1144

Journal of Food Protection, Vol. 63, No. 8, 2000, Pages 1144–1153

Copyright 䊚, International Association for Food Protection

Review

Microbiological Safety of Mayonnaise, Salad Dressings, and

Sauces Produced in the United States: A Review
R. B. SMITTLE*

Silliker Laboratories Group, Inc., 900 Maple Avenue, Homewood, Illinois 60430, USA

MS 99-336: Received 10 November 1999/Accepted 11 March 2000

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ABSTRACT
The literature on the death and survival of foodborne pathogens in commercial mayonnaise, dressing, and sauces was
reviewed and statistically analyzed with emphasis on Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes. The
absence of reports of foodborne illness associated directly with the consumption of commercially prepared acidic dressings
and sauces is evidence of their safety. Salmonella, E. coli O157: H7, E. coli, L. monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and
Yersinia enterocolitica die when inoculated into mayonnaise and dressings. Historically, mayonnaise and dressings have been
exempt from the acidified food regulations and have justly deserved this status due primarily to the toxic effect of acetic and
to a lesser extent lactic and citric acids. These organic acids are inimical to pathogenic bacteria and are effective natural
preservatives with acetic being the most effective in killing pathogenic bacteria at the pH values encountered in these products.
Statistical analysis on data reported in the literature shows that the most important and significant factor in destroying path-
ogenic bacteria is pH as adjusted with acetic acid followed by the concentration of acetic acid in the water phase. The reported
highest manufacturing target pH for dressings and sauces is 4.4, which is below the 4.75 pKa of acetic acid and below the
reported inhibitory pH of 4.5 for foodborne pathogens in the presence of acetic acid. The overall conclusion is that these
products are very safe. They should remain exempt from the acidified food regulations providing adequate research has been
done to validate their safety, and the predominant acid is acetic and reasonable manufacturing precautions are taken.

In the United States commercially produced mayon-
naise, salad dressings, and sauces have a remarkable food
safety record. However, in Europe and other parts of the
world where homemade mayonnaise is prepared with mild-
er acid content and unpasteurized eggs, mayonnaise contin-
ues to be a health problem from Salmonella (23, 62). In
general these products are composed of a vegetable oil or
a fat-free oil substitute base and a low pH, salt-containing
water phase. Vegetable oils and fat-free oil substitutes do
not contribute to the pH of these products. The predominant
acid in the water phase is acetic and to a lesser extent,
depending on the formulation, lactic or citric acid or both.
In addition, they are flavored by acid-containing ingredients
such as buttermilk, sour cream, blue cheese, parmesan
cheese, and other fermented dairy products (lactic acid),
lemon juice (citric acid), pickle relishes (lactic and acetic
acids), and tomato solids (citric acid) just to mention a few.
They are frequently implicated by uninformed people as the
cause of foodborne illness, especially mayonnaise. Never-
theless, commercially prepared products have never been
directly identified as the cause of any foodborne illness.
This performance is largely due to the intrinsic bactericidal
nature of these products. Organic acids and acid ingredients
contribute to the desirable flavor of these products and are
* Author for correspondence. Present address: 420 Tyler Drive, Clear
Brook, VA 22624, USA. Tel: 540-678-9991; Fax: 540-678-0399;
E-mail: rsmittle@visuallink.com.
toxic to foodborne pathogens at or below their pKa (9, 25,
66). Acetic is the predominant acid, which is added as var-
ious types of vinegars (68).
Most food ingredients added to these products are acid-
ic. However, some ingredients are considered low acid such
as egg and egg yolks, pH 6.0 to 7.0; garlic, pH 5.3 to 5.8;
onions, pH 5.3 to 5.8; honey, pH 6.0 to 6.5; sugar, pH 6.5,
and egg whites, pH 9.07 (27, 40).
UNITED STATES REGULATORY INTRODUCTION
With the exception of mayonnaise, spoonable salad
dressing, and French dressing, these products are not legally
defined. Traditionally, these foods have been classified as
acid foods with a pH below 4.6. The legal definition for
acid foods is found in the Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR) 21 Part 114(1). According to the definition 114.3(b):
‘‘Acidified foods means low-acid foods to which acid(s) or
acid food(s) are added. . .; They have a water activity (aw)
greater than 0.85 and have a finished equilibrium pH of 4.6
or below. These foods may be called, or may purport to be,
‘pickles’ or ‘pickled㛮㛮㛮.’ Carbonated beverages, jams, jel-
lies, preserves, acid foods (including such foods as stan-
dardized and nonstandardized food dressings and condi-
ment sauces) that contain small amounts of low-acid
food(s) and have a resultant finished equilibrium pH that
does not significantly differ from that of the predominant
acid and acid food, and foods that are stored, distributed,
J. Food Prot., Vol. 63, No. 8 MICROBIOLOGICAL SAFETY OF DRESSINGS 1145

