NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA SAMITI, NOIDA

E-CONTENT FOR CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT – 12
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

STUDY MATERIAL

• Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of
hydrocarbons and their derivatives.

Tetravalency of carbon

The atomic number of Carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is 2,4 i.e. it
has 4 valence electrons. Thus carbon is always tetracovalent, i.e. it forms 4
covalent bonds with other atoms

Due to tetravalency of carbon it has a tetrahedron shape.

Catenation :

The self linking property of carbon is known as catenation. This is the main
reason of existence of such large number of compounds.

The Shapes of Carbon Compounds:

In organic or carbon compounds, s and p orbitals are involved in hybridisation.

This leads to y three types of hybridisation which are sp3(in alkanes) –
Tetrahedral in shape sp2(in alkenes) – Planar structure sp(in alkynes) – Linear
molecule.
Structural representation of organic molecules:

The Complete Structural Formulae

The Lewis structures can be simplified easily by representing the two – electron
covalent bond by a single dash. Such a type of structural formula focuses on the
electrons involved in the bond formation.

A single dash represents a single bond, a double dash represents a double bond and a
triple dash represents a triple bond respectively. Lone pairs of electrons on
heteroatoms such as oxygen, halogens and more, may or may not be shown.

Condensed Structural Formulae

We can further abbreviate complete structural formulae by omitting some or all the
dashes that represent covalent bonds. Identical repetitive units are put in parenthesis
and subscripts are used to indicate their repetition. For example, we can further
condense CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 to CH3(CH2)4CH3.

The role of parentheses is very important in condensed structural formulae. We can

further condense these structural formulae by enclosing the repetitive structural unit
within a bracket and placing an integer as a subscript that indicates the number times
the structural unit gets repeated. Further examples of this phenomenon are:

• CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 changes to CH3 (CH2)5CH3

• CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH changes to CH3(CH2)6COOH
Bond Line Structural Representation
In a Bond line structural representation, carbon and hydrogen atoms are not shown
and the lines representing carbon-carbon bonds are drawn in a zig-zag fashion. Only
heteroatoms are written in bond line representation. The terminals in the bond – line
structures denote methyl (CH3) groups unless indicated otherwise by a functional
group, while the line junctions denote carbon atoms bonded to an appropriate number
of hydrogen molecules required to satisfy the valency of the carbon atoms.

Cyclic compounds are usually represented by bond line formulae as well. It is a

simple, short and convenient method of representing organic molecule. Each carbon
on the line end or intersection is attached to the required number of hydrogen atoms.
Thus, the terminal denotes CH3 group and an unsubstituted intersection denotes a
CH2 group.

Polygon Formulae
There are many organic compounds, in which carbon atoms are not joined in a chain
but they are actually joined in a ring. These cyclic compounds are usually represented
by polygon without showing carbon and hydrogen atoms.

The corners of a polygon represent a carbon atom and the sides of a polygon denote a
carbon-carbon bond. Similarly, if an atom or a group of atoms other than hydrogen is
attached to carbon, then that atom or a group of atoms manifest in this structure.
Classification of Organic Compounds
Functional Group:

The functional group are atom or group of atoms joined in a specific manner which
determines the chemical properties of the organic compound. The examples are
hydroxyl group (—OH), aldehyde group (—CHO) and carboxylic acid group (—
COOH) etc.

• Homologous Series
A homologous series may be defined as a family of organic compounds having the
same functional group, similar chemical properties and the successive members
differ from each other in molecular formula by —CH2 units.
The members of a homologous series can be represented by same general
molecular formula.

• Nomenclature of Organic Compounds:

Common name (Common system): Before the IUPAC system of nomenclature,
organic compounds were named after the sources of origin, for example, urea was
so named because it was obtained from the urine of mammals. Formic acid was so
named since it was extracted from red ants called formica.
• I UP AC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) System
According to IUPAC system, the name of an organic compound contains three
parts: (i) word root, (ii) suffix, (iii) prefix.
(i) Word root: Word root represents the number of carbon atoms present in the
principal chain, which is the longest possible chain of carbon atoms.

(ii) Suffix: Suffix are of two types, primary suffix, secondary suffix.
(a) Primary Suffix: It indicates the type of bond in the carbon atoms.

