traffic control facilities. Taxiway Capacity
An airport runway system that is primarily used by locally
6.3.5 The addition of taxiway facilities to the runway
based aircraft will probably not attain an annual demand
of more that 150 OOO operations if its based aircraft total configuration increases airport operational efficiency by
is less than 200. However, the development of an allowing the runway to realize its maximum capacity
additional runway based on capacity requirements may be potential.
considered for airports with a current demand level below a) A stub taxiway to the apron and turnaroundpads or
150 OOO, if traffic is increasing. Besides the capacity turnaroundsat
both ends of the runway are
requirements, importance of the airport to thecommunity recommended for the minimum taxiway system.
itserves (e.g. airport for State capital) may warrant an
additional runway to avoid total airport closure in case of b) Parallel taxiways may be justified when any one of
accident, runway repair, snow removal, partial unlawful the following criteria is forecast to be reached within
seizure of an airport, etc. five years. (The normal peak hour referred to below
is the peak hour of the week averaged for one year;
6.3.4 The following criteria may be used to determine however, as applied to instrument approaches it is
the need for an additional runway to increase capacity: the average of the highest 10 per cent of the hours
during which time instrument approaches are being
a parallel runway may be planned when the demand made):
is forecast to reach the existing runway capacity 1) there arefour instrumentapproaches (those
during the ensuing five years; which are countedtowardannual instrument
approaches) during the normal peak hour;
a short parallel runway may be justified at an airport
forecast to have, within five years, a demand greater 2) the annual operations total 50 OOO;
than 60 per cent of existing runway capacity. Taxiing
distances between the new runway and the terminal 3) the normal peak hour itinerant operations total
area must be favourable. Otherwise the extra long 20; or
taxiing distances will result in reduced demand for
4) the hourly total (itinerant plus local) operations
the new runway. A “short” parallel runway should
are:
be long enough and wide enough to provide
sufficient capacity so thatadditional construction - 30 operations per normal peak hour - for
for capacity purposes due to changes in airport runways serving more than 90 per cent small
population would not be required within five years; aircraft and where there are less than 20 per
cent touchandgooperations; 40 operations
a short parallel runway to serve small aircraft may be per normal peak hour where there are more
planned for anairport having 75 000 operations than 20 per cent touch and go operations(each
consisting of 30 OOO or more transport type aircraft; touch and go is considered two operations).
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~~
I C A O 9L8I.I P A R T t l t t 4 8 4 1 4 L b 0058572 010
1-56 ~~ Airport Planning Manual
Hourly capacity
ops/ h Annual service
volume
Number Runway use configuration VFR IFR ops/h
1 51 -98 50-59 195 000-240 000
2 94-197 56-60 260 000-355 000
3 103-197 62-75 275 000-365 000
4 103-197 99-119 305 000-370 000
5 72-98 56-60 200 000-265 000
6 73-150 56-60 220 000-270 000

--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7 73-132 56-60 215 000-265 000
Figure 6-1. Hourly capacityandannualservice volume for long-range planning

I C A O 9 3 8 4 PARTxL SY 48414Lb 0058573 T 5 7
Taxiway turnaround Stub taxiway Turnaround pad

\ I I
;i
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LEVEL AT WHICH TO BUILD
SECTION 0 Up to 20000 to 30 000 operations

30 000 to 60 000 operations
6.3.2 a 50 000 to 99 000 operations
6.3.5 a) 75 000 to 150 000 operations
G 6.3.5 b) 150 000 to 250 000 operations
6.3.5 c)
* Theabove ranges represent activity levels typical of values
6.3.5 d)
that would be obtained by use of these instructions. Although
6.3.4 a) to c)
computed values would most likely fall in these ranges, this
6.3.4 dj
tabulation does not represent criteria.
Figure 6-2. Typical phased development sketch

I C A O 9384 P A R T * L ** = 4843436 0058574 993
- 30 operations per normal peak hour - for applied in determining the need for holding bays and
runways serving 60 percent to 90 per cent by-pass taxiways, once a parallel taxiway has been
small aircraft. justified.
- 20 operations per normal peak hour - for When activity is forecast to reach 30 total operations per
runways serving 40 per cent to 100 per cent normal peak hour, or 20 0oO annual itinerant operations
large aircraft. or 75 OOO totaloperations,a holding bay should be
planned, giving due consideration to other factors. These
Parallel taxiways provide safety benefits in addition factors are:
to increased efficiency. These safety benefits cannot
be easilyassessed. However, the criteria given are 1) Mixture of types of aircraft such as air carrier or
based on having stage development following the military aircraft operations simultaneously with
construction of taxiway turnarounds. general aviation aircraft.
If the construction cost of a parallel taxiway does not 2) The airport layout (i.e. from the standpoint of
exceed the cost of turnarounds by more than one “as built” conditions).
third, it should be the preferred development. A
partial parallel taxiway, or equivalent (as can be 3) Location of navigation aids (i.e. the critical area
obtained by intersecting runways), provides satis- surrounding a NAVAID - existing or proposed
factory efficiency as well as safety to aircraft - in relation to possible holding bay locations).
operations. In many instances, adequate capacity
can be attained by the construction of apartial There is insufficient economic justification for construc-
parallel taxiway. This solution can prove especially tion of a holding bay to accommodate fewer than two
desirable where construction costs are high. A partial aircraft. Also provision for more than four aircraft is not
parallel is generally economically justified at activity usually justified. If the traffic density is such that more
levels equal to 60 per cent of the values given for full than four holding positions appear necessary, investigation
parallel. If a full or partial taxiway is strongly will generally disclose that another solutionto the problem
preferred over taxiway turnarounds may it be is in order.
pIanned if current operations are 20 OOO per year, if
there are no turnarounds existing, and if cost is less
than half the average costs. 6.4. TYPICAL PHASED DEVELOPMENT PLAN
c) Exit taxiways beyond a basic layout of one at the Figure 6-2 shows a typical phased development plan for an
runway ends and one in between are usually justified airport thatmay be obtained by the use of the concepts and
if demand is forecast to exceed 40 per cent of the methodology presented in this section. A cross reference,
runway capacity providing taxiway costs are locating the type of development with the applicable
average, and at 75 per cent of capacity if costs are criteria, is also presented on this diagram.
high. A sufficient number of exits should be planned
so that additional exits would not be required within References
five years following the completion of construction.
“Planning
and Design of Airports”,
Third
Edition,
d) Holding bays and by-pass taxiways enhance airport Robert Horonjeffand Francis X. McKelvey, 1983 -
capacity. These facilities seldom, if ever, constitute McGraw-Hill Book Company.
restraints on the attainment of full airport capacity
within the existing airport property since land areas “Airport capacity and delay”, U.S. Federal Aviation
are normally always available to permit their con- Administration, AC 150/5060-5, 1983.
struction. However, the need for these facilities
should be determined sufficiently in advance to Annex 14 - Aerodromes.
prevent delays that would occur due to a lack of
these facilities. The following criteria should be Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157).
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Chapter 7. APRONS
7.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER e) minimize adverse effects such as engine blast, noise,
air pollution, etc. OR the apron and the surrounding
An apron is defined asan airsidearea onanairport environment.
intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading
or unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling, parking, Apron Sizing
or maintenance. Aprons canbe classified according to
their main purpose and function. This chapter describes 7.2.2 The planning of a particular apron depends on
characteristics of various types of apronsand aspects its purpose and function.However, basic parameters to be
related to theirplanning. Not all of theapron types considered are as follows:
presented here are required for every airport but the need
for them and their size should be estimated based on the a) number of aircraft stands required at present and in
type and volume of forecast traffic at the airport.Besides the future;
aircraftstands,the associated apron taxiways, apron
service roads and parking for ground service equipment b) aircraft mix, both present and future;
shouldall be included as a part of anapron system.
Further guidance related to apronsis given in 9.8 and 10.6, c) aircraft dimensions and manoeuvring capabilities*;
since apronsare only a part of the over-all terminal
complex. Other useful references are listed at the end of d)aircraft parking configuration including shape of
this chapter. terminal andthesurroundingarea available for
development*;
e) clearance requirements between aircraft and aircraft,

7.2 PLANNINGPARAMETERS buildings or other fixed objects*;
f ) method of aircraft guidance onto the aircraft stand*;

Apron Siting
g) aircraftground servicing requirements (vehicles
7.2.1 Apronsare interrelated with the terminal versus fixed servicing installations, etc.)*; and
complex, and should be planned in
connexion with
terminalbuildings to achieve an optimum solution; the h) taxiways and service roads*.
following are general objectives to be considered in siting
aprons in the master plan:
Aircraft Parking Configuration
a) provide minimum taxiing distancesbetween runways
7.2.3 This subject is related to the method by which
and
aircraft
stands (savings in fuel, time and
the aircraft will enter and leave the aircraft stand, e.g.
maintenance);
either under its own power (self-manoeuvring) or taxies in
b) allow for freedom of aircraft movement to avoid
and is pushed out (tractor assisted). The different aircraft
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
parking configurations are shown in Figure 7-1 and the

unnecessary delay (punctuality of scheduled flights);
main advantages and disadvantages of each configuration
are given in Table 7-1. As a general rule, nose-in parking
c) reserve sufficient areaforfuture expansion and
configurations are common at high traffic airports where
change of technology;
the tractor cost is justified by more efficient use of limited
apron area. Other parking configurations are employed at
d) achieve maximum efficiency, operational safety and
user convenience of each apron complex andthe
airport as a total system; and * Details are provided in the Aerodrome Design Manual. Part 2.
I-59

ANGLED NOSE-IN
BUILDING LINE
ANGLED NOSE-OUT
Figure 7-1. Parking configurations
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Table 7-1. Comparison of differentaircraftconfiguration
Nose-in (taxi in Angled nose-in Angled nose-out Parallel (in/our

and push out) ( i d o u t by OWR power) ( i d o u t by OWR power) by own power
Advantages
Requires
smallest
stand No requirement No requirement Easiest manoeuvring
area for given aircraft for tractor for tractor for aircraft to taxi
idout
The effects of jet blast on
equipment, personnel and No requirement for
terminal are substantially tractor
tess
Reduces aircraft service

time as ground equipment
can be positioned prior t o
aircraft arrival and fewer
removal requirements at
aircraft departure
Easy to employ passenger

loading bridge
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Disadvantages
Requires
tractor
for Requires
larger
apron
Requires
larger
apron
Requires
largest
apron
push-out operation area
than nose-in
area
than
angled
nose-
area
given
for
aircraft
configuration in configuration
Push-out operation Relatively severe engine Breakaway engine blast Limits aircraft
requires time and skilled blast and noise is and noise are directed servicing activity at
operator directed at terminal at terminal neighbouring stand
when aircraft taxi in
and out
low traffic airports where it isdifficult to offset the tractor d)

better passenger handling in terms of
safety,
operation cost by savings in apron size. As the amount of convenience and comfort sincepassengers are free
apron area required for a particular aircraft varies largely from apron walking, climbing up/down stairs and
with theparkingconfiguration,
andpassenger/cargo adverse weather effects such asrain,snow,wind,
handlingconceptsaregreatlyinterrelated with aircraft heat, etc.;
parkingconfiguration,the issue of preferredaircraft
parking configuration must be resolved ar a n early stage. e) substantially less adverse effects of jet blastnoise
and
fumes
of engines onground equipment,
7.2.4 Particularlyfor a passenger terminalapron,a personnel and terminal facilities; and
nose-in parkingconfigurationcoupled with passenger
loading bridges affords advantages as follows: f ) greater security control of passengers on air side.
a) less apron area required; Ontheotherhand, involves

it additionat
costs
for
purchasing and operating tractors and passenger loading
b) less aircraft ground time due to: bridges.
- efficient passenger handling; The world trend is towards nose-idpush-ou? configur-

ation with passenger loading bridges at high traffic volume
- more efficiently positioned
ground servicing airports. Although many of the advantages are difficult to
equipment; quantify in terms of money, first consideration should be
given toadoptingthenose-inlpush-outconfiguration if
c) service road can be sited so as to reduce requirements the anticipated annual passenger volume is greater than
to drive on apron; two to three million.

I C A O 9384 PART*L *X 48434Lb 0058578 539
f-62 Airporr Planning
7.3 PASSENGER TERMINAL APRON conditions. It may be useful to considerseparatelythe

requirementsfordomesticandinternational passenger
traffic, o r fornationalandforeigncarriers. Special
Required Number of Aircraft Stands consideration may be needed for seasonalpeaks by tourists
or pilgrims (scheduled
versus non-scheduled
flights).
7.3.1 Thenumber of aircraftstandsat apassenger
Another important aspect of this ratio is that the greater
terminal apron depends on passenger aircraft movements
the traffic volume the smaller the peak ratio in general.
by aircrafttypeduringthe peak hourandtheirgate
Thus it may be useful to study other airports with similar
occupancy time. As the number of stands dictates apron traffic characteristics.
size and very often the terminal configuration,it is one of
themostimportantaspects of masterplanning.The
required number of aircraft stands should be estimated for 7.3.3 Forecasting the future aircraft mix is a difficult
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the short, medium and long term and an orderlytimely and task and should be done by studying world trends and
developmentscheme prepared. -Staged expansion of the consultingairport user airlines toarriveatthe best
apronshouldbeplanned when appropriatebutsuch estimate.
requirements mayvary. For example, in planning medium-
term requirements,it may happen that despite increased
an
volume of passengers the estimated number of required 7.3.4 Thegateoccupancytime is thetimeforan
aircraftstandsmayremainthesameduetotheintro- aircraft to manoeuvrein and out of an aircraft stand, load
duction of larger aircraft. In such a case, it may be wise to and
unload passengers,baggage andcargo,
refuel,
construct a larger apron during the initial stage. performcabin cleaning, and receive various routine
services and minor repairs. The gateoccupancy time varies
7.3.2 The peak hour passenger aircraft movements by depending on aircraft size, flight type such as domestic
aircraft typemay beestimated by thetwoprocedures orinternational,andstationtypesuchasoriginating/
shown in Figure 7-2. The ratios of aircraft peak day/hour terminating,through,ortransferkransitstations (see
movements should be derived from past records as well as 9.2.21 to 9.2.31). One typical example of the gate
by takingintoconsiderationfactorsparticular to local occupancy time is shown in Table 7-2.
-
a)
Peak hour
Forecast annual Peakday
passenger aircraft
passenger aircraft t passenger aircraft
movement movement
aircraft type
(--)Aircraft peak
day ratio
Aircraft peak
hour ratio aircraft mix
lour
lger aircraft
aircraft type
Peak hour average

load factor aircraft mix
Figure 7-2. Peak hour passenger aircraft movements

7.3.5 The next step is to categorize present and future where S = required number of aircraft stands
aircraft serving attheairportinto groups according to
their required stand size.Since the purpose of categor- Ti = gate occupancy time in minutes of
ization is to enable common use of a particular stand by aircraft group i
different aircraft types, consideration should also be given
to the common use of the fixed apron facilities such as Ni = number of arriving aircraft group i
passenger loading bridges, hydrant systems, etc. An during peak hour
example of categorization is given in Table 7-3.
a = number of extra aircraft stands as spare.
7.3.6 The required number of aircraft stands at a 7.3.7 The number of arriving aircraft can be obtained
passenger terminal maybe estimated by the following either by simply dividing the previously calculated
formula: passenger aircraft movement by two or by applying a
heavy direction factor particular to the airport, which may
be in the order of 0.6 to 0.7. This value of 0.6 to 0.7 means
that arriving aircraft represent 60 to 70 per cent of the total
peak hour arriving and departing aircraft movements.
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Table 7-2. Typical gate occupancy time (in minutes)
~~ ~~
Domestic international
Aircraft Through flight ' Turnaroundflight Turnaround flight
B-737, DC-9, 25 45 -
F-28
B-707, B-757 45 50 60
A300, DC-I 0, 45-60 60 120

L-1011
B-747 - 60 120-180
Table 7-3. Example of aircraft categorization
~~
Group Aircraft
S F-28, B-737
M B-707-320, A-300, L-1011.DC-10
L 8-74? SP, B-747
LL B-747 I1 (future aircraft)

I C A O 9184 P A R T * l ** 4841436 0058580 3’77
When the airport is planned to have different passenger Pier (finger) concept. As seen in Figure 7-3, there are
terminals dedicated exclusively for domestic, national flag several variations of this concept, according to the
carrierinternationaland foreign carriers, the above- shape of the pier. Aircraft can be parked atgate
mentioned formula should be applied individually for each positions on both sides of the piers, either angled,
case. parallel or perpendicular (nose-in). Where there is
only a single pier, most advantages of the linear
concept would apply for air side activities except for
a limited incremental expansion capability. When
Apron/Terminal Relationships there are two or more piers, care must be taken to
provide proper space between them. If each pier
7.3.8 As previously mentioned, apronarrangements serves a large number of gates, it may be necessary
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
are directly interrelated with the passenger terminal to provide double taxiways between piers to avoid
concept. Details of various passenger terminal concepts are conflicts between aircraft entering and leaving the
described in 9.2.37. This section presents various concepts gate positions.
pictorially in Figure 7-3 and briefly describes the character-
istics of each concept from the viewpoint of the apron.
Satellite concept. The satellite concept consists of a
satellite unit, surrounded by aircraft gate positions,
Simpre concept. To be applied at low traffic volume separated from the terminal. Thepassenger access to
airport. Aircraft are normally parked either angled a satellite fromthe terminal is normally via an
nose-in or nose-out for self taxi-in or taxi-out. underground or elevated corridor to best utilize the
Consideration should be given to providing adequate apron space, but it could be on the surface.
clearance between apron edge and terminal frontage Depending on the shape of the satellite, the aircraft
facing air side to reduce the adverse effects of jet are parked in radial, parallel or some other configur-
engine blast. Where this is not done, jet engine blast ation around the satellite. When aircraft are parked
fences should be provided. Apron expansion can be radially, which used to be common, push-back
done incrementally in accordance with demands, operation is easy but requires larger apron space. If
causing little disruption of airport operation. a wedge-shaped aircraft parking configuration is
adopted, it not only requires unfavourablesharp
Linear concept. This concept may be regarded as one turns taxiing to some of the gate positions but also
creates traffic congestion of ground service
of the advanced stages of a simple concept. Aircraft
equipment around the satellite.
can be parked in an angled or parallel parking
configuration. However, nose-idpush-out parking
configuration with minimum clearance between Transporter concept. This concept may be referred
apron edge and terminal becomes more common in to as an open or remote apron concept. As aprons
this concept for more efficient utilization of apron may be ideally located foraircraft close tothe
space and handling of aircraft and passengers. Nose- runway and remote from other structures, it would
in parking affords relatively easy and simple provide advantagesforaircraft handling such as
manoeuvring for aircraft taxiing in to gate position. shorter over-all taxiing distance, simple self-
Push-out operations cause little disruption of apron manoeuvring, ample flexibility and expansibility of
activities in neighbouring gate positions. However, aprons,etc. However, as it requires transporting
towing tractors and skilled operators are required. passengers, baggage and cargo for relatively longer
At busy traffic airports, it may become necessary to distances by transporters (mobile lounges/buses) and
provide double apron taxiways to lessen the blocking carts to and from the terminal, it can create traffic
of the taxiway by push-out operations. The corridor congestion problems on the air side.
between the apron edge and terminal frontage can be
used for circulation of apron traffic and the area
around the nose of the parked aircraft can be used Hybrid concept. The hybrid concept means the
for ground service equipment parking slots. When combining of more than one of the above-mentioned
apron depth is planned from theoutset to cater to the concepts. It is fairly common to combine the
longest fuselage length, the linear concept has as transporter concept with one of the other concepts to
muchflexibility and expansibility asthe simple cater to peak traffic.Aircraftstands located at
concept and almost as much as the open apron remote areas from the terminal are often referred to
concept. as remote aprons or remote stands.

I C A O 9384 P A R T * L X* 4842416 0058581 023
Part 1. Masler Planning I-65
_.
a) Simple concept
-- -c31-----
1 r1 -
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
II
b) Linear concept and its variations
c) Pier (finger) concept d) Satellite concept
r+I
I
1 - 1 I
I
I
I
I-----
I
- -I
1
I
e) Transporter (open apron) concept f) Hybrid concept
Figure 7-3. Passenger terminal concepts

I C A O 9384 P A R T S 3 Sf 4 8 4 3 4 L b 0058582 TbT
1-66 Airpori Planning Manual
7.4 CARGO TERMINALAPRON 7.5.3 As maintenance may be carried out during the
night, it is preferable to locate the maintenance terminal
7.4.1 Atairports where theamountofair cargo is area close to the parking apron (see 7.6) located adjacent
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
relatively small and mostly carried by passenger aircraft, to thepassenger terminal apron. Care shouldbe exercised,
there is no need toconstruct acargoterminal apron however, to reserve future expansion areas for both
exclusively for freight aircraft,andthecargo terminal passenger and maintenance terminals
including their
building is best located close to the passenger terminal aprons.It is generally recommended thatmaintenance
apron to minimize the travel distance, with due consider- terminal apronsbe located at a fairly remote area from the
ation given to the future expansion of both areas. passenger apron;
7.4.2 In recent years, air cargo has expanded and all-

cargoaircraftoperateinto many airports.The planner 7.6 PARKING APRON
should examine the need for a cargo apron based on air
cargo forecasts. The all-cargo aircraft are normally parked 7.6.1 Where aircraft are obliged to be grounded for a
eitherparallel or nose-in, butparkingconfigurations long period, for example, six t o eight hours, or to remain
depend mainly on the forecast volume and type of cargo overnight at the airport,a parking apron maybe justified.
handling system to be employed. SeeChapter 10 for details If such occurrencesare few or donot conflict with the peak
of cargo terminal planning. hour periods of the airport, it may be possible for such
aircraft toremain at theterminal. However, as the number
of such aircraft increases, it is more economical to remove
them from thepassenger terminal apron and some airports
7.5 MAINTENANCE TERMINAL APRON may thus require a separate parking apron. The number of
the required stands ata parking apron shouldbe estimated
7.5.1 Maintenance ofaircraft is animportant pre- based on future aircraftfleet size and operating patterns at
flight activity for safe and punctual operations. Itis often the airport. The parking apron should be located as close
categorized as follows: as is practical t o the passenger terminal.
a) line maintenance; 7.6.2 It is also common that the maximum number of

aircraft gatepositions be requiredonly for shortperiods of
b) airframe maintenance; the day or on a limited seasonalbasis. Thus it maybe
difficult to justify the construction of a new terminal unit
c) power plant maintenance; and to accommodate theseextremepeak demands by fixed
gates. In suchcases an economicalsolution may be the
d) component maintenance. introduction of transporters combined with off-terminal
parkingpositions. As these parking positions areoften
The type and interval of maintenanceare normally located atanarea remote fromthe passenger terminal
predetermined for each type of aircraft. Line maintenance buildings,they are often referred to as remoteparking
can be carried out on a passenger apron and the airlines aprons.
can schedule aircraft so that other types of maintenance
are completed at their home base. Thus not all airports
need t o have a majormaintenance terminal areaand 7.7 HOLDING BAYS
apron.
7.7.1 If aircraft proceeding for take-off were always
to receive clearance in the orderof their arrival at the ends
7.5.2 For an airport which serves as the base for an of a runway, they could be held in single file on a taxiway.
airline, a maintenance terminal
including hangar, In practice, itis necessary to beabIe to bypass these
workshop, storage and apron will probably be required. aircraft so thataircraftcan be cleared in the sequence
As the scale of the maintenance area depends on the fleet desired to. expedite movements. In addition, piston-
size and maintenance policy of the airline, the planner engined aircraft require space to carry out checks and run-
should consult user airlines at an early stage of planning. ups facing into wind prior t o take-off.
In addition to the maintenance apron, it may be necessary
to provide an engine test-run area with facilities to reduce 7.7.2 Consequently, for runways to be used for take-
. engine blast and noise. off, holding bays (or bypass taxiways) should be planned

to permit aircraft to be held or bypassed. They should be 7. I1 FIXED FACILITIES
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
located so that:
Aircraft Guidance
a) satisfactory clearances are available from therunway
and from aircraft using the taxiway; 7.11.1 A proper guidance system on aircraft stands is
necessary for safe manoeuvring of aircraft 03 the stand
b) propeller wash and jet blast are not directed at other and positioning of aircraft. Apron markings are a widely
aircraft; used means to provide guidance; however, some airports
have inset pavement lights in addition to painted guidelines
c) interference with theoperation of approach and to assist pilots in the dark and poor visibility conditions.
landing aids is not caused; and
7.11.2 With theadoption of the nose-in parking
d) aircraft on a bay cannot be subjected to illegal inter- configuration and the use of passenger loading bridges,
ference from a public area. precise positioning of aircraftisimportant. There are
several types of visual docking guidance systems currently
See also the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 2. inuse but not all of themmeet agreed operational
requirements. Reference should be made to the Aerodrome
Design Manual, Part 4. for further informationon suitable
systems.
7.8 GENERAL AVIATION APRON Aircraft Servicing
When an airport is also intended to serve general aviation 7.11.3 Fixed aircraft servicing installations reduce
aircraft, a general aviation terminal including a separate apron congestion and permit shorter servicingtimes.
apron and other related facilities maybe required. The Possible installations include:
general aviation terminal and its apron, however, should
be located so as to minimize conflict with the scheduled a) hydrant fuelling;
aircraft operations.
b) fixed ground power;
c) potablehon-potable water supply;

7.9 HELICOPTER APRON
d) compressed air; and
When an airport is also intended to serveextensive e) air conditioning.
helicopter operations it may benecessary to plan for a
helicopter terminal andapron.The location for such a 7.1 1.4 A fixedwater supply is usually economically
terminal may depend on the type of helicopter traffic, e.g. justifiable, whereas a large volume of traffic is usually
public passengerservice. See the Heliport Manual for required before a hydrant fuelling system can be justified
detailed informatiofi on planning a helicopter apron. (for details of hydrant system, refer to Chapter 13).
Aircraft with auxiliary power units (APU) can provide
ground power and air conditioning of the cabin. However,
the noise created by APUs often is a nuisance to crew
7.10 APRON SECURITY working on the apron and to neighbouring communities,
particularly at night. Thus a decision to install any fixed
In planning the location and design of aprons, the need to servicingsystem requires both economic and environ-
maintain security of operations from possible sabotage or mental justification.
armed aggression should be considered in areas where this
may be a problem. This will require control of public
access to the apron, such as through doors in the passenger 7.12 APRON TAXIWAYS AND
buildings, and includes the design of the building and any AIRCRAFT STAND TAXI LANES
other barriers preventing the public from havingready
access to the apron. For a further discussion of airport A sufficient number of apron taxiways or aircraft stand
security, refer to Chapter 14. taxi lanes should be provided to prevent conflicts. As the

numberdiffers depending ontheterminalconcept,the

--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
service equipment. (“Staging” means to set ground service
number of total gate positions and the peak hour traffic, equipment in position prior to the aircraft’sarrival in
it may be worthwhile to simulate the futurepeak to analyse order to expedite ground servicing.)
planned apron taxiway arid aircraft stand taxi lane
configurations.Careshould also be taken to provide 7.13.3 Some of the staging area near the aircraft stand
sufficient clearances between aircraft and other aircraft or may be used for long-term parking. However, itwillbe
fixed/moving objects. See the Aerodrome Design Manual, necessary to allocate specific areas for the parkingand
Part 2 , for details of apron taxiway and aircraft stand taxi storage of equipment. The area for parkingand storage of
lanes. equipment, and possibly for the repair shopand fuel
station for such equipment, may be located at a remote
area from the passenger terminal apron to avoid conflicts
in the future expansion of the airport central zone.
7.13 APRON SERVICE ROADS AND
GROUND EQUIPMENT PARKING AREAS References
7.13.1 Provision and layout of service roads on Annex 14 - Aerodromes.

aprons is of great importance for efficient airport
operation and safety. Service roads should provide direct Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157).
and convenient access between the apron andother service
areas of theairport with minimum interference with Heliport MQnuai (Doc 9261).
manoeuvringaircraft and terminalfunctions. On
passenger terminal aprons, service roads may be located at “AirportAprons”, U.S. Federal Aviation Adminis-
either the rear o r in front of parked aircraft in nose-in tration, AC 150/5335-2.
configuration. For aircraftparkedin parallel configur-
ation, service roads may be placed along the outside wing “Airport Terminals Reference Manual”, IATA.
tip. Where service roads pass under passenger loading
bridges, sufficient vertical clearances must be provided so “The Apron and Terminal Building, Planning Report”,
that ground service equipment (e.g. catering trucks) may Report No. FAA-RD 75-191, July 1975.
pass underneath.
“Planning and Designof Airports”,RobertHoronjeff
7.13.2 In addition to service roads on theapron, and Francis X. McKelvey, third edition, 1983, McGraw-
staging and parking areas should be provided for ground Hill Book Company.