TABLE 1. The lower limits of pH allowing the initiation of TABLE 2. The inhibitory and lethal pH of acetic acid on food-
growth by some foodborne pathogens in laboratory media ad- borne pathogens in laboratory media
justed with strong acid or alkali
Inhibitory Lethal
Minimum Organism pH pH
Organism Reference pH
Salmonella Aertrycke (45) 4.9 4.5
Salmonella paratyphi 40 4.5 Staphylococcus aureus (45) 5.0 4.9
Salmonella schottmuelleri 40 4.5 Bacillus cereus (45) 4.9 4.9
Salmonella typhi 40 4.0–4.5 Salmonella Anatum, Ten-
Escherichia coli O157:H7 34 4.0 nessee, or Senftenberg
Campylobacter jejuni 72 4.9 (17) 5.4 NAa
Yersinia enterocolitica 6 4.0 Escherichia coli O157:H7
Vibrio parahaemolyticus 40 4.8 (11, 20) 4.5–5.0 (20) ⬍3.0 (11)
Plesiomonas shigelloides 42 4.0 Y. enterocolitica (7) 5.08–5.0 4.75

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Listeria monocytogenes 52 5.0
Staphylococcus aureus 40 4.0
Clostridium botulinum 37 4.6
Clostridium perfringens 44 5.0
Bacillus cereus 43 4.35
Streptococcus pyogenes 40 6.35
Aeromonas hydrophila 71 4.0
and retailed under refrigeration are excluded from the cov-
erage of this part’’ (18).
This definition was promulgated to define the intrinsic
food qualities necessary to prevent the growth of foodborne
pathogens and define the processing necessary to eliminate
their presence if not met. A water activity of 0.85 is the
upper limit for preventing the growth of Staphylococcus
aureus and pH 4.6 is the upper limit preventing the growth
of Clostridium botulinum (40).
Recently, there has been a heightened awareness
among health professionals and regulators concerning pre-
vious assumptions about the safety of acid and acidified
foods. This is largely due to the emergence of the pathogen
Escherichia coli O157:H7 that is more tolerant of acidic
conditions than other foodborne pathogens (Tables 1 and
2). Outbreaks of enterohemorrhagic E. coli linked to un-
pasteurized apple cider, which is a low pH product due to
malic acid (4), and the implication of mayonnaise and may-
onnaise-based dressings to an E. coli O157:H7 illness (77)
have added to the confusion. Although the mayonnaise out-
break was a result of contamination during handling after
manufacturing (77), the perception persists that mayonnaise
and mayonnaise-based dressings are direct causes of illness.
In light of this new knowledge about these acid-tolerant
pathogens, there is some confusion among regulators as to
the status of mayonnaise, dressings, and sauces with regard
to the CFR definitions. For example, some state regulators
require manufacturers producing mayonnaise, dressings,
sauces, and condiments to register their products with the
Food and Drug Administration as acidified foods. This is
contrary to the CFR 114.3(b) which states that ‘‘standard-
ized and non-standardized food dressings and condiment
sauces’’ have always been excluded from the Food and
Drug Administration’s definition of acidified foods (18).
The purpose of this review is to assess the safety of the
acid foods, mayonnaise, dressings, sauces, and condiments
in light of recent microbiological research, pH limitations
L. monocytogenes (2) 4.59 4.37
a Not available.
of pathogen growth, and the pH–organic acid relationship
to survivability of foodborne pathogens.
EFFECTS OF ACIDITY ON THE GROWTH AND
SURVIVAL OF MICROORGANISMS
Acidity is the most important intrinsic characteristic of
mayonnaise, dressings, and sauces in determining the
growth and the survival of pathogenic bacteria (68). Sec-
ondarily, salt and sugar play minor roles, but they have an
interactive effect with acetic acid in vinegar on inhibiting
the growth of foodborne pathogens (25, 68). Commercially
pasteurized egg whites, important in the manufacturing of