(b) Secondary Suffix: Secondary suffix is used to represent the functional group.
(iii) Prefix: Prefix is a part of IUPAC name which appears before the word root.
Prefix
are of two types:
(a) Primary prefix: For example, primary prefix cyclo is used to differentiate
cyclic compounds.

(b) Secondary prefix: Some functional groups are considered as substituents and
denoted by secondary prefixes.
For example:
Substituted Group Secondary prefix.
—F Flupro
— Cl Chloro
— Br Bromo
— NO Nitroso
— NO2 Nitro
— CH3 Methyl
 — OCH3 Methoxy
Straight chain alkanes:

The names of such compounds is based on their chain structure,and end with
suffix ‘-ane’ and carry a prefix indicating the number of carbon atoms present in
the chain.
Branched chain hydrocarbons:
1.) The longest carbon chain in the molecule is identified.
2.) The numbering is done in such a way that the branched carbon atoms get
the lowest possible numbers.
3.) The names of the alkyl groups attached as a branch are then prefixed to
the name of the parent alkane and its position is indicated by numbers.
4.) The lower number is given to the first in alphabetical order.
5.) The carbon atom of the branch that attaches to the root alkane is numbered
1.

Naming of Compounds Containing Functional Groups:

The longest chain of carbon atoms containing the functional group is numbered in
such a manner that the functional group is attached at the carbon atoms possessing
lowest possible number in the chain.
In case of polyfunctional compounds, one of the functional group is selected as
principal functional group and the compound is named on that basis. The choice of
principal functional group is made on the basis of order of preference.
The order of decreasing priority for the functional group is:
• Isomerism
When there are two or more compounds possessing the same molecular formula
but different structural formula and different physical and chemical properties, the
phenomenon is called isomerism. Such compounds are called isomers.
It is of two types:

ISOMERISM ( Strucural and Streo isomerism )

Two or more compounds having the same molecular formula but different
physical and chemical properties are called isomers and this phenomenon is
called isomerism.
Chain isomerism:
When two or more compounds having same molecular formula but different

carbon skeletons are referred to as chain isomers.

Position Isomerism :
Compounds which have the same structure of carbon chain but differ in position
of double or triple bonds or functional group are called position isomers and this
phenomenon is called Position Isomerism. e g
 CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 CH3-CH = CH – CH3
Functional Isomerism :
Compounds which have the same molecular formula but different functional
group are called functional isomers and this phenomenon is called functional
Isomerism. e g
CH3 – CH2 – OH CH3 – O – CH3
Metamerism: It is due to the presence of different alkyl groups on either side
of functional group in the molecule. Ex. C4H10O represents C2H5OC2H5 and
CH3OC3H7.

(2) Stereoisomerism: When isomerism is caused by the different arrangements of

atoms or groups in space, the phenomenon is called stereoisomerism. The
steroeoisomers have same structural formula but differ in arrangement of atoms in
space. Stereoisomerism is of two types:
(i) Geometrical or Cis-Trans Isomerism
(ii) Optical Isomerism

• Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism

General Representation of reaction mechanism:

In an organic reaction, the organic molecule (also referred as a substrate) reacts

with an appropriate attacking reagent and leads to the formation of one or more
intermediate(s) and finally product(s)
The general reaction is depicted as follows:
A sequential account of each step, describing details of electron movement,
energetics during bond cleavage and bond formation, and the rates of
transformation of reactants into products (kinetics) is referred to as reaction
mechanism.

Electron Movement in Organic Reactions:

The movement of electrons in organic reactions can be shown by curved-arrow

notation. It shows how changes in bonding occur due to electronic redistribution
during the reaction. To show the change in position of a pair of electrons, curved
arrow starts from the point from where an electron pair is shifted and it ends at a
location to which the pair of electron may move.

Presentation of shifting of electron pair is given below :

Movement of single electron is indicated by a single barbed ‘fish hooks’ (i.e. half
headed curved arrow). For example, in transfer of hydroxide ion giving ethanol
and in the dissociation of chloromethane, the movement of electron using curved
arrows can be depicted as follows:

Fission of a covalent bond:

A covalent bond can undergo Fission in two ways:

(i) By Homolytic Fission or Homolysis
(ii) By Heterolytic Fission or Heterolysis

Homolytic Fission:
In this process each of the atoms acquires one of the bonding electrons.

Heterolytic Fission: In this process one of atoms aquires both of the bonding
electrons when the bond is broken.
If B is more electronegative than A which thereby aquires both the bonding
electrons and becomes negatively charged.

