AMBITION CLASSES

                                    CLASS- XI
                                SUBJECT- CHEMISTRY

                      CHAPTER- 12 ( ORGANIC CHEMISTRY )

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1. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY :-
The branch of chhemistry which deals with the carbon compounds or organic compounds such as
methane, aniline, toluene, aromatic compounds , etc are known as organic chemistry.

2. SYNTHESIS OF UREA :-
F. Wholer synthesis an urea from inorganic compound such as ammonium cyanate in 1828.

NH4CNO        -----------à    NH2CONH2

When wholer heat the ammonium cyanate at high temperature in laboratory then ammonium
compound which is known as urea is obtained.

3. EARLY CONCEPT OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS :-

Arround the year 1780, Chemists believed that an organic compound is only derived from plants and
animals or living world. A Swedish Chemist Berzilius proposed that Vital Force theory was responsible for
the formation of organic compounds but it was failed by Wholer who made organic compounds from
inorganic compound such as ammonium cyanate.

4. FLOW CHART OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS :-

Organic compounds are classified into two types such as acyclic or open chain and cyclic or closed chain.

Cyclic chain compounds further classified into homocyclic and heterocyclic.

Homocyclic compounds further classified into alicyclic or aliphatic and aromatic compounds.

Finally, aromatic compounds are classified into benzenoid and non benzenoid compounds.
5. ACYCLIC OR OPEN CHAIN COMPOUNDS :-
Those compound which consists of a straight or branched chain structure are known as acyclic or open
chain compounds. Exa.. isobutane, acetic acid, etc.

6. CYCLIC OR CLOSED CHAIN COMPOUNDS :-

Those compounds in which carbon atoms are arranged in the form of ring and form closed structure
which is known as closed chain or cyclic chain compounds. Exa.. cyclopropane, cyclobutane, etc.

7. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS :-
Those compound burns with a sooty flame and produces a large amount of smoke. Such types of
compounds are known as aromatic compounds. These compounds includes benzene and other related
compounds such as aniline, toluene, napthalene, etc.

Those aromatic compounds have hetero atom in the ring the this compound is known as heterocyclic
aromatic compounds.

8. BENZENOID AROMATIC COMPOUNDS :-

Those aromatic compounds which contains benzene rings are known as benzenoid aromatic compounds
such as aniline, napthalene, toluene, etc.

9. NON-BENZENOID COMPOUND :-
Those aromatic compounds which does not contain any benzene ring but contain a cyclic structure in
which more than one pie-bond are present. Such type of compounds are known as non benzenoid
conpounds. Exa.. tropolone, pyran, etc.

10.FUNCTIONAL GROUP :-
Those atom or group of atoms joined together in such a manner which is responsible for the
characteristics chemical properties of the organic compounds or makes them reactive. Such types of
atom or group of atoms known as functional group. Exa.. alcohol group, aldehydes group, ketones, etc.

11. HOMOLOGOUS SERIES :-

A group or a series of organic compounds which shows similar chemical properties and have same
general formula. This series is known as homologous series. The members of this series known as
homologues. The successive member differ from each other by CH 2 group. All the functional group form
homologous series such as alkane, alkene, alkyne, alcohol, ketones, aldehydes, etc.
12. ISOMERISM :-
The phenomenon of carbon compounds in which two or maore compounds have same molecular
formula but different properties and different structure is known as isomerism and the compounds
known as isomers. Isomerism are of two types such as structural and stereoisomerism.

13. STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM :-

Those isomerism in which compound having same molecular formula but different structure is known as
structural isomerism. They are of 4 types are as ...

(a) CHAIN ISOMERISM :      When two or more compounds have similar molecular formula but
different carbon skeleton is known as chain isomerism. Exa .. pentane , iso-pentane and neo-
pentane which have same molecular formula C 5H10 but different structure.
(b) POSITION ISOMERISM :      When two or more compounds have functional group at
different position but have same molecular formula is known as position isomerism. Exa..
propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol have same functional group at different position but have same
molecular formula C3H8O.
(c) FUNCTIONAL GROUP ISOMERISM :     Those compounds having the same molecular
formula but different functional group are known as functional group isomerism. Exa..
propanone and propanal have same molecular formula C 3H6O but have different function group.
(d) METAMERISM:      Those isomerism arises due to the different alkyl group on either side of
the functional group in a molecule is known as metamerism. Exa.. methoxypropane and
ethoxyethane have same molecular formula C 4H10O but have different alkyl group.