cholesterol-free mayonnaise, have been found to be inimi-
cal to Listeria monocytogenes when inoculated at the
10,000/ml level and stored at refrigeration temperature (27).
It was speculated that the antilisterial activity was due to
egg white lysozyme (27). Because microorganisms need
water to grow and oil is anhydrous, the water phase milieu
or the water–oil interface is the portion of these products
that is of primary concern. However, Radford et al. (63)
found that mayonnaise prepared from oils high in phenolic
compounds, such as olive oil, can accelerate the death of
Salmonella Enteritidis. The acid effects on growth and sur-
vival are primarily concentrated in the water phase com-
ponent.
The effects of acidity on microorganisms are deter-
mined in three ways. They are (i) the effect of pH alone,
(ii) the effect of undissociated forms of a particular acid,
and (iii) the specific effects of organic acids (66). When a
strong acid like HCl (hydrochloric acid) is introduced into
the water phase, it dissociates into H⫹ (hydrogen ion) and
Cl⫺ (chloride ion) ions. In dilute solutions such as the water
phase of these products strong acids are almost completely
dissociated. The relationship between pH and [H⫹] (the hy-
drogen ion concentration) that it represents is as follows:
pH ⫽ ⫺log[H⫹] or log(1/[H⫹])
A system at pH 7.0 is neutral, whereas a pH 6.0 is 10 times
as acidic.
In contrast to strong acids, weak lipophilic organic ac-
ids such as acetic, lactic, and citric acids are only partially
1146 SMITTLE
dissociated. When introduced into the water phase, these
moieties exist:
HA s H⫹ ⫹ A⫺.
At equilibrium, the ratio [H⫹][A⫺]/[HA] is a constant
(pKa).
Ka ⫽ [H⫹][A⫺]/[HA]
[H⫹] ⫽ Ka[HA]/[A⫺]
Rewritten, this is
⫺log[H⫹] ⫽ ⫺log Ka ⫺ log[HA] ⫹ log[A⫺]
or
pH ⫽ pKa ⫹ log[A⫺]/[HA]
which becomes the Henderson–Hasselbach equation with
pH substituted for ⫺log[H⫹].
PH LIMITS OF PATHOGEN GROWTH
The minimum pH values for allowing the initiation of
growth of some common foodborne pathogens in labora-
tory media are found in Table 1. These lower limits were
determined in laboratory media using strong acids to adjust
the pH. The lowest reported pH allowing growth is 4.0.
The pathogens that will grow at this pH are Salmonella
Typhi (40), E. coli O157:H7 (34), Yersinia enterocolitica
(6), Pleisiomonas shigelloides (42), S. aureus (40), and
Aeromonas hydrophila (71). These lower limits for initia-
tion of growth were determined under ideal laboratory con-
ditions using laboratory media and inorganic acid. It would
be expected that the limits in food would be the same or
higher due to the interacting effects associated with the
food such as salt, sugar, inhibitory flavoring (garlic, onion),
preservatives, and type of acid (40).
As an added dimension to pathogen survival in acidic
environments, numerous researchers have reported on the
adaptive acid tolerance of Salmonella (21, 35, 46), E. coli
O157:H7 (3, 9–11, 16, 31, 47, 65, 76), E. coli (35), L.
monocytogenes (29, 30, 59), and Shigella (35). Their sur-
vival in acidic foods and in the strong acidic environment
of the stomach (pH 1.5 to 3.0) are of paramount importance
in reducing the levels of these organisms and thus their
infectivity (11). E. coli O157:H7 is the most acid tolerant
of foodborne pathogens and perhaps has the lowest infec-
tive dose. Acid and stress tolerance in E. coli O157:H7 is
controlled by the rpoS-regulated proteins that are produced
at the entrance into the stationary phase of growth (3, 16).
Buchanan and Edelson (10) have demonstrated that E. coli
O157:H7 grown in media with glucose produced catabolic
acids that enhance the survival of E. coli O157:H7 when
harvested cells were introduced into brain–heart infusion
broth adjusted to pH 2.5 and 3.0. Similarly, Leyer et al.