The products of heterolytic fission are ions.

Reaction Intermediates: Heterolytic and homolytic bond fission results in the

formation of short-lived fragments called reaction intermediates. Among the
important reaction intermediates are carbonium ions, carbanions, carbon free
radicals and carbenes. Carbonium Ions (carbocations): Organic ions which contain
a positively charged carbon atom are called carbonium ions or carbocations. They
are formed by heterolytic bond fission.

where Z is more electronegative than carbon.

Tertiary carbonium ion is more stable than a secondary, which in turn is more
stable than a primary because of +1 effect associated with alkyl group.
Carbanion: Organic ion which contains a negatively charged carbon atom are
called carbanions. They are also formed by heterolytic bond fission.

Where Z is less electronegative than carbon. A primary carbanion is more stable

than a secondary, which in turn is more stable than a tertiary, because of +1 effect
associated with alkyl group.

Types of Attacking Reagents:

Electrophile: It is positively charged or neutral species which is electron deficient,

e.g.,
He–, H20+, CH3 , NH4+, AICl3 , S03 , CHCl2 , CCI3.
Nucleophile: It is negatively charged or neutral species with lone pair of electrons
e.g., (HO–), Cyanide (C = N), H20: R3N, R2NH etc.
Electron Displacement Effects in Covalent Bonds: Electronic displacements in
covalent bonds occurs due to the presence of an atom or group of different
electronegativity or under the influence of some outside attaching group.
These lead to a number of effects which are as follows:
(i) Inductive effect (ii) Elecromeric effect
(iii) Resonance or Mesomeric effect (iv) Hyperconjugation effect.
Inductive Effect: It involues c electron. The a electrons which form a covalent
bond are seldom shared equally between the two atoms. Due to different
electronegatively electrons are displaced towards the more electronegative atom.
This introduces a certain degree of polarity in the bond.
The more electronegative atom acquires a small negative charge (δ–). The less
electronegative atom acquires a small positive charge (δ+).
Consider the carbon-chlorine bond
As chlorine is more electronegative, it will become negatively charged with respect
to the carbon atom.

Structure I- indicates the relative charges on the two atoms.

Structure II- indicates the direction in which the electrons are drawn.
Atoms or groups which lose electrons towards a carbon atom are said to have a +1
effect. Those atoms or groups which draw electrons away from a carbon atom are
said to have a -I Effect.
Some common atoms or groups which cause +I or -I effects are shown below:

The inductive effect of C3 upon C2 is significantly less than the effect of the
chlorine atom on C.
Resonance Structure: A number of organic compounds cannot be accurately
represented by one structure.
For example, benzene is ordinarily represented as

Carbon-carbon double bond length = 1.34 A

Carbon-carbon single bond length = 1.54A. But it has been determined
experimentally that all carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are identical and have
same bond length (1.39A).
Thus the structure of benzene cannot be represented by single structure. It can be
represented equally well by ‘he energetically similar structures I and II. The two
structures are called resonance structures.

Actual structure of benzene is resonance hybrid of structures I and II.

Another example of resonance is provided by nitromethane (CH3N02) which can
be represented by two Lewis structures.

The actual structure of nitromethane is a resonance hybrid of the two canonical

forms I and II. Resonance energy: The difference in the energy between the most
stable contributing structure for a compound and its resonance hybrid is called as
resonance energy or resonance stabilisation energy.
Resonance Effect: The polarity produced in the molecule by the interaction of two
π-bonds or between a π-bond and a lone pair of electrons present on an adjacent
atom. There are two types of resonance or mesomeric effects designated as R or M
effect.
Positive Resonance Effect (+R effect):
Those atoms which lose electrons towards a carbon atom are said to have a +M
effect or +R effect. For example:
—Cl, —Br, —I, —NH2, —NR2, —OH, —OCH3
Negative Resonance Effect (-R effect): Those atoms or groups which draw
electrons away from a carbon atom are said to have a -M effect or -R effect.
For example:
Electromeric Effect (E Effect):
The electrom’eric effect refers to the polarity produced in a multiple bonded
compound when it is attacked by a reagent when a double or a triple bond is
exposed to an attack by an electrophile E+ (a reagent) the two π electrons which
from the π bond are completely transferred to one atom or the other. The
electromeric effect is represented as:

The curved arrow shows the displacement of the electron pair. The atom A has lost
its share in the electron pair and B has gained this share. Therefore A acquires a
positive charge and B a negative charge.
Hyperconjugation or No Bond Resonance:
When the alkyl group is attached to an unsaturated system such as —
CH=CH2 group the order of inductive effect gets reversed. The behaviour can be
explained by hyperconjugation effect.
Such structures are arrived at by shifting the bonding electrons from an adjacent C
—H bond to the electron deficient carbon. In this way, the positive charge
originally on carbon is dispersed to the hydrogen.
This way of electron release by assuming no bond character in the adjacent C—H
bond is called No-Bond Resonance or Hyperconjugation.

• Orbital Concept of Hyperconjugation

It involues delocalisation of o electrons of C—H bond of an alkyl group which is
attached directly to an atom of unsaturated system or to an atom with an unshared
p-orbital.
Let us consider CH3CH2 (ethyl cation) in which the positively charged carbon atom
has an empty p-orbital. One of the C—H bonds of the methyl group can align in
the plane of this empty p-orbital and electron constituting the C—H bond in plane
with this p-orbital can then be delocalised into the empty p-orbital as in Fig.
In general, greater the number of alkyl groups attached to a positively charged
carbon atom, the greater is the hyperconjugation.

Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds:

The purification of organic compounds is necessary, though complex, step after its
extraction from a natural source or synthesis in the laboratory. The method of
purification of the organic compound depends mainly on the nature of the
compound and the impurities present.

One easy method to check the purity of an organic compound is to either melt or
boil it as organic compounds tend to have sharp melting and boiling points.
Purification means the removal of unwanted impurities present in an organic
compound. The general methods of purification are:

• Sublimation
 • Crystallisation
• Distillation
• Fractional Distillation
• Vacuum Distillation
• Steam Distillation
• Differential Extraction
• Chromatography

Methods of Purification :
Sublimation:
Some solids can directly pass to the vapour state without going through the liquid
phase. The purification technique which exploits this property is called
sublimation. It is helpful in separating sublimable compounds from non-sublimable
ones.

Methods of Purification – Sublimation

The substance is heated in a china dish above which an inverted funnel is kept to
collect the sublimable compounds. The funnel is kept cool so as to hasten the
process. Vapours of the substance solidify on the funnel.
Crystallisation :
The principle here is that the compound and the impurities have different
solubilities in a solvent. A solvent is chosen where the compound to be purified is
sparingly soluble, that is, it is sparingly soluble at lower temperature and soluble at
a higher temperature. The solution is heated to get a saturated solution, and on
cooling, the crystals of the compounds are removed via filtration.
For example, crystals of benzoic acid can be crystallised with water. Benzoic acid
is sparingly soluble in cold water and soluble in hot water.
If the mixture contains impurities that have the same solubility as of the compound
to be purified, repeated crystallisation is performed.

Purification of Liquids :

Distillation:
The underlying principle behind distillation is that the mixture of liquids can be
separated by the difference in their boiling points. The boiling point is defined as
that temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure. This method separates volatile liquids from non-volatile
liquids. The setup is given below:

Purification of Liquids – Distillation

The mixture is taken in the RB flask and boiled. The more volatile or the
component with lower boiling point evaporates faster and is collected in a separate
container. A condenser is used to hasten the process of condensation.
For example, a mixture of chloroform and aniline can be separated by distillation.
The boiling point of chloroform is 60°C and that of aniline is 189°C. Therefore
distillation can be used to separate a mixture of chloroform and aniline.

Fractional Distillation :
This method is employed when the difference between the boiling points of the
liquids isn’t much. Since the vapours of such liquids might condense together, a
fractionating column is fixed to the mouth of the RB.

Purification of Liquids – Fractional Distillation

Example: Mixture of Ether (b.P. 308K) and Toluene(b.p.384K)

Vacuum Distillation :
Since the boiling point is dependent on the atmospheric pressure, the liquids will
boil at a temperature lesser than their boiling points if they were distilled in an
atmosphere having lower pressure. This is achieved by using a vacuum pump.
Since the atmospheric pressure is reduced, the liquids also boil faster and hence the
whole process of distillation is made fast.

Process of Vacuum Distillation

Example, Separation of Glycerol from Spent lye in soap industry.