I C A O 9LB4 P A R T S 1 ** = 4 B 4 1 4 L b 0058585 7 7 9 =
Chapter 8. AIR AND GROUNDNAVIGATION AND

TRAFFIC CONTROL AIDS AT AIRPORTS
8.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER surface conditions. It is therefore prudent to install more
than adequate duct capacity during initial construction.
Planning of airports must include provision for facilities Similarly, if in the near future it is planned t o upgrade a
which will supporttheairtrafficcontrol system, for runway to precision approach CategoryI1 or 111, involving
navigation aids for aircraft approaching the airport and, in-pavement lights, then itmay be found moreeconomical
finally, for control of aircraft and vehicles on the surface and convenient to include ductsfor theselights in the
of the airport. The purpose of this chapter is to describe initial pavement construction.
the requirements for such control aidsas pertain to airport
master planning. Specific information on performance of
equipment and on siting of navigation and control aids,
among others, may be found in Annex IO, Annex 14 and 8.3 RADIO NAVIGATION AIDS
the Aerodrome Design Manual, Part 4.
8.3.1 Most modern airports are likely to have all or
some of the following navigation aids:
8.2 VISUAL AIDS instrument

a) landing system (ILS)*/microwave
landing system (MLS);
8.2.1 The selection of the visual aids tobe provided at
an airportwill depend primarily on thevisibility conditions b) VHF omnidirectional radio ranges (VOR);
under which it is intended operations be conducted and on
the type of aircraft to be operated at the airport. The c)
distance
measuringequipment facilities (DME)
specifications in Annex 14 indicate for each visual aid the (generally collocated with VOR or ILS or MLS);
operating conditions under which it shouldbe provided. In
general, approach and runway lighting aids are related to d) collocated tactical air navigation systems and VOR
the type of runway which is planned, that is non- (VORTAC);
instrument,instrumentapproach o r precision approach
Category I , I1 or 111, and this must be resolved before any e) radars - approach, secondary and surveilIance type.
planning for visual aids is done.
8.3.2 When the types of navigation aids needed at the
airport have been decided, the site selection shouldbe
8.2.2 The type of visual aidsto beplanned both carried out with the assistance of the individualexpert
initially and in the future should be determined during the associated with the aid. Unless the proposed site happens
initial
planning of theairport,
as requirements for to be flat with few obstructions, somepreliminary site
approach lighting may require the purchase of additional clearing and gradingwould be necessary, depending on the
land for installation, or the clearance of obstacles in the nature of the site, the quality andnature of the navi-
approach area to ensure visibility to pilots approaching to gational facility required andthe associated costs. All
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
land. The futuredevelopment of lighting systems may also preliminary

grading and site preparation is usually
have an effect in otherareas, which might best be
prevented by making provision for it in the initial
constructionphase. An example of this would beduct
capacityunderneath paved areas. Installation of ducts
after pavements have been constructed, besides being * ILS will cease to be an ICAO standard system on 1 January 1998.
However, o n the basis of Regional Agreement, the 1LS can remain
costly, requires closure of the area involved and, unless in service atinternationalairportsuntil 1 Jailuary 2000, after
carefully constructed, results in unsatisfactory pavement which it ceases to be an ICAO Standard system.
I-69

included in the airport construction contract. Subsequen- the power supply and control of navigation aids should be
tly, each site should be flight checked using portable included in the airport construction contract.
equipment, if this is not too difficult to obtain. Unless the
selected sites happen to be ideal,the best choice of
variables to arrive at the most economical configuration of
the required navigation aid can be determined only by 8.4 BUILDINGS FOR RADIO
means of a flight check. NAVIGATION AIDS
8.3.3 It is very difficult to specify exact sizes for the When planning buildings forradio navigation aids,the
buildings for the sites, because the choices andthe following points should be taken into consideration:
combinations of the navigation aids are quite numerous.
The rapid developments and advances in electronic a) Size. Particularattention should be paid to the
technology and the consequential miniaturization of future needs and possible extension or modification
equipment may offer radically different concepts, so far as of the facilities. In the case of localizers and glide
the installation of navigation aids atthe airport of paths, provision of space for dualinstallations
tomorrow is concerned. Up-to-date information should be should be considered, from the pointof view of both
obtained from experts in each field to allocate appropriate the future construction at the airport and the up-
areas for the required facilities. However, some general grading of performance to accommodate faster and
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guidance is provided in the following paragraphs. larger aircraft. Additional space should be allocated
for
standby powerplants or air conditioning
8.3.4 Parts of the instrument landing system (i.e. equipment where called for by virtue of equipment
markersand non-directional beacons) arenot usually design or local climatic conditions.
located ontheairport; however, thecontrolfor all
facilities and power for the middle and inner markers are
usually provided fromtheairport.The required power b) Power supply. At those sites where an independent
self-contained unit power station cannot
be
supply can be provided more economically from the
provided, the power supply transformers and
airport than by separate individual power sources at each
of the facilities, with the exception of outer markers and associated accessories have to be instalIed inside the
non-directional beacons. building. Appropriate isolation and ventilation of
theradio equipment isnecessary to dissipate the
additional heat generated by the power equipment.
8.3.5 The number of instrument landing systems at an
Where standby plants are employed, diesel engine
airport would depend on the precision approach runways
noise is also a factor which should be considered.
required. Usually the ILS/MLS is planned to serve the
prevailing bad weather wind direction, but since the fair
weather use of ILS/MLS is becoming more common for c) Drainage. Provision should be made to drain the site
safer operation, especially for large aircraft, some runways adequately. Poor drainage, particularly at the glide
are planned to have instrument landing systems at both path sites, can cause appreciable changes to the
ends. Since the integrity of theradio signals in space signal in space and accumulated water in the vicinity
depends on the reflecting properties of the terrain of the building could even cause equipment
surrounding the antennas, minimal roughness and slope shutdown. Drainage ditches in the vicinityof the
with adequate drainage and soil stability highly is glide path antenna must be of such dimension that
desirable. The roughness of localizer course and glide path they do not adversely affect the signals in space.
depends onthe number of unwanted signal reflections
received by the aircraft. The number and magnitude of
unwanted reflections depend onthenumber, size and d) Access roads. Restoration of a facility to normal
material of objects (e.g. buildings, hangars, vehicles, etc.) operation depends a great deal on fast and easy
and distance of the objects illuminated by the antennas. At access to the building. For those facilities which are
those sites where the number of significant objects is located on the airport, access via the runways could
unavoidably large, the signal quality can be improved with caus.e considerable delays if the traffic is heavy and
the help of directional antennas, which are usually more separate access roads should therefore be considered.
costly and much larger than the standardtype of antennas. If proper planning precedes the choice of the
building sites, the cost of construction and
8.3.6 Most of the site grading work, construction of maintenance of the access road could be reduced
access roads and provision of ducts under the runways for considerably.

Part 1. Master Ptanning 1-71
8.5 DEMARCATION OF CRITICAL AREAS developments of the manoeuvring area or future

construction of buildings would not restrict this view. In
The areas immediately surrounding the localizer and glide determining the location of the control tower, the need to
path antennas form a part of the “critical areas” within avoid sun glare is also an important consideration. The
which obstacles or any sort of vehicle movement is cable requirements associated with the need for remote
prohibited. These areas are designated as “critical” control or monitoring of the operation of ;I,qxoach and
because presence of reflecting objects can cause intolerable landing aids, and airport lighting and the provision radar
distortion of the signals in space. Particularattention and communication facilities should be taken into
should be paid to the critical areas, so far as demarcation account. Another important factor is the security of the
of boundaries and restriction of other airport activities is control tower, and it may be preferable to locate the tower
concerned. The critical areas associated with ILS/MLS are away from public areas avoiding places such as tops of
described in Attachment C toPart I of Annex 10, passenger terminal buildings. The control room should be
Volume I . large enough to accommodate control desks, associated
devices and operating personnel and provision should be
made for equipment rooms, office space and rest facilities
immediately underneath the control room. Requirements
8.6 AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES for special lighting, noise protection, air conditioning and
special accommodation of sensitive equipment should be
8.6.1 The requirements foraccommodation of air taken into account.
traffic services units and associated equipment onan
airport will vary according to the plans developed by the
appropriate air trafficservices authority for the air traffic Approach Control Office
services organization. The minimum requirement for all
airports is for an airport control tower to accommodate a 8.6.3 The approach control office, where required as
unit providing airport control service and for accommo- a separate entity, should be located conveniently close to
dation of an air trafficservices reporting office. This latter the airport controltower room. The office should be large
office, however, may not necessarily be a separate unit. At enough to accommodate control desks, associated devices
airports planned to be equipped with aids for instrument and operating personnel, and provision should be made
approachanddeparturethere may be an additional for equipment rooms, office space and rest facilities near
requirement for an approach control office, but in many by. Requirements for special lighting, noise protection, air
cases the equipment and staff forsuch an office are located conditioningand special accommodation of sensitive
in the control tower room. At some airports there may also equipment such as radar should be taken into account.
be a need to accommodate an area control centre or a
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
flight information centre. It is importantthat these
requirements be determined at an early stage in consul- Area Control Centre/Flight Information Centre
tation with the appropriate air traffic services authorities
and that theplanning of buildings on the airport takethese 8.6.4 The areacontrolcentre or flight information
requirements fully into account. It is also important that centre, where required, should preferably be located
flexibility in the arrangements of air traffic services units conveniently close to the airport control tower room and
andadequate expansion possibilities be reflected in the the approach control office. The centre should be large
planning. enough to accommodate control desks, associated devices
and operating personnel, and provision should be made
for equipment rooms, office space and rest facilities near
by. Requirements for special lighting, noise protection, air
conditioning and special accommodation of sensitive
Airport Control Tower equipment such as radar and computer equipment should
be taken into account.
8.6.2 The effective provision of airport control service
requires a clear and unobstructed view of the entire
movement area of anairportand of air traffic in the Air Traffic Services Reporting Office
vicinity of the airport. The airport control tower should
therefore be so located and be of such a height that aprons, 8.6.5 If required to be established as a separate unit,
taxiways, runways and the airspace surrounding the rather than as a part of another air traffic services unit or
airport, particularly approachanddepartureareas,are aeronautical
information service unit,the
air
traffic
clearly visible from the controlroomandthatfuture services reporting office should be located in close

~~ ~~~~
ICAO 9LB4 PART*L ** 484L4Lb 0058588 488
proximity to other briefing andreportingoffices, e.g. by radio, remote transmitter and receiver buildings are, in
meteorological briefing office, aeronauticalinformation most cases, required. In siting such buildings, several
services unit, etc. The office should be easily accessible to factors should be taken into consideration, such as radio
flight crews of departing and arriving aircraftand toflight interference, adequate and appropriatespace for antennas,
operations officers of airlines. It should be sufficiently accessibility, reasonable distance fiom the central instal-
large to accommodate necessary staff and equipment and lation in thecommunicationscentre (usually accommo-
to enable flight crews and other personnel to prepare flight dated in o r near the passenger building), availability and
plans and reports. Additionalinformation relating to reliability of power sources, etc.
briefing offices may be found in the Aeronautical
Information Services Manual. 8.9.2 The size of the transmitter and receiver buildings
should be adequate to accommodate the ultimate point-to-
point
(and possibly aeromobile)radio
equipment,
8.7 SEARCH AND RESCUE SERVICES workshop,stores,offices, emergency power plant,and
other facilities required for efficient operation. In many
At some airports there may be a need to accommodate a cases, it may not be possible to site the transmitter and
rescue co-ordination centrecollocated with or conveniently receiver buildings within the airport boundaries, but they
close to the area control or flight information centre or a should nevertheless be considered as part of the airport
rescue sub-centre collocated with or conveniently close to installation as far as control and operational aspects are
an appropriate air traffic services unit. For information on concerned.
the accommodation of rescue co-ordination centres and
rescue sub-centres see Part I of the Search and Rescue Aeronautical Mobile Services
Manual.
8.9.3 Air-ground communications for airporttraffic
control, surface movement control and approach control
8.8 APRONMANAGEMENTSERVICE are operated by the corresponding air traffic services, and
the associated terminal equipment should be suitablysited
The number and complexity of aircraft and vehicle in relation to these services. If air-ground communications
movements on an apron may create a need for an apron for en-route air traffic control or other services are to be
management service and thus separate accommodation for provided,the associated terminalequipmentshould be
the staff, with clear sight to all parts of the apron in their suitably sited in relation to the corresponding area control
charge. Requirements for special lighting, noise protec- centre/flightinformationcentre or other services con-
tion,airconditioningandcommunications should be cerned, Therelative inflexibility of these installations, once
taken into account. established, is comparable to thatof the aeronautical fixed
services, and similar planning provisions should be made.
The radio transmitters and receivers associated with the
8.9 COMMUNICATIONS aeronautical mobile service are frequently located at the
remote transmitter andreceiver buildings mentioned under
Aeronautical Fixed Services the aeronautical fixed services heading.
8.9.1 Telecommunications are required to many parts References

of an airport and,in many cases, to more distant remotely
controlled transmitter andreceiver stations. Because of the Annex 10 - Aeronautical Telecommunications.
complexity of equipment and connexions to the points to
beserved (usually by means of cables for which under- Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9 157).
groundconduitsand conduits within buildings must be
provided), the communications centre installation is Aeronautical Information Services Manual (Doc 8 126).
relatively inflexible once it is established. It should,
therefore, be allotted sufficient space to serve the uttimate Search and Rescue Manual (Doc 7333).
point-to-point communications needs of the airport
without requiring relocations, and should be sited to avoid “Site Requirements for Terminal Navigational Facilities”,
restricting the expansion of other facilities. Where point- U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, AC 150/5300-2D,
to-point AFTN or direct ATS speech circuits are operated October 1980.
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I C A O 7384 P A R T * l ** 4 8 4 3 4 3 b 0058589 314 m
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SECTION THREE - LAND SIDE DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTORY NOTES
Land side refers to that area of an airport from a point

where the passenger loading device connects with the
passenger building, through and including the passenger
building and through and including cargo facilities, to and
including the ground access system.
The major elements comprising the land side of an

airport may be identified as: the passenger building, cargo
facilities, and ground transport and vehicle parking.
Land side development includes all areas of the airport

and buildings to which the non-travelling public has free
access as well as the non-public portions containing airline
operations and cargo facilities, airport administration, and
government facilities.
1-73

ICAO 91BLt P A R T * 1 X* 4843416 0 0 5 8 5 9 0 036
Chapter 9. PASSENGER BUILDING
9.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER certain circumstances, particular functions such as aircraft
maintenance may be situated at locations remote from the
This
chapter deals with planning for facilities to main passenger building.
accommodate those activities associated with the transfer
of passengers and their baggage from the point of inter- 9.2.5 In keeping with the objectives of airport master
change between ground transportation and the passenger planning, the development of passengerbuildingplans
building to the point of connexion with the aircraft, and should be limited to conceptual studies and
drawings. Such
with the transfer of connecting and in-transit passengers drawings should not be so detailed as to preclude adjust-
and their baggage between flights. Planning principles, ments which evolve later in the detailed planning phase.
factors affecting the type andscale, and specific planning Such changes frequently occur as an airport development
details of various passenger building functions are project moves beyond the master planning phase to final
presented in this chapter. design and construction.
9.2.6 One of themostimportant objectives inthe

development of the passenger building is provision for all
9.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS of the necessary passenger services at an optimum cost,
while recognizing the need for flexibility and expansibility,
9.2.1 In passenger building planning it is necessary t o as well as economy ofanyfuture passenger building
provide the means for passengers to enter and leave their expansion.
cars or public transport vehicles, parkingforcarsand
public transport vehicles, buildings in which aircraft
operators can undertake passenger processing and where Planning Principles
government controlauthorities
can
undertake their
inspections andin which all necessary facilities for 9.2.7 The passenger building’s function - inter-
passengers’ comfort and assistance can be provided. change between transport modes - combines with
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
passengers’ physical and psychofogica1 characteristics to
9.2.2 Aircraft operations will be less costly and more make the passenger area a most sensitive part of thewhole
efficient if the passenger building is as close as possible t o air transport system. In considering the planning of these
the runways. This reduces taxiing distances, and hence fuel facilities any preconceptions about the result should be
consumption, and helps to avoid congestion by reducing eliminated, except that the facilities should provide
the time spentby aircraft in ground movement. Care must comfortable, convenient and speedymovement of pass-
be exercised, however, toensurethat expansibility and engers and baggage between air and ground transport at
flexibility are notcompromised. Therefore, thelocation of the lowest effective cost and should be able to accom-
passenger facilities is inseparablyassociated with the modate expanding traffic without extensive modification.
planning of the over-all runwaylayout andthetotal
airport plan. Characteristics of passenger areas
9.2.3 The type and size of the passenger building and 9.2.8 Well-designed passenger buildings are usually
the various components within the building will evolve the result of close co-operation between all &hemembers of
from land-use requirements activity forecasts (Chapter 3, the planning team concerned, both those whose task it is
3.2 to 3.4), and site evaluations (Chapter 5 , 5.2). to lay downthe requirements and those,particularly
architects and engineers, who have totranslatethe
9.2.4 For many airportsto which this manual is requirements into detailed designs. Although each group
directed, passenger building facilities will be contiguous, hasits own primaryresponsibility, it can also help the
with one generallocation on theairport. However, in other in many ways. In what follows there is no attempt to
t-74

**
~
I C A O 9384 P A R T * L 48434Lb 0058593 T 7 2 W
Part 1. Master Planning I - 75
lay down principles of design but only to set out some which canaccommodateaircraft parking positions for
planning principles that are likely to influence design. high runway capacities and still maintain passenger
walking distances within reasonable limits. A walking
a) For general layout, passengers should be thought of distance of about 300 m from the centre of the air side of
as forming a homogeneous flow, whether constant the passenger building to thefarthestaircraft parking
or intermittent. position has been generally accepted as the reasonable
limit. However, even this can result in passengers having to
b) The majority of passengers are content to form part walk long distances tomake connexions between one
of the main flow and require clear indications of aircraft, althoughjudicious allocation of stands can reduce
what they are expected to do andthe flow routes they such cases to a minimum. The size of the modular
should follow. passenger unit is very important and should be the best
compromise responding to the physical limitations of
Passengers have individual needs, preferences and passengers and the economics of construction and oper-
(sometimes) disabilities. Some of these requirements ation of the passenger building andapron.Further
involve the airport in extra expense (e.g. facilities for discussion on factors affecting passenger terminal size may
invalids, disabled and elderly persons); otherscan be found in 9.2.32 through 9.2.39.
bring in revenue (e.g. concessions).
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A system thatattracts passengers to theroutes Layout of passenger buildings
required by the flow pattern will often give better
results than one that appears to offer no
alternative, 9.2.11 Passenger buildings should be associated with
particularly if it also gives some freedom for carparks and aprons, etc., ofthe necessary capacity.
individual requirements. When the passenger movement rate exceeds the capacity of
the optimum size building, additional buildings should be
provided, each complete with its own associated full
complement of facilities. Thelayout of these modular
Separation of functions
passenger units within the passenger building plan should
9.2.9 The key to achieving the planning objectives include the necessary apron space, car parking and road
is simplicity. In the context of passenger planning it circulation space in the most compact arrangement
means simple, obvious flow routes. Complex flow routes to minimize transfer distances between the passenger
usually arise from complex plans and buildings. Complex buildings, and between the associated facilities within each
buildings are usually costly, inflexible and not readily modular unit.
expansible as a logical extension of the plan and operating
system. The facilities may still be costly if so desired, but 9.2.12 These units should be arranged in the simplest
this will not be an unavoidable consequence of the plan manner possible to provide an easily comprehensible
and operating concept. Separation of functions is the environment to facilitate free flow of vehicles and people,
principal aid to achievement of simplicity. If other and to provide a flexible and expansible layout capable of
facilities, such as multi-storey office blocks, car parks, adaptation to
future possible requirements. Transfer
control towers, etc., areincorporated withpassenger routes will be required for passengers and baggage on the
buildings, not only does the flow plan tend to be distorted air side, within customs bond, and land side. The nature of
but flexibility is seriously compromised by the presence of these transport systems should be considered in conjunc-
these facilities, and also by thestructuralfeatures they tion with town centre/airport public transport systems to
impose on the building. Figure 9-1 illustrates each of which all the passenger buildings should be conveniently
the important functions of a passenger building and gives linked.
anapproximation of various passenger and baggage
processing interrelationships. Planning requirements for FIOW principles
each of these components are described, in turn, in
subsequent sections of this chapter. 9.2.13 The following flow principles should be
considered, to the extent itis practical, and evaluated
Size of passenger buildings against local circumstances. Particular regard should be
paid to the separation of functions. The passenger flow
9.2.10 For passenger convenience, a large area in the plan should be the first to be considered. Baggage move-
passenger building should be broken down into units or ment is of equal importance since it should be integrated
modules, since it is difficult to construct a single building with the passenger flow but, because baggage is inanimate,

~~ ~
I C A O 9184 PART*% X* 4 8 4 1 4 L b 0058592 909
I- 76 Airport Planning Manual
it is easier to make the baggage flow compatible with the consists of the time taken to realize that a control has
best passenger flow. In practice the flow plans should be to be passed, to understand its nature and to find the
tested against one another at all stages. necessary documents. This time will be increased for
some passengers by lack of understanding of foreign
9.2.14 Flow principles to consider with respect to languages, illiteracy, or confusion. These effects can
passengers include: be reduced minimizing controls and concentrating
them at the fewest number of points. This can also
a) Routes should be short, direct and self-evident. They improve utilization of staff by permitting great
should not, as far as is practicable, conflict with not flexibility.
cross the flow routes of other passenger, baggage or
vehicular traffic. h) Passengers should not have to pass through the same
type of control more than once. Thus, if procedures
b) Changes in level of pedestrian routes should be or controls areestablished in more than oneplace the
avoided as far as is practicable. flow routes should be planned to permit passengers
to bypass all subsequent controls of the same type.
c) Passengers should be able to proceed through a
building without the need to rely on guidance or
i)
The last control which passenger should pass
instruction from staff. Theflow system should be for
through is security. Any controls established at an
‘‘trickle flow” rather than controlled movement in
airport for screening of passengers and their hand
groups.
baggage should be sufficiently remotefromthe
boarding gate as to provide maximum restriction of
d) In heavy traffic conditions, mass flows can only be
unauthorized access to aircraft. Moreover, provision
achieved by the use of trunkroutes.Particular
should be made for a “sterile” buffer area between
categories of passengers should be diverted from the
the security controlpoint and theaircraft. See
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main flow route to pass through specific controls
Doc 8973 and Annex 9 for further information.
only at the last point on the main flow route where
the character of the traffic changes.
j) Flow routes should be planned to give visual
e) Departing passengers should have an opportunity to continuity tothe maximum possible extent. As a
check their baggage at the earliest possible point. minimum it is essential that there should be visual
continuityfromonefunctional stage of the flow
f) Each flow route should, as far as is practicable, be route to the next, e.g. from baggage claim to customs
in one direction only. Where a reverse flow has to be or from check-in to immigration. Such continuity
provided it should bevia a self-contained and assists passengers’ understanding of the flow system
separate route. Flow routes and milling spaces (areas and draws them on in a steady flow through each
of random movement) are necessarily complemen- successive stage. A visual blockage, such as exists
tary to each otherbutareseparatefunctions. where each function or authority is contained in a
Therefore, milling spaces should be adjacent to but separate room, is confusing and creates the need for
not part of the flow routes. signs, broadcast instructions or staff supervision of
passengers.
g) Free flow through all parts of the routes between air
and ground transport should be interrupted as little k) Features which cause hesitancy, such as ambiguous
as possible. While government controlauthorities terminology on signs, flow routes which appear to
andaircraftoperatorsdetermine their own pro- lead in the wrong direction,and multi-directional
cedures, the plan should provide for them in the best junctions should be avoided.
manner to achieve passenger convenience, maximum
security, optimum utilization of staff and minimum 1) The speed of flow and capacity of the passenger
cost for aircraft operators and control authorities. routes should be matched to that of other systems,
such 9s baggage flow and aircraft turnaround time,
Every control pointin the flow system has a potential andto the over-all capacity of theairport.The
to delay and also to irritate and confuse passengers. fastest possible passenger flow or highest possible
The delay is caused not only by the time needed for capacity, far from being an advantage, will create
officials to carry out their procedures but also the frustration, delay, congestion and criticism if it is not
reaction time d‘ passengers. This reaction time bdanced by all parts of the airport system.

I C A O 9184 PART*:L ** 48414Lb 0058593 8 4 5 =
Pari I. Master Pluming
OTHER
RESTAURANT LEFT BAGGAGE CURRENCY
TELEPHONES PASSENGER
STORE OR LOCKERS EXCHANGE
AMENITIES
L
LOBBY
A
CUSTOMS
BAGGAGE
INSPECTION
A
* ENPLAN ING
CURB - * TICKET
t
COUNTERS
DEPARTURES
u
PASSENGER SERVICE --------------

OPERATIONS FACILITIES
AIRPORT I
ACCESS I
SYSTEM
, b
A
TRANSFER
BAGGAGE
-
7
I
DEPLANING
CURB -
ARRIVALS
fi CUSTOMS
BAGGAGE
INSPECTION
H '%EE 1 INBOUND BAGGAGE
PASSENGER UNCLAIMED AND LEFT BI

AMEPJITIES M!SROUTED STOF
, BAGGAGE STORE LOCI
I
!
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

I
OTHER
PASSENGER r- AIRLINE PASSENGER SERVICE OPERATIONS FAC:LITIES
AMENITIES I
I
< I
I
SECURlTY , I > CONCOURSE
CHECK I TICKET LIFT COUNTER
- I
I
AIRLINE
I
FLIGHT OPERATIONS C
FACILITIES
FRONTIER
CONTROLS
- GATES
I
PASSENGER WAITING
AMENITIES AREA
V
AIRCRAFT
I-
TRANSIT
TRANSFER
t
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PASSENGERS
IND BAGGAGE MANAGEMENT
- GOVERNMENT FACILITIES
t I PASSENGER
AMENlTlES
a I FRONTIER
CONTROLS
!D BAGGAGE
-1
~
AIRLINE
AIRCRAFT SERVICING
OPERATIONS FACILITIES
11 LEFT BAGGAGE
STORE OR

1-78 Airport PIanning Manual
A
a) single level road/single level terminal
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b) single level road/doubIe level terminal
c) double level road/double level terminal
d) single level roads/double level terminal
D Departing passengers
4 Arriving
passengers
Figure 9-2. Typical arrangements by processing levels

9.2.15 For thoseparts of the passenger flow routes a) rnnternational. Passengers

travelling between
where baggage accompaniespassengers, the passenger countries and subject to inspection by government
flow principles also apply to baggage. Baggage flow routes frontier control agencies.
are those parts of the system which are specifically for
baggage handling when it is separated from passengers. b) Domestic. Passengerstravelling on routes which
The generalplanningprinciples also apply to baggage begin and end within the boundaries ofa single State
systems planning. Passengerconsiderationshave to be and not subject to government control inspection.
noted at thosepoints where the passenger and baggage For planning purposes this category also includes all
flows come together, and they can consequently influence passengers on routes which are exempted from
aspects of the whole baggage system. government control inspection. This includes traffic
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
within a customs union, economiccommunity of
Signing considerations free trade area, in which the national governments
have agreed on thefree passageof people and goods.
9.2.16 In order to realize the full capacity potential of Depending on the details of such agreements traffic
the passenger building, an orderly flow of both passengers may be domestic inone direction and internationalin
and baggage must be achieved to assure this orderly flow. the other. Thus, the classification between domestic
Prudent use of the system of international signs is necess- and international applies to the aircraft route and
ary in orderto assist airtravellersinlocating various not
the origins and destinations of individual
facilities and services (See Doc 9430). passengers
indicated
as below under “Service
Characteristics.”
Airport Passenger and Service Characteristics 9.2.20 Therearefurther distinctivecategories which

apply to bothaircraftand passengers but which only
imposespecialrequirements in respect of passengers.
Passenger characteristics
These are:
9.2.17 Thetwo maincategories of passengers are
those who travel for business purposes andthosewho a) Departures. Passengers using anairportforthe
travel fortourism,personal, or religious reasons. The purpose of departing from it by air.
business passenger is usually more experienced and will
often use thefullrange of passenger building services b) Arrivals. Passengers arriving by aircraft at an airport
available to the public,timepermitting. Other types of and not departing by a continuing or connecting
passengers include a high percentage who are less experi- flight.
enced and familiar with airline procedures and
the
available passenger building services and concessions.
c) Transif. Passengers who arrive and leave again on
9.2.18 Significant variations in the characteristics and the same aircraft. These passengers may remain on
ratio of these passenger types can influence passenger the aircraft, in which case they do not create any
building spacerequirements andstaffing.One example requirements which planning need take into account.
relates to small or medium airports serving vacation On the other hand, it map be necessary to accom-
centres, pilgrimage centres, and resort areas witti relatively modatethem in the passenger building forthe
short seasons. This type of airport will require different durationoftheaircraft’s stay attheairport,for
passenger building facilities than airports handling similar example to permit the aircraft cabin to be cleaned,
peak volumes of predominantly business travellers. and to provide reasonable comfort and facilities for
Nearbymilitaryinstallations may warrant additional or them.
different processing facilities and services. Also, those
airports havingasignificant number of non-travelling Some transit passengers mayalsobesubject to
visitors must provide adequate spacein the passenger frontiercontrols. This applies where part of an
building so asnotto impede the orderly flow of aircraft’s route is domestic and another part inter-
passengers. national. ‘Passengers arriving from an international
sectionmaybe destined foranairportat which
frontier control facilities are not provided and will,
9.2.19 Additional primary
characteristics of pass- therefore, have to pass the controls at thetransit
engers are thus: airport.