(47) found that E. coli O157:H7 grown in broth at pH 5.0
for one or two cell generations resulted in acid-adapted
cells that demonstrated enhanced resistance to lactic acid
and survival in dry salami. In a recent study, acid-adapted
E. coli O157:H7 was found to be more tolerant than un-
adapted cells when exposed to reduced pH as a result of
organic acids (65). Significantly higher levels of adapted E.
J. Food Prot., Vol. 63, No. 8
coli O157:H7 survived exposure in pH 3.9 acetic acid-ad-
justed tryptic soy broth as compared to unadapted cells ex-
posed to the same conditions (65).
Salmonella, E. coli, and Shigella have demonstrated
adaptability to acidic conditions with enhanced survival
characteristics (12, 21, 35, 46). Leyer and Johnson (46)
found that Salmonella Typhimurium adapted to mildly
acidic conditions (pH 5.8) demonstrated enhanced tolerance
to heat, salt, an activated lactoperoxidase system, and the
surface-active agents crystal violet and polmyxin B. In ad-
dition, Idziak and Crossley (38) reported that the growth of
Salmonella Typhimurium in pH 5.2 barbecue sauce at the
early and middle log phase increased their virulence, which
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had been reported previously in laboratory media (39).
L. monocytogenes has also demonstrated an acid-adap-
tive response to acidic conditions (29, 30, 59). In addition,
L. monocytogenes when exposed to mildly acidic condi-
tions results in cells capable of surviving severe acid stress
of pH 3.5 (59). Gahan et al. (30) showed that acid-adapted
cells are capable of surviving during milk fermentation and
persisting in cheddar cheese for 70 days. Data by
O’Driscoll et al. (59) suggest that low pH conditions may
select for mutant strains of L. monocytogenes that are more
virulent. Gahan et al. (30) used adapted L. monocytogenes
to inoculate pH 3.0 salad dressing. They found that when
inoculated at about 100/g, the adapted cells showed a max-
imum survival time of 90 min as compared to 15 min for
unadapted cells.
All of these studies emphasize the need to assess the
survival of these organisms using acid-adapted cultures in
order to determine the worst-case scenario. Cultures used
in inoculation studies with mayonnaise, dressings, and
sauces presented in this paper were from the stationary
stage of growth (Table 4).
EFFECT OF ORGANIC ACID ON FOODBORNE
PATHOGENS
Organic acids are generally not only effective as acid-
ulents in preventing or inhibiting the growth of foodborne
pathogens but are inimical to bacterial pathogens, espe-
cially at or below their pKa (66). Antimicrobial activity is
related to the degree of undissociation (2, 9, 40). Some
reported inhibitory and lethal pH values for acetic acid on
foodborne pathogens are found in Table 2. These data
clearly show that the pH where inhibition occurs is higher
than that for the minimum pH for initiation of growth
presented in Table 1.
Organic acids have been shown to be toxic or inhibi-
tory or both to E. coli O157:H7 (1, 53, 65), L. monocyto-
genes (13–15, 41, 70, 78), Salmonella (17, 21, 35, 45, 46,
68, 78), S. aureus (68, 80), Y. enterocolitca (6–8), Bacillus
cereus (45), A. hydrophila (60), and C. botulinium (54, 74).
The growth of E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella Enteritidis,
Salmonella Typhimurium, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, A. hy-
drophila, S. aureus, and B. cereus was inhibited by a 0.1%
(wt/vol) concentration of acetic acid in vinegar, and the in-
hibition was increased in the presence of salt and glucose
(25). Buchanan and Edelson (11) have reported on the rel-
ative rates of E. coli O157:H7 inactivation in the presence
J. Food Prot., Vol. 63, No. 8 MICROBIOLOGICAL SAFETY OF DRESSINGS 1147