Steam Distillation :
In this variant, steam is passed into the flask containing the liquids to be separated.
The principle here is that the liquids will boil faster because of aqueous tension
(vapour pressure of water) helps in equalising the atmospheric pressure.
Total pressure = Aqueous tension + vapour pressure of liquid components
 Purification of Liquids by Steam Distillation

In the absence of aqueous tension, the process of boiling would have been
continued until it equalises the atmospheric pressure. Now with the addition of
steam, that process is expedited.
Example. Separation of aniline from water and aniline mixture.

Differential Extraction :
This method is used for immiscible liquids, that is, liquids that do not mix together.
For example, oil and water are immiscible.
The immiscible liquids are taken in a separating funnel and left undisturbed. After
a while, they separate out according to their specific gravities, with the heavier
liquid at the bottom. Then they are later collected.
Substances can also be separated according to their preferential solubilities in the
liquid. For example, if phenol is to be extracted, it can be preferentially extracted
using NaOH solution as one of the liquids used.

Chromatography:
Chromatography is an important separation technique used to separate constituent
particles of a mixture of substances, to purify the compounds and check the purity
of organic compounds. In this technique on a stationary phase (solid or a liquid) a
mixture of substance is applied. The mixture of gas or the pure solvent is allowed
to move slowly on the stationary phase. Due to which the components of the
mixture start separating from one another.
Chromatography is of two types:

• Adsorption Chromatography
• Partition Chromatography

Adsorption Chromatography :
It is based on the principle that the constituents are adsorbed on an adsorbent in
varying degrees. The adsorbents used are generally silica gel or alumina. When a
mobile phase moves over the fixed phase, different constituents of the mixture get
adsorbed at various distances over the fixed phase.
Example , Mixture of Naphthalene and Benzophenone are separated over Alumina
using petroleum ether and Benzene as an Eluent.
Adsorption Chromatography is further classified into:

• Column Chromatography
• Thin Layer Chromatography

Column Chromatography :
Here, a mixture is separated over a column of either silica gel or alumina, packed
in a glass column. The constituent with the most affinity with the fixed phase is
adsorbed at the top, and so on. It is then retrieved by using an eluant. The solvent is
then evaporated to get the constituent.

Thin Layer Chromatography :

Here a sheet of alumina is taken ( 0.2 mm thick) over which a small spot of the
mixture is placed and it is kept in a suitable solvent. The solvent rises due to
capillary action and the constituents also rise with the solvent depending on their
differential adsorption, and thereby, they are separated.
• Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds :

Detection of Carbon and hydrogen: Put Copper Oxide Test:

The organic substance is mixed intimately with about three times its weight of dry
copper oxide. The mixture is then placed in a hard glass test-tube fitted with a bent
delivery tube. The other end of which is dipping into lime water in another test
tube.
The mixture is heated strongly and the following reactions take place.

Thus if carbon is present it is oxidised to carbon dioxide which turns lime water
milky. If hydrogen is also present, it will be oxidised to water droplets on the
cooler wall of the test tube.
Pass water through white anhydrous copper sulphate, where copper sulphate
becomes blue colour due to the absorption of water formed from hydrogen.
Detection of other elements

Lassaigne’s test:

Nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus present in an organic compound are

detected by ‘Lassaigne’s test’. Covalent compounds are converted into ionic form
by fusing the compound with sodium metal. Following reaction occurs:

Test for Nitrogen:

(i) The substance is heated strongly with sodium metal.
Na + C + N ———–> NaCN
(ii) The water extract of the fused mass is boiled with ferrous sulphate solution

(iii) To the cooled solution is then added a little ferric choride solution and excess
of concentrated hydrochloric acid.

The formation of prussian blue or green colouration confirms the presence of

nitrogen.

Test for sulphur:

Sulphur, if present, in the given organic compound, upon fusion with sodium
reacts to form sodium sulphide

Thus the sodium extract obtained from the fused mass is tested as:
(i) Add freshly prepared sodium nitroprusside solution. A deep violet colouration
indicates sulphur.
(ii) Acidify the portion of the extract with acetic acid and then add lead acetate
solution. A black precipitate of lead sulphide confirms the presence of sulphur.

If nitrogen and sulphur both are present in an organic compound, sodium

thiocyanate is formed. It gives blood red colour and no prussian blue since there
are no free cyanide ions.