ICAO S L B Y PART81 f f = Y 8 4 1 4 L b 0058597 Y90 =
d) Transfer. Some passengers arriving at an airport by originating/terminating stations, thereby reducing depar-
air may do so simply to connect with a flight for ture lounge space requirements.Typical domestic peak
anotherdestination.For most planningpurposes conditions will show hourly aircraft movements per gate
these passengers can be considered as transit averaging 1.5 to 2.0. Experience in planning for these
passengers except that their baggage needs to be characteristicsindicates theimportanceof identifying
transferred to anotheraircraft.
Some ticketing originating passengers separately from total enplanements.
facilities are required specifically for their use, and
planning should therefore take account of this type 9.2.24 A “transfer/transit station”
airport
has a
of traffic. significant proportion of passengers transferringfrom
arriving flights to departing flights or arriving and
e) General aviation andair taxis. There maybea departing on the same aircraft(at least 30 per cent of total
demand for general aviationand a careful cost- enplanements, including onlineandofflinetransfers).
benefit
analysis should
be
made to determine Aircraft
ground servicing times will average 30 to
whether to intermix thistraffic with commercial 60 minutes, dependingupon connecting patternsand
aviation or to keep it separate. While air taxis may operating policies. By determining the relative proportion
be a problem at large airports, this is not usually the of online and offline transfers for each carrier, adjacency
case at small- or medium-sized airports. of carriers with a high proportion of interchange may help
reduce over-all in-terminalcirculationrequirementsand
Service characteristics - scheduled airlines between-flight connecting times. Typicaldomestic peak
conditions will show hourly aircraft movements per gate
9.2.21 Airline service characteristics are directly averaging 1.3 to 1.5.
related totheroute certificates,bilateralagreements,
andstructureof eachscheduled airline’s system. They 9.2.25 Comparedtothesamevolume of enplane-
can generallybe
categorized intothree basic types: ments at an OriginatingAerminating stationairport,the
originating/terminatingstation,
through station,
and transfer/transit station airport will have:
transferhamit station. An airport may be identified as
one type for theairline industry ingeneral and at the same - less groundtransportation activity and a lower
time serve as a different type for an individuai airline. The requirement for curb frontage;
characteristics of a particular airport may change as an
airline is awarded new routesand develops different - less need for airline counter positions serving normal
connecting patternsandasthe results of new bilateral ticketing and baggage check-in, although
more
route negotiations are instituted. positions may be required for flight information and
ticket changes;
9.2.22 An “originating/terminating station”airport
is usually characterized by a high percentage of originating - less requirement for baggage claim area, but more
passengers (over 70 per cent of total enplanements) and a space needs for baggage transfer(onlineand/or
preponderance of turnaround flightswith ground times interline baggage);
ranging from 45 to 90 minutes or more. Another character-
istic is in the primary flow of passengers between aircraft - increased requirements for concessions and public
and ground transportationvehicles, generating a relatively services because of passengers remaining in the
high requirement for ticket counter,curb length and terminal while waiting for connecting flights. This is
parking spaces per enplaned passenger as compared with generally related to aircraft ground servicing times;
transferkransit or through stations. Passengers will and
usuallyrequire maximum baggage-handling services for
checking and claimingbaggage.Typicaldomesticpeak - increased need for centralizedsecurity control
conditions will show hourly aircraft movements per gate locations to assist passengers transferring tG other
averaging about 0.9 to 1.1. flights.
9.2.23 A “throughstation”airport hasa relatively Service characteristics - non-scheduled airlines

high percentage of originating passengers combined with a
low percentage of originating flights, resulting in shorter 9.2.26 In addition to their scheduled operations, many
aircraft ground times than either originating/terminating airlines operatecharterflights,grouptour flights, and
stations or transfer/transit stations. Anothercharacteristic other types of non-scheduled passenger service. Addition-
is that boarding load factors may be lower than those for ally,thereare a number of certificated supplemental
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I C A O 9 3 8 4 PART*L ** 4 8 4 3 4 3 6 0058578 327
Part I . Muster PCanning 1-81
carriers which operate similar types of non-scheduled to service charteroperations when seasonalpeaks or
service. The certificatedsupplemental carriers generally recurring operationpatterns exceed the capabilities of
operate aircraftsimilar to those of major international flag facilities leased for their own scheduled operations. Any
carriers, although seating capacities may be higher. Since suchproposalshould beevaluated thoroughly with the
the supplementals do not lease facilities at most airports, airlinesinvolved,since a separatecharter facility may
their operations are oftenhandled by a certificated carrier involve considerable inefficiencies in logistks,staffing,
or by a fixed base operator (FBO), who may be located ground equipment utilization, and other costs.
outside the passenger building complex.
Service characteristics - international airlines
9.2.27 Air-taxi operatorsconstituteanother class of
non-scheduled/charter service using aircraft that
are 9.2.30 Depending upon the geographic
locations
generally smaller than those operated by other airlines. At involved, one characteristic of international service is a
manyairports, air-taxi service is provided outsidethe tendency toward higher scheduled peaks dueto heavy
passenger building complex. dependence on schedules for city pairs related to timezone
crossing. Another characteristic is that of relatively long
9.2.28 Airline facility planning for non-scheduled ground service times (two to three hours for turnarounds,
operations involves consideration of the following: and one hour for through flights) required for long-range
aircraft servicing.
- Frequency/volurnes. Collectively these usually
suggest facilities that are moremodest and utilitarian 9.2.31 Governmentalcontroland clearance (or pre-
than those for scheduled operations. clearance)requirements aremajor planningconsider-
ations, particularly thoseforthefrontiercontrolsand
- Group processing. May permit “batch loading” and customs baggage facilities. The techniques and procedures
bypassing
otherwise
congested elements of the used in implementing governmental regulations vary from
passenger building apron-terminal. Buses ‘can one location to another and may change periodically.
transport passengers and baggage directly between
off-airport locations(hotels) andaircraftremote
from the passenger terminal. Factors Affecting Scale of Facilities to be Provided
- Processing times. May differ substantially from 9.2.32 The final stage of passenger building planning
scheduled service. Some charterlgroup-tourpro- involves assessment of the size of the facilities and their
cedures call for passengers to arrive at the airport arrangement in the optimumrelationship to each other and
two to three hours prior
to
departure, which in accordance with the flow principles. The facilities
increases the number of peoplein the passenger required will vary according to the number ofaircraft
building well beyond that for scheduled operations. operators tobe accommodated, their proportionate shares
The early arrival requirement is sometimes relatedto of the traffic, the typeof aircraft operated and the nature
airline staffing and fewer counter positions, thereby of the operations.
producing longer queues and more congestion in the
ticketing lobbies. Number of aircraft operators
- Operational reliability. For many reasons, charter/ 9.2.33 For a given volume of trafficthe minimum
group tour departures and arrivals
tend to be delayed ‘facilities would be required if only one aircraft operator
more than scheduled flights. This usually increases had to be accommodated.The scale and variety of
the number of persons in the terminal or departure facilities required increases where there are a number of
lounge areas beyond the norms and patterns typical operators. In these circumstances continuity of utilization
of scheduled operations. of facilities tends to decrease.
9.2.29 Consideration of the above factors may suggest Allocation of facilities

facilities different fromthose normally
provided for
scheduled operations. At some airports, a relatively high 9.2.34Aircraftoperatorsoften have differing views
volume of airline charter operationsmay warrant consider- on the best passenger processingmethods.These views,
ation of separate and modest passenger building facilities coupled with commercial competition and the consequent
for supplemental carriers. In a few cases, one or more wish forseparate publicidentity, often lead aircraft
scheduled carriers may want aircraft stands and buildings operators to seek allocation of specific parts of passenger
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areas or buildings to their individual use. While aircraft adaptable to airports with low airline activity and is
operators do need fairly localized areas of operation in also
adaptable
to general aviationoperations
orderto be abletoconcentratestaffandequipment, whether it is located as a separate entity on a large
separation of operators canlead to anover-all reduction in airline-served airport or is the operational centre for
utilization of facilities and a consequent increase in their anairport used exclusively 'by general aviation.
total size and cost. Where the simple building serves airline operations,
it will usually have an apron which provides close-in
9.2.35 Minimum cost for the airport will be achieved parkingfor a few commercial transportaircraft;
by the most continuous and homogeneous use of facilities, however, due consideration should be given for jet
and passenger convenience will be enhanced by reduction blast effects against the building when a nose-in or
of interchange between various sections of the passenger nose-out parkingconfiguration is adoptedfor jet
area or buildings. But certainty of the location of their transport aircraft. Where the simple building serves
chosen aircraft operator is also a passenger requirement. general aviation only, it should be within convenient
So between the partly conflicting interests of the airport walking distance of aircraftparkingareasand
authority,aircraftoperatorsand passengers, a compro- should be adjacent to an aircraftservice apron. The
mise is necessary to determine the optimum allocation of simple building concept will normally consist of a
facilities. single-level structure where access to aircraft is by
walking across the apron. The layout of the simple
Developing criteria for the passenger building plan building should take into account the possibility of
linear extension for future expansion.
9.2.36 Specific planningcriteria, related todemand
and capacitycited below, should be developed forthe b) Linear concepf. The linear building concept may be
abovefactorsandforthosemajor passenger building regardedas an extension ofthe simplebuilding
components affecting thescale of facilities to be provided. concept, that is, the simple building is repeated in a
Information for determining passenger buildingrequire- linear extension to provide additional apron front-
mentsshould be obtained from allpresent or potential age, more gates and more space within the building
users ofthe facilities including, inter alia, the airlines, for passengerprocessing.Passenger and baggage
general aviation interests,
concessionaires, airport processing cantake placeina centralarea of a
management, and special technical committees which may terminal(centralization),but when theterminal
be organized to act asadvisors to the airportplanners. The becomeslarger with increased number of aircraft
criteria should be analysed and agreed upon by all parties gate positions the problem of longwalking distances
involved before being incorporated into the master plan. arises. This problem can be solved by installation of
mechanical devices, such as people movers,or by
Determination of passenger building concepts decentralizationofsome passenger and baggage
processing
facilities. Complete
decentralization
9.2.37 The selection of a passenger buildingconcept wouldallowpassenger and baggagecheck-in and
must be made jointly with the selection of the aircraft baggage claim at the individual gate and thus afford
parking system discussed in 7.3.8. Through careful study very short walking distance between curb-side and
and analysis, the planner should reduce the possibilities to aircraft,butconstructionandoperation become
those few concepts which will be most compatible with the costly. The degree of decentralization of processing
planned airport configuration. Thesemost
desirable facilities must be determined after careful study of
concepts should thenbe presented to airport management, volume and type of traffic, and of construction and
airline and general aviation interests, andairportcon- operation costs.
cessionaires for their considerationandappraisal.It is
essential that co-ordination with airport interests and users The linear configuration lends itself to the develop-
be effected beforethefinal selection of a passenger ment of adequate close-in public parking. Ample
building concept is made. If this is not done, the plan may curbfrontageforloadingandunloadingground
well be rejected at the time of its official presentation. The transportation vehicles can be provided with each
following concepts should be considered in the develop- extension of the linear building. Linear buildings can
ment of the passenger building plan. beexpanded with almostnointerference to pass-
engerprocessing or aircraft operations. Expansion
a) Simple concept. The simple building concept consists may beaccomplished by linear extension of the
of a single common waiting and ticketing area with existing structure's air-side corridor orby developing
several exits into small
a parkingapron. It is two or more linear building units connected by an
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I C A O 9284 PART*cL X* 4 B 4 L 4 L b 0 0 5 B b 0 0 805
Part 1. Master Planning J -83
air-side corridor.Theloading of aircraft may be Because the distance from the main building to a
accomplished by nose-idpush-out operations with satellite is usually well above the average distance to
or without passenger loading bridges. gates found with the pier concept, a people-mover
system or some other mechanical devices are often
c) Pier (finger) concept. The finger or pier concept used to reduce walking distances between terminal
evolved in the 1950s when gate concourses were and satellite. There is no direct relationship between
added to simple central buildings. Since then, very the number of gates and curb space so that special
sophisticated forms of
the concept
have been care should be taken in the planning of enplaning
develcped with the addition of hold rooms at gates, and deplaning roadways serving the central building
passenger loading bridges, and vertical separation of to prevent curb overloads.
the ticketing check-in functionfromthe baggage Buildings developed under the satellite concept are
claim function. However, the basic concept has not difficult to expand without reducing apron frontage
changed in that the main central passenger building or disrupting airport
operations. Increases in
is used to process passengers and baggage (a central- building capacity are therefore usually effected by
ized system, although waiting lounges in most cases the additionof new units rather than expansion of an
are dispersed at each gate position along piers) while existing unit.
the pier provides a means of enclosed access from the
central building to aircraft gate. Aircraft are parked Other concepts. Other passenger terminal concepts
at gates along the pier as opposed to the satellite include the transporter concept (also known as the
concept where they are parked in a cluster at the end remote aircraft
parking concept) and the unit
of a concourse (see Figure 7-3). terminal concept. T i e former involves the vehicular
transportof
departing
and arriving passengers
Walkingdistances through pier buildingstend to discussed in Chapter 7, and may be combined with
become long. Curb space must be carefully planned other concepts to cater for peak hour demands. The
since it depends on the length of the central building latter is one where the individual compact module
and is not related to thetotalnumberof gates units are built around a system of interconnecting
afforded by piers. This is particularly true of access and service roads. The buildings are spaced
deplaning curbs near centralized
baggageclaim some distance apart under this concept, with each
facilities. Although the pierconcept hasafforded buildingproviding complete passenger processing
one of the most economical means of adding gate and aircraft parking facilities. Consideration of the
positions to existing buildings, its use for expansion unit terminal concept is usually feasible only for the
shouldbelimited.Existing piers shouldnot be larger airports.
extended at the expense of taxiway manoeuvrability
nor should new piers be added withoutproviding 9.2.38 Passenger building concepts can also be
adequate space for passenger processing in the main considered by the level(s) on which passenger arrival,
building. Most successful additions are effected by processing anddeparture
takes place. Four typical
extending the main building and then increasing the configurations are as follows (see also Figure 9-2):
number of piers.
Single-level road/single-level terminal. Arrival and
d) Safellite concept.The primary feature of the satellite departure processing in the terminal is done at same
concept is the provision of a single. centralized level but is separated horizontally. Passenger
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terminal with all ticketing, baggage processing, and boarding to aircraft is by means of stairs.
ancillary services except waitinglounges, which is
connected by concourses toone or more satellite Single-level road/double-level terminal. Arrival and
structures. The features of the satellite concept are departure processing in the terminal is normally at
very similar to those of the pier concept except that grade (road level) with departure lounges on a higher
aircraft gates are located at theend of a long level, permitting the use of passenger loading bridges
concourse rather than being spaced at even intervals or of transporters with level change capabilities.
along it. Satellite gates are served either by common
or by separate hold rooms. The concourse can be Double-level road/double-level terminal. Access
elevated or located underground, thereby providing roads and curb-side are on different levels, to allow
space for ground service equipment and aircraft taxi vertical separationofarrivalanddeparture pro-
operations between the main building and
the cessing in the terminal (usually, the upper level is for
satellite. departure and the lower level for arrival).

I C A O 9 3 8 4 PART*3 ** 4 8 4 L 4 L0b0 5 8 b 0 3 741
d) Single-level roadddouble level terminal. This is a concept is one of a number of movements (of passengers,
variationof c), with access roadand curb-side bags or vehicles) per unit of time, the appropriate unit of
forarrivalanddepartureseparated horizontally time depending upon the particular application. In some
(laterally) but not vertically. cases itmaybedesirable to plan capacity to satisfy an
estimated peak demand, but normally a figure somewhat
9.2.39 In the process of developing a terminal below this will be more realistic due to costs involved and
concept, planners must also pay attention to the desired space required. What is important is to match the capaci-
degree of centralization or decentralization of the pass- ties of different segmentsin the processing,because
enger and baggage processing facilities(passengerlbaggage inadequate capacity in one operationwill restrict the over-
check-in,government and security control, baggage all flow.
sortingandmake-up,departing passenger holding, and
baggage claim facilities) within a terminal. A centralized 9.2.42 The capacity of the
public
corridor in
design means that allpassenger and baggageprocessing passengerbuildings is a function of walkingspeed, the
facilities are centralized forcommon use by allgate width occupancy expressed as a lateral distance per person
positions at a terminal: (There are variations and excep- (passenger or visitor), and headwaydistancebetween
tions to this, such as the pier concept which is basically persons in the direction of flow.While variations in speed,
centralized yet normally provides
passenger holding width and distance are bound to occur, averages can be
lounges for exclusive use by each gate position.) In selected in order to arrive at average
an flow of persons per
contrast, eachof the processing facilities in a decentralized unit of time per unit of width of public corridor, using the
design is dispersedover a number of centreswithin a following equation:
terminal. In a completely decentralized concept, all of the
processing facilities are available at each gate position for ws
its exclusive use. Complete decentralization affords cc =
WO x HD
advantages such as shorter walking distances,efficient
passenger and baggage flow, iess chances of mishandled where:
baggage, etc., but it may turn out to be uneconomical due
to under-utilization of personnel, equipment and terminal CC = corridor capacity (number of persons per minute,
space. Thus the planner should analyse the efficiency of per one metre width);
WS = walking speed (normally 75 m per minute);
-
the processing system as a whole, its economy in terms of
total requirementsof floor area, equipment and personnel, WO = width occupancy (0.6 ,r. 0.8 m per person);
and passenger convenience to achieve optimum degree of HD = headway distance between persons (1 2 m).
centralizationor decentralization of the passenger and
baggage processing facilities. 9.2.43 Inordertodeterminethe width of a facility
such as a pier, the total flow rate per unit of timemust be
known. Arriving aircraft create a much greater concen-
tration of passengers in a relatively short period of time
Capacity and Demand thandodepartingaircraft, a problem which is com-
pounded when large capacity aircraft use the airport. The
9.2.40 In planning, the aim should be to ensure that size ofthissurge will depend primarily onthe size of
capacity satisfies demand within practical economic limits aircraft, their arrival schedules, and the number of exits
and to providecapability for increased capacity as demand that are used. Therefore, in the planning of space for a
increases with traffic growth. Because of the time required pier facility, a flow rate of passengersper hour is not
to construct additional facilities, it is normal practice to appropriate; a much shorter time period, such as five to
plan capacity which will be in excess of demand during the ten minutes, may have to be used. The appropriate time
initial life of the facility.Statistical forecasts to be used for period forall parts of the passenger building will not be the
planning are discussed in Chapter 3 . sameandmustbe assessed individuallydepending on
function.
Movement rate
Capacity to be provided
9.2.41 For planning purposes, the capacity of a
passenger building or of its segments is usually expressed 9.2.44 Airport authorities may be faced with a
in terms of achievable movement rates or, in some cases, number of alternatives in deciding the capacity for which
of actual populations for a given area. Although there are passenger facilities should be planned. The introductionof
different criteria used to describe movement rate, the basic new very high-capacity aircraftmade it
much more
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I C A O 7384 P A R T * 3 tt 4 B 4 1 4 L b 0058602 688
important to consider these alternatives, because their be provided should be determined by the over-all cost-
passenger capacity may represent a very large proportion benefit analyses. If provision of passenger capacity for the
of the hourly capacity of many passenger buildings, forecast flow conditions cannot be economically justified,
accentuating the concentration of passenger flow. Four e.g. because of the infrequency of occurrence or very high
alternatives are outlined below; all four have disadvan- cost, it maybe necessary to combine some degree of
tages andthe choice should be made by progressive limitation of aircraftoperators’ schedules with some
elimination of the least desirable. passenger congestion of a limited duration.
First alternative: estimate the building area required for Processing rates
the maximum passenger capacity of the runways (that is,
assume that all runways will be used to their maximum 9.2.45 The appropriate measurement of capacity may
capacity andthat all aircraft will be the largest type not be the same for all individual facilities. The rate at
forecast to use the airport). In actual practice, the forecasts which passengers flow to a facility is determined by the
of passenger demand and probable aircraft mixture will rate at which they flow through the previous part of the
usually produce a passenger flow rate below this maximum route. For example, the rate at which passengers leave an
passenger capacity, allowing a downward adjustment of aircraft i s determined largely by the number andsize of the
the building area required. aircraft doors used. The rate at which they flow into the
passenger building depends uponthe method used to
Second alternative: allow delays and congestion caused transport them to the building. Passengers flowing
by surges in the flow to rectify themselves within one hour, through a pier will spread out according to their walking
as provided for by the standard busy rate which assumes speeds and will arrive in a stream at thefirst control point,
that peaks of up to20 per cent will occur for short periods. i.e. port health or immigration for international passengers
As traffic increases at busy periods, however, and with and baggage reclaim for domestic passengers. Passengers
high capacity aircraft, it may be expected that congestion conveyed to the passenger building in a vehicle, either from
in any one hour would spread to succeeding hours and it the aircraft or population centre, will arrive at the frontier
would soon benecessary to restrict the traffic demand. controls or check-in position in groups.
Acceptance of such excessive delays is most undesirable.
9.2.46 The average time required to process one
Third alternative: spread the traffic evenly throughout passenger at any specific facility depends upon the nature
the hour by specifying a capacity for a shorter period, for of the procedures; these vary, both in content and method,
example 15 minutes. This would restrict aircraft scheduling between States. The processing time for each facility and
so that the passenger flow is evened out over the hour. This control on the flow routes can be determined by obser-
is practised by some airportauthoritiesand has the vation. It is not possible to define standard processing
advantages of spreading the airport’s utilization and times for all airports, although the times achieved at other
permitting more efficient and economic use of facilities airports are often agood guide to the flow rate which can
andstaff. It may not be favoured by some aircraft be achieved. For example, at some airports immigration
operators because it limits the use of any preferred officials undertake health document inspection or prelimi-
departure and arrival times. However, every airport and nary customs control. At others each of the controls is
passenger building has a finite capacity which, when carried out by different officials atseparate locations.
reached, requires schedules to be spread. The disadvantage Sometimes customs controls are established for clearance
of this procedure is that it cannot be applied to arrivals of passengers and baggage separately. At others both are
traffic. Conditions en-route, such as winds and delays at cleared at the same point. Similarly, some aircraft
otherairports, can introducea considerable element of operators checkin passengers and their baggage at one
irregularity in arrival times and small variations can point, others check in baggage at one point and passengers
accentuate surges and have a large impact on the passenger at another.These are only examples of the wide differences
flow. in existing passenger control procedures and a comparison
of processing times is invalid without analysis of the
Fourth alternative: plan the passenger facilities on the methods and procedures used.
flow rate indicated by the size, duration and frequency of
the passenger surges. This would produce an hourly 9.2.47 The nature of the control also determines the
capacity significantly higher than the capacity necessary period of delay or degree of congestion which is acceptable
for an even distribution of traffic throughout the hour. at that point for the efficient operation of the passenger
The cost of providing capacity for the passenger surges building. The standard busy rate, being less than the peak
within the hour should be considered and the capacity to rate, assumes that it is exceeded for a small proportion of
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1-86 ___
Airport ?laming Munuai
-
thetime, which canlead to someshort-term delays or Thevehicularcurbareasatthe passenger buildingare

--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
congestion. For many facilities, such delays or congestion required

for
the
efficient
off-loading of departing
constitute only temporaryreductions ir: convenience, passengers and theirbaggage,and for theefficient on-
which is reasonable and acceptable in over-all economic loading of arriving passengers and their baggage.
terms.However, in someparts of the flow routesuch
delays could lead to major and intolerable inconvenience.
These are the points where certain procedures have to be Signs
completed by a specific time to allow other procedures t o
be undertaken. For example, check-inusuallyhas to be 9.3.2 At this initial point of connexion of the
completed by a specific period before flight departure time passengerwith the passenger building,directionaland
to permit aircraft operators to complete aircraft documen- identification are most necessary to facilitate on orderly
tationand load balance,etc.Thus, if check-in desk flow of passengers to their desired locations. The Council
capacity is computedatthestandard busy rate,the of ICAO recognized this need when they decided that a set
temporary delay or congestion which may arise when that ofuniformsignsshouldbedeveloped for useatinter-
rate is exceeded couldpreventsome passengers from national airports throughout the world. This action was
checking in by the latest specified time and either delay the taken to facilitateair travellers in locating various facilities
aircraft or cause the passengers to miss their flights. and servicessuch as
telephones, check-in counters,
baggage reclaim areas, post offices, toilets and banks. The
9.2.48 Eachproceduralcontrol on the flow routes ICAO
publication International Signs to Provide
should, therefore, be anaiysed to determine the acceptable Guidance TO Persons at Airports contains such a set of
delay factorapplicable to it.Thecapacityrequiredfor signs.
each facility is thus determined by the rate of flow to it, the
average passenger processing time and the acceptable delay Curb-side layout
factor.
9.3.3 The shape of ground vehicles and the numbers
to beaccommodatedmaketheprovisionofsufficient
9.3 PASSENGER BUILDING CONNEXION space of a suitable shape for vehicle unloading one of the
WITH ACCESS SYSTEM mostdifficultelements of passenger buildingplanning.
For the shortest flow route the unloading points should be
as close as possible to the first processing positions in the
Land Side Entrances and Exits passenger building. For straight and direct flows it should
and Passenger Building Curb be
possible to enterthe
building directly fromthe
unloadingpointsatanypointalong its frontage.The
9.3.1 Passenger building entrances, exits andcurb unloadingareashould be on the same level as the
area are important parts of the total airport system. The passenger departureflooranditsdepthshouldbethe
principal components are: minimum possible consistentwith other requirements. The
capacity of theunloadingareacan be increased by
introducing a two-level road system. If it is necessary to
a) vehicular traffic lanes, through lanes, bypass lanes, consider the alternative merits of increased depth or more
curb/manoeuvring lanes; levels, the choice should depend on the horizontal and
vertical length of the passenger route.
b) sidewalk platform;
9.3.4 The passenger building entrances and exits, with
C) signs, for both direction and identification; their signs, can be considered points for potentialvehicular
traffic accumulation. The planner needs to establish the
d)curb side baggage check-in points,locatedonthe relationship between the possible number and location of
sidewalk platform; terminal openings, the terminal functions with which they
connect, and the total required curb length.
e) building openings, entrances and exits;
9.3.5 Ticket lobby length is usually determined by the
f) pedestrian roadway crossings. length of the ticket counter. The number and spacing of
building openings are functions of the layout of the ticket
The necessary curb lengths and the vehicular traffic lanes lobby. The effective terminal curb length available relates
will greatly influence thepassenger building configuration. directly tothearrangement of thebuildingopenings.

ICAO 9384 P A R T * l ** 4841416 005Bb04 4 5 0
Similarly, the baggage reclaim lobbydimensions, pre- taxis at the deplaning road sections can be controlled by
dominantly thereclaim device arrangement, will determine dispatching from a designated queue line.
the number and spacing of building openings andthe
effective passenger building frontage available. Building 9.3.9 The loading and unloading of passengers by
conceptsproviding curb areasgreatly in excessof the private vehicles and unloading by taxis cannot be tightly
building length or providing an excess of building controlled. Orderly performance therefore depends on the
entrances and exits with little direct relationship to either arrangement and organization of the curb lanes, building
ticket counter or baggage reclaim should be analysed for openings and signs.
their economics, efficiency, and passenger convenience.
9.3.10 Vehicular curb manoeuvring lanes are provided
9.3.6 The curb-side baggage check-in system was once
for the purpose ofloading and unloading passengers with
considered to beideal for departing passengers as they
bags. The dimensions in length and width need to be such
could drop their baggage at adesignated areaof the
that traffic volumes generated for the design year during
enplaning curb frontage for an airline agency to check-in,
peak periods will be processed without undue delays. The
thus becoming free of their baggage prior to checking in
curb manoeuvring lane width should be approximately 1.6
for their seats. However, for security reasons this system
of a regular traffic lane, to permit manoeuvring to take
is no longer considered practical for international flights.
place without interfering with the flow of traffic.
In this regard it is worth noting that ICAO Annex 17 calls
for a State to establish measures to ensure that operators
providing service to or from that State do notplace or keep 9.3.11 Thecurb manoeuvringlaneshould be used
the baggage of passengers who have registered, but who only for loading and unloading, and not as a waiting area
have not reported for embarkation, on board the aircraft, for vehicles. Each vehicle should occupy a curb space only
without subjecting it to security control. for the time it takes to load or unload passengers and
baggage, and to manoeuvre into and out ofspace. the This
total time is identified as the “dwell timehehicle.” Strict
Capacity and curb space utilization policing, as ,done at many high-volume airports t o
minimize dwell time, will promote anefficient traffic flow.
9.3.7 Thecurb length required is affected by the
numbers, average size and characteristics of vehicles. The
9.3.12 Thenumberof building entrances and exits
use of cars by passengers may be influenced by any public
signs, and sign programme both for public information
transport systems which areprovided, particularly an
and airlineidentificationshould be arranged in sucha
exclusive town centre/airport system. The distribution of
manner thatthe effective curb length thusformed will
passengers by travel modes and the numbers and types of
closely approximate the required curb length.
vehicles to be accommodated can be obtained from the
operational and economic forecasts. The minimum time
necessary to unload passengers and baggage depends upon 9.3.13 The required curb length can be calculated as
the averagenumber of passengers per vehicle andthe follows:
averagenumber of pieces of baggage per passenger.
Occupancy time should be limited to ensure that there is Determine design hour passengers enplaning and
always space to unload passengers and baggage without deplaning. Identify the design period for deplaning
congestion or delay. This limitation will depend upon the passengers within the peak-hour - peak 10 or
rate of arrival of vehicles and the total number of spaces 20 minutes (a 20-minute peak can be equivalent to
available - many airport authorities have found that a 50 per cent of the peak-hour traffic).
waiting period of three minutes for cars is sufficient for
unloading and is consistent with provision of a number of Determine the percentage of transfer passengers of
car spaces which is economicallyreasonable and com- thetotal,and deduct fromthetotal design hour
patible with the passenger flow principles. requirement to find the number of passengers
entering the airport using the road system.
9.3.8 Ananalysis of curb spaceutilization by the
various types of vehicles shouldbeperformed. It is Determine the modal preference by vehicular type.
assumed that curb areas forbuses, limousines and courtesy
cars will be designated areas and, asa consequence, can be Determine the percentage of passengers thatgo
completely controlled. Similarly, queue lines for taxis will directly to the parking facility and do not use the
be designated and controlled. Pick-up of passengers by curb system.
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I C A O 9184 PART*KL ** 4841436 0058605 397
1-88 Airport Piunning Manual
e ) Determine the visitor ratio of passengers to visitors, check-in; separation of functions is most important in this
and apply tothe percentage of passengers using area t o ensure that this primary flow is not compromised
private vehicles. (see Figure 9-3).
f) Determine occupants per vehicle andthe average

9.4.2 The airline ticket counter is the firstobjective
curb dwell time for that type of vehicle.
fororiginating passengers once they have entered the
~~
passenger building. To ensure that the passenger reaches

Relationship of curb to passenger building layout this
first
objective with a minimum of confusion, the
check-in concourse should be designed so that counters
9.3.14 Thetotal calculated curb lengths need to be
and individual airline or flight locations are clearly visible
related to actual terminal layouts for both enplaning and
immediately upon entering the passenger building.
deplaning. Thetotal length of thefacade of the ticket
Circulation patterns should allow the option of bypassing
lobby and the baggage claim area must be arranged in
counters with a minimum of interference. Provision for
relationship to the required curb lengths.
seating in this area of the building should be minimal to
avoid congestion as well astofacilitate exposure to
concessions and other services.
9.4 PASSENGER PROCESSING
9.4.3 Until passengers have checked in, they have no
assurance of being ableto travel andcannot proceed
Check-in Concourse through
any subsequent controls. Passenger and baggage
check-in has to be completed sometimebefore flight
9.4.1 Thearea between the passenger building departureprovide
to sufficient
time for subsequent
entranceandthe check-in positions is the check-in proceduressuch asaircraftoperators’documentationand
concourse (notethat facilities for check-in may also be aircraftloadcomputation,loading baggage intothe
provided at the aircraft gates). The primary flow is that of aircraft, clearing passengers through government controls
passengers holding flight tickets and proceeding directly to where required and boarding of the aircraft by passengers.
T O D E P A R T U R E S CONCOURSE
CHECK-IN P O S I T i O N S
t t t t
CHECK-IN CONCOURSE
t t --```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A I R C R A F T O P E R A T O R S ’ T I C K E T S A L E S . S T A N D - B Y R E S E R V A T I O N S , ETC.
Figure 9-3. Passenger check-in flow