TABLE 3. Summary of United States manufacturer’s maximum and target values for pH and percent total titratable acidity and target
values for percent titratable acidity as ascetic acid in the water phase and percent salt for mayonnaise, dressings, and sauces (source:
The Association for Dressings and Sauces, Atlanta, Ga.)
Titratable acidity
Total titratable as acetic
pH acidity in water phase Percent salt

Product type (n) Higha Lowb Lowb Higha Lowb Highb Lowb Highb

Pourable dressing (87)c 4.4 2.6 0.6 2.83 1.22 5.25 0.45 7.26
Pourable dressing, light
reduced calorie (35)c 4.15 2.7 1.05 2.1 1.4 5.9 0.9 5.2
Pourable dressing, fat
free (50)c 4.15 3 0.61 2.39 0.61 2.87 0.15 6.35
Real mayonnaise (6 to

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7)c 4.18 3.5 0.3 0.39 1.7 2.67 1.3 1.64
Reduced-calorie may-
onnaise (6 to 7)c 4.1 3.4 0.36 0.83 0.52 1.74 1.5 2.61
Fat-free mayonnaise
(4 to 5)c 4.1 3.1 0.28 0.6 0.43 0.8 1.85 2.3
Salad dressing (5 to 7)c 3.9 3.04 0.72 1.17 1.55 2.45 1.5 2.37
Light salad dressing,
reduced calorie (2 to
3)c 4.1 3.2 0.38 0.75 0.67 1.3 1.84 2
Fat-free salad dressing
(1 to 3)c 3 2.77 0.84 1 1.04 1.55 1.78 2
Sauces (40 to 50)c 4.2 2.86 0.46 3.2 1.33 3.8 0.88 5.68
a Maximum value (highest pH, highest total titratable acidity as acetic).
b Target value.
c Number of participants summarized for each column where data were available.