14. STEREOISOMERISM :-
The compound that have the same constituition and sequence of covalent bonds but relative position of
atom or group is different in known as stereoisomers and this phenomenon is known as
stereoisomerism.    There are of two types such as optical isomerism and geometrical isomerism.

15. SUBSTRATE :-
Substrate is a reactant which supply the carbon to form a new bond and the other reactant is known as
reagent. In a chemical reaction, the old bond is broken and the new bonds are formed between the two
atoms.

16. REACTION MECHANISM :-

A sequential information of each step of chemical reaction such as electron movement details, energetic
during bond cleavage, bond formation energy and the rate of transformation of reactant into product is
known as reaction mechanism. It helps in understanding the reactivity of organic compound and the
steps for synthesis.

17. CARBOCATION :-
A species having a carbon atom possessing sextext of electron and a positive charge is known as
carbocation. They are classified as primary, secondary or tertiary depending on whether one, two or
three carbon are directly attached to the positively charged carbon. Alkyl group directly attaced to the
positively charged carbon stabilised the carbocation due to inductive and hyperconjugation effect.

18. CARBANION :-
Those carbon species which carrying the negative charge on carbon atom is known as carbanion. They
are also unstable and reactive species.

19. HETEROLYTIC CLEAVAGE :-

Heterolytic cleavage means breaking of bond in such a manner that a positive ion and negative are
separate to each other. As a result, the shared pair of electrons remains with one of reactants.

CH3-Br            ----------------à          CH3+            +              Br-

After heterolysis, one atom has a sextext electronic structure and a positive charge . on the other hand,
other atom has a negative charge and also have at least one lone pair.

20. HOMOLYTIC CLEAVAGE :-

Homolyttic cleavage means one of electron shared pair in a covalent bond goes with each other of the
bond atom. Thus, in homolytic cleavage, the movement of a single electron takes place instead of a
electron pair.

R-X          -------à      R.          +            X.

It results in the formation of neutral specie swhich contain an unpaired electron and this species are
known as free radical. They are also very reactive carbanion or carbocation. They are classified as
primary, secondary and tertiary and the stability increases from primary to tertiary.

21. NUCLEOPHILE AND ELECTROPHILE :-

A reagent that brings an electron pair is knowna s nucleophile and the reaction in which nucleophile
involved known as nucleophilic reaction.

A reagent that takes away an electron pair is known as electrophile and the reaction in which
electrophile involved known as electrophilic reaction.

22. INDUCTIVE EFFECT :-

An inductive effect is an electronic effect due to the polarization of sigma with in a molecue or ion. It is
due to an electronegativity difference between the atoms at either end of the bond. When a covalent
bond is formed between atoms of different electronegativity, the electron density is more towards the
more electronegative atom of the bond. Such a shift of electron density known as inductive effect.

23.RESONANCE ENERGY :-
The difference in energy between the actual structure and the lowest energy resonace structure is
known as resonance stabilization or resonance energy. The more the number of structure, the more is
the resonance energy.

24. RESONACE STRUCTURE :-

The hybrid structure of any actual structure of aryl group is known as resonance structure. All the aryl
group shows two main hybrid structure and other depends on stability or delocalization of electrons. The
resonance structure have the same position of nuclei and the same number of unpaired electrons.

25. RESONANCE STRUCTURE OF ACETATE ION :-

26. RESONACE OF PHENOXIDE ION :-

27. RESONACE EFFECT :-
It is defined as the polarity produced in the molecule by the interaction of two pie-bond or between a
pie-bond and lone pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom. This effect are of two types are as
positive resonace effect (+R) and negative resonace effect (-R). This effect is transmitted through the
chain. This effect is also known as mesomeric effect.

28. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE RESONACE EFFECT :-

In +R effect, the transfer of electron is away from an atom or a subtituted group attached to a conjugated
system. Exa.. aniline. This electron displacement makes certain position in the molecules of high electron
density.

In –R effect, when the transfer of electron is toward the atom or a substituted group attached to the
conjugated system. Exa..    nitrobenzene. Electron displacement from nitrobenzene.

29. CONJUGATED SYSTEM :-

The presence of alternate single and double bond in a open chain or cyclic system is known as
conjugated system. This system show abnormal behavior.

30.ELECTROMERIC EFFECT :-
It is defined as the complete transfer of shared pair of pie-electrons to one of the atom joined by a
multiple bond on the demand of the attacking reagent. It is known as electromeric effect. It is a
temporary effect. The shifting of the electrons is shown by a curved arrow. They are of two types are as
positive electromeric effect and negative electromeric effect.

31. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ELCTROMERIC EFFECT :-

In positive electromeric effect, the pie-electrons of the multiple bonds are transferred to that carbon
atom to which reagent get attached.

=C=C=        +          H+        ----------à          =C-CH=

In negative electromeric effect, the pie-electrons of the multiple bonds are trandferred to that carbon
atomto which the attacking reagent does not get attached.

=C=C=            + CN-        -----------à        =CCN-C=

32. HYPERCONJUGATION :-
It is a general stabilising interaction. It involves delocalisation of sigma electron of C-H bond of an alkyl
group directly attached to an atom of unsaturated system. It is a permanenet effect. The sigma electrons
of the C-H bond of an alkyl group enters into partial conjugation with the attached unsaturated system.
Greater the number of alkyl group attached to a positively charged carbon atom, greater is the
hyperconjugation interaction and stabilizing of cation. It is also possible in alkenes and alkyl arene.

33. PURIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUND :-

The common techniques for purification of organic compounds are as ....

(a) Sublimation.
(b) Crystallization.
(c) Distillation.
(d) Diffraction extraction.
(e) Chromatography.

The various methods used for the purification of organic compounds are based on the nature of
compound and the impurities are present in it.

34.FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION :-
This type of distillation is used for separating the liquids whose boiling is not comparatively more
difference. In this methods, the liquid is passes through the fractionating coloumn is which these liquids
changes vapour and these vapours are passes through a fractionating coloumnbefore condensation. The
fractionating column has different areas for collecting different liquids at different temperature. When
these vapours are passes through the condensor , condense and form a liquid again different liquids can
be collected at different jar one by one according to their boiling poing.

35. DIFFERENTIAL EXTRACTION :-

This process depends on the density of the different liquid and insoluble to each other. When we
separate oil and water mixture then by using differential extraction because the density of both the
liquids are different. When we put this mixture in a separating funnel the water forms a lower layer and
oil forms an upper layer. When we open the bib cock from downward then the water come first from the
bib cock and collect in a separate jar. According to this, both liquids are separate to each other by using
separating funnel.

36. CHROMATOGRAPHY :-
It is an important technique extensively used to separate mixtures into their compounds. This methods
was firstly used fror separation of colour substance found in plants. This method is mostly used for
separating different colour dyes from the blue –black ink. There are of different types are as ....

(a) Paper chromatography.

(b) Thin layer chromatography.
(c) Column chromatography.
 (d) Partition chromatography.

37. COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY :-

It involves separation of the mixture over a column of adsorbent packed in a glass tube. The column is
fitted with the stop coke at its lower end. The mixture of adsorbed on adsorbent is placed on the top of
the adsorbent column packed in a glass tube. An appropiate eluant which is a liquid or a mixture of liquid
which allow to flow down the column slowly. Depending upon the degree to which the compounds are
adsorbed ,completely separation takes place.

38. RETARDATION FACTOR :-

The ratio of the distance moved by the substance from the base line to the distance moved by the
solvent from the base line is known as retardation factor. It is denoted by R f.