I C A O 9384 P A R T * 3 * I R 4 8 4 1 4 1 b 0058bOb 223
Aircraft operators’ documentation and baggage handling Check-in

are usually the limiting factors which determine the time by
which checking in must be completed. Capacity
9.4.4 The space between the land side entrances and 9.4.9 The number of check-in positions required is a
check-in positions should be sufficient to provide free function of the time required to process one yassenger and
access to check-in and other facilities. Check-in concourse the rateof flow to thecheck-in positions. Average check-in
sizing is a function of total length of airline ticket counter process times vary according to the route and category of
frontage, queuing at counters, and allowance for lateral traffic and should be determined in consultation with
circulation without undue congestion. For small- and aircraft operators. Based on the process time, asustainable
medium-sized airports,adepth of approximately 10 m check-in ratecan be defined and the capacity for each
should be adequate for the check-in concourse. However, position required can be defined. Surges within the hour
airports having a high visitor/passenger ratio may require occur onthe same basis asfortheland side vehicle
additional depth. unloading positions and the unit period for rate of flow
measurement should similarly be obtained by research
9.4.5 Although check-in is the primary activity in this measurement. It is necessary to ensure that passengers
area, a number of allied functional facilities, i.e. aircraft arriving just before the designated final check-in time can
operators’ ticket sales, stand-by passenger registration, be processed without delay.
aircraftoperators’informationand currency exchange
facilities may also have to be accommodated. 9.4.10 The type and number of counter positions
required are usually determined by the airport authorityin
consultation with each airline or handling agency accord-
Aircraft operators’ ticket sales, ing to itsstaffing criteria and company standardsfor
stand-by registration and information processing passengers and baggage. Individual airport
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
variables that influence the number of positions include
9.4.6 Passengers purchasing tickets or making stand-
one or more of the following:
by registrations must do so before they can check in.
Similarly, passengers may require information from
Design hour enplanements. These are usually derived
aircraftoperators before purchasing tickets o r making
from projections of peak hourlaverage day of peak
reservations. To ensure unobstructed flow to the check-in
month enplanements plus consideration of the
positions these facilities should be located clear of the
number of gate positions, the seating capacity of
primary flow streams.
aircraft that those gate positions can accommodate,
and boarding load factors considered representative
Currency exchange for the airport.
9.4.7 Passengers making payments for ticket purchase Contact ratio. This ratio is usually projected from
orairport tax mayneed to cash cheques or change historical data and shows the relationship between
currency, and a bank or currency exchange facility is, the number of passengers who contact counter
therefore, required in the check-in concourse. In choosing agents andthe total number of enplanements or
the location, careshould be taken to ensure thatpassengers originating passengers. Separate contact ratios can
using this facility do not interfere with the free flow of be determined for each type of counter position:
passengers through the building. ticketing, baggage check-in, multipurpose, infor-
mation, and future ticketing.
Airport tax or passenger service charge
Passengerarrival distribution patterns. This is the
9.4.8 Where airport taxes or service charges are rate at which enplaning passengers arrive at check-in
imposed on departing passengers, methods should be counters for processing, sometimes presented in
developed whereby passengers may pay them when tables showing the percentage of passengers arriving
purchasing tickets. When this cannot be done, arrange- in 5- or 10-minute increments during a period up to
ments should be made for payment of these charges in the 120 or 150 minutes prior to departure. Twodifferent
vicinity of check-in counters. The fullest advance warning patterns may be applicable at some airports where
should be given to ensure that passengers are aware of any the passenger arrivals for early morning flights occur
payment to be made before they arrive at the point of during a shortertime span than do passenger arrivals
collection or pass the currency exchange. duringother times of theday. Figure 9-4, which

I C A O ’7184 P A R T t L t t 484L4Lb 0058b07 L b T
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Airport Planning Manual
Minutes Prior to Departure
Line A - Percentage distribution of passengers arriving for flights departing between 1000 and 0400.
Line B - Percentage distribution of passengers arriving for flights departingbetween 0405 and 0955.
Figure 9-4. Passenger arrival distribution
illustrates these points, can be derived for individual positionforanyflight.Utilizationofthe facilities, and
airports by time-coding passenger tickets at contact hence the total capacity required, will depend on whether
with theagentand then relatingthistime to the particularpositionsaredesignated for specific purposes
scheduled departure time of the passenger’s flight. (for example, sperific check-in positions for domestic as
opposed to international services, or separate positionsfor
d) Average process time for each type of counter each operatorortlight).The check-in capacity to be
activity. provided is a matterforbothaircraftoperators’and
airport authorities’ judgement.
e) Service goals of an individuai airline for specific
types of counterpositions. Theseare generally 9.4.13 Use of the land sidevehicle unloading positions
expressed asthepercentageof passenger contacts andentrances to the passenger buildinghasalso to be
who will wait for service “x” minutes or less. related to any allocation of check-in positions for specific
purposes.Homogeneous use of all check-inpositions
Thecombinationofenplanements,contractratiosand provides the greatest passenger convenience and ensures
arrival patternsdescribes the passenger flow to a given type highest utilization of land side vehicle unloading positions
of counter.Passengerflow,processtimeand airlines’ and check-infacilities and, therefore, requires minimum
service goals are used to determine the number of agent provision of these facilities and building space. The more
positions required. that facilities areallocatedto specific uses themore
difficult it becomes to provide balanced capacity over all
9.4.1 1 Late check-in can be effectedattheaircraft parts of each flow stream,with passenger routes becoming
gate in circumstances where passengers would otherwise less straight and cross-flows developing along the length of
miss :heir flights. This places on passengers the burden of thebuilding.Theoptimumbalance is oftendifficultto
transporting their baggage to the gate, but the system is define butit will be achieved by close adherence to the flow
permissive and it is for the passengers to decide whetherto principles and cost-benefit assessment.
accept theburdenor miss theflight.Thisarrangement
should, however, only be used to supplement the provision Check-in systems
of appropriate check-infacilities in the check-in con-
course. If the terminal is designed following a completely 9.4.14 The check-in system used by airlines or
decentralized concept (gate check-in concept), late check-in handling agencies can exert a major influence on planning.
can beeasily accommodated. However, consideration shall The conventional check-in system of manual ticket control
be given totheeconomicaspectsincepersonneland and baggage weighing and labelling is still in use, but only
facilities tend to be underused when decentralized. at smallairports.Manyoperators firid it economically
justifiabletoinstallcomputer check-insystems, and
9.4.12 Furtherconsiderations
influencing check-in alreadycomputerized departure
control systems with
capacity are the number of aircraft operators, their shares inputs from check-in desks at airports and elsewhere are
of the traffic and frequencyof operation, the allocationof being widely used. Airport planners should be aware of
check-in positionsandoperating system adopted.The common use terminalequipment (CUTE) which is a
minimum facilities will be required when allare used generic airlineindustrytermfor afacility which allows
homogeneously and any passenger can check-in at any individual airlines to access their host cornputer(s), and to

I C A O 9L84 PART*L ** = 4B414Lb 0058608 OTb
Part 1. Master Planning I-91
share passenger terminal handling facilities. Full details in Split check-in concept. The check-in function is split
respect of CUTE systems are contained in IATA between two or more locations within the terminal
Recommended Practice 1797 which is available from complex, e.g. baggage may be accepted at check-in
Senior Manager, Passenger Services, IATA, 2000 Peel counters on the lower level and seat assignment takes
Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3A 2R4. A place at the waiting lounge on the upper level of the
concurrent development is the elimination of baggage terminal.
weighing and thus theneed for scales. This already applies
on manydomestic routes, where the passenger baggage Gate check-in concept. Gate check-in is normally
entitlement is fixed as a specified number of pieces of directly
related to
the decentralized passenger
defined size. terminal concept. By this system passengers and
baggage are processed at check-in counters located
9.4.15 These new operational systems can affect very close toanaircraftgate position (or a few
passenger building planning by imposing different space positionsin case of semi-decentralized passenger
requirements for the check-in positions. They may also terminal concept) andits waiting lounge. This
reduce the passenger service time so that thecapacity (flow concept
can afford advantagessuch as
short
rate) of the check-in positions would be very considerably distances, simple check-in handling for both
increased. The capacity of any particular section of the passengers and baggage, etc.However,economic
passenger flow routesshould bematched by acorre- aspects should bewell taken intoconsideration, since
sponding capacity in the other sections. Failure to d o so the facilities and personnel tend to be under utilized
merely causes congestion and consequent delay in the during off-peak hours,
subsequent lower-capacity sections of the route, or under-
utilization of the high-capacity section, because passengers 9.4.19 The check-in counters, on the other hand, may
cannot flow to it fast enough. be divided into three types of configuration:
9.4.16 Changes in check-in systems canalsoaffect a) Linear counter. This is the mostfrequently used
their utilization and the systems of allocation. The extent ticket counter configuration. Atlow-volume airports
to which new high capacity check-in systems can, or need multipurpose positions are common where an agent
to be adopted, will vary among aircraft operators and the can
perform
any ticket transaction, check in
routes and types of traffic which an airport serves. The baggage, and provide such other service as anairline
appropriate balance between numbers for eachtype of maydeem appropriateto its operation. Multi-
system and the appropriatesystem of allocation should be purpose positionsreduce thenumber of servicing
determined by the airport authority in consultation with stops for some passengers and afford flexibility in
operators, in the light of local circumstances. staffing, especially during non-peak periods.
Check-in counters During peak periods, some airlines utilize multi-

purpose positions for a single function to expedite
9.4.17 The passenger terminal layout is largely processing of passengers who need only one type of
influenced by the check-in concept and the ticket counter service (e.g. ticketing, baggage check-in, ticketing
configuration employed by airlines and handling agencies. forfuture flights, etc.). At high-volume airports,
Consequently, itis essential that airlines and handling single function positions become more common and
agencies are consulted at an early stage of the planning. airline servicing procedures may justify some special-
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
purpose positions in addition tothose single function

9.4.18 The check-in system may be divided into the positions. Special-purpose positions provide general
following three concepts: information and passenger assistance, including
paging service, gate assignments, information
a) Centralized check-in concept. Passengers and regarding delayed or cancelled flights and weather.
baggage are processed at check-in counters located in Some of these services may also be required in
a common central area, usually the departure departure lounges.
concourse of the terminal. The counters may be of
different configurationsand may be divided into b) Flow-through counters. This concept is in use at
sections specially designated for individual airlines someairports,although experience indicates that
(airline base) or flights (flight base) o r alternatively future applications may be limited to relatively few
passengers may be free to check-in at any counter airports. This concept appears to be most successful
positions (common base). when specialized for baggage check-in, where

passengers queue along the baggage input, complete 9.4.22 The check-in positions should be grouped into
their transactions with the agent, and walk through units of sufficient size to maintain acceptable staff costs
to a lobby or circulation area beyond. The principal and utilization compatible with efficient passenger flow.
advantagesare reducing
cross-circulation and Too many positions in each group would compromise the
increasing baggage take-away capability, by provid- flow principlesto anunacceptable extent, and theflow rate
ing oneinput for one or two positions at linear would be reduced by congestion and confusion. Thelarger
counters. This increased capability can be beneficial the number of positions the more the passenger flow is
at high-volume stations havinga relatively high distorted.
percentage of “baggage-only” transactions.
One difference between linear andflow-through Offices

counters is the additionalfloor space required for the
9.4.23 Aircraft operators often require staff offices at
latter - usually 4.6 t o 6.5 square metres more for
the check-in positions. These shouldbe arranged to ensure
each bag check-in position, includingspace for
that visual continuityis preserved fromthe check-in
queuing. Another characteristic is thatout-bound
concoursethroughand beyond the check-in positions.
baggage systems become more complicated with
Passengers are drawn on through the building when they
flow-through counters because of the greater number
can see self-evident and continuous flow routes ahead of
of individual inputs and the difficulty of merging
them. The more that offices are sited in the flow routes the
multiple inputs into a single transport conveyor or
more difficult it becomes to provide visual continuity and
sorting device, thereby increasinginvestment and
the longer the routesbecome because of the space required
maintenance costs for baggage systems.
for theoffices. Therefore, only the minimum offices which
are essential for the operation of check-in facilities should
c) Theisland counter. Thisconceptcombines some
be provided in thisarea. They should form the rearof each
features
of
both
the flow-through and linear
of thegroups of check-in positions with the passenger
arrangements.The agentpositions form a “U”
streams passing between them.
around a single conveyor belt (or pair of belts),
providinginterchangeability between multipurpose
or specialized functions. Flight in
formation
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Layout 9.4.24 Passengers havetobeinformed when their
aircraft is ready for boarding andwhen delays occur. This
9.4.20 Check-in facilities should belocated so as to has generally been done by loud speaker annoucements,
enable passengers to check in atthe earliest possible but at busy airports such arrangements can
cause
moment, thusreducing the effect of delays at earlier stages problems: duetotheconstant flow of annoucements
of the flow route and permitting the latest possible arrival passengers tend to miss those applying to their particular
at the airport before flight departure. This also enables flight andthe high ambient noise level inbuildings
passengers to be relieved of their baggage at the earliest containing a lot of people necessitates a high volume for
opportunity. theloudspeakerannoucements which cancause severe
discomfort for staff working in the building.
9.4.21 Check-in positions should be immediately
obvious on entering the building. Passengers flow to the 9.4.25 Visual presentation of flight information
check-in positions in a number of parallel streams formed should,therefore, be considered.Flight information
by the layout of the land side vehicle unloading positions, display systems should be considered at the same time as
and the passenger building land side entrances. The layout the check-in cmcourseand waiting areasare being
of the check-in facilities is influenced by two consider- planned. They should be located so that flight information
ations - preservation of the straightness of the parallel is visible from all principal parts of these areas, and also
flows acrossthe check-in concourse through to theair side, to ensure that they do not create visual obstructionor
and minimum distance to the air side. Examples of check- cause passengers to obstruct the primary flow routes. In
in layoutsare shown in Figures 9-5, 9-6 and 9-7. For large buildings, the size of indicators necessary for viewing
straight, direct flows passengers should pass between the from all parts of the check-in and waiting areas may be
check-in positions asthrough a comb,as depictedin incompatible with these considerations and more than one
Figures 9-5 and 9-7; long continuous lines of check-in indicator at each location may be necessary (refer to the
positions at right angles t o the flow can conflict with the ICAO publication Dynamic Flight-related Public Infor-
flow principles. mation Displays).

I C A O 9384 P A R T * & ** m 484L4Lb [3058630 754 m
Part I . Master Planning I-93
TO DEPARTURES CONCOURSE
t t
CHECK, TIOYS
CHECK-IN CONCOURSE
Figure 9-5. Passenger check-in layout
I
TO D E P A R T U R E S C O N C O U R S E
P O S I T ICOHNESC K - I N
4I
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CHECK-IN CONCOURSE
4
t-t-t-t4- t+
Figure 9-6. Passenger check-in positions and check-in concourse
TO DEPARTURES CONCOURSE
t t
6 t n. OFFICE
C H E C K - I N POSITIONS
I
Figure 9-7. Passenger check-in positions

dt
OFFICE

9.5 BAGGAGEPROCESSING flow should be designed so that all baggage hoarding an

aircraft, including transfer baggage, is subject to the same
inspection.
Baggage Processing Concept
9.5.3 Figure 9-8 illustrates passenger andbaggage
flow systems which include the whole range of possible
9.5.1 For thosepartsofthe passengerflow routes procedures which may require consideration.
wherebaggage accompanies passengers, the passenger
flow principles also apply to baggage. The term “baggage 9.5.4 Departures customs inspection is contrary to the
flow” refers tothosepartsofthe system which are InternationalStandardsandRecommendedPractices of
specifically for baggage handlingwhen it is separated from ICAO Annex 9 - Facilitation. States still retaining this
passengers. General pianning principles apply to baggage control should conduct it prior to flight check-in.
systems planning, while passenger considerations have to
be noted at those points where the passenger and baggage 9.5.5
Pre-clearance
baggage
of underbilateral,
flows cometogether.Factorsto be takenintoaccount agreements between States which provideforarrivals
include: inspections t o be carried out at the airportof departure is
another possibility which should be taken into consider-
ation in the early planning stage.
baggage and passengerflow should be matched in
speed and capacity;
Baggage Check-in Remote from the Airport
flow routesshouldnot conflict with passenger or
vehicular flows;
9.5.6 Maximum convenience is achieved if passengers
can be relieved of their baggage at the earliestpossible
flow routes should be accessible so that baggage can
stage of their journey. In the past some airports provided
be recovered at various stages;
baggage check-in facilities at off-airport buildings such as
specially arrangedterminals in the city. For security
the flow system should involve a minimum number
reasons, however, this system is no longer recommended
ofindividualhandlingoperations,e.g.transfers
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
since it would create passenger/baggagematching

between different typesof vehicles, etc., and the flow
problems at the airport prior to the passengers boarding
should be steady and uninterrupted;
the aircraft.
passengers should have an opportunity t o check their
baggage at the earliest possible point;
Departures Baggage Flow
baggage claimsystems shouldprovidecontinuous
presentationto passengers andpermitthemto 9.5.7 Baggage facilities should be analysed as a flow
recover their baggage personally; planandall systems shouldhavemaximum flexibility.
Similarly, all baggage areas should be planned to provide
flow routesmay be influenced by thetypeof the
maximum clear,
unobstructed
space
to
facilitate
handling system adopted, e.g. manually or mech- adaptation to new systems and procedures.
anically propelled trucks, conveyor belts, etc.; and
9.5.8 After being checked in, baggage must be sorted
palletized systems should be compatible with aircraft into flight groups,thenfurthersortedintosub-groups
baggage holds and loading systems. (such as destination airports, transfer baggage, and/or the
particular aircraft holds in which it is to be carried). After
sorting it mayhave to be storedfor a periodpriorto
9.5.2 Although it is notnormally necessary,security delivery to aircraft. Where such controls exist,baggage
checks of baggage may be required for specific flights or mayhave .to besubmitted to customsinspection.The
at certain locations; the type of checks may vary, depend- baggage system is, therefore, required to providefacilities
ing uponthecircumstancessurroundingtheparticular for each of these functions. Except for the smallest
threatandthemethodforinspectionadopted. Security airports this is best achieved by baggage handling being
checks of baggage should be performedpriorto flight done on a separate floor below the passenger departure
check-in. Regardless of the system adopted, the baggage floor.

Part 1. Master PlanninP I - 9~7
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1-96 Airport Phnning Manual
Systems baggage areas. The main factors to be considered are the

handling time, whichis usually a direct function of the
9.5.9 The choice of baggage handling systems will distance which the baggage has to travel, and theprovision
depend upon the size and nature of the traffic and local of sufficient positions at the air side of the building for the
considerations such as the cost and availability of manual delivery of baggage to aircraft.
labour and the skills of local labour for the operation and
maintenance of mechanical equipment. The rate of traffic 9.5.14 Apron vehicles provide the cheapest and most
movement and quantity of baggage can quickly exceed the flexible system for the transport of baggage between
capacity of manual systems and mechanical and/or passenger buildings and aircraft. Thesize and shapeof the
automatic sorting systems are often required. These may vehicle loading positions in the baggage area depends upon
have the advantage of requiring less space than manual the type of vehicles,e.g. conventional road vehicles or
systems. special trolleys formedintotrains and towed by prime
movers.
9.5.10 The sorting system can be fundamentally
influenced by the check-in system andsome systems 9.5.15 Most large aircraft are equippedfor
the
completely integrate the KWO procedures. Even where the carriage of baggage in containers which are loaded and
two systems arefunctionallyseparatetheallocation of emptied in the passenger building. This system is likely to
check-in positions can determine the form of the baggage be increasingly adoptedand may influence the type of
sorting system. Thus the management policy to be adopted apron vehicles used. The types of containers, however,
for check-in should be defined at the earliest stage and in vary between aircraft and aircraft operators have differing
conjunction with consideration ofthe baggage system. methods of handling them; baggage storage and loading
Shared baggage sorting systems which serve all check-in areas should therefore provide for loading of a variety of
positions and all aircraft operators have considerable cost container types as well as uncontainerized baggage.
and space advantages andarecompatible with aircraft Adjacent space may also be necessary forstorageofa
operators’ individual loading and transport of baggage to number of containers according toaircraftoperators’
aircraft. requirements.
Security baggage inspection
Departure customs baggage inspection
9.5.11 The technique for security baggage inspection
are extremely varied,and include hand inspection or 9.5.16 If, in spite of the provisions of Annex 9,
inspection by detection devices. Usually inspection of departurecustoms baggage inspection facility is still
checked baggage for security purposes will only be required,theappropriate position is indicated on Fig-
implemented when a potentially dangerous situation is ure 9-1. Customs baggage controlshould be located to
believed to exist. All baggage will, therefore,not be avoidthe need for repeated handling of baggage by
required to be subject to inspection. It is important, aircraftoperatorsandthe consequent longer ground
however, when security measures are being invoked for a handling times and higher costs.
particular flight, that all baggage and cargo, mail, etc.,
intended for that flight be subject to the same checks. See 9.5.17Government regulations may require inspec-
Chapter 14 for additional information. tion of registered baggage, i.e. baggage checked in for
carriage in theaircraft hold and/or passengers’ hand
9.5.12 The baggage flow system should be designed so baggage. Hand baggage moves with the passengers and is,
that persons not connected with processing of baggage or therefore, available for inspection at any point (see 9.7).
operation of theairport will be denied access to the But registered baggage is given upat check-in and
baggage. Under certain circumstances, however, it may be dispatched t o the air side forloading.
Government
necessary for passengers personally to identify, open and regulations may require alternative procedures, depending
search their own baggage prior to loading, in order to on whether checks are random or continuous and the
ensure that nothing has been placed surreptitiously in the method by which they are imposed.
baggage. Facility for this may need to be included in the
design of the airport. 9.5.18 .If all baggage is subject to inspection, the
control positions should be sited at the point where the
Layout baggage and passenger flow routes separate - i.e.
immediately before check-in. If random or selective checks
9.5.13 No single layout offers such overwhelming of individual passengers’ baggage are required, including
advantages that it can be recommended for use for all pre-clearance under bilateral arrangements which provide
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

I C A O 9384 PARTWKL ** 4 8 4 1 4 1 b 0058614 3 T T
for arrivals customs baggage inspection to be carried out Baggage Claim

at the foreign airport of departure, the control should be (see Figure 9-9)
similarly sited. If customs inspection is carried outat
check-in, the service time is considerably increased and the
flow through the check-in facilities correspondingly 9.5.20 A variety of mechanical and semi-automatic
reduced, making additional check-in facilities necessary. baggage claim systems are available and in u x throughout
Because passenger convenience and flow speeds would be the world. The main consideration in choosing a manual or
compromised by the longer flow routes arising, the mechanical claim system should be to reduce the amount
functions should be separated. of “milling” (random movement) of passengers.
Customs accommodation
9.5.21 Where the numbers of baggage or passengers in
9.5.19In association with the baggage inspection the claim area at any one time are fairly small, simple
control, customs may require offices for their admin- manual systems which rely on passengers moving to their
istrative procedures, as well asfor interview or search bags are satisfactory. However, this can lead to confusion
rooms for passengers found in contravention of regu- when too many passengers claim their baggage simul-
lations. The same considerations apply to the siting and taneously. As passenger flow rates and aircraft sizes
form of these offices astothe airline check-in offices increase, baggage claim systems should be arranged to
described previously. Office accommodation for customs eliminate milling; this can only be achievedby having
in this area should be restricted to the absolute minimum passengers remain in the principal flow streamsand
necessary for application of baggage inspection; sup- presenting their baggage to them, on equipment arranged
porting administrative offices, rest rooms, etc., should be in a “comb” across the line of the flow. For high flow
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
provided elsewhere in the building. rates, reduction in milling can be realized by presenting
BAGGAGE INSPECTION
-
-t -1 BAGGAGE CLAIM
AREA
t t’
4
FRONTIER CONTROLS
Figure 9-9. Baggage claim flow

1-98 Airport Piunning Manual
TO ARRIVALS CONCOURSE
t 4
t
DECLARATION
t
FREE
FLOW
C U S T O M SI N S P E C T I O N
DECLARATION
‘t D
FREE
FLOW
t
F R O MB A G G A G EC L A I M
t
Figure 9-10. Customs inspection
baggage on a moving display, such as arevolving turntable of import duties and taxes andwhich are not subject
or belt, which passes in front of the passengers. to import prohibitions or restrictions; and
9.5.22 Space should be provided, behind the frontier b) the other channel (red) for other passengers.
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
controlsand in front of the baggage claim, in which
passengers can wait if baggage delivery from aircraft is
delayed.Facilities shouldalso be provided in theclaim I t is possible to apply random or selective checks to these
area for the storage of baggagebelonging to passengers streamsas may be requiredwithoutinterruptingthe
who are delayed by health or passport controls. Misrouted normal fast, unimpeded flow. The streams in the second
or unclaimed baggage should
be
stored in facilities category should flow past customs officers in the normal
provided adjacent to the passenger processing areas, rather way.
than in the claim area.
9.5.24 Once“red”
and
“green”
channels
are
adopted, the number of streams can easily be altered in
Customs Inspection accordance with the specific need at the time, as long as the
(see Figure 9-10) totalnumber of streamshas been properlydetermined
based on local conditions.
9.5.23 At international airports, passengers flow from
baggageclaim to customsbaggageinspection.Various
inspectionsystems are possible,with the choiceusually
being dictated by the statutory regulations t o be enforced. Arrivals Baggage Flow
As for all passenger control, the customs inspection should
be arrangedasa“comb.” Flow streamsthroughthe 9.5.25 The considerations to be taken into account in
control should be arranged so that passengers with goods respect of the containers and vehicles onto which baggage
to declaredonotholdup passengerswithout dutiable is loaded and transported between aircraft and passenger
goods to declare. Annex 9 recommends that
States building are the same as described in the departures section
introduce, at their major in:ernarional airports, in close in 9.5.7 through9.5.15.Afterarrivalat the passenger
co-operation with the airport operators and other agencies building, baggage has to be unloaded from vehicles and
concerned,
dual-channel
a system forthe
clearance containers and delivered to the baggage claim system or
inwards of passengers and their baggage. The system shall transferred to the departures areain the case of transit and
allowthe passengers tochoose between two types of transfer passengers. Sufficient space and height for easy
channels: manoeuvring of vehicles is required a n d also for storage
and removal of empty containers. Sufficient space is also
a) one channel (green) for passengers having with them required adjacentto eachbaggage delivery facility to
no goods or only goods which can be admitted free enablesimultaneous use of several or all such facilities.

I C A O 9 3 8 4 PARTJL ** 48411436 0058bLb 3 7 2
Part 1. Master Planning I-99
Convenient connexion with outwards baggage sorting area according to thelevels of comfort considered appropriate,
and wide storageareasforeitheremptycontainers or and should take into account the average time spent in the
baggage should be provided. A one-way vehicle flow is area, climate and local custom.
desirabletoprovideunobstructed access for vehicles
arriving from aircraft. Delays in baggage handling often 9.6.3 Thecapacityrequired is
a functionofthe
occur at this point and delivery of baggage to the claim passenger rate of flow, the average period spent in the
area ata rate comparablewith the passenger flow is one of waiting areaandthefunctionscarriedon there. The
the most important elements of airport operation. capacity should be sufficient to absorb the difference in
flow rates between check-in and aircraft boarding. The
flow rate out of thewaiting area is determined by aircraft
Transfer baggage apron movement rates and aircraft operators'procedures.
The flow into the area may reflect influences from land
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9.5.26 Passengerstransferring between international side ground transport systems. Each should be separately
flights should not have to claim their baggage until they assessed where either of these influences is dominant.
reach theirfinaldestination.The baggage of all such
passengers shouldbe identifiedin the baggage vehicle
unloading area and transferred directly to the departures Layout
baggage sorting area
for
integration with all other
departuresbaggage.Therouteand system oftransfer 9.6.4 To maintain the straightest possible flow routes,
should be as direct and fast as possible to enable baggage the waiting area shouldbe of the samegeneral length as the
to connect between flights with the least possible delay. departures concourse. Entrances should be provided for
Passengers transferringfrominternationaltodomestic each mainflow stream (where frontier controls are applied
flights are usually subject to customs inspection and their see also 9.7). For passengers proceeding directly to their
baggage is, therefore, treated as normal arrivals baggage aircraft, straight, clear routes, unobstructed by any other
and delivered to the baggage claim area. This also applies flows or functions, should lead directly from the entrance
to transit passengers on flights changing category. to the air side exits.
9.6.5 Passengers not proceeding immediately to board

their aircraft will pass to the waiting areas, which should
normally be sited to the side, and clear of, the direct flow
9.6 PASSENGER WAITING to aircraft. The concept offlow planning still applies even
forthetimeduring which passengers are waiting; the
9.6.1 Forcertain passenger
processing
systems, general planning principle should be t o site waiting areas
waiting areasator close t o theaircraftgatesmaybe and amenities so as to keep passengers with the longest
required; the form and use of such areas depend on the waiting periodsclear of the exit routes tothegate.
systems used forconnectingthe passengerbuilding to Passenger circulation within the waiting area, i.e. to and
aircraft.Where waiting areasareprovidedatforward fromseating,amenities,toilets, etc.,is randomand
positions they may affect the form and use of the main adequate space is required.
waiting area in the passenger building. The waiting area
can be theappropriatelocationforcertain passenger 9.6.6 Passengers often wish to board their aircraft as
amenities. It is, however, oftheutmostimportanceto soon as it is possible to do so; this leads to surges in the
separate functions and preserve clear, unobstructed routes flow out of the waiting areas.When flightshave been
for the primary flows. delayed and complete passenger loads are waiting, surges
in the flow can be large and will be accentuated with the
introduction of very high capacity aircraft. Thus routes to
Capacity the exits are required which will ensure the speediest and
easiest flow from the waiting areas to the aircraft. To
9.6.2 Thecapacityofthe waiting areashouldbe enable passengers to leave the area asdirectly and quickly
defined by the number of passengers to be accommodated as possible there should be routes to the exits along the
at any one time. The average time spent in the area is in whole air side frontage as shown in Figure 9-1 1 . Any
part a reflection of the passengerprocessingsystem;a procedures or controls which aircraftoperatorsapply,
survey can be used to determine the proportion of the total such as boarding pass inspection, etc., should be carried
passenger flow which proceeds almost immediately to the out at a point outside the waiting area. (A number of the
aircraftandtheaveragetime which theremainder of points raised above will not appiy if forward waiting areas
passengers spend in the area. The space required will vary are provided at the gate.)

A I R SIDE EXITS
t-t-t-t-tj
A A A d
Figure 9-1 1, Waiting areas
9.6.7 Problems arise in planning when an area is very Location
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
large. Passengers are attracted t o positions from which
there isa view of theapronandaircraft,and visual 9.7.2 The location of frontier controls and the stage in
continuity is difficult to achieve when distances become the passenger processing system at which they are applied
too great. Thus, if the distance from land side t o air side are
important in maintaining free
and
continuous
is toogreat,thelandsideofthearea will tend to be passengerflow(see F’igure 9-12). Controlsshouldbe
underused while the air side will be overcrowded and the located between the departures concourse and the air side
exit flow obstructed. For large passenger buildings, it is waiting area, as this is the point where the rate of flow is
particularly difficult to achieve a satisfactory compromise most regular. Controls located at theexit from the air side
because the space necessary for the number of passengers waiting area would be subject t o large surges and would
to be accommodated may make the distance from side land delay passenger flow to aircraft.
to air side greater than desirable. In such circumstances,
one solution which might be consideredis the provision of 9.7.3 Afterpassingcontrols,passengersmaynot re-
a balcony above the main waiting area.
enterthelandsideareasandaresegregatedfrom all
persons, other than staff authorized to enter .the air side
areas.Thecontrolsshouldbegroupedtogetheratone
location and should form the entry control to the air side
9.7 GOVERNMENT FRONTIER CONTROLS waiting area,therebyavoidinganyadditionalcontrol
positions which would be an irritation to passengers and
9.7.1 Departures frontier controls are contrary to the
a hindranceto flow and involve additionalspaceand
International Standards and Recommended Practices of
staff costs.
Annex 9. For States which still find it necessary t o retain
them, these controlsshouldbe executed atlocations
between the departure concourse and the air side waiting 9.7.4 The most frequentlyappliedgovernment exit
lounges.This section also includes preclearanceunder controls are immigration and police, but some States also
bilateralagreements between States which providefor imposecustomsinspection of passengers or their hand
arrivals inspections to be carriedoutattheairport of baggage. Such customs inspection should be before check-
departure. in, for baggage handling reasons.