of 0.5% organic acids adjusted to pH 3.0 with HCl. They
found that most strains were inactivated where HCl dem-
onstrated a greater inactivation rate than the organic acids
citric, malic, acetic, and lactic. In a study on the growth of
E. coli O157:H7, Conner and Kotrola (20) found that when
tryptic soy broth was combined with yeast extract adjusted
to pH values from 4.0 to 5.5 with organic acids, the order
of effectiveness was mandelic ⫽ acetic ⬎ citric ⬎ lactic
⬎ malic ⬎ tartaric. Ryu et al. (65) found that adapted and
unadapted E. coli O157:H7 did not form colonies when
exposed to tryptic soy agar acidified with acetic, lactic, ma-
lic, and citric acids at pH values lower than 5.4, 4.5, 4.2,
and 4.2, respectively. In addition, they found that the acid-
adapted cells could be recovered from the acetic acid pH
4.2-adjusted tryptic soy agar after a 48-h incubation in tryp-
tic soy broth (65). Based on equal pH values, L. monocy-
togenes is affected by organic acids as follows: acetic ⬎
lactic ⬎ citric ⬎ malic ⬎ HCl, but based on an equal molar
concentration the relationship is citric ⬎ malic ⬎ lactic ⬎
acetic ⬎ HCl (25 and 35⬚C) (70). Ahamad and Marth (2)
found that acetic acid was the most detrimental to L. mon-
ocytogenes followed by lactic and citric acids. They also
found that 0.1% acetic, lactic, and citric in laboratory media
inhibited growth and the higher the temperature the higher
the degree of inhibition. Ita and Hutkins (41) reported that
inhibition by undissociated organic acid species on L. mon-
ocytogenes was a result of effects on metabolic or other
physiological activities. In a later study with E. coli by
Sinha (67), toxicity to organic acids appears to be a result
of a failure to repair damaged DNA. Goepfert and Hicks
(32) reported that the organic acid order of effectiveness of
toxicity on Salmonella Typhimurium was formic ⬎ acetic
⬎ propionic ⬎ butyric ⬎ HCl but was dependent on their
concentration, temperature of storage, composition of me-
dia, and water activity. Acetic, lactic, and citric acid were
bactericidal to Salmonella Enteritidis, Typhimurium, and
Agona in egg mass with acetic being more efficient than
lactic and citric being the least efficient in killing these
organisms (73). In a comparison of the effects of organic
acids on S. aureus inhibition, Nunheimer and Fabian (58)
found that acetic ⬎ lactic ⬎ citric ⬎ malic ⬎ tartaric ⬎
HCl. The order of effectiveness of different acids at the
same pH on Y. enterocolitica is acetic ⬎ lactic ⬎ citric (8).
The same order was confirmed in a later study with inor-
ganic sulfuric acid being less effective than the organic ac-
ids (49).
SURVIVAL OF PATHOGENS IN MAYONNAISE,
SALAD DRESSINGS, AND SAUCES
A survey of mayonnaise, salad dressings, and sauces
made in the United States (Association for Dressings and
Sauces members) shows that the highest reported pH is 4.4,
which is below the pKa 4.75 for acetic acid (Table 3). The
lowest reported percent titratable acidity as acetic in the
water phase was 0.43 for all products. Because the predom-
inant acid is acetic, these products would be expected to be
toxic and destructive to the bacterial pathogens, especially
in light of their low pH and high titratable acidity as acetic.
Indeed, a survey of the literature shows that this is the case.
E. coli O157:H7, L. monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Sal-
1148 SMITTLE
monella Enteritidis, S. aureus, and Y. enterocolitica died
off when inoculated into a variety of mayonnaises, dress-
ings, and sauces (6, 19, 26, 28, 30, 33, 36, 50, 57, 61, 64,
68, 75, 77, 81). E. coli O157:H7 demonstrated a remarkable
tolerance to the acidic conditions of mayonnaise and salad
dressings, which has also been reported in acidified labo-
ratory media (10, 16), dry salami (16), apple cider (55),
and artificial gastric juice (3). The longest survival reported
was 93 days in real mayonnaise at 5⬚C (36). At storage
conditions more typical of these products, the longest re-
ported time is 40 days at 20⬚C (81). In spite of the resis-
tance of E. coli O157:H7, it is still prudent to mix may-
onnaise and acidic dressings with high pH ingredients such
as meat, seafood, and vegetables as soon as possible in
salad preparation (68). However, this must not be a replace-
ment for good sanitary practices and adequate cooling.
Good sanitation practices will greatly minimize the possi-
bility of cross-contaminating all foods with foodborne path-
ogens. Abdul-Raouf et al. (1) found that E. coli O157:H7
can grow at pH values normally found in beef salads using
mayonnaise, further emphasizing the need for handling pre-
pared salads with caution.
Because these data represent varied levels of inocula,
storage temperatures, pH values, titratable acidities, and
products, it is difficult to assess the effects of these on the
survivability of foodborne pathogens. To aid in interpreting
these data, the decimal reduction times (DRT) were statis-
tically determined by linear regression from published ta-