39. DETECTION OF CARBON :-

When carbon containing compounds are burn in air to form carbon dioxide gas. This gas is pass through
lime water which turns lime water milky due to the formation of calcium carbonate. This test conform
the presence of carbon.

C      +      O2        ----------à      CO2

CO2        +        Ca(OH)2          -----------à        CaCO3      +      H2O

40. DETECTION OF HYDROGEN :-

When hydrogen is reacts with oxygen to form water. When water is treated with anhydrous copper
sulphate which change its colour from colourless to blue colour due to the formation of hydrated salt of
copper. This test is confirm for the presence of hydrogen.

2H2        +        O2            ------------à      2H2O

CuSO4          +      5H2O        -----------à        CuSO4.5H2O    (blue )

When metal reacts with dilute acids to form salt and released hydrogen gas which burns with a pop
sound. This test is also confirm of the presence of hydrogen.

41. LASSAIGNE’S TEST :-

Those test which is used to detect the nitrogen, sulphur, halogen and phosphorous present in an organic
compounds known as lassaigne’s test.

The elements present in the compound are converted from covalent form into the ionic form by fusing
the compounds with sodium metal.
Na    +    C    +    N    --------Heat----à        NaCN

2Na        +      S      -------Heat---à    Na2S

Na        +      X      -----Heat---à          NaX

When cyanide, sulphide and halide of sodium so formed on boiling the sodium metal with distilled water
along with fused mass. This resultant product is known as sodium fusion extract. This extract is used for
the detection of nitrogen, sulphur and halogen.

42. DETECTION OF NITROGEN :-

When the sodium fusion extract is boiled with iron sulphate and then acidified with conc. Sulphuric acid.
The formation of prussian blue colour confirm the presence of nitrogen.

6CN-      +      Fe2+      ------à      [Fe(CN)6]4-

3[Fe(CN)]4-      +        4Fe3+      ------xH2O---à    Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3.xH2O

43. DETECTION OF SULPHUR :-

When sodium fusion extract is acidified with acetic acid and lead acetate is added to it the a black
precipitate of lead sulphide shows the presence of sulphur.

S2-          +        Pb2+        ---------à          PbS

On treating sodium extract with sodium nitroprusside , appearance of a violet colour which shows the
presence of sulphur.

S2-        +    [Fe(CN)5NO]2-      ----------à      [Fe(CN)5NOS]4-      (    Violet )

44. DETECTION OF HALOGENS :-

The sodium fusion extract is acidified with nitric acid and then treated with silver nitrate. A white
precipitate soluble in ammonium hydroxide shows the presence of chlorine, a yellowish precipitate
sparingly soluble in ammonium hydroxide shows the presence of bromine and a yellow precipitate
insoluble in ammonium hydroxide shows the presence of iodine.

X-        +        Ag+          ------------à      AgX

45. DETECTION OF PHOSPHOROUS :-

When the compound is heated with an oxidising agent like sodiu peroxide. The phosphorous present in
the compound is oxidised to phosphate. The solution is boiled with nitric acid and then treated with
ammonium molybdate. A yellow colour precipitate is formed which shows the presence of phosphorous.
Na3PO4       +        3HNO3      ----à    H3PO4      +      3NaNO3

H3PO4    +    12(NH4)2MoO4    +    21HNO3      ---à    (NH4)2PO4.12MoO3      +    21NH4NO3      +    12H2O

46. CALCULATE THE PERCENTAGE OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN IN THE

GIVEN ORGANIC COMPOUND ?
Let the mass of organic compound be m gm, mass of water is m 1 gm, mass of carbon dioxide is m2 gm
respectively. By the reaction between calcium chloride and potassium hydroxide.

CaCl2      +    KOH      ---à        2KCl          +      CaO        +      H2O

CCl4        +      4KOH      -----à        4KCl      +      2H2O        +      CO2

% age of carbon =    At.mass of C * mass of CO2 * 100    /    M.mass of CO2      *    Mass of compound.