I C A O 9184 PART*& ** 4843416 0058638 T 4 5
AIR SIDE WAITING AREA
4
OTHER GOVERNMENT CONTROLS IF REQUIRED
t-
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
lMMlGRATlON AND POLICE

CONTROL
AUTHORITIES’
OFFICES
AND
INTERVIEW
t w n n t ot
- t - T-
ROOMS
I
PASSENGERS ONLY BEYOND THIS P d N f
CUSTOMS CHECK-IN COUNTERS IF REQUIRED

1
DEPARTURES CONCOURSE
Figure 9-12. Government frontier controls
9.7.5 Specific considerations for the

location-
of rate and proportion of passengers inspected. It is import-
frontier controls are: antto achieve a high rateof passenger clearance by
reducing frontier controls service time and reducing cross
a) Passenger flow from aircraft to the frontier control and reverse flows of passengersseeking to complete
facilities should be as short and direct as possible, and/orobtainthe required documents.Althoughsome
and unimpeded by obstructions. passengers may always require longer than average service
time because of particular problems, it will not be possible
b)Passenger circulationshould be designed so that tohandle increased ratesof passenger flow, including
there is no cross-circulationbetween international surges in average flow rates, unless those passengers whose
passengers and domestic passengers. Where appro- documentation is complete can bypass such problemcases
priate, anarea for exclusive use of international and thus maintain the average service time and flow rate.
transit passengers should be provided.
The design of frontier controls should be such that Health Control

there is n o possibility for passengers t o bypass the
facilities, thereby avoiding inspection. 9.7.7 Unless epidemiological conditions require
sanitary measures, it is now normal practice to integrate
Physical contact between international passengers health control with immigration control. However, it may
and visitors to the aerodrome should not be permit- happen that the State requires personalmedical inspection
ted once they have cleared controls. of certain passengers. The facilities requiredshould be
defined by the medical authorities concerned and may
include X-rayrooms.The medicalfacilities should be
Capacity restricted tothose required for passenger controland
should not be a general first aid or medical centre for the
9.7.6 The capacityrequired for each authorityand airport.Thelocation of passengermedicalinspection
procedure is a function of the service time, passenger flow facilities should be immediately adjacent to, but at theside

I-IO2 Airport Planning Manual
of, the frontier control. A circulation route between the passengers. A faster over-all flow and some economy in
passport control and medical facilities should be provided the number of positions can beachieved if some positions
which is compatible with the main arrival flow. areallocatedforthe use only of thosecategories of
passengers whoaresubjectto minimal inspection.The
capacity of these positions would a5 a result be very high,
Immigration and Police allowing more positions to be allocated exclusively t o the
categories of passengers subject to more detailed inspec-
9.7.8Passportclearanceoften includes, or is associ- tionand which, therefore,have a slower rate of flow.
ated with, police inspection. Opening passports and other Where such arrangements are applied it is important that
documents,andsearchingfor visas andentrystamps the positions for each category are proportionatelyrelated
represents a considerable proportion of the total service to, and evenly dispersed among, the paralielflow streams.
time. It is, therefore, a helpin maintaining rapid passenger
flow to reduce the number of occasions on which this has
tobedone, for instancebyimmigrationand police Control Authorities’ Accommodation
officials inspecting documentstogether.Whereimmi-
grationand police controlcannotbeoperated with 9.7.10 Thecontrolauthorities usually requireoffices
simultaneous inspection, the controls should be arranged and search and interview rooms in conjunction with the
consecutively on the line of theairside/landside flow frontier
control
inspection points.
These should be
route. If the service rates are different it is preferable for restricted to those essential for passenger processing and
the inspection requiring thelongest time to be placed first. should be arranged on the flanks of the control position to
Thus delays at the second control will not cause obstruc- maintain the widest unobstructed area for the controls.
tion at the first control, and minimum distance may be This ensures flexibility forfuturerearrangementand
provided between the two controls. operational changes and the clearest, unobstructed flow
routes. Search and interview rooms will probably need to
9.7.9 Thestraightest flow routesareobtained when ensureabsolute privacy ofbothsoundand vision;in
the inspection positions areentirely homogeneous and any providing this it is most important that visual continuity
positioncan be used by any passenger. However, some throughthe passengerflow route is notobstructed.
States require varying degrees of inspection of documents, General administration, etc., should be located elsewhere
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
depending on the category of traffic and nationality of in the building (see Figures 9-1 3 and 9-14).
TO BAGGAGE CLAIM
IMMIGRA-
TlON AND
POLICE
OFFICES
INTERVIEW
IMMIGRATION CHECK ROOMS
+
I
HEALTH DOCUMENT INSPECTION AS REQUIRED
t t
ARRIVALS
FROM AIRCRAFT
t
Figure 9-13. Control authorities’ accommodation

CONNEXION FROM
PASSENGER BUILD!NG
Figure 9-14. Layout of passengersecurity check

and forward waiting area
9.8 PASSENGER CONNEXION Aircraft Gates

WITH AIRCRAFT
9.8.2 Passenger processing and aircraft
handling
systems influence the form of thegates. The gates may be
no more than doorways giving access to the aircraft stand,
Air Side Exits but they can also appropriately accommodatea number of
departures facilitiesincluding gate check-in. The precise
form should be determinedby the nature of the passenger
9.8.1
While the
type
of
connexion between the traffic, theflow rate and theprocessing system adopted for
passenger building and aircraft may determine the'precise the passenger building.
form of the exits, they should be arranged to form the
passenger flows into a linear pattern on a narrow front 9.8.3 The fullest implementation of the trickleflow
compatible with the size of the aircraft or apronpassenger principle should be the basis of planning. Trickle flow can
vehicle doors. Some form of controlis necessary to ensure 'be implemented over any section of a passenger route, with
that only authorized persons and bona fide passengers are someform of group or controlled flowover theother
allowed t o pass to the air side and board the aircraft. Such sections if necessary. The full benefits of the system are
control is usually carried out by aircraft operators at the achieved when passengers can flowfreely, attheirown
exits fromthe building or attheaircraftgates,and speed, through all parts of the route. Ideally, this should
positions may be required for this control to be under- include, in thecase of departures, aflowdirectly into
taken,arranged so that passengers can flowfreely and aircraft. However, it is notalways possible toadmit
easily out of the air side waiting area and past the control passengers to aircraft as soon as they arrive at the gate
without obstructing other passengers or forming queues in because of aircraft delays or incomplete cabin servicing,
the waiting area. The form and location of controls also etc., making a waiting area necessary. For quick aircraft
dependsupontheformoftheconnexion between the turnaround it is necessary for passengers to be at the gate
passengerbuilding andaircraftand isconsidered in ready to board the aircraft immediately it is available. A
conjunction with the following section. waiting area is necessary, therefore, for this purpose also.
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I C A O 9L8Y P A R T 8 1 * t = 4841416 0058621 5 3 T
1-104 Airporr Planning Manual
Forward waiting areas based on a standard of service that specifies

minimum waiting and processing times for the
9.8.4 Provision of waiting areas a t the gates reduces passenger.Probablythe
greatest
queue
buildup
therequirementforthewaitingarea in the passenger occurs when the first agents appear at the desk to
building. The space required at each locatior,is determined commence processing. Additional agents may then
by the passenger processing system but space provided at be furnished to reduce thequeueandmaintain a
the gates does not permit an equivalent reduction in the minimum length. The average depth of lounge area
passenger building waiting area because some passengers generally considered to be reasonable is 7.5 to 9 m.
will linger in the building to use the passenger amenities. Thenumberofagentpositionsused,however, is
based on the standard ofservice with a queue length
9.8.5 The size andlayoutof waiting areasdepend not less than 3 m atlargerairports.Public tele-
upon the functions tobe performed. With the increasingly phones, garment bag hangars, waste baskets, etc.,
rapid introduction of larger aircraft it is essential that the are amenities that may be considered necessary. A
plan should provide maximum expansibility without need means of delivering late baggage to the apron area
for rearrangement or reconstruction of the basic areas. I f (such aschute,conveyor or dumbwaiter)maybe
aircraft operators’ controls are undertaken in the forward required, although in most cases the baggage can be
waiting areatheymaybeapplied,eitheraspassengers delivered via the loading bridge door or the depar-
enter the area or as they exit from it to board the aircraft. ture lounge door (if at ground level).
Climate can also affect the size and location of waiting
areas.In caseswhere aircraftaresubjecttoprotracted c) Deplaning urea. The deplaning area is a corridor for
delays becauseof weather conditions,passengers may wish deplaning passengers leading fromthe
building
to return to the waiting area in the passenger building to entrance door (from the apron, loading bridge, or
use theamenities. !n suchcases, dueaccountshould transporter) to thepubliccorridorwithoutinter-
therefore be taken of this factor in planning the size of the fering with the passengers waiting in the departure
main waiting area in the passenger building. lounge. T o allowfortwo passengers and baggage
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
side by side or one passenger andbaggage with

9.8.6 Forward waiting areas generally serve three passing room, an acceptable width is 1.5 to 1.8 m.
purposes,namely,the provision of passenger lounge, The lengthis a function of the depthof the departure
passenger processing area, and passenger deplaning area. lounge itself and may include a transition area for
the meeterhisitor.
a) Passenger /ounge area. The lounge
comprises
seating, processing and circulation areas. The area Passenger security check
required is a function of the number of passengers
anticipated to be in the lounge 15 to 3 0 minutes prior 9.8.7 The location of the,passengersecuritycheckis
toboardingtheaircraft.Thisnumbercanbe dependentupontrafficcharacteristicsandtheterminal
determined by applying the forecast aircraft and its concept.Thesecurity check can be centralized,partly
load factor for boarding thatis typically experienced decentralized o r completelydecentralized. A centralized
at the airport. A space standard is applied to the security check can be located at the point in the terminal
number of passengers and visitors (if appropriate). where passengers are separated from the general public
The space standard assumes that not all passengers (i.e. after immigration control). In case of a fully decen-
will have seats in the lounge, as a certain percentage tralizedsystem,thesecurity check will bemadeatthe
of the passengers will want standing area, and this entrance to thewaiting lounge. Should the initialpassenger
shouldbeconsidered in the development of the check reveal any abnormality, a closer examination of the
standard. Based o n experience, aircraft arrivals and passenger may be necessary and a private area where this
departures are distributed over time so that the full may be carriedout,should be provided. For further
passenger population is never experienced atone information see Chapter 14.
time. Where it is possible, therefore, to combine the
lounge area for a number of aircraft gate positions,
the total area can be reduced by 20 to 30 per cent, Connexion between Passenger Building
based on four to six gates. and Aircraft
b) Passenger processing area. Thenumberofagent 9.8.8 The system for moving passengers between the
positions is normallydetermined by theairport passenger building and the aircraftis an integral element in
authority in consultation with the user airlines and is the choice of the aircraft parking system and apron plan.

The most appropriatesystem will depend on the traffic for primaryfactorstobetakenintoaccount inpIanning
which the individual airport is provided and other local passenger loading bridges areaircraftdoor sill heights
conditions.
Themostimportantconsideration is to (which range from 2 to 5 m) and door positions. The size
maintainfreemovementofaircraft, vehicles and pass- and form ofpassenger loading bridges should be chosen to
engers while avoiding conflict between them. providesufficient flexibility to serve different types of
aircraftotherthanthoseindicated in thc. operational
9.8.9 A number of different systems can be used to forecast, and for resiting at new gate positions in accord-
connectthe passenger building totheaircraft. These ance with changes in apron plans.
include having passengers walk up boarding stairs or along
a passenger loading bridge, or conveying themin a 9.8.15 The capacity of the passenger loading bridge is
transporter.Theroutes maybe overtheopenapron, determined by using the same density and width criteria
through enclosed routes at or below apron level, or at applied t o aircraft stairs. For the best passenger flow the
passengerbuilding andaircraftfloor levels. Any speci- interiorwidthof passenger loading bridges should be
fically defined route over which passengers walk, other sufficient for at least two people to walk side by side so
than over an apron, is a “pier”. Thus a pier can be at, that children andthe aged orinfirmcanbesuitably
above or below apron level. assisted. Floor slopes should generally not exceed one in
ten.
9.8.10 For closest compatibility with the flow
principles, the choice should be determined inconsider- 9.8.16 The width oftheloadingbridgedoesnot
ation of thepassenger building floor levels: for multi-level usually constrain the flow as much as does that of the
passenger buildings the connexion between building and aircraft door, which generally ranges from 84 to 107 cm.
aircraft should keep to a minimum any changes in level, As with aircraft doors, another constraint on the flow rate
but because of the variety of aircraft floor heights it is could be the pointwhere the passenger loading bridge joins
impossible to define a single suitable level. the building. For example, a 90 cm wide doorway will
allow a flow rate of 37 passengers per minute. Another
Aircraft boarding stairs constraint on theflow rate of thepassenger loading bridge
is the aisle width of the aircraft cabin. Studiesin the United
9.8.1 1 Integral aircraft stairs are used with aircraft in States support the flow rate of 30 passengers per minute
the 50-120 seat capacity range, such as B727, B737, DC-9, identified inBoeing document D6A 10305-1, “SST
BAC111, CV580, and YS11B. Ground Services Time and Motion Study”.
9.8.12 Inthe case ofstairs, whether integral or 9.8.17 The passenger flow rate may
be
reduced
mobile, the width and relative density in terms of persons slightly if stairs rather than ramps must benegotiated.
per squaremetre serve asthe limiting constraintfor Stairs result in a 20 to 22 passenger per minute rate, similar
calculatingcapacity. Ascending or descending rates will to that of a mobiie passenger stair. The stairo r ramp may
not be significantly different in handbook references. Flow be provided with an enclosure for weather protection when
will be in one direction, enplaning or deplaning. a single-level connector is provided.
9.8.13 Passenger flow rate for aircraft in the 40-210 9.8.18 The passenger route should be
clear and
seat capacity range is approximately 20 to 22 persons per unambiguous and, if possible, should avoid multi-
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
minute, and 25 persons per minute for the 2.20-420 seat directional functions where the passenger loading bridge
capacity aircraft. In the lattercase, the rate of boardingor joins thebuilding. The passenger loading bridges should be
disembarking can be increased by the use of more than one arrangedtoleadarriving passengers, whomaynotbe
door, but this may create traffic conflicts on the apron familiar with the route, directly to the main flow routes
with the ground service equipment operation. into,the passenger building.
Passenger loading bridges 9.8.19 The type of passenger loading bridge - fixed
pedestal, apron drive, or suspended - and its length are
9.8.14 Passenger loading bridges can provide quicker, functions of variables including apron dimensions, wing
more even passenger flow between aircraft and passenger span,doorlocations, fixed aircraft services, adjacent
buildings and protect passengers from weather, noise and aircraft positions, and economics. For example, a certain
fumes.Theinstallation of passenger loading bridges, ramp drivebridge may extend up to35 m from the faceof
however, should be economically justified by traffic the building, and may be capable of servingfive or six
volumes andotherconsiderations (refer to 7.2). The different types of aircraft. In a practical application of the

passenger loading bridge, only two or three aircraft may 9.8.25 In general, although transporters afford almost
use the bridgebecauseof fixed service locationsand ideal flexibility from the apron planning point of view,
positions of adjacent aircraft.A pedestal-type bridge could they tend not to be compatible with the passenger flow
be more appropriatein that case, particularly inview of its principles. They may, however, be useful as a supplemen-
lower capital, operating and maintenance costs. tary system to handle peak hour denands only or to serve
aircraft which differ from the general types of aircraft for
9.8.20 A ramp drive bridge,
when in a stowed which the airport is planned.
position, will allow a taxi-out operation where the pedestal
or suspendedtypes are limited to pushoutoperations. Transporter loading and unloading positions
Judgements as to which passenger loading bridge design to
apply to each case will be based on the specific charac- 9.8.26 The specific form of transporter loading
teristics of
the
aircraft mix and airline
operating positionsdependsuponthetype of transporters to be
requirements. accommodated. Generally, the positions should be
consideredasaircraft gates andthesameplanning
9.8.21 Normally only one passenger loading bridge is considerationsapplied, except thattransporters will
required to serve any one aircraft up to and including the generallyoccupy theloadinggatesfor a muchshorter
B-747. This may,however, be affected by theairport periodthanaircraft occupy thestands.Therefore,the
involved and the typeof traffic using that airport (i.e. possible degree of trickle flow to the transporter loading
originating/ terminating or transit). For very high density positionsmaybe much less, andthetimespentinthe
routesoratairports where airlines requirefastturn- waiting area may be correspondingly short.
around, as well as for maintenance of approved standards
for business and first class passengers, installation of two 9.8.27 Loading positionsshould be as close as
passenger loading bridges maybepreferable. If two possible to the passenger building air side waiting area, to
passenger loading bridges are to be used, there should be reduce the walking distance and hence the time required
a separatetunneltothe terminal for eachbridge or, for passengers to get from the waiting area to the aircraft.
alternatively, a double width corridor from the junction of The specific location of the loading positions will usually
the two bridges to the terminal building. The minimum be determined by the air side vehicle traffic circulation and
width for this double corridor should be 3.2 m. the need toprovideunobstructed access between the
loadingpositionsandtheapronroads.Thenumberof
Transporters positions required depends upon theutilization of aircraft
stands, size of aircraft, etc.
9.8.22 Transporter vehicles may be used when aircraft
are parked remote from the terminal. Transporter types 9.8.28 As with aircraft gates, it is possible to use the
range from a bus in combination with stairs to a speci- transporter gate positions for both departures and arrivals,
fically designed vehicle with an elevating capability. but because the vehicle movement rate is higher than that
of aircraft at the aircraft stands and thus the movement
9.8.23 When buses are to be used to transport rate of passengers is also higher, it is advisable to separate
passengers between remote standsandthe
terminal, thedeparturesandarrivals flows and provide separate
consideration should be given to specially designed airport transporter
positionsfor
each.
Thisseparation
also
passenger buses. These vehicles should have a low floor permits the unloading positions to be located as close as
height (preferably one step above the ground), wide doors, possible tothearrivals flow routes in the passenger
and minimum seating around the sides of the cabin. The building, thus reducing walking distances.
capacity and dimensions of the bus should be in accord-
ance with the conditions prevailing at each airport where
I t will be used. IATA has developeda functional speci- Air Side Entrances
fication (AHM 950) on airport passenger buses, which is
also included in 1ATA’s “Airport Handling Manual”. 9.8.29 From piers or transporter unloading positions
passengersflow intothe passengerbuilding. Although
9.8.24 When a specifically designed vehicle with two-way flow of departuresandarrivals passengers is
elevating capability is used, special attentionshouldbe unavoidableandtolerable in piers, in no circumstances
paid to their relatively slow speeds, lack of easy manoeuvr- should arrivals flow routes pass through departures areas
ability and the potential hazard they may be to aircraft in the passenger building. The air side entrances should,
operations. Thesevehicles have high capital, operating and therefore, give access directly to the arrivals areas of the
maintenance costs and require highly skilled drivers. building.These may be on alower floor in multi-level
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Purr 1. Master Planning 1-107
buildings or by the side of the departures areas in single in these circumstances transitpassengers may be subject io
level buildings. In multi-Ievel buildings the descent should frontier controls. Their requirements arethen the 5ame ;is
be direct, obvious and easy. transfer passengers and the same facilities can be used for
both.Transit passengers who arrive
anddepart
on
9.8.30 Passengers entering the building include transit international flights should never be subjected to frontier
and transfer passengers as well as passengers ending their controls and should remain in the air side area, where all
air journey. The air side entrances should be arranged to amenities which they may requireareprovided.On
separate passengers into the appropriate flow streams (see departure of their flight, they follow the normal routes and
Figure 9-15 ) . The entrances for each category should be proceduresofdeparture passengers,includingsecurity
arranged consecutively alongthe flow route SO that check, if required.
passengers do not have to choose from more than two
alternatives at any time. Confusion will arise if special Transfer Passengers
categories are not segregated from the main flow before
the first control point. Thus all arrivals passengers should 9.9.2 The flow route for transfer passengers depends
flow through a common route as far aspossible; when on whether the transfer is between flights of the same or
transfer and transit passengers are not subject to controls, different categories,
i.e. domestic to domestic,inter-
they should be diverted before the main route reaches the nationaltointernational, or between internationaland
frontier controls. domestic. When the traffic is between international and
domestic,transfer passengers are subject to the normal
arrivals controls and should follow the main arrivals route
to the land side, where they then pass through the main
9.9 TRANSITAND TRANSFERPASSENGERS departures flow route and follow the normal departures
procedures.
Transit Passengers 9.9.3 When traffic is entirely domestic or

inter-
national,transfer passengers shouldnot pass through
9.9.1 Transit passengers stayattheairport only for arrival controls. They should besegregated from the main
theduration of theaircraftturnaround,andhaveno arrivals flow and pass directly to the departures air side
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requirements beyond those of arrivalsanddepartures waiting area,. usually following the same route as transit
passengers. Usually they should follow the main arrivals passengers (see Figure 9-16). Unlike transit passengers who
route, until being diverted directly into the departures air leave the airport on the same flight on which they arrive,
sidewaiting area or into a sterile “in-transit” waiting however, transfer passengers change flights, and it may be
lounge. However, some transitflights change category and necessary for them to check in for the connecting flight.
TRANSIT AND TRANSFER

PASSENGERS
TO
FRONTIER FROM AIRCRAFT
CONTROLS
Figure 9-15. Air side entrances

tr
1-108 Airport PIanning Manual
TO FRONTIER CONTROLS
0 D EPA R TU R ES
A I RS I D E
TRANSFER WAITING
AREA CHECK-IN
CONTROL
___)
0
TRANSIT
PASSENGERS
t AIRCRAFT
Figure 9-16. Transfer passengers
This can be undertaken either at the gate, if such facilities Passenger Amenities
are provided, or preferably on the route to the departures
waiting area. At airports servinga numberofairlines, 9.10.2
Amenitiesshouldbe sited toensurethat
some form of shared use of transfer check-in positions is passengers using them do not interfere with the primary
necessary t o avoidthe provision of facilities which are flow streams and they should not obstruct visual conti-
excessive and thus uneconomical, and which distort the nuity throughout the area. The location of amenities can
building plan. Nowadays many airlines provide boarding affecttherate of flow throughthebuilding,andthe
passes for on-line transfer at the originating station, so appropriate siting of the amenities relative to each other
that transfer passengers do not need to check in for the and the flow routes can be of considerable assistance in
connecting flight at the transfer station. distributing passengers throughout the whole of the
waiting area and in reducing circulation within the area.
9.9.4 For international flights at airports where there The nature of each amenity provides a general indication
is morethanoneinternational passenger building, a of the degree and type ofuse it will receive. For example,
passenger transfer system that operates on the air side is duty-free goods and liquor shops can with advantage be
desirable for thetransfer of passengers andbaggage adjacent to the main flow routes for easiest access by a
between international flights. Requirements for the vehicle large number of passengers and to provide fast service.
unloading and loading positions are the sameas for other
transporters, and the same positions canbe used for both. 9.10.3 Dependinguponthe size of the passenger
buildingandthecategoryoftraffic,thedepartures
concoursecan be theappropriatelocationforsome
passenger amenities. If they are also provided in the air
9.10 PASSENGER AMENITIES AND sidewaiting areatheremaybe a reduction in thetime
OTHER PASSENGER BUILDING SERVICES passengers remain in the departuresconcourse
and,
therefore, in the space required.
9.10.1 Airport master planning also includes consider-
ationof passenger amenities, concessions, andother 9.10.4 The greatest use of other amenities is generally
services usually located in the passenger building. made by passengers with the longest waitingperiods.
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Part 1. Master Planning I-IO9
Passengers whose aircraft boarding is imminent tend to discussion as a distinct sub-element of the passenger
gravitate to those parts of the waiting areas nearest the building because the quantitative aspects involve more
exits. It is important, therefore, to site amenities so that than a simple relationship to annualenplanements or daily
the passengers who are likely to remain in the area for the passenger averages.
longest period are attracted away from the busiest areas
nearest the flow routes. These areas of least activity, which
aretheappropriate sites for passenger amenities, are 9.10.9 The basic service offered at the small airports
between the main flow routes and adjacentto the land side is a coffee shop, although a separate restaurant can be
boundary of the waiting areas. successful, depending on the surroundingcommunity.
Only very large airports can justify several locations for
snack bars, coffee shops, bar-lounges and restaurants.
9.10.5 The siting should also be related to service Requirements for more than one of each type are greatly
accesses for supplying goods, and storageareas. To influenced by the building concept involved, particularly
preserve flexibility and economy in the use of space, all for linear terminals at very large airports.
main storageareas should be located elsewhere inthe
building and only sufficient for immediate purposes
9.10.10 One approach to sizing involves “use factors”
should be provided in the waiting areas.
(average daily transactions divided by average daily
enplanements) and“turnovers” (average day users or
9.10.6 At some airports, planning efforts have transactions divided by thenumber of restaurantand
suffered because of conflicting views on priorities for the coffee shop seats available). Based on available data, the
location and size of revenue-producing services in relation following ranges can provide general approximations for
to basic airline services for passengers. One example food and beverage service operations:
involves inbound baggage or claim facilities that are
constrained by thelocation of concessions or another turnover rates: average daily 10 to 19 persons per
ancillary functions.The
resultant delays in baggage seat. Some operators appear satisfied averaging 10 to
delivery and display end up inconveniencing passengers, 14 daily;
and the by-product of such delays can often be congestion,
not only in the baggage claim area, but alsoin the adjacent space per seat: 3.3 to 3.7 mzper coffee shop/
circulation elements and at the curb. restaurant seat, including support space;
snack bars: 15 to 25 per cent of coffee shop/

9.10.7 Concessionaires, airport authorities,
and restaurant over-all space requirement;
airlines share common concerns regarding customer
satisfaction and economic productivity, and ultimately bar-lounges: 25 to 35 per cent of coffee shop/
suffer by inconveniencing passengers upon whose patron- restaurant over-all space requirement.
age all three groups arehighly dependent. Accordingly, the
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following suggestions are offered:

9.10.11 For large airports,the passenger building
concept may justify more than one location for food and
- The location and accessibility of passenger building
beverage services. Under these circumstances, space
services should provide the optimum exposure and
estimated should be divided accordingly.
convenience forpatrons without impeding basic
patterns of pedestrian traffic between aircraft and
various forms of ground transportation. 9.10.12 Vending machines for beverages andother
items should be considered to supplement staffed facilities
- The location and sizing of passenger building at small airports, where traffic volumes might not justify
services should not constrain basic airline functions operating during all hours in which flights are scheduled,
to the extent that passengers cannot beserviced orat large airports in remoteparts of the passenger
efficiently. building.
Other concessionaire services

Food and beverage services
9.10.13 The kinds ofservices regarded as desirable
9.10.8 Food and beverage services include snack bars, vary according to traffic volumes and many of the other
coffee shops,restaurantsand bar-lounges, and warrant marketing considerations. Programming such space for

1-110 - Airport Plnnning Manual
any specific airport must be based on discussions wiLh both Other Passenger Building Services
existing andpotentialoperators
and
concessionaires.
9.10.14
Passenger
building services also include
Representative guidelines are summarized as follows:
facilities common to mostpublic buildings andothers
common to many airports, regardltss of traffic volumes.
a) Newspapers/books and tobacco: physically separate
at most airports where annual enplanements exceed Such facilities include:
200 000 per year, and may be combined with other Public toilets:must be sized for buildingoccu-
services at airports with lesser traffic. Allow 14 m2 pancies in accordance with codes applicable to the
minimum,andaveraging 56 to 65 mz permillion local community, state, etc. Space allowances vary
annual enplanements. greatly,from 139 to 167 m2per 500 peak-hour
passengers (in and out) down to 120 m2 per million
b) Gift and apparel shops: some items are sold at the annual enplanements at large hub airports.
newsstand at smaller airports, but separate facilities
Airportmanagementoffices:spacerequirements
normally become viable when annual enplanements
exceed one million. Allow 56 to 65 m2 per million vary according to thesize of staff and the extent to
annual enplanements. which airport authority headquarters are locatedin
the terminal.
Barljer andshoeshine:operationsatsomelarge Airport police/security office: space requirements

airports call for
one
chair
per million annual vary according to number of staff and nature of
enplanements. Allow 10 to 1 1 m2 per chair with arrangements withlocal community law enforce-
14 m2 for minimum facility. ment agencies.
Medical aid facilities: range from first aid service

Car hire counters: space required
will vary according provided by airport police to branch operations of
to the number of companies. Allow 33 t o 37 m2 per off-airport clinics, etc.
million annual enplanements.
Travellersaid: facilities varyconsiderablyand
Displays, including courtesy telephones for hotels: spacerequirementsare relatively minor 7.4 to
allow 8 to 9 m2 per million annuai enplanements. 9.3 m2, except atairports with annualenplane-
ments of over 1 million.
Insurance, including counters and machines:allow
Building maintenance and
storage: varies
de-
14 to 16 mz per million annual enplanements.
pending upon the typesof maintenance (contracted
versus authority oper.ated) andstorage facilities
Left luggage lockers: allow 6.5 to 7.5 m2 per million available in other authority-owned buildings.
annual enplanements.
Building mechanical systems (HVAC): initial
Publictelephones:allow 9 to 10 m2 per million approximations of HVAC space requirements can
annual enplanements. be obtained by using 12 to 15 per cent of the gross
totalspaceapproximatedfor all otherterminal
Vending machines: machines offering items such as functions. This allowance will not cover separate
hot and cold beverages, candy, tobacco, newspapers, facilities for primary source heating and refriger-
etc., shouldbeconsidered as supplementaryto ation (H and R) plants.
staffed facilities offering these items, especially
where extended hours of operation are not justified Building structure: for building columns and walls,
by low volumes or multiplicity of locations. allow 5 per cent of the total gross area approxi-
Providing passengers with more conveniently located mated for all other functions.
optionsfor theseitems has become even more
important with the advent of security controls Circulation: all primary circulation is included in
discussed in Chapter 14. Where vending machines the methodologies for the various sub-elements of
are provided, they should be grouped or recessed to the passenger building. Additional
space
for
avoid encroaching uponcirculation
space
for vertical and horizontal circulation is not included,
primarytraffic flows.Allow 4.5 m* minimum or but will be required in varying quantities depending
14 m2 per million annual enplanements. upon the building scheme.
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- I C A O 9184 P A R T S 1 ** m 48414Lb 0058628 994 m
Part I . Master Planning I-II1
Information: public address, flight information, getting u p this gradient. One in twelve ramps are difficult
signs and graphics, courtesy phones, and security forotherthanthe strongest wheelchair users; one in
alarm system are included under this heading. sixteen is better. Difficulties can also be experienced if
ramps have to be approached from an angle. Curbs atsides
Government offices: these facilities may require a of ramps can be a problem, and the location of handrail
considerable amount of space,dependingupon supports and the finish of both ends of handrails need to
individual State practices. be carefully designed.
Contract service facilities and others. 9.11.5 The height generally accepted for ramp curbsis
10 cm, although 5 cm minimum seems to be more
Letter post. acceptable. Curb edges need to be rounded and the finish
at the top and bottom of the ramp carefully designed.
Stairs
9.11 CONSIDERATION OF DISABLED
AND ELDERLY PEOPLE IN PASSENGER 9.11.6 The termination of handrails at the topand
BUILDING PLANNING bottom of flights of stairs need to be individually designed
to suit the circumstances.
9.1 1 . I The speed andcomfort of air travel is
becoming more and moreappealing to people who are
physically handicapped and the use of air transport by
disabled and elderly people, including the chairbound, is
Terminal Approach and Departure Areas
likely to increase. For many,particularly the severely
disabled, the mostconvenientmethod of long-distance
travel is by air, provided the transition facilities match the Car parking
convenience of the aircraft.
9.1 1.7 It is desirable to provideidentified reserved
parking areasfor physically disabled people, using the
9.1 1.2 Both disabled and elderly passengers as well as access symbol. Directional signs shouldindicate access
visitors have rights to safety and convenience. It should be routes to reserved parking areas, which should be located
remembered that a person with a disability is not different close to the terminalentrance. Regulations should be
in allaspects of behaviour.Their special problems and enforced to ensure exclusive use of reserved parking spaces
differences need to be recognized so that the by the disabled.
planner/designer may accommodate them satisfactorily.
9.1 1.8 The parking spaces should be flatandpro-

9.1 1.3 Thetransition between airand
surface tected fromthe weather. Theroutefromthe reserved
transport needs to be improved and terminal facilities must parking to the terminalshouldbefree of curbs and
keep pace with the convenience offered by modern obstructions and located so that disabled people do not
aircraft. Several States have developed design standards or have to pass behindparkedcars. Parking meters, at-
building codes for disabled people that can be applied for tendants’ windows, ticket machines and similar devices
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airport passenger buildings. The following .paragraphs should be within the limited reach and grasp of a disabled
include planningconsideration of disabled and elderly driver. Wheelchairs should be available for people to move
people in airport passenger buildings based on the totaxi, bus or private car loadingareas. This service
practices advocated by one State. should be clearly advertised.
External circulation
Planning Consideration for
Access by the Disabled 9.11.9 People using wheelchairs find ramps essential
to negotiate changes in level and these are helpful for the
Ramps ambulant disabled. Both ramps and stairsshouldbe
provided at every change in level. Ramps shouldnot
9.11.4 Unless the surface leading to a one in six ramp exceed one in twelve and should have non-slip surfaces.
is flat or sloping down, wheelchair users have difficulty Handrails should be provided at least to one side.