Test for Halogens: Upon fusion with sodium, the halogens in the organic
compound are converted to sodium halides.
Cl + Na ——-> NaCl
Br + Na ———> NaBr
I + Na ———>NaI
Acidify a portion of ‘sodium extract’ with dilute nitric acid and add to it silver
nitrate solution. White ppt. soluble in ammonia indicates Chlorine.
Yellow ppt. sparingly soluble in ammonia indicates Bromine.
Yellow ppt. insoluble in ammonia indicates Iodine.
When nitrogen or sulphur is also present in the compound, the sodium extract
before testing for halogens is boiled with strong nitric acid to decompose the
cyanide and the sulphite formed during the sodium fusion. If not removed, these
radicals will form a white and black precipitate respectively on the addition of
silver nitrate.

Test for phosphorous

The compound is heated with an oxidising agent (sodium peroxide). The
phosphorous present in the compound is oxidised to phosphate.
The solution is boiled with HN03 and treated with ammonium molybdate. A yellow
coloured ppt. indicates the presence of phosphorous.
• Quantitative Analysis

Estimation of Carbon and Hydrogen

Both carbon and hydrogen are estimated together in one operation. A known
weight of an organic compound is burnt in the presence of excess of oxygen and
copper (II) oxide. Carbon and hydrogen are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water
respectively.

The weight of carbon dioxide and water thus formed are determined and the
amounts of carbon and hydrogen in the original substance calculated.
Estimation of Nitrogen

(i) Dumas method: This method is based on fact that the nitrogenous compounds
when heated with copper oxide in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide yield free
nitrogen,

The traces of oxides of nitrogen, which may be formed in some cases, are reduced
to elemental nitrogen by passing over heated copper spiral.
Apparatus can be shown as:
(ii) Kjeldahl’s Method :
The method can be divided into two major stages, namely, digestion and
distillation.
During the digestion stage, the nitrogen present in the organic compound is
converted into ammonium sulphate. This is achieved by heating the compound in
Kjeldahl flask with concentrated sulphuric acid in the presence of small amount of
copper sulphate.
C, H, S + Conc H2SO4 → CO2 ,H2O, SO2
N + Conc H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
Now, the contents of the flask are cooled and transferred into a distillation flask
and heated with concentrated sodium hydroxide to liberate ammonia gas. This is
the distillation stage.
(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2NH3 +2H2O
The ammonia produced in this process is absorbed in a known volume of excess of
standard solution of sulphuric acid.
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
Therefore, the amount of ammonia produced can be determined by estimating the
amount of sulphuric acid consumed in the reaction..
It is done by estimating the un reacted sulphuric acid left after the absorption of
ammonia by titrating it with standard alkali solution.
The difference between the initial amount of acid taken and that left after the
reaction gives the amount of acid reacted with ammonia.

Let the mass of organic,, compound taken = w g, Volume of H2S04 of molarity of

taken = V mL and
V1 mL of NaOH of molarity M

Kjeldahl method is not applicable to compounds containing nitrogen as nitro and

azo groups.

Halogens

Carius method:

A known mass of an organic compound is heated with fuming nitric acid in the
presence of silver nitrate contained in a hard glass tube known as Carius tube,
(Fig.) in a furnace. Carbon and hydrogen present in the compound are oxidised to
carbon dioxide and water. The halogen present forms the corresponding silver
halide (AgX). It is filtered, washed, dried and weighed.

Let the mass of the organic compound taken = m g

Mass of AgX formed = m1 g

1 mol of AgX contains 1 mol of X

Sulphur:

A known mass of an organic compound is heated in a Carius tube with sodium

peroxide or fuming nitric acid. Sulphur present in the compound is oxidised to
sulphuric acid. It is precipitated as barium sulphate by adding excess of barium
chloride solution in water.

Phosphorous:

A known mass of an organic compound is heated with fuming nitric acid

whereupon phosphorus present in the compound is oxidised to phosphoric acid. It
is precipitated as ammonium phosphomolybdate, (NH4)3 PO4.12MoO3, by adding
ammonia and ammonium molybdate.
Oxygen:

The percentage of oxygen in an organic compound is usually found by difference

between the total percentage composition (100) and the sum of the percentages of
all other elements.

. The Estimation of Elements in an O.C Is carried out by using microquantities of

substances and automatic experimental techniques.

PREPARED BY:
B.BETHANASAMY, PGT CHEMISTRY
JNV, PUDUCHERRY.

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