                        = 12 *    m2 * 100    /    44 * M

% age of H    =    At.mass of H * Mass of water * 100    /    M.mass of water * mass of compound

                    =    2    * m1 * 100    /    18 * M

47. ESTIMATION OF NITROGEN :-

There are two methods for estimation of nitrogen are Dumas method and Kjeldahl’s method.

(a) DUMAS METHOD :    The nitrogen containing compound when heated with copper oxide in
an atmosphere of carbon dioxide then to form free nitrogen in addition to carbon dioxide and
water. The mixture of gases is collected over potassium hydroxide solution in which carbon
dioxide is absorbed and volume of nitrogen gas is determined.

Let the mass of organic compound = m gm

Volume of nitrogen collected = V1 ml

Temperature = T1 K

Volume of nitrogen STP = P1V1 * 273    / 760 * T1

Where P1 and V1 are the pressure and volume of the nitrogen and T 1 is the temperature.

(b) KJELDAHL’S METHOD :    The compound containing nitrogen is heated with conc. Sulphuric
acid the nitrogen present in compound get converted to ammonium sulphate, the resulting acid
mixture is then heated with excess of sodium hydroxide. The ammonia gas is librate and
absorbed in an excess of sulphuric acid which determine the nitrogen gas. This method is not
valid to compound nitrogen in nitro and azo group because these compound does not change to
 ammonium sulphate under these condition.

48. ESTIMATION OF HALOGENS :-

The estimation of halogens can be expalined by Carius method. In this method, a halogen containing
compound is heated with fuming nitric acid in the presence of silver nitrate contained in hard glass
tube which is known as Carius tube. Carbon and halogen present in the compound are oxidised to
carbon dioxide and water. And the halogen present forms silver halides which filter, wash , dry and
weighed.

Let the mass of organic compound = m gm

Mass of silver halide = m1 gm         

Mass of halogen in AgX = At. Mass of X * m1 gm    /    M.m of AgX

% age of halogen = At.mass of X * m1 * 100    /    M.mass of Ag * m

49. ESTIMATION OF SULPHUR :-

An unknown organic compound is heated in a Carius tube with sodium peroxide or nitric acid.
Sulphur present in the compound is oxidised to sulphuric acid. It is precipitated as barium sulphate
by adding excess of barium chloride solution in water. The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and
weighed.

Let the mass of the organic compound = m g

Mass of barium sulphate = m1 gm

1 mol og barium sulphate = 32 g of sulphur

M1 gm of barium sulphate contain = 32 * m 1    /    M.mas of barium sulphate    = 32 * m 1 / 233

% age of sulphur = 32 * m1 *100    / 233

50.ESTIMATION OF PHOSPHOROUS :-
An unknown organic compound is heated with fuming nitric acid then phosphorous present in the
compound is oxidised to phosphoric acid. It is precipitsted as ammonium phosphomolybdate by
adding ammonia and ammonium molybdate. It is precipitated, filtered, washed, dried and weighed.

Let tha mass of organic compound = m gm

Mass of ammonium phosphomolybdate = m1 gm

m.mass of (NH4)3PO4.12MoO3    = 1877 g/mol

 % age of phosphorous    =    At.mass of P * m 1 * 100    / M.mass of A.P.M. * m

                                      = 31 * m1 *100 / 1877 * m

51. ESTIMATION OF OXYGEN :-

A definite mass of organic compound is decomposed by heating in a stream of nitrogen gas. The
mixture of gaseous product containing oxygen is passed over red hot coke then oxygen is converted
into carbon monoxide with coke. Carbon monoxide is react with excess of oxygen then carbon
dioxide gas is produced.

Let the mass of organic compound = m gm

Mass of carbon dioxide = m1 gm

M1 gm of carbon dioxide is obtained = 32 * m 1 / 88

% age of oxygen =    32 * m1 * 100 / 88 * m

52.CHN ELEMENTAL ANALYSER :-

The elements such as carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen present in the compound are determined by an
apparatus known as CHN elemental analyser. This analyser requires only very small amount of a
substance about 1 to 3 miligram and replace the value on a screen within a short time.

                CHAPTER – 12 ( COMPLETED)

AMBITION CLASSES

      2019