I C A O 91194 P A R T * l ** 4 8 4 1 4 1 b 0058629 820
9.11.10 Pedestrian walkways should be unobstructed Floors

and at least 1.5 m wide. At places where pedestrians o r
wheelchair users must cross curbs, a cut or ramp should be 9.11.16 All floors should be maintained in a non-skid
provided. Gratings, manhole covers and similar potential condition. All carpet areas should be of the low-pile, tight-
obstructions should be flush with the pavement. Ped- loop type and fully secured to prevent movement.
estrian
and vehicular traffic
routes require effective
separation. Ramps
9.11.17 Ramps should be at least 1.2 m wide (1.5 m is

Terminal entrances and exits even better). Ramp slope should not exceed one in twelve.
Surfaces should be non-slip. A level area, preferably 1.2 m
9.1 1.1 1 Safe, level areas, protected from the weather, long, should be provided at top and bottom of all ramps.
should be provided for boarding and delivery of people Ramps more than 9 m long should have a level section at
from cars, buses, etc., adjacent to main building entrances 9 m intervals (5 m for steeper ramps). At each change of
and exits. direction a level landing should be provided.Handrails
should be provided on each side of ramp. The disabled
9.1 1.12 There should be at least one main entrance access symbol should be displayed at the approach to the
without steps usable by people in wheelchairs. Automatic ramp.
opening doorsare highly desirable. If doors arehand
operated they should be openable by one hand and the Stairs
handles should be of a lever type. Where revolving doors
are installed, an alternative hinged or sliding door should 9.11.18 Treads should beof non-slip material. A
be provided. Door closers should be of a type to permit landing midway in a stair run between floors is desirable.
opening of the door with a minimum of effort and slow Open risers and projecting noses should be avoided.
closing to allow uninterrupted passage of a wheelchair. Handrails should be provided on both sides. Ramps are
Time lapse deviceswhich close doors after a prescribed preferable where minor changes in floor level occur.
delay should be avoided as they are dangerous to those
who move slowly.
Escalators and moving walkways
9.1 1.13 Interior and exterior floor surfaces should be
level on each side of entrancedoors, with floor mats 9.11 .I9 Wheelchairs, unless specially designed,
recessed and fully secured. cannot be easily moved on escalators. While escalators can
be useful to the ambulantdisabled, they can be hazardous
to many elderly disabled people, and ramps or lifts are
therefore preferable.
Internal Circulation
Elevaiors
9.11.14 All interior public spaces should be connected
by ramped paths or identified lifts, and public corridors 9.1 1.20 The only really effective way of moving
should be free of obstructions. All abrupt changes in floor chairbound people from floor to floor is by elevator.
level should be clearly identified by audioand visual Where elevators areprovided,at least one should be
means. accessible to and usable by the disabled, including those in
wheelchairs, both at the entrance level and at all upper
levelsusedby the public. The elevator should be large
Doors and doorways enough to accommodatea wheelchair andone or two
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standing persons. If automatic,the elevator controls

9.11.15 Attention should be given to the direction of should be located so they can be reached by a seated
door swing so that wheelchair occupants can open doors person.Thecab should be self-levelling, and the doors
without complex manoeuvring. Revolving doors are to be should be. adjusted to remain open forat least eight
avoided. Doors in corner positions must permit easy seconds, to close slowly, and to respond to both a sensitive
approachand there should be an unobstructed space safety edge and photoelectric cell door openers. An audio
adjacent to the door handle. Side hung doors are preferred description of the floor reached is desirable. Directional
to sliding doors. Kick plates are recommended on doors signs to the lift should be placed at various points in the
used by wheelchairs users. building.

Part I . Master Pianning I-i I3
Signs and Warnings Other Facilities and Services

I
9.1 1.21 Because people in wheelchairs arenormal Check-in facilities

people, to be treated in a normal way, it is wrong to
provide special signposts indicating “normal” facilities 9.11.27 Check-in facilities should be as close as
available for them. But it is acceptable to provide sign- possible to passenger set-down areas for cars, buses, etc.
posting of “special” facilities for disabled people.
Drinking fountains
9.1 1.22A pictorial symbol effectively advertises the
availability of facilities for the disabled. This symbol 9.11.28 Drinking fountaincontrolsshould be hand-
should be prominently displayed as a ready means of operated; the fountain should be low enough for use by
identification to disabled persons of all routes and areas wheelchair occupants, but high enough to allow the arm of
where suitable facilities are provided. the wheelchair to move beneath it.
9.1 1.23 Directional signs androom identifiers are Telephones and post boxes
normally useless to blind people. It is desirable that
identification of certain rooms, e.g. rest rooms, res- 9.11.29 At least one in a group of telephones should
taurants and gatepositions by raised or depressed letters be be accessible by wheelchair users, with the handset and
placed on walls beside doors, not ondoors, as sudden coin slots approximately I m above floor level. Telephone
opening may result in injury. Audible andvisual signals to books should be located so they can be read from a seated
indicate a hazardous area, e.g. a door to an area used by position. Telephone operatinginstructions withraised
baggage trucks, are desirable to protect blind and deaf lettering is desirable. Post boxes should have an opening
people. Curbs, which serve as a warning to blind people which can be operated by one hand, not more than 1 m
using a cane, should be provided at any change from a above floor. Splayed legs should be avoided. Tables 71 cm
pedestrian area toa roadway for vehicles.Visual .and high with 71 cm between the legs are suitable.
audible passenger information is desirable.
Baggage storage
9.11 -30 Areas for baggage storage should be located

Toilets and Showers
adjacent to main entrances and baggage claim areas.
Storage systems should be easily operable by persons of
9.11.24 Toilet facilities should be accessible to
limited manual dexterity.
wheelchair users and should include at least one WC
compartment sized andfitted for useby the disabled,
including wheelchair users. Security
9.1 1.31 All security gates should be at least 90 crn

wide. All security conveyor belts and check tables should
Embarking and Disembarking be at a height of 76 crn above floor.
9.11.25 Passenger loading bridges or flush coupling Special services

transfer vehicles are desirable for level or ramped access to
and from aircraft. Where this is not provided, alternative . 9.1 1.32 Airportguidemaps for blind or otherwise
transfer facilities shouId be available. handicapped persons should be available.
Baggage Claim References
9.1 1.26 Routes to baggage claim areasshould be Annex 9 - Facilitation.

designated by audible and visual means. It is desirable that
baggage claim areas be at the same floor level as that at International Signs to Provide Guidance to Persons at
which the arriving passenger enters the terminal, if ramped Airports (Doc 9430).
or elevator accessif not provided.Airport or airline
personnel should be readily available to provide assistance Dynamic Flight-related Public Information Displays
to disabled people. {Doc 9249).
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“Airport Terminals Reference Manual”, published by the “Airport Master Plans”, U.S. Federal Aviation Adminis-
International Air Transport Association. tration, AC 150/5070-6A, June1985.
“The Apron andTerminal Building, Planning Report”, “Airport Planning Manual”, Volumes 1 and 2, Depart-
U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Report ment of Housing and Construction, Australia, 1985.
NO.FAA-RD 75-191, July 1975.
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I C A O 9184 PART*KL ** 484114116 0058632 3115 =
Chapter 10. CARGO FACILITIES
10.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER handlingmethods,includingthe use ofcontainersand

automated equipment, make flexibility and expansibility
10.1.1 All planningforcargo facilities must begin an overriding necessity.
with theaircargoforecasts (see Chapter 3). Accurate
forecastsare essential tosoundcargo facility planning
both now and in the future when expansion may occur. 10.2.2 Cargo facility planningshouldbe based on
flow planning principles, as previously described, for the
10.1.2 Thesameconsiderations which influencethe passenger area. In the case of cargo, the concept of flow
siting of the passengerfacilities also apply to the cargo planning is easier to apply because of the inanimate and
area. The priority accorded to these two areas in deciding non-subjective
character of the
majority
of
cargo.
the compromisenecessary to achieve over-all compatibility However, in the handling of livestock it is important to
will dependonthenatureofthetrafficfor which the consider physiological and environmental factorsto ensure
airport is intended. In most airportsat present, the amount that animals are tranquil and well cared for.
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of cargo traffic is considerably less than passenger traffic

and it is, therefore, more important for passenger rather
thancargo facilities to be as close as possible to. the 10.2.3 Conclusions reached by theInternational Air
runways because there arefewer cargo aircraft movements Transport Association (IATA) substantiate the fact that
andconsequently less dangerof congestion inground uniformstandards
for
air
cargo facility
design are
movements. However, with the future development of air impossible to develop, for the following reasons:
transport and the predicted growth of cargo traffic this
may not continue to be the case and therelative locations a) an international carrier needs bonded facilities;
of passenger and cargo
areas
should be carefully
considered in the light of the traffic forecasts. b) cargo facilities are characterized by relatively large
holdingandstorageareas,andcustomsoriented
10.1.3 The future growth of traffic and problems of documentation procedures;
mixed passenger and cargo
aircraft
mayrequire
supplementary processing and warehouse facilities off the c) a domestic carrier needs far less warehouse space for
airport.Insuch cases theintermodaltransferofcargo a comparable volume of carriage, a small bonded
containers becomes significant. area
and relatively simple
documentation pro-
cedures, as well as the means to rapidly receive, sort,
10.1.4 The purpose of this chapteris to examine some anddistribute air cargothrough its terminal in
aspects of problems likely to be found when planning relatively short time spads;
cargo facilities. One of the main considerationsinvolved is
the space required for this facility. It is recommended that d) a carrierholdingbothinternationalanddomestic
this and other aspects be discussed with aircraft operators rights, with the resulting mixtures of in-bond and
and other agencies involved. domestic air cargo, has all the requirements of both
international and domestic carriers;
e) theterminalrequirements of carriersare greatly

10.2 SOUND CARGO FACILITIES PLANNING influenced by the ratio of domestic to international
cargo. Requirements for warehouse space are greater
10.2.1 The rapid rate of increase in air cargo traffic, in relation to transfer cargo than forlocal cargo and
theadvent of very high capacityaircraftcapable of the extent of such areas will largely depend upon the
accommodating large-size units as well as great!y increased routestructuresandthe degree ofcontainerized
quantitiesofcargo,and new developments in cargo traffic to be handled; and
1-115

I C A O SL8Y P A R T * L ** L)BYLYLb 0058633 251
f> the requirements of all-cargocarriers and combi- - provide adjustable or flexible connexions at air side
nation carriers vary widely. As more high capacity and landside t o accommodate fixed loading bridges,
aircraft are phased into route structures, the ratioof mobile ramp equipment and variable delivery/
air cargo carried in passenger aircraft to thatcarried collecting vehicle heights;
in cargo aircraft will also change.
- provide terminal building bypass means to transfer
10.2.4 As with passenger terminals, a single design unitized loads or large single pieces between air side
concept cannot meet the varying needs of all carriers or all and land side; and
geographical areas. There are, however, common guide-
lines that a cargo terminal planner should follow: - make adequateprovision for holding o r staging areas
for unitized loads, including cargo containers and
- collect all possible information related topast, lower deck containers, both of which have special-
present and future cargo traffic from
airline sources; ized handling requirements. In the case of lower deck
containers, particular attention should be paid to the
- determine the impact of cargo, mail and company necessity of ensuring that such facilities will enable
stores upon the facility; thecontainers tobe handledexpeditiously at all
times,
including
periods of unavoidable multi-
- determine the desired material handling system based operations, as it is essential to keep aircraft ground
upon the nature and volume of the forecast traffic times to a minimum.
and the operating method best suited to the parti-
cular locality;
- design the terminal to accommodate the ultimate

material handling system and with the ability to be 10.3 SITING
progressively expanded within the confines of the
building or site; 10.3.1 In siteplanning forcargo facilities, several
factorsshould be takenintoaccount.The sitechosen
- ensure that the site area will accommodate required should be in accord with all of the other elements of the
aircraft stands, truck loading areas and customer/ airport master plan and
incorporate flexibility and
employee parking areasand desired accesdegress expansibility t o accommodate cargo growth,including the
roads, and will allow for future expansion; possible introduction of all-freighter service to the airport,
over a period of 20 years. Thisincludes new aircraft which
- site the terminal with due consideration for the type may use the airport during the next 20 years, as well as
of operations (all-cargo orcombination)andto enlarged cargo terminals and facilities required to handle
provide the shortest possible time for the movement increased volumes of cargo and, at the larger airports, to
of on-line, interline and in-bond cargo; implement new cargo handlingconcepts.When it is
forecast that the majority of air cargo will be carried o n
- provide
sufficient
space t o accommodate the passenger aircraft, the site must be conveniently located
maintenance of fixed or mobile equipment, and the with regard to the passenger terminal building.
maintenance, parkingand refuelling of powered
ground equipment; 10.3.2The site should be easily accessible from
existing andfuturegroundtransportation iinks. The
- maximize interval overhead dimensions, as well as taxiing distances for aircraft between the terminal and the
clear floor space, to allow optimum utilization of runway should be as short anddirect as possible. Likewise,
available cubic capacity and to accommodate multi- direct ground links should be available between passenger
level unit-load handling and/or storage; andcargo buildings, preferably by internalroadsfor
exclusive use by airport vehicles.
- limit the amount of administrative area occupying
warehouse floor space to the absoluteminimum and 10.3.3 .Thepositioning of the cargo terminal should
consider
second level administrative
accommo- takeintoaccount prevailing winds during inclement
dations wherever feasible; weather. Finally, the cargo building and its aprons should
be sited so that there will be no infringement upon obstacle
- consider means to prevent the unauthorized removal limitation surfaces nor interference with electronic
of air cargo and equipment; equipment or navigation aids.
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I C A O '3184 P A R T * 1 ** W 4841416 0058634 198 W
Part I. Master Planning I - I I7
10.4 SYSTEMS PLANNING premise to be followed is that the documentation should

not restrict the flow of cargo, but conversely should not
10.4.1 A well conceived cargo facility, like a passenger permit cargo handling to get out of control.
building, will be one that is planned and designed system-
atically. The entire cargo handling operation should be 10.4.4 The flow of cargo maybe via many different
viewed asa system, fromthecargoapronthroughthe automatic handling or manual handling sysLbms. Labour
cargo building to the docks andforward to the road availability and costs, as well as the cargo size and weight
system. A clear understanding that a cargo building is a mix, will determine the handling and storage systems. The
flow system is a prerequisite to proper planning of cargo ratio between export andimportcargoand the total
terminal areas. percentage of international cargo will have a bearing on
storage requirements.
Cargo Flow Principles

Cargo Handling Principles
10.4.2 The planning, design and layout of airport
cargo facilities should recognize the importance of basic 10.4.5 There are a number of generally accepted
cargo flow principles. Foremost among these are: principles to follow when planning cargo terminal systems
and selecting cargo handling equipment:
a) all-cargo aircraft should be separated from combi-
nation (passenger/cargo) aircraft in the process of a) cargo should be handled in the largest convenient
loading and unloading, preferably at a cargo unit load, by the quickest means, over the shortest
terminal; route, in the safest manner and by the most
economical method;
b) the flow of cargo to and from aircraft and between
aircraft should be as smooth as possible and should b) the use of mechanical means instead of manual
cover theshortest possible distance in the flow handling generally increases efficiency and economy;
sequence. Moreover, access to the cargo terminal
from both the apron and the land side should be c) cargo handling systems should be integrated with all
direct and convenient; associated control
and
operational paperwork
procedures;
c) physical barriers between processing areas for the
import and export of cargo should be avoided, if d) economy in thehandling of cargo will result if
possible, to permit optimum use of available space in control and operation procedures are so designed as
thecargo building, particularly with respect to to simplify handling systems;
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storage areas; and
e) handling systems should be so designed as to obtain
d) at the larger airportsfor which this manual is the maximum utilization of equipment (e.g.
written, adequate provision should be made for the maximum standardization in methodsand in the
handling of large containersand pallets between types and sizes of equipment, maximum flexibility in
trucks and cargoterminals, and between cargo the use of equipment, minimum turnaround times of
terminals and aircraft. mobile equipment);
The schematic in Figure 10-1 is abroad depiction of f) infrequently used equipment should be as inex-
principles for achieving a continuous and direct flow of air pensive as possible;
cargo within the cargo terminal.
g) it is economically best if cargo in movement can, as
faras possible, continue in movement without
10.4.3 In planning air cargo facilities, two types of interruption; and
flow should be considered, namely, the flow of documents
and the flow of cargo itself. The means by which the flow h) the design of storage systems should besuch that
of documentation will move between the processing and maximum utilization of space is accomplished,
administrative areas of the cargo terminal will have an measured in terms of cubic content, together with
effect upon the ultimate building design selected. The basic ease of selection with the minimum effort.

I C A O 9384 P A R T * l *X YBLiLLIfrb 0058635 024
1-118 Airport Pianning Manual
6-
PASSENGER CARGO CARGO PASSENGER
AlRCRAFT
EXPORT OUTPUT
0 AIRCRAFT
EXPORT OUTPUT
DIRECT TRANSFER -C
INPUT
IMPORT
INPUT
AIRCRAFT
lMPORT
i) AIRCRAFT 9
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----_------- ---------------- ------------- 1
I
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I STAGING AREA HOLD AREA
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____ __ - _ _ _ _ + _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ +_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _f _ _ _ _ J
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EXPORT tNPUT 101
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KEY TO SYMBOLS
El
An operation occurs when a unit of cargo is lifted up or put down or moved during a process. Marking and labelling is
OPERATION 0 considered an "operation". An "operation" also occurs when
information
given
is or received
when
or planning or
calculating takes place (e.9. input or extraction of information from/to electronic data processing systems).
INSPECTION 0 An inspection occurs when a unit of cargo

measured,etc.
IS examined to determine proper packaging, acceptability for carriage, weighed,
TRANSPORTAT,ON 0 A !ransportation occurswheriaunit of cargo is movedfrom

o c c u during some operations and inspections.
one place to anotherbeyondthelimitedmovementswhich
DELAY
0 A delay occurs to a unit of cargo when it is prevented from progressing to its next planned activity
A storageoccurswhenaunit of cargoisstaged,prior to.assembly, assembled,pendingdispatch to aircraft, or held

STORAGE V pending
breakdown
and/or
customs
examination
and/or
delivery.
According to local circumstances, this may apply to alr side, land side or both
SOURCE: INTERNATIONAL AIRTRANSPORTASSOCIATION
Figure 10-1. Example of flow in cargo terminal
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I C A O 9184 P A R T v L * t 4 8 4 3 4 3 6 0 0 5 8 6 3 b TbO
~
=
Part I . Master Planning 1-1I9
10.4.6 Thereare two principal factors which will 10.5.3 Any cargo processingfacilitymustbe capable
govern the actual space required in the cargo terminal and of supporting thefollowing activities relativeto export and
the layout of thisspace. One is the rate of flow,which will import functions:
depend upon the handlingsystem employed and the cargo-
carrying capability of passenger and all-cargo aircraft, as export (outbound) - acceptance
well asfrequencyof services. Theother relates tothe staging
future storage requirements in the cargo terminal, which load makeup
will depend largely upon the proceduresused by airlines in
preparinggoodsforshipmentand delivery, and on the import (inbound) - load breakdown
implementation of new procedures as the volume of air storage
cargo increases. delivery
The areain which either of the aboveprocesses takes place

can therefore be considered asa basic cargo terminal unit.
10.5 THE CARGO BUILDING
However,at
somelocations
the
import
andexport
functions maybe totally integrated,with all activities being
10.5.1 The general principles described in this section
performed in thesamearea. In suchacase, thearea
applytocargoterminals of all sizes and all types of
required for these functions should be considered as one
handling characteristics.However, the effect of these
basic cargo terminal unit.
principles is less marked in very small and very large
terminals. For this reason the extremes of cargo terminal
10.5.4 Generally speaking, the criteria listed above are
sizes have been disregarded, with reference in this manual
best met by a square terminal configuration. However, the
directed at the vast majority of cargo terminals which are
significance of truck dock frontage requirements may be
in the range of 325 m* to 10 000 mz. These principles are
such that a rectanglewithlongerlandside and air side
also valid for a single terminal within a multiple-occupancy frontages than building depth is required. Similarly, site
building for which varying requirements must be met to
availability may distort the square layout. As the limits of
satisfy all users.
distortion are approached,efficiency of flow functions will
10.5.2 The following
elements may be used in deteriorate, creating bottleneck situations.
determining optimum cargo terminal dimensions:
a) connecting paths needed between diverse handling

areas within a terminal - such paths should be as Single Occupancy Cargo Building
short as possible
10.5.5 A single occupancy cargo building is one that
- forminimum movement ofcargoandmobile accommodates a single user andmay involve export,
equipment, import or a combination of both. For a single occupancy
- for optimum mobilityof staff between functions, cargo building, the following options may be considered:
- for
maximum supervision of all handling
activities, a) If theoccupanthandlesbothinternationaland
- for maximum industrial safety and cargo
security; domestic cargo, it is necessary to have the air side
portionofthebuilding divided intotwoseparate
b) the required length of truck dock frontage during areas t o insure the segregation of international and
peak demand; domestic cargo. However, it is still possible to have
a continuous frontage on the land side so that all
c) best use of floor space in accommodating fixed plant truck dock facilities are located in one place.
and storage equipment;
b) I f the cargo operation is large, or if the forecast for
d) capability and flexibility for modular expansion of growth in cargo operations indicates a requirement
terminal area - such modules should be consistent forexpansion of thecargo facilitiesin the near
with the planned installation of handling equipment; future,separatelandsideoperationsshould be
and considered. Separate truck dock facilities for inter-
nationalanddomesticcargomay benecessary to
e)
minimizationof
building perimeter t o reduce insure adequate frontier control and allow for future
construction costs. expansion.
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** =
~
I C A O 9184 PART*L 4 8 4 1 4 L b 0058637 9T7
1-120 Airpvrt Plonning Manual
Multiple Occupancy Cargo Building the apron in line with intended expansions of the cargo
terminal, and to accommodate increases in aircraft size or
10.5.6 Airport master planning frequently requires changes in characteristics.
that a cargo building be developed which can accommo-
datea number of users. In planning such a building, 10.6.3 Eachapron layout and associated handling
detailed consideration should be given to
potential system analysis should include the following elements:
expansion of each individual user’s space and operation.
Such expansion may be handled by locating the largest a) types of aircraft shown on forecast;
cargooperatorattheend of the building so that its
operation can be expanded without disrupting the other b) airline requirements as to ground time;
tenants, constructing the building so that internal walls can
be relocated to allow one tenant to expand into adjacent c) airline emphasis on schedule departure time;
space, and locating truck docks so that all tenants have
access to land side transportation. d) airline consideration as to capital cost (equipment)
vs. labour cost (workforce);
10.5.7 A mere summing up of individual airlines’
space requirements and provision of a building to meet the e) labour resources available for operational purposes;
total demand will not be an acceptable solution.The and
building must be shaped so that individual users’
requirements are met in accordance with the principles laid f) land resources available.
down previously. In particular, the adoption of a common
depth building is known to produce great difficulties
caused by excessive distortion of the smaller terminal
units.
10.7 CARGO FACILITY REQUIREMENTS
10.5.8Whenuser agreements or leases are entered
into particular attention should be given to the ability of 10.7.1 As a guide to basic facility requirements in
the
airport
operator to relocate users to allow for cargoterminals,the following requirements should be
expansion of the other building tenants. taken into consideration:
-thearea allocated tothe segregation of inward

consignments should be readily accessible to the
10.6 CARGO APRON assembly area for outward consignments (this will
facilitate the movement of transfer consignments);
10.6.1 Theapron planning principles described in
Chapter 7 also apply to cargo aprons. The apronshould be -adequate space for presentation, opening and
planned to suit the cargo building handling methods to be examination of air cargo for customs;
used. Nose-in or tail-in parking withfixed mechanical
loading systems minimizes the size of the apron. Loading - adequate space, near to the final delivery area, for
methods which involve the use of large quantities of apron repacking of air cargo after customs examination;
equipment increase the size of the aircraft stand required.
Space must also be provided for aircraft servicing - adequate warehousing areas, both free and bonded,
equipment. If cargo handling andaircraft servicing are inclusive of areas for preparation of load prior to
carried out at the same time, it is important to minimize shipment o r disassembly of loadfrom incoming
the amount of vehicles and equipment to keep aprons to a aircraft (build-up breakdown stations) and including
reasonable size and allow the maximum number of aircraft the handling of pallets or unitized loads;
to be parked close to the cargo building.
- weighing facilities;
10.6.2 To ensure efficient cargo handling,the cargo
apron must be treatedasacontinuation of the cargo - space for cool storage of vaccines, perishables and
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
terminal. It is desirable for all-cargo aircraft to be loaded foodstuffs,andadditionally, where an airline so

or unloaded on the apron directly outside the cargo requires, deep freeze or other refrigeration methods;
terminal. In addition, sufficient reserve space should be
provided in the long-range plans to permit expansion of - strong room for valuables and bullion;

Part I . Mater PCanning 1-121
-storage space for human remains; a) adequacy of the road system to cope at peak periods
with the volume of pick-up and delivery vehicles, in
- accommodation and specially designed holding areas addition to othertraffic.A truck access road,
for animals and livestock (specific details regarding separate
from passenger vehicle roads may be
construction of facilities and other requirements are necessary when air cargo volumes are expected to be
contained in the IATA “Live Animals Manual”); heavy;
- parking and storage space for loading vehicles and b) requirement for roadways to have sufficient bearing
other equipment; strength and height clearance to handle existing and
projected cargo-carrying road vehicles, including
- public reception counters; container transporters;
-provision for offices for

control
authorities as c) the over-all traffic road pattern should be engineered
necessary; to permit easy access from the major road system
external to the airport;
- adequate
office space for management and
accounting functions as well asdata processing, d) the need for a public road link between passenger
tracing archives and security requirements; and cargo terminals which is in addition to, and does
not conflict with, any service road link; and
- storage space in a secure areaforaircraft spaces
e) the road system should have an expansion capability
and/or servicing tools;
which is compatible with future cargo trafficgrowth
forecasts.
- aircrew functional spaces and rest rooms;
10.8.2 A connexion from the road system direct to the
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- storage for dangerous goods;

cargo terminal apron should also be provided for the use
of authorized airline or commercial vehicles.
- storage for empty ULD (unit load device) pallets,
containers, etc.;
10.8.3 Consideration should also given be to
providing convenient access to the cargo terminal for
- lashing and tie-down material storage; and
vehicles which operate on the air side of the airport. Items
to be considered include:
- workshop facilities for cargo handling equipment
including battery charging facilities.
a) separate
a network of roads linking terminal
maintenance and cargo buildings, by the most direct
10.7.2 The design and construction of both building routes possible, for use solely by airport service
andapron should ensurethe maximum security, of air vehicles. This network should be capable of meeting
cargoand mail from such risks as burglary, unlawful the requirements of container-carrying equipment
interference or unlawful removal. Due provision should between the cargo terminal andthe high capacity
also be madefortheinstallation of mechanical or aircraft parking positions. Since cargo container
electronic devices whichare associated with the latest cargo transportation is generally a low speed vehicle
security procedures. For more complete details on this operation, the addition of a low speed lane on either
subject, application should be made to the Security and side of existing traffic lanes in the apron areawould
Fraud Prevention Department, IATA, 2000 Peel Street, help to avoid traffic congestion;
Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2R4.
b) adequate bearing strength, height clearances and
turning radii to accept all projected road service
vehicles andgroundsupportequipment, including
aircraft tugs when applicable;
10.8 CARGO TERMINAL AREA ACCESS
c) adequateseparation from runways, taxiways or
10.8.1 In the planning of public road systems linked other areas where aircraft manoeuvre, to ensure the
to the cargoterminal complex, attention should be givento safety of personnel, vehicles and equipment from
the following factors: aircraft blast; and

I C A O 9 3 8 4 PART*L ** 48414Lb 0058637 7 7 T W
d) at existing aerodromes, special consideration of any and according to the type of vehicle used, and this
new clearance requirements which may result from factor will require careful evaluation at each airport.
the introduction of high capacity aircraft. In all cases, however, the depth provided should be
at least 30 m.
b) Holding area parking: thisarea is for vehicles

10.9 CARGO TERMINALPARKING waiting to unload and should be in the immediate
vicinity of the pick-up and delivery area.
10.9.1 Adequate vehicle parking space
should be
availableontheland side of cargoterminals if such c) Service parking: is for use by agents,brokers,
terminals are to function effectively. Also, immediate and forwarders and government agencies and should be
future parking requirements should be studied carefully in the immediate vicinity of the cargo terminal.
and provision should be made for expansion of parking
facilities in line with expected volumes of air cargo to be
hand!ed and the expansion of cargo terminals.
10.10 CONTROLAUTHORITIESINSPECTION
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10.9.2 The parking requirements fall broadly into two

categories: operational parking forvehicles for the pick-up For relief of airport congestion and provision of additional
and delivery of air cargo, and personnel parking which capacity, cargo processing facilities, including customs and
should be as close as possible to the working area. The health inspections, could be located off the airport. Local
operational
parking
requirements can be
divided as regulations may require such cargo to be transported in
follows: bond or under particular conditions, and may affect the
form and operation of a transport system.
a) Pick-up and de[ivery parking:
this areais for loading
and unloading on the land side of the cargo terminal,
andshould bezoned so as to ensurethatthe
manoeuvring area is kept clear of vehicles awaiting References
their turnat
thetruck
dockfor
loading
and
unloading.Thedepthrequiredformanoeuvring “Airport
TerminalsReference
Manual”,Chapter 4,
vehicles into the docking space will vary by location published by the International Air Transport Association.

ICAO 9 3 8 4 PARTS3 St m 4843416 0 0 5 8 6 4 0 441 =
Chapter 11. GRQUND TRANSPORT AND INTERNAL AIRPORT

CIRCULATION AND PARKING
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11.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER 1 1.3.2 To calculate vehicular traffic and its required
facilities, the Design Year/Average Day/PeakMonth/
11.1.1 Thischapter deals with the planning of that Peak Hour forecasts (including base year data) based on
element of the airportnecessary for the accommodationof information developed in Chapter 3, will provide the
ground transport of passengers, baggage and employees volumes of passengers. The specific information necessary
to, from, and within the airport. Cargo movement and to transform the passenger forecast traffic volumes into
handling has been treated separately in Chapter 10. volumes of vehicular traffic includes:
11.1.2 In order t o adequately plan airportground a) passenger arrival rates;

transport facilities, data mustbe developed from the
forecasts made in accordance with procedures described in b) passenger/visitor ratio (visitors are wellwishers or
Chapter 3. In addition to estimates of future passenger greeters);
levels, forecasts must be made of airport employees and
visitors. Passenger/visitor ratios should be developed and c ) percentage of passenger s by type of vehicle (private,
vehicle occupancies quantified. Finally, the number of taxi, limousine);
employees, their mode of travel to the airport and parking
destinations should be determined. Other service vehicle d) occupancy by type of vehicle (including passengers
traffic, including flight kitchenand fuel deliveries will have and visitors);
an impact onon-airport roadways andshouldalsobe
quantified. e) percentage of short-term andlong-term parking; and
f) intra-airport vehicular traffic, e.g. between remote

b
parking and terminal or between terminals.
11.2 AIRPORT ACCESS - AUTOMOBILE
AND PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Most of this information can be obtainedonly from actual
Ground transportationto
andfrom most airports surveys, which should include traffic data on employee,
is provided by two principle modes, namely private cargo,andsupport services. Many airportauthorities
automobile and public transport, mainly taxis and buses. maintain basic current information thatcan be anexcellent
Although some airports areserved by some means of mass source for initial planning.
transit system otherthan buses, e.g. train,,subwayor
monorail, by far the dominant mode of airport ground
access is theautomobile,forboth private and public 11.3.3 Before a survey is conducted, the data collec-
transport. It is likely that the automobile will continue its tion needs to be organizedin such a mannerthatthe
dominance as an airport access vehicle. requireddetailed information can readily be tabulated.
The results can be used to analyse traffic volumes on main
traffic segments of the airport, such as between airport
access and parking, between parking and terminal,
between airport access and terminal. For example, surveys
11.3 AIRPORT TRAFFIC DATA will provide information on the percentage of passengers
arriving by private car, with visitors, which implies
11.3.1 Most airport vehicular traffic is generated by circulating traffic.The passenger with baggage may be
passengers. The other significant components of vehicular dropped off atthecurb, the visitor (wellwisher) will
traffic are employee, cargo, and support services. proceed to the short-term parking lot, joinpassenger
the in
1-123

the terminal, and, after aircraft departure, return to short- 11.6 VEHICLE PARKING
term parking and exit the airport. Taxis and private cars
may have to make recirculation trips if they miss terminal
entrances or exits. Planning Principles
11.6.1
Vehicle parking should be considered in
relation to the area it serves rather than any particular
11.4 INTERNAL AIRPORT ROADWAY category of traffic, although theprinciple of separation of
CIRCULATION functionsoften leads tothe vehicles associated with a
particular areaalso being of a specific category, e.g.
11.4.1 Atthe larger airportsto which this manual passenger cars, cargo vehicles, etc. Two basic principles
applies it may be desirable to separate service vehicles and should govern the provision of vehicle parking: it should
trucks fromthe passenger and visitor vehicular traffic, be located as close as possible tothearea served and
either before or shortly after entering the airport property. should, other things being equal, occupy the least possible
This can be accomplished by three types of roadway ground area. The smaller the ground area the closer all
systems: parts of it will be to the functional area.This is particularly
important when pedestrian movement between the vehicle
1) the principal public airport road for use by pass- parking andfunctionalarea is necessary, but it is also
engers, visitors and employees; important in reducing vehicle movements, and thus road
requirements, and speeding up service times. These
2) public service roads with security control points objectives can be achieved by developing multi-level car
permitting access only to authorized vehicles (e.g. air parking.
cargo delivery, flight kitchen supply, etc.); and
11.6.2 With the aim of locating vehicle parking as
3) non-public service roads with security control points close as possible to the various functionalareas, an
for use by authorized vehicles such as maintenance, analysis should be made of the types and numbers of
fire and rescue, fuel, etc. vehicles generated by each area.The extreme physical
characteristics of some vehicles may prohibit them from
The public road system accommodating servicevehicles using multi-purpose or multi-level parking facilities, and in
needs to connect with the terminal only for delivery of these cases separate provision should be made for them.
goods at designated locations. The non-public service road The cost-effectiveness of structures necessary for multi-
system accommodating vehicles serving the aircraft parked purpose use should be the determining factor in the siting
on the terminal apron needs to be completely secured from and use of vehicle parking.It will, however, often be
the public road system. found best to locate buses, coaches, taxis on the lower
levels and private cars on upper levels. Adequate access to
11-4.2 Through the use of surveys, traffic volumes by curbs should be provided. Parking can often be sited to
vehicle type can be determined for peak hours on specific provide simultaneous access and exits from several points
roadway segments as well as at points of entry and exit. while maintaining segregation between categories of
The number of traffic ianes required can be estimated traffic.
from this basic information.
Location
11.5 PASSENGER BUILDING CURB 11.6.3 The location and use of vehicle parking should
normally be determined by the vehicle parking period. As
The passenger building curb space requirements are the parking period increases consideration should be given
an important part of the aerodrome complex. The to locating the parking at more remote positions, such as
main features of this element of theaerodrome are on the airport perimeter. This is especially relevant in the
vehicular traffic lanes, through lanes, bypass lanes, case of staff car parking, although short-term parking for
curb/manoeuvring lanes, sidewalk platform directional staff cars should be provided in operational areas for those
and identification signs, curb-side baggage check-in points staff for whom a vehicle is essential in carrying out their
and pedestrian crossings. Additional planning information duties. Simiiarly, passenger cars and buses, which remain
with respect to curb-side dimensioning may be found in only for the period necessary to deliver or collect pass-
9.3.3 through 9.3.14. engers, should be parked as close as possible to passenger
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Pari I . Master Pianning 1-125
buildings. Short-termparkingfor passenger vehiclesis returnthe passenger’s car is transferred back to the
required in the passenger area for drivers meeting arriving passenger building by thecarpark management and
passengers, as well as for many of the wellwishers handed over to the passenger at the land side vehicle pick-
accompanying departing travellers. The appropriate up positions. An alternative is for passengers to park
parking period for these vehicles may vary according to and collect their cars at the remote car park and to be
local conditions and theclimate, which may affect aircraft transported between it and the passenger hilding by a
arrival times. A period of 30 minutes has often been found shuttle service operated by the car park management.
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
satisfactory,but a maximum period of 2 hours should

cover all requirements. The period for any specific airport 11.6.5 If a system of curb-side check-in is used, ample
should be determined by space availability and the local provision should be made for it and all its consequences.
characteristics of the traffic.
11.6.4 Parking for passenger vehicles remaining for

longer periods should be treated in a similar way as other References
long-term vehicle parks. The park may be managed and
operated under a system which permits the passenger to “TheApronand Terminal Building PlanningReport”,
drive to the passenger building and hand over the carto the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Report No.
carpark management fortransfer to the carpark.On RD-75-191,July 1975.

SECTION FOUR - AIRPORT SUPPORT ELEMENTS
INTRODUCTORY NOTES
A number of buildings for special purposes are necessary

to support the operation of an airport. Theneed for all or
some of the buildings described will vary from airport to
airport, as will the specific spacerequirements;their
locations in the airport or individual master plans should
be determined by the functions they are to fulfil and their
compatibility with the major features of the plan. When
considering the size of buildings, the need for their growth
along with the general growth of the airport should be
taken into account.
Specific planning considerations which should be taken

intoaccountarenoted undereachindividualfacility.
Consultation with experts knowledgeable in each specific
field and the users of the facilities is recommended.
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1-126

Chapter 12. AIRPORT OPERATIONS AND SUPPORT FACILITIES
12.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER 12.3 MEDICAL CENTRE
Buildings fora variety of operational purposes are Facilities should be provided to staff and passengers for
required at an airport. These include accommodation for treatment of medical emergencies (first aid), for aircrew
meteorological, air trafficcontrol, communications, medical inspection and for emergencies and rescue. The
rescue andfire fighting services, fuel depotand all the scale of facilities and their purpose should determine the
facilities for
administration
and maintenance, staff, location, which, however, should be chosen whenever
aircraftoperators, general aviation facilities and police. possible within walking distance of the passenger area(s).
Sometimes there is an hotel. Facilities should be strategically located for easy accessi-
bility in case of an aircraft accident and be capable of
expansion to serve on short notice as an enlarged aircraft
accident first-aid receiving station.The usefulness and
efficiency of any medical emergency and rescue organiz-
12.2 ADMINISTRATION AND ation on an airport may be greatly enhanced if itis in
MAINTENANCE BUILDINGS continuous use dealing with day-to-day medical activities
during the normal routine working of the airport.
12.2.1 Only functions which are essential for day-by-
day operations should be accommodated in passenger and
cargoareas, as their space is limited, and their size
becomes unnecessarily and disadvantageously large if they 12.4 GROUND VEHICLE FUEL STATIONS
are used to accommodate functions and staffwhich can be
located atmoreremote positions. A separateareafor A fuel station for land side ground vehicles can be a good
administrationand miscellaneous purposes should be source of revenue for an airport authority and maybe
provided; this can frequently be on the perimeter of the necessary where fuelling facilities are not closely available
airport or incorporated with the maintenance areas. Such on the main public routes from the airport. It should be
areasas these, which employ large numbers of staff, sited where traffic entering and leaving it would not cross
should be located as close as possible to primary public or slow down the fast continuous flow of other traffic on
transport facilities and should have good access to the the main vehicle routes. A separatestation for airport
operational areas. vehicles may also be justified.
12.2.2 Facilities which can be appropriately included 12.5 GENERATING STATIONS

in an administration area include: office
and
other
accommodation for airport management, aircraft Generating stations maybe required for heating, elec-
operators, government controlauthorities, etc; police tricity, etc. After considering requirements for future
station; telephone exchange; airport maintenance depot; expansion of other airport facilities, consideration should
and flight catering kitchens. begiven to siting such stationsas close as possible to
the areas they serve in order to avoid long service lines
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which can impose considerable inflexibility onfuture

12.2.3 Maintenance facilities will be required for development. It may benecessary at some airports to
motor vehicle repair, electrical repair (buildings, radio and provide standby power generators, independent of the
visual navigation aids), painting (buildings and runway main airport power system, as a secondary power supply.
markings etc.)and mechanical repair. The maintenance See also Annex 14, Chapter 8, Annex 10, Volume I, Part
facility should include storage for material, replacement 1, and theAerodrome Design Manual, Part 4, in respect of
parts and a fireproof area for flammable materials. secondary power supplies.
1-127

I - I28 Airport Planning Manual
12.6 WATER SUPPLYANDSANITATION fortheradar display in convenient

a location,and
provision made for interconnecting cables to the antenna
Theairport must be supplied with adequatewater, site.
properly processed and chlorinated and a sewage disposal
system for handling and treatingwaste. A dump forrefuse 12.8.3 The forecaster preparing the
airport
and
and garbage must be provided within a convenient distance landing forecasts should have a good view of the airport
of the airport or facilities provided for temporary storage and the office should be in proximity to, or have good
on the airportif this refuseis to be carried away by others. communications with, theaeronautical meteorological
Such dumps must be carefully planned in order not to station.
createabird hazard problem (see the Airport Services
Manual, Part 3). 12.8.4 Where all forecasts are received from outside
sources, space requirements would be somewhat reduced.
Where briefing is carried out by television orother
electronic means, the television receivers should be easily
12.7 FLIGHT CATERING KITCHENS accessible to aircrews, who should also be able t o contact
the office to deliver post-flight reports, etc. (see Annex 3,
Aircraft operators often require fairly large facilities for Chapter 5).
preparation and storage of food, drink and other aircraft
cabin stores. These facilities should not be located in the
passenger area but should have good access to the aircraft
Aeronautical Meteorological Stations
aprons using airside service road.The best location'
depends upon the natureof the airport traffic; for airports

12.8.5 An unobstructed view of the airport, particu-
with a large proportion of originating and terminating
larly of the runway complex, and good communications
flights, sites in theaircraftmaintenancearea may be
with the meteorological office, the communicationscentre
appropriate. Customs regulations may require such
andthe local airtraffic services unit(s)are essential.
facilities to be within customs controlled areas. Generally,
Observationsare usually made in theareasof runway
preparation facilities and mainstores should be included in
intersections and/orthethresholds of instrumentrun-
the maintenance or administration areas with supplemen-
ways so asto be sufficientlyrepresentative(Annex 3,
tary stores and facilities sited adjacent to the aprons.
Chapter 4). Because of the difficulties involved
in
stationing observers close totherunway,thetrend is
towardsthe use of sensors atthe necessary positions
with distant reading instruments in the meteorological
12.8 METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES
station. In the planning of ne.w airports or improvements
to existing airports,considerationshouldbe given t o
provision of necessary electrical ducts t o allow the satis-
Meteorological Office
factory siting of sensors and distant readingequipment
such as thermometers and anemometers near the runway,
12.8.1 Meteorological offices should normally be transmissometers near the threshoId and ceilometers in the
located so as to facilitate briefings between flight crew approachareaor, where it exists,near the ILS middle
members and meteorologicalpersonnel.Offices should marker.
therefore be close totheotherairport briefing and
reportingoffices
(ATS reporting office, aeronautical
information services unit, etc.), and proximity to or good
communications with the airport COM centre and with
local air traffic services units of the airportis also essential. 12.9 AIRCREW BRIEFING AND REPORTING
12.8.2 Thereshouldbe sufficient

space for
the 12.9.1 Beforeaflight candepartfromanairport
communications equipment needed to receive meteoro- the aircrew
may be required to undertake certain
logical information and, where charts and forecasts are pre-departureprocedures.Aircraftoperators may have
prepared by the office, thereshould be room forthe their own aircrew briefing requirements and any facilities
plotting and analysis of the necessary charts. I f it is which they require for briefing their crews should be
intended to provideweather radar for forecasting and provided within their administration buildings. However,
briefing purposes, suitable space should be made available accommodation for aircrew
briefing and clearance
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= =
~~
I C A O 9184 P A R T * L *X 4 8 4 1 4 L b 0058646 90T
Part 1. Maser PIanning 1-129
proceduresrequired by government andinternational 12.10.2 Aircraft maintenance areas shouldbe sited

regulations shouldbegrouped together at alocation compatibly with taxiway systems to avoid aircraft having
suitably related to the aprons. to cross runways. Due consideration should begiven to
noise problems.
12.9.2 Depending on the category of traffic and local

regulations, aircrew may be subject to customs inspection
of themselves and/or their aircraft. They may also be
required to fileflightplans or report t o the air traffic 12.11 RESCUE AND FIRE FIGHTING SERVICES
controlauthority,andtoobtain meteorological and
aeronautical information service briefings. On arrival at 12.11.1 The airport fire station should be located so
international airports aircrew must report to government as to ensure that response times for aircraft accidents and
control authorities t o clear themselves, the aircraft and incidents aretwo minutes, anddonot exceed three
stores. minutes, to theend of each runway in optimum conditions
of visibility and surface conditions. Other considerations,
12.9.3 Facilities for allthese
purposes
should be such as the need to deal with structural fires and other
located as close as possible to the main centre of activity duties performed by rescue and firefighting personnel, are
of theaprons.At large airports with several apronsit of secondary importance andmust be subordinated to the
maybe essential for reasonable' speed of pre-departure primary requirement. At a large airport it may be neces-
procedures and aircrew convenience to locate facilities in sary to provide more than one fire station, each located
more than one area. The premises where crew members strategically in relation to therunway pattern. Analyses of
have to report for operational purposes should be readily aircraft emergencies have revealed that a large proportion
accessible and next to one another,if possible in the same of aircraft accidents and incidents occur on, or close to,
building, preferably locatedat apronlevel and on themain the runways and, thus, sites for fire stations that will give
air side service roads. At large airports where the apron the shortest response time to these areas are essential.
areas for general aviation traffic arelocated at a consider-
able distance from the main terminal area, consideration 12.11.2 The airport fire station will provide facilities
may be given to establishing a satellite facility for ATS for housing the rescue and fire fightingequipment and
reporting and AIS and METbriefing in order to facilitate personnel, including in some cases ambulances and their
flight preparation andreporting by flight crews. Adequate crews. The equipment, amounts of extinguishing agents
short-term vehicle parking space for aircrew and aircraft and number of vehicles and personnel will be determined
stores vehicles should be associated with these facilities. primarily by the length of the aeroplanesusing the airport
The objective should be to achieve the quickest and most and theirfrequency of operations. (See also Annex 14,
convenient pre-departure and post-arrival formalities for Chapter 9, and the Airport Services Manual, Part 1.)
aircrew.
12.12 GENERAL AVIATION FACILITIES

12.10 AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE AREA
12.12.1 General aviation is defined as all civil flying
12.10.1 Similarly, asforthe passenger andcargo not classified as commercial air carrier and includes many
areas, siting oftheaircraft maintenance areas will be differenttype and use categories of aircraft. General
influenced by the type of traffic for which the airport is aviation includes such diverse activities as personal flying,
intended and the aircraft operators' routestructures which transportation of personnel and cargo by privately owned
it serves. Thenumberoraircraft moving between the aircraft, air taxi and agricultural flying, and instructional
maintenance areas and the apronswill depend on whether flying.
the airportis used by aircraft operators as
a base for major
maintenance, or only for line maintenance or for'some 12.12.2 The various types of aircraft comprising the
combination of each. In the first case there would be a generai aviation fleet range from single-engine aircraft to
considerable number of aircraft movements between the multi-engine turbo-jet.The growth of general aviation
aprons and maintenance areas, but somewhat fewer in the activities in many States has greatly exceeded that of the
second case because maintenance is carried outduring commercial airlines and hasbecome an integral part of the
aircraft turnround. national air transport system. The requirements of locally
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1-130 Airaort FYanninn Manual
--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
based and itinerant general aviation activity, both national general aviationactivities should include sufficient area for
and
international,
should
be considered an integral hangars,
aircraft
parking,and
storage, fuelling and
element of airport master planning. maintenance facilities. At some airports a relatively small
passenger terminal may be required to provide accommo-
i2.12.3 One of theprimaryconsiderationsinthe dations for passengers and crews, if the airport is to be
sirport planningprocess is theanticipated level of the served by commuter or short-haul air services with general
volume of general aviationoperationstheairport will aviation-type
aircraft.
Customs
international
and
experience, both initially and in the future. The accuracy clearance facilities forinternational passengers andfor
of forecasts of the demand for general aviation utilization aircraft of foreign registry may be required in the general
of runways, taxiways, apron and terminal facilities can aviation service area.
becomea major influence on the capacity of the entire
airport system. 12.12.6 At airports whereeither the scheduled oper-
ations or the general aviationoperationsare very low,
12.12.4 General aviation includes many different separate facilities are not always required and combining
types of aircraft with a wide range of operational require- of facilities may be prudent to support airportconcessions.
mects.Anairportthat experiences a mix of general
aviation and commercial aircraft may cause unacceptable
delays in departuresandarrivals,particularlyduring
periods of marginal weather conditions. An airport that is References
to serve both scheduled commercialoperationsand a
substantialvolume ofgenerai aviationshould, when “Utility Airports”, U.S. Federal Aviation Administration,
possible, provide a separate runway andtaxiway system to AC 150/5300-4B, 1975.
servegeneral aviationtypeaircraft exclusively. Such
airport facilities should be positioned so that general Annex 10 - Aeronautical Telecommunications.
aviation aircraft are not required to taxi, take off or land
across airport facilities primarily provided for commercial Annex 14 - Aerodromes.
aircraft operations.
Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137). Part 1 - Rescue and
12.12.5When generalaviation
operations
are Fire Fighting, and Part 3 - Bird Control and Reduction.
substantial in volume they should be centred at a location
on the airport apart from thepassenger facilities provided Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9157), Part 4 - Visual
for commercial airline services. The site selected for Aids.

I C A O 4384 PART*L ** 4643436 0 0 5 8 b 4 8 7 8 2
Chapter 13. AIRCRAFTFUELFACILITIES
13.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER preclude their improvement, or construction of new roads
or railways. Thus the options are largely a question of
The handling of fuel at airports is an importantsubject to economy and require a careful cost/benefit analysis.
be takenintoaccount when planningairport facilities,
since special requirements have to be met with regard to:
-safety, because of the fire hazard that fuel consti-

tutes, mainly on aprons where a number of other 13.3 LOCATION OF STORAGE
activities are
taking place
simultaneously with
aircraft fuel servicing; Storage areas should be located as close to the aircraft
fuelling area as practical, with due recognition given to
- minimizing aircraft gate occupancy times; the fuel establishedclearances of flight patterns from obstacles.
flow rates required are a factor in the choice of the Adverse effects on the environment due t o spiIls, leaks,
refuelling system to be adopted; and sample and water drain disposal and the like should be
minimized. The vapourdensities of aviation fuels are such
- movements of large and heavy vehicles, which has an that released vapours, particularly
under calm wind
impactonthe design of pavements foraprons, conditions,may travelconsiderabledistances alongthe
remote parking areas and service roads. groundand collect in depressionswheretheymay not
readily dissipate. Thus an investigation of inhabited areas
around the airport and wind directions is necessary.
13.2 STORAGE CAPACITY
13.2.1 Storage
capacity requirements
must be 13.4 FUELLING OF AIRCRAFT
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estimated based on a forecast, taking into consideration:

13.4.1 Aircraftare fuelled at their parking positions
- types of operating aircraft, either in stands close to terminal buildings or at remote
- frequency of operations, ones, by fuel servicing tank vehicles, fuellingpits, or
- fuel uplift per aircraft, hydrant systems. The system chosen should be determined
- different types of fuel required, by the forecast rate of aircraft movements.Generally,
tankers are most suitable where plenty of space is avail-
for a period of time determined by the reserve policy in able, the rateof aircraft movement is not too high and the
accordance with the distance t o the source of delivery and -fuel requirements of aircraft are not too great. At busy
the risks of disruption in the fuel transportation system. airports, especially those where theaircraftoperators’
route structures make itnecessary for very large quantities
of fuel to be provided, problems arise due to both the
13.2.2 The delivery of fuel is made from refineries or number of tankers on the aprons andtheir very large size,
other associated main storage facilities. Its transportation which makes them slow and difficult to manoeuvre. In
to airports can be made by ship, barge, railway, truck or consequence, they may obstruct other servicing vehicles on
pipeline; the system to be used has a significant bearing on the apron and around the aircraft, and stands have to be
the capital cost of anairport, since theconstruction especially large to accommodate them. Inthesecircum-
of special harboursand piers or greatextensionsof stances it is often desirable to install pipelines under the
roads, railways or pipelines may become necessary. The apron from thefuet storage area to the stands. Outlets are
movement of large and heavy trucks on existing roads is provided at stands and only a small road vehicle is then
sometimesimpossible andtopographicconditions may required to connect the hydrant outlets to the aircraft.
1-131

I C A O 9384 P A R T * L ** = 4 8 Y L 4 L b 005864’7 61’7 =
13.4.2 Considerable care

should be exercised in 13.4.6 The trend at large airports is definitely toward
locating hydrant outlets at the stands to ensure that they the hydrant system, which requires a simpler installation
provide optimum flexibility andcapacity,or provisions than the pits while providing similar advantages. Essen-
made for increasing the capacity (through future provision tially, the hydrant system consists of the same elements as
of more outlets), to meet possible future aircraft require- the fuel pits, except that the pit is replaced by a special
ments. However, it is seldom possible to provide flexibility valve mounted in a box in the pavement and flushwith the
comparable with thatof fuelservicing tank vehicles. surface. The hose reel, meter, filter and air eliminator are
Sometimes combinations of hydrants and tankers can be contained in amobileself-propelled or towed hydrant
used with advantage. Hydrants to refuel tankers near the dispenser.
edge of aprons can also be useful.
13.4.7 The principal advantages of the hydrant system
13.4.3 Thereare,however,disadvantages associated are elimination of the need for duplicating the hose reel,
with the use oftrucks.Largejetaircraftrequire a meter and filter which arerequiredineach pit. The
considerable amount of fuel (nearly 70 OOO litres for the principaldisadvantage is that vehicles arenot entirely
Boeing 707-120 and DC-8 (domestic) to almost 1 15 OOO removed from the apron. However, because of their small
litres forthe Boeing 747). Twotrucksarenormally size, hydrant dispensers reduce possible collision damage
required, one under eachwing. For the large jets, standby to a minimum.
units are sometimes required if the fuel requirements are in
excess of two units. Thismeansthatthereare a large 13.4.8 i t is desirablethatthehose line fromthe
number of vehicles ontheapronduring peakperiods, hydrant dispenser or pit to the intakes in the wings be from
creating a potentialhazard of collision with personnel, 6 t o 9 m long. If a wide variety of aircraft are to serviced
be
at an aircraft stand, the precise spacing of the hydrant
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other vehicles, and aircraft. Whena truck is empty, it must
return to the storage area for refuelling before it can be valves shouldbe established in consultation with the
used again. Thus extra trucks must be provided for use airlines,asthenumberofhydrantsrequired per gate
duringthetime when othertrucksare being reloaded. position will depend not only on the type of aircraft but
When refuelling trucks are not inuse, parking space must also on the number of grades offuel required (each grade
be provided for these vehicles. of fuel requires a separate hydrant).
13.4.4 Thecapacityoffuel servicing tank vehicles

varies from 10 OOO t o 60 OOO litres and modern tankers for
DC-IO, L-1011 and B-747 aircraft can reach a capacity of 13.5 SAFETY AND
75 OOO litres. For the larger fuel servicing rank vehicles, SPECIAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
axle loads are sometimes in excess of the bearinglimits on RELATED TO FUELLING SYSTEMS
highways; the airport designer consequently must provide
adequate pavement strengths to support these vehicles. Consideration should be given to theneed for accessibility
byemergency fire equipment whenestablishing aircraft
13.4.5 Another method of fuelling is t o install pipe- fuel servicing locationsand laying outairport fixed
lines runningfrom a central fuel storagearealocated faelling systems. Other important considerations include:
adjacent to the landing area to pits located at the aircraft
stands on the apron. FueI is transferred to the pits by - Standards
are prescribed by the competent
pumps located atthestoragetanks.Thepits must be authorities or stipulated by specialized institutes or
located relatively near the fuel intakes in the wings of the associations. Codes,regulationsandspecifications
aircraft. The advantagesof fuel pits are thata continuous areavailablefrom severalagencies anddifferent
supply of fuel is available at all times, it is carried safely countries. Nevertheless, the consultation with
underground, and trucks are eliminated from the apron. airlines, as users, and oil companies, as providers of
The disadvantages are that for each pit separate meters, the product, is advisable when planning fuel supply
filters, hose reels, etc., are required; thus there is dupli- systems at airports.
cation of equipment. Also, a change in future operations
at the airport may require a major change in installation. - Tanks Iocated near or under aircraftmovement areas
Because a concrete or steel pit is required, maintenance such as aprons shall be of the underground type or
costs can be high due to intrusion of moisture. For thehigh mounded over with earth with depthandtype of
rates required by large turbo-jet aircraft, the equipmentis cover determined by consideration of aircraft wheel
very bulky. and/or impact Ioads.

Part I . Master PIanninn 1-133
- Fuel piping shall not run under buildings or pass- - Fuel-resistant pavements should be used on aprons
enger loading fingers (excluding movable loading wherever refuelling operations or engine shut-downs
bridges)exceptwhen run in buried steel casings are likely to take place regularly.
enclosing only the fuel piping.
-Fuelling hydrants, cabinets and pits having a flow

rate in excess of 23 L/min shall be located at least References
15 m from any terminal building, hangar, service
building or fixed enclosed walkways. “Manual of Standards on Aircraft Fuel
Servicing
AK 71-20 (Draft)”,
Canadian Air Transportation
- The apronsurfacing material shall be graded to form Administration.
a gradualslope away from therim or edge of fuelling
hydrants or fuelling pits to prevent flooding. “Aircraft Fuel Servicing”, National Fire Protection
Association, 407.
- At aircraft
stands where aircraft are fuelled,
to prevent errors in measurement offuel in the “Flammable Liquids Code”, National Fire Protection
aircraft’stanks caused by parking with one wing Association, 30.
low, the slope should not exceed 0.5 per cent in the
transverse direction and 1 per cent inthe longitudinal “Planning and Design of Airports”,Third Edition,
direction. Robert Horonjeff, Francis X. McKelvey, 1983, McGraw
Hill Book Company.
- The surface must slope away from the face of the
terminal building for proper drainage and safety in “Airport Terminals Reference Manual”, published by the
case of fuel spillage. International Air Transport Association.
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=
~
ICAO 9284 PART*L ** m 4843436 0058b5L 2 7 7
Chapter 14. SECURITYCONSIDERATIONS
14.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER 14.2 LAND SIDE SECURITY
14.1.1 More detailed information on aviation security

is containedintheICAO Securify Manual f o r Safe- Passenger Buildings - Inspection/Screening
guarding Civil Aviation AgainstActs
of
Unlawful of Persons
Interference (Doc 8973). Distribution of thedocument
is restricted. It is available only through State Adminis- 14.2.1 Themostimportantsecurityconsideration in
trations.Airport security is anintegralpart of airport the design of passenger buildings is that it should not be
planning and operations, but details must be restricted. As possible for unauthorized persons to pass from the land
a result, the subject can onlybe discussed in general terms side to the air side. This requires that access from public
in this manual. Attention is directed to the document cited areasofthebuildingtooperationalareas(including
above for detailed planning data. baggage and cargo areas) be strictly controlled.
14.1.2 At each airport a basic level of securityis 14.2.2 In thiscontext,adequateprovisions mustbe

required under normal operating conditions. In addition made for the inspection/screening of passengers and their
there are measures and procedures which will be required cabinbaggage.Forexample,adequatespacemust be
during periods of heightened tension. These requirements provided toseparateX-ray devices fromwalk-through
wi!l need to be determined at the earliest possible stage in gate-type metal detectors by a minimum of 1 rn as well as
thepreparationofplansor designs. Consultation with to separate electromagneticsecurity equipment from other
airport security authority will beessential inorderto airport equipment that will generate electrical fields which
assure
that
all security requirements are
taken
into may adversely affect the operating efficiency of security
account. equipment. This precautionwill equally apply to ducts and
cable runs provided for security equipment.
14.1.3 In order for security to be effective, a systems
approach is required and this includes the basic plan for
the design of the airport. All of the measures listed in this 14.2.3 Passenger
inspection/screening
preferably
chapter need not be implemented atevery airport but they should not takeplace in the immediatepassenger boarding
should be considered against the level of security which it area or near the aircraft door.A preferred location would
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is desired to achieve. They should be implemented in such be a sufficient distance from the aircraft boarding areaso
a way as will cause a minimum of interference with, or as to permit adequate time for security procedures to be
delayto, passengers, crew, baggage, cargo and mail. It initiated in the event of asecurityalert.The Security
should be recognized that the airport design is relatively Manual f o r Safeguarding Civil Aviation Against Acts of
inflexible once the structures are completed and should the Unlawful Interference describes the basic plansforthe
security requirements become greater in the future, it may inspection/screening of passengers at gates, hold areas and
be difficult, if not impossible, to modify the buildings and concourses, and sets out the advantages and disadvantages
structures at a reasonable cost. of each. A room or other facility should be provided in
close proximity to each inspection/screening point where
14.1.4 Concurrently with determiningthe level of manual or other special search of persons may be carried
security to be provided, there is a need to define the areas out in privacy.
on the airport to be protected. As a minimum, this would
include the airside, but at some airports, protection of the 14.2.4 Regardless of theplan selected it is essential
entireairportpropertymay need to beconsidered.In that the design provide for:
addition, other functionsvital to air navigation which may
not be located on the air side, such as air traffic services, a) the physical separation of persons who have been
radio navigation aids, petroleum storage areas, water and subjected to inspection/screening from others at the
electrical power supplies, will also need t o be protected. airport; and
1-134

I C A O 9384 PART*l, ** 4843Lt1b 0 0 5 8 6 5 2 303
b) the prevention of unauthorized access from land side Baggage Handling Facilities
o r air side to passenger waiting (sterile) areas in
which passengers are waiting after they have been 14.2.9 Adequate space will be required to enable the
inspected/screened and prior toboarding an aircraft. airline operator toestablish procedures t o ensure that only
checked baggage for which a passenger is on board will be
allowed to be transported on the aircraft. The exception to
VIP Lounges this would be if the airline operator has authority forsome
other
formof security control for unaccompanied
14.2.5 VIP lounges should be so designed that they do baggage, such as X-rays.
not permit unauthorized land sidelair side access. Persons
boardinganaircraftfrom a VIP lounge shouldbe 14.2.10 Anotherfeature which should be considered
subjected to the passenger and cabin baggage inspection/ in terminal design in relation to baggage handling is'the
screening process. ability to control access from land side to air side through
the baggage conveyor system. If direct access is possible,
a method of locking or otherwise controlling the access
areas should be provided.
Visitors' Observation Areas
14.2.11 Many States have prohibited the use of off-
14.2.6Consideration may need t o be given tothe airport check-in or curb-side baggage check-in. Terminals
desirability of providing observation areas for thepublic to should be designed in such a way that checked baggage can
overlook aprons. If observation areas are tobe provided, be handledin the normal fashion if it is necessary to
consideration should be given t o enclosing them with glass prohibit off-airport or curb-side check-in.
or providing for surveillance by security guards. In cases
where persons in the observation area would be able to
passmaterial t o departing passengers, the observation
areashould be made sterile by subjectingeveryone to Storage of Mishandled/Misrouted Baggage
inspection/screening prior to being permitted access.
14.2.12 Consideration will need to be given to
providing a secure storage area in the passenger terminal
building where mishandled baggage may be stored until
Airport Emergency Operations/Security
Services Centre forwarded, claimed or disposed of.
14.2.7 The airport design must provide for an airport

emergency operations centre anda security services centre.
Physical Separation of
These twooperations may usefully belocated in one
Arriving/Departing Passengers
complex, either in the passenger terminal building or other
suitable structurenearby. Use of accommodation in.the air
14.2.13 The design of the passenger terminal building
traffic services facility, the airport control tower or other
shouldprovide forthe physical separationof arriving
remote facility on the air side for these purposes is not
passengers from departing passengers in the area after the
recommended.
inspection/screening point. Theremust beno possibility of
mixing orcontact between passengers who have been
inspected/screened and other persons who have not been
Public Storage Lockers subjected to that process.
14.2.8 Locations of public storage lockers should be

selected to facilitate public access and to minimize public
exposure in the event of an explosion in a locker facility. Cargo Handling Facilities
If constructed in terminalbuildings,a vent shouldbe
provided so that the forceof an explosion is directed away 14.2.14 Special security facilities may be required for
from locations in which there are concentrationsof people cargo. In certain situations it may be necessary to provide
and in a direction which will not adversely affect essential security controlsforcargo, such as planned delays or
airport facilities. Provision for supervised storage facilities physical or electronic searching. Airport planning should
should beconsidered in lieu of lockers if any threatexists. consider special requirements for cargo.
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I C A O 7384 P A R T Y 3 Y t 4 8 4 1 4 30b0 5 8 6 5 3 04T
14.3 AIR SIDE SECURITY points should be kept to a minimum and equipped so that
they can be securely closed should conditions require it. If
a gate is used frequently, a security guard will be required,
Location of Operational Areas together with a shelter for protection against the elements.
The shelter shouldbe designed in sucha way so as to
14.3.1 Security ofoperationalareas, where aircraft permit maximum visibility over the immediate area of the
may be present, will be materially advanced by the physical gate and to provide easy access for the guard to carry out
separation of runways, taxiways and aprons from public the duties of inspecting vehicles and their contents. When
areas. In any case, separation should be ensured between night use is anticipated,theareasurroundingthegate
public and operational areas, although the extensive area shouldbeilluminated. Discreet communicationsshould
required for the latter and the need for public access to beprovided between the security postandtheairport
passenger terminal buildings makesthisdifficult. to security services office as well as a discreet and audible
achieve. No precise distances can be given but the greater alarm by which assistance may be summoned in the event
the separation, thehigher the level of security. A particular of emergency.Securityof anairport will requirethat
problemmay berunwaysand taxiways which overpass underground service ducts, sewers andotherstructures
public roads. Where such overpasses are planned, special which provide access to the airside or other restricted area
measures may be needed to restrict access to runways or bebarred. If access to thesefacilities is requiredfor
taxiways at this point and to counteract the possibility of maintenancepurposes, locked doors or gates should be
sabotage to the structure of the bridge. Other potential provided.
dangerareasaretheapproachanddeparturepaths
to runwayswhere aircraft fly at low altitude. If it is 14.3.5 Buildings may be used as a part of the physical
considered necessary to protecttheseareas, it will be barrier
andincorporated in the fenceline provided
expedient to extend theairportboundariesduringthe measures are taken
to restrict unauthorized passage
initial design of the airport to include them in the land through the buildings. Care should also be takento ensure
acquired as airport property. that the roofs of the buildings do not provide a possible
route
for
unauthorized access to theair side. For
14.3.2 To adequately protect air operation areas from additional security,flood-lighting of the perimeter fencing
unauthorized access, it is important to consider physical and/ortheinstallation of analarm system maybe
securitymeasuresincludingfencing or otherbarriers, considered.
lighting,locks, alarms, guards and guard houses in the
planning process of air side facilities.
Isolated Parking Position
Airport Roads 14.3.6 An isolated parkingposition will need to be

designated to which aircraft suspected of carrying
14.3.3 Roads located on the air side should be for the explosive or incendiary devices may be taken. It should be
exclusive use of airport personnel. Separatemeans of located at the maximum distance possible (at least 100 m)
access to public buildings not involving travel on the air from other aircraft parking positions, buildings o r public
side will need t o be provided for non-airport personnel. areas and the airport fence. If taxiways and runways pass.
Perimeter roads around the air side area, normally just within this limit, they may have to be closed for normal
inside the airport fencing, are required for the use of both operations when a “suspect” aircraft is in the area. The
maintenance personnel and security patrols. isolated parkingposition may also be used’ to handle
unlawfully seized aircraft which land at an airport and
require servicing and attention. Care should be taken to
Fencing ensure that the position is not located over underground
utilities such as gasoline, aviation fuel,water mains, or
14.3.4 Physical barriersshouldbe provided todeter electrical or communications cables.
the access of unauthorized persons ontonon-public areas.
These should be
permanentbarriers
and,
normally, 14.3.7 ,Facilitiesfortheexaminationof baggage,
fencing is the most suitable means. Care must be taken to cargo, mail and stores removed from an aircraft subjected
ensure that the provision of fencing does not conflict with to an act of unlawful interference should be provided as
theoperational requirementsof theairport. It will be part of the isolated parkingpositionandconsideration
necessary for access points to be madein the fence to allow given to the provision of shelter in the case of inclement
the passage of vehicles and persons; the number of access weather.
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~~
~
ICAO 3384 PARTtL t t 4 8 4 1 4 L b 0058654 T8b
Part I . Mas€er Planning 1-137
Security Parking Area planned so asto avoid aprons used by commercial air
transport aircraft.
14.3.8 In addition to the isolated parking position,
consideration may need to be given to the provision of an
aircraft stand where an aircraft likely to be the object of Explosives Holding Area
an act of unlawful interference may be parked until it is
required or for the loading and unloading of passengers. 14.3.11 A holding area should be provided for any
The objective in the selection and design of this area is to suspicious articles found on the airport or on an aircraft.
eliminate the possibility of persons physically reaching or It should be located in a remote area, andin order to allow
being able to launch an attack against the aircraft. bomb disposal experts to deal with any devices, the
provision of a shelter, bunker or building is recommended.
This should be constructed in such a way that vehicles used
General Aviation Parking Area totransport explosive devices can be driven inside for
unloading.
14.3.9 It is advisable to designate a parking area for
general aviation aircraftseparatefromthat used by References
commercial air transport aircraft. This practice safeguards
against the possible use of a general aviation aircraft as a Annex 17 - Security - Safeguarding International Civil
means of circumventing security control at the airport. Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference.
14.3.10 Taxiways to such general aviation parking Security Manual for Safeguarding Civil Aviation Against
areas should be identified and should, where possible, be Acts of Unlawful Interference (Doc 8973 (Restricted)).
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I C A O 9184 P A R T * l X* D 4843436 0058655 912
Appendix A. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Terms which are defined in the ICAO Lexicon (Doc 9294) Baggage sorting area. Space in which departures
and theAnnexes are used in accordance with the meanings baggage is sorted into flight loads.
and usages given therein. A wide variety of terms is in use
throughout theworld t o describe facilities, proceduresand Baggage storage area. Space in which baggage is stored
concepts for airport operations and planning. As far as pending transport to aircraft.
possible the terms used in this document are those which
have the widest international use.
Cargo area. All the groundspace and facilities provided
for cargohandling. It includes aprons, cargobuildings and
Administration area. All the groundspace and faciIities warehouses, vehicle parks and roads.
provided for administration and management purposes of
airport management, aircraft operators
andairport Cargo building. A building through which cargo passes
tenants. It may include control tower, estate maintenance between air and ground transport andin which processing
facilities, contractors’depots, vehicle parks,staffand facilities are located.
aircraft catering, etc.
Cargo warehouse. A building in which cargo is stored
Aircraft maintenance area. All the ground space and pending transfer to air or ground transport.
facilities provided foraircraft maintenance. It includes
aprons, hangars, buildings and workshops, vehicle parks Check-in. The process of reportingtoanaircraft
and roads associated therewith. operator for acceptance on a particular flight.
Aircraft stand. A designated area on an apronintended Check-in concourse. The space between the passenger
to be used for parking an aircraft. building land side entrance and the check-in positions.
Air side. The movement area of an airport, adjacent Check-in position. The location of facilities at which
terrain and buildings or portions thereof, access to which check-in is carried out.
is controlled.
Air side waiting area. Space between thedepartures Departure concourse. The space between the check-in
concourse and air side exits from the passenger building. positions and the air side waiting area.
Apron. A defined area, on a land airport, .intended to

accommodateaircraft
for purposes of loading or Expansibility. Means the ability to be physically
unloading passengers, mail or cargo refuelling, parking or extended to the limits of the site to provide additional
maintenance. space andextra capacity using either new or existing
operating procedures.
Arrivals concourse. Space between baggage claim area
or customs inspection andland side exits from the
passenger building. Flexibility. Means the ability toadaptto new and
radically different technical and physical requirements and
methods of operation, with consequent changes in the use
Baggage claim area. Space in which baggage is claimed. and population of specific areas, and also theability to be
gradually
modified in accordance with evolutionary
Baggage container. A receptacle in which baggage is changes. It also means the ability to increase the operating
loaded for conveyance aircraft. capacity within existing physical limits.
i-139
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I C A O 9384 P A R T * l ** 4 8 4 3 4 3 b 0 0 5 8 b 5 b 857
I - I40 Airport Planning Manual
immigrationcontrol. The immigration and/or police Transport link. Any form of transport system provided
inspection of arrivals passengers. exclusively for operation between an airportandurban
population centres.
Land side. That area of an airport and buildings to
which the non-travelling public has free access. Transporter. Anyvehicleused io convey passengers
between aircraft and passenger buildings.
Movement area. That part of an airport to be used for
take-off and landing of aircraftandforthesurface
movement of aircraft. Terms Related to Airport Capacity
Obstacle. All fixed (whether temporary or permanent) Aircraft traffic demand (at an airport) (for a particular
and mobile objects, or parts thereof, thatare located on an hour). The sum of:
area intended for the surfacemovement of aircraft or that
extend above a defined surface intended to protect aircraft a) the number of aircraft desiring to land at the airport
in flight. during that hour plus
Off-airport processing facilities. A passenger or cargo b) the number of aircraft desiring to depart from the
transport link terminal at an urban population centre at aerodrome during that hour.
which processing facilities are provided.
Busy hour aircraft traffic demand (at an airport). The
Passenger amenities. Facilities provided for passengers aircraft traffic demand which is reached, or exceeded, in
which are not essential for passenger processing. the forty (or thirty)most active hours of the year, averaged
over two consecutive hours.
Passenger area. All theground space and facilities
provided for passenger processing, including aprons, Current movement rate (for a particular hour). The sum
passenger buildings, vehicle parks and roads. of:
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Passenger building. A building through which a) the number of aircraft which land during that hour
passengers pass between air and ground transport and in plus
which processing facilities and amenities are located.
b) the number of aircraft which depart during that
Passenger loading bridge. A mechanically operated, hour.
adjustable rampto provide direct passenger access between
aircraft and buildings. Hourly airport capacity. ,The maximum number of
aircraft operations that can take place in an hour. Once it
Passenger processing. The reception andcontrol of is estimated that the hourly airport capacity will be reached
passengers during their transfer between air and ground in the near future, prompt and careful investigation of the
transport. terminal area capacity is required to determine whether the
delays are due to runway congestion, airspace conflicts,
Passport control. The immigration and/or police ATC facilities, or a combination of these andother
inspection or departures passengers. factors, and what remedial action is needed.
Pier. A corridor at, above or below ground level to Peak aircraft traffic demand (at an airport). The
connect aircraft stands to a passenger building. aircraft traffic demand which will be reached in the most
active hour, averaged over two consecutive hours.
Port health control. The medical inspection of docu-
ments and/or passengers, baggage, cargo. Saturation of an airport. Reached when theaircraft
traffic demand equals, or exceeds, the corresponding
Transferpassengerdbagguge.Passengers making direct airport capacity.
connexions between two different flights.
Note.- The terms “demand” and “,,pOcity” refer
Transit passengers. Passengers departing from an to a single airport or acomplexofairports serving a
airport on the same flight as that on which they arrived. particular community.

Service rate. The maximum aircraft movement rate Sustainable capacity (of an airport). The highest
which could be reached at an airport with: movement rate which could be continuously maintained
for three hours or more under defined conditions.
a) the mix of aircraft andof take-offs and landings for
the conditions being analysed, and Theoretical airport capacity. The maximum movement
rate which could be reached with the mix 01 aircraft and
b) thedistribution of service times between aircraft of take-offs andlandings under defined conditionsfor that
movements typical of the aircraft traffic demand at airport, minimum separation being maintained between all
which saturation occurs. aircraft.
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Appendix B. OTHER ICAO PUBLICATIONS RELATED TO
AERODROME MASTER PLANNING
Manyother ICAO publications contain

information Part 2 - Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays
related to airport master planning, and brief descriptions
of some are given below. Further information on these or Contains guidance on the design of taxiways, including
any other ICAO publications may be found in the ICAO fillets, apronsandholdingbays.Informationonpro-
Catalogue or obtained from anyof the addresses listed on cedures to segregate aircraft and ground vehicular traffic
the inside front cover of this manual. is also provided.
Annex 9 - Facilitation Part 3 - Pavements
P r o v i h , inter alia, that

the“Internaticnal Civil Provides information on the evaluation and reporting
AviationOrganization Fhall adopt . . . international of pavement strength andseveral design techniques used in
standardsandrecommended practices andprocedures differentcountries. Describes methodsforconstructing
dealing with . . . customs and immigration procedures. . . pavement surfaces to provide good braking action.
and such other matters concerned with safety, regularity
and efficiency of air navigation as may from time t o time Part 4 - Visual Aids
.appear appropriate.”
Contains information on the design of airport lights
Annex 10 - Aeronautical Telecommunications and their maintenance. Detailed material is included on
visual approachslopeindicatorsystems,apronflood-
Volume I (Part I - Equipment and Systems; Part I1 - lighting and taxiing guidance and control systems.
Radio Frequencies)
Part 5 - Electrical Systems
Volume I1 (Communication Procedures including those
with PANS status) Providesguidanceonthe design andinstallationof
electrical
systems for
aerodrome
lighting
and
radio
Annex 14 - Aerodromes navigation aids.
Annex 16 - Environmental Protection Airport Planning Manual (Doc 9184)
Volume I - Aircraft Noise Part 1 - Master Planning
Volume I1 - Aircraft Engine Emissions Part 2 - Land Use and Environmental Control
Annex 17 - Security - Safeguarding International Civil Guidance is provided on environmental considerations

Aviation against Acts of Unlawful Interference tobetakenintoaccountatairportsandforlanduse
planning in the vicinity of airports. Methods for land use
controlaredescribedand types of land use thatare
Manuals compatible and incompatible with airports are identified.
Aerodrome Design Manual (Doc 9 157) Part 3 - Guidelines f o r Consultant/Construction

Services .
Part 1 - Runways
Provides a general overview on contractingfor planning
of runways and the
Discusses factors affecting the siting o r construction services. Serves for both persons who are
use of stopways and clearways. Provides information on directly involved in the preparation and administration of
runway length requirements of different aircraft. a contract as well as supervisors of such persons.
I - 242
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I C A O 9184 PARTwL t t 4841416 0 0 5 8 6 5 9 5 6 8 =
Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137) Part 9 - Airport Maintenance Practices
Part 1 - Rescue and Fire Fighting Providesguidancematerialrequiredformaintenance

practices at an airport to maintain the safety, efficiency
Virtually allaspectsof rescue andfirefightingat
and regularity of aircraft operations.
airportsare coveredincluding equipmentrequirements,
operationaland emergency procedures,and personnel
Manual of Surface Movement Guidance an3 Control
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training.
Systems (SMGCS) (Doc 9476)
Part 2 - Pavement Surface Conditions
Provides information on the provision of guidance to,
Describes methods for clearing contaminants and debris and controlin question of,all aircraft, ground vehicles and
from the movement area, snow removal techniques and personnel on the movement area of an aerodrome.
how to measure and report runway braking action onwet
and snow or ice-covered surfaces. Security Manual for Safeguarding Civil Aviation Against
Acts of Unlawful Interference (Ddc 8973 (Restricted))
Part 3 - Bird Control and Reduction
Provides a general review of the bird hazard problem at

airports giving informationon’thetypeofbirds,the Air Transport Studies and Economics Publications
magnitude of their hazard to aircraft andwhy birds are at
the airport. Means for modifying the airport environment Manual of Airport and Air Navigation Facility Tariffs
to make it less attractivetobirdsare reviewed and (Doc 7100)
techniques outlined for driving off birds that d o come t o
the airport. Information is also given on the use of radar Manual on Air Traffic Forecasting (Doc 8991)
to detect birds.
Manual on the ICAO Statistical Programme (Doc 9060)
Part 5 - Removal of Disabled Aircraft
Statements by the Council to Contracting States on
Organizational
procedures to remove an aircraft Charges for Airports and Route Air Navigation Facilities
reviewed and a list of necessary
disabled on the airport are (Doc 9082)
equipment provided.
Part 6 - Control of Obstacles Facilitation Publications
Providesinformationonthe use of inner andouter Selection of ICAO Facilitation B- Type Recommendations

horizontal surfaces and the application of the shielding (Circular 152)
principle. A practice for treating temporary hazards on the
movement area is presented and techniques for conducting The Recommendations adopted at the various Sessions
obstacle surveys are included. of the Facilitation Division fall into two categories: those
concerningamendmentstoAnnex 9 (Facilitation)and
Part 7 - Airport Emergency Planning . the other type which does not affect the amendment of
Annex 9 . The former type of Recommendations has been
Providesinformationrelated principally to matters designated, in theReportsofthe last four Sessions, as
concerning preplanning for airport emergencies, as well as “A” type Recommendations, while the latterhave come to
co-ordination between thedifferentairport agencies (or be referred toas “B” type Recommendations.This
services) and thoseagencies in the surrounding community publication is concerned only with a selection of “B” type
that could be of assistance in responding to theemergency. Recommendations.
Part 8 - Airport Operational Services International Signs to Provide Guidance to Persons at

Airports (Doc 9430)
Describes all operational services provided by the
airport in detail. References to specific ICAO documents Thequestion of developing an international sign
are given if another manual covers the subject in greater language, without the use of words as far as possible, to
detail such as in the case of rescue and fire fighting. facilitate travellers has been considered by several bodies in

1-144 Airport PlanninE Manual
recent years. In response to agrowing need for such Volume 1 of the Lexicon brings together a number of
signing a set of signs was approved by the Air Transport terms, in English, French, Russian and Spanish, which are
Committee and the Council and are contained in Section relevant to the work of ICAO.
I of this document. Section I1 of the document contains In addition to strictly aeronautical terminology related
certain information concerning the use of the signs, their to aircraft and their operation, the vocabulary presented
!ocation, and colours to be used. thereinextendstovarious allied fields to which an
important part of ICAO’s work is devoted,particularly
meteorology and telecommunications.
Miscellaneous Publications The Appendices in Volume I contain lists of abbrevi-
ations and data on variousscientific and technical subjects
E40 Lexicon (Doc 9294) connected with aviation.
Volume 11 contains a list of definitions, most of which
Volume I: Vocabulary are from the Convention on International Civil Aviation
andthe Annexes thereto, while othersarefromthe
Volume 11: Definitions Procedures for Air Navigation Services.
- END -
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--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ICAO .TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS
The following summary gives the status, and also regarded as not yet having attained a sufficient degree
describes in general terms the contents of the various of maturity for adoptiona5 International Standardsand
series of technical publications issued by the Inter- Recommended Practices, as well as material of a q a r e
national Civil Aviation Organization. Itdoes not permanent character which is considered too detailed
include specialized publications that do not fall spcifi- for incorporation in an Annex, or is susceptible to
ca!ly within one of the series, such as the Aeronautical frequent amendment, for which the processes of the
Chart Catalogue or the Meteorological Tables for Convention would be too cumbersome.
International Air Navigation.
Regional Supplementary Procedures (SUPPS) have a
International Standardsand Recommended Prac- status similar to thatof PANS in that they we approved
tices are adopted by the Council in accordance with by the Council, but only for application in the respective
Articles 54, 37 and 90 of the Convention on Inter- regions. They are prepared in consolidated form, since
national Civil Aviation and are designated, for certain of the procedures apply to overlapping regions
convenience, as Annexes to the Convention. The or are common to two or more regions.
uniform application by Contracting States of the speci-
fications contained in theInternationalStandards is
recognized as necessary for the safety or regularity of
internationalair navigation while the uniform appli- Thefollowing publications are prepared by aufhority
cation of the specifications in the Recommended of the Secretary General in accordance with the
Practices is regarded as desirable in the interest of principles and policies approved by the Council.
safety, regularity or efficiency of international air
navigation. Knowledge of any differences between the Technical Manuals provide guidance and infor-
national regulations or practices of a State and those mation in amplification of the International Standards,
established by an International Standard is essential to Recommended Practices and PANS, the implemeo-
the safety or regularity of international air navigation. tation of which they are designed to facilitate.
In the event of non-compliance with an International
Standard,aStatehas, in fact, an obligation, under Air Navigation Plans detail requirements for Pacili-
Article 38 of the Convention, to notify the Council of ties and services for international air navigqtion in the
any differences. Knowledge of differences from respective ICAO Air Navigation Regions. They are
Recommended Practices may also be important for the prepared on the authority of the Secretary General on
safety of air navigation and, although the Convention the basis of recommendations of regional air navigatiqn
does not impose any obligation with regard thereto, the meetings and of the Council action thereon. The plans
Council has invited Contracting States to notify such are amended periodically to reflect changes in require-
differences in addition to those relating to International ments andin the status of implementation of the
Standards. recommended facilities and services.
Procedures for Air Navigation Services (PANS) are LCAO Circulars make available specialized infor-
approved by the Council for world-wide application. mation of interest to Contracting States. This includes
They contain, for the most part, operating procedures studies on technical subjects.

~- ~
I C A O 9 3 8 4 PART*kL X* 4 8 4 L 4 L b 0058662 0 5 2
PRICE: U.S.$15.75
(or equivalent in other currencies)
0ICAO 1987
1187,EIPII~OOO;
3/92, EIPZ1000
Order No. 9184P1

Printed in ICAO
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ICAO Doc 9184 Airport Planning Man Part 1 Master Plann 2nd Ed

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I C A O 9 3 8 4 PART*L 4841426 0 0 5 8 5 0 9 05L

Approved by the Secretary General

INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

Document Sales Unit

Egypt. ICAO Representative, Middle East Office, 9 Shagaret El Dorr Street,

Monthly supplements announce new publications, amendments,

Available free from the Document Sales Unit, ICAO

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

Second Edition - 19437

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

The issue of amendments is announced in the E A 0 Journal and in the monthIy

Entered by No. Date Entered by

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

SECTION ONE . AIRPORT PLANNING Chapter 4 . Financirrl Arrangements and

4.1 About this Chapter .................. 1-23

Chapter 2 . Preplanning Considerations ....... 1-7 5.1 Chapter ..................

Chapter 3 . Forecasting for Planning Purposes 1-13

References ................................. 1-22 References ................................. 1-58

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

1-(vi) Airport Planning Manual

References ................................. 1.122

SECTION FOUR . AIRPORT SUPPORT

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

Part 1 . Master Planning I-(vii)

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

INTRODUCTORY NOTES apron

transport links and internal roads, car parks and cargo

The need for a systems approach to preparation of the

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

I C A O 9184 PARTS3 ** E 4843436 0 0 5 8 5 3 8 Ob4

1-2 Airporl PlunninE Munuul

izationandexpansionof existing airportsandtothe - developworkprogrammes,schedules,and

aviation and non-aviation use; associated with airportdevelopmentalterna-

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

--```,,,`,,`,,`,,``,,````,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- Part 1. Master Planning 1-3

Physical planning includes development of: I. Select most acceptable andappropriatealterna-

D. Environmental planning: B. Master plan should be thoroughly evaluated and

It has been stated that a master plan is a guide and nothing

Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization

1.1 AIRPORT MASTER PLANNING consideredinisolation. Thus this manual includescon-

1.1.2 In this manual, problems of airport planning are

1.1.4 Flow planning is the basis of transport, and thus

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Part I . Muster I-5

and vehicles on the surface of the airport. The purpose of

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I-6 Airport Planning

building, cargo facilities, and ground transport and

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Chapter 2. PREPLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

2.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER stoppage, of future airport development. Therefore, it is

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determination of economic feasibility is advisable. Since operationandmaintenance of theprospectiveairport

2.5 THE ROLE OF FlNANClNG IN

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Part 1. Master Planning 1-9

2.7.1 Establishment of aplanningorganization for 2.8.2 The plan shouldprovideaframework within

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USER AIRCRAFT OPERATORS I

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