bles or figures from numerous studies (6, 26, 28, 30, 33,
36, 50, 57, 61, 64, 68, 75, 77, 81). The statistics of the
adapted data are summarized in Table 4. The DRT values
generated from these studies were used in the analysis of
variance for Salmonella, L. monocytogenes, and E. coli
O157:H7 (Tables 5 to 8). Each organism in Table 4 is cat-
egorized by product, storage temperature, pH, DRT hours
and titratable acidity in the water phase. From these data,
it is obvious that all organisms die off, some more rapidly
(Salmonella and Y. entercolitica) than others (E. coli O157:
H7 and L. monocytogenes). At refrigeration temperatures of
5 to 7⬚C, it can take as long as 448.8 h to kill 1 log of E.
coli O157:H7. On the other hand, it takes only 25.5 to 61
h to kill 1 log cycle of L. monocytogenes, Salmonella, or
Y. entercolitica at 5 to 26.6⬚C. Some of the longer survival
times of Salmonella and L. monocytogenes are reported on
experimental mayonnaises of as little as 0.1% titratable
acidity (acetic acid) of the water phase, which is well below
the lowest U.S.-produced dressing target value of 0.43%
(Table 3) (33). Furthermore, it is normal to have storage or
shipping time of at least 72 h before presentation to con-
sumers, thus, allowing for dieoff of the more acid-sensitive
pathogens. It is a requirement of 21 CFR 101.100 to hold
acidic dressings 72 h when using unpasteurized eggs (68).
However, commercial manufacturers use pasteurized eggs
to further ensure product safety. Analysis of variance of the
Salmonella DRTs from studies where product was stored at
23.9 to 26.6⬚C, which is close to the normal storage tem-
perature for these products, is found in Table 5 (26, 33, 50,
57, 61, 68). This analysis shows that pH is highly signifi-
cant and titratable acidity is not significant at the 0.05%
J. Food Prot., Vol. 63, No. 8
level. Figure 1 is a graphic presentation of the log DRT
(min) of a variety of mayonnaises produced in the United
Kingdon and the United States (26, 33, 50, 51). Analysis
of variance shows that the regression of pH to log DRT is
highly statistically significant (P ⬍ 0.001) with a linear
regression formula of log DRT ⫽ ⫺2.89 ⫹ 1.35 pH. Whit-
ing and Buchanan (79) in the development of a quantitative
risk assessment model for Salmonella Enteritidis in pas-
teurized liquid eggs, an essential ingredient in mayonnaise
and other dressings, found that a scenario of inadequate
pasteurization and temperature abuse could lead to a haz-
ardous product. Y. enterocolitica has been shown to grow
in liquid whole eggs and egg whites at 2, 6.7, and 12.8⬚C
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and consequently producing potentially hazardous product
(27). Membre et al. (53) in a model development study of
the effects of temperature, pH, glucose, and citric acid in a
reduced-calorie mayonnaise on Salmonella Typhimurium
found that all formulations and conditions showed the de-
struction of this organism. The experimental parameters
were temperature (15 to 35⬚C), pH (4.5 to 6.5), glucose (1
to 4%), and citric acid (0.05 to 0.1%) (53). Under optimum
conditions for the destruction of Salmonella at low pH and
high temperature and to a lesser extent at high concentra-
tions of citric acid and glucose, Salmonella Typhimurium
can take 3 weeks to inactivate, thus allowing for a potential
health risk (53). However, in the United States, commercial
mayonnaise, dressings, and sauces are manufactured with
acetic acid as the primary acidulant that rapidly kills Sal-
monella and Y. enterocolitica (6, 26, 33, 48, 50, 51, 56, 57,
61, 68, 75). Therefore, it is unlikely that a safety hazard
would result even using highly contaminated eggs. This is
providing that the predominant acid is acetic, the pH is at
least 4.75, and the titratable acidity is at least 0.40% as
acetic acid of the water phase.
The analysis of variance of DRT (h) of studies with L.
monocytogenes shows (Table 6) that within the narrow
bounds of pH 3.3 to 4.3 there is no statistically significant
effect of pH on DRT at P ⬍ 0.05 (26, 30, 33). However,
there appears to be some relationship of DRT to pH (P ⫽
0.076). There appeared to be little relationship of DRT to
titratable acidity (P ⫽ 0.415).
L. monocytogenes has been isolated from high moisture
unripened cheeses and has resulted in illness and death
from the consumption of contaminated cheese (52). In ad-
dition, L. monocytogenes has been isolated and shown to
grow on raw salad vegetables but not on raw whole or
chopped tomatoes (5). Erickson and Jenkins (27) studied
the psychrotrophic growth of L. monocytogenes in com-
mercially pasteurized eggs and found that they grew about
3 logs in 12 days at 12.8⬚C in liquid whole eggs and 5%
salted eggs. Although these are abusive conditions and the
eggs would probably have unacceptable sensory properties
and not be used, the potential does exist that highly con-
taminated eggs could be used to produce mayonnaise and
dressings (27, 69). L. monocytogenes was shown to remain
viable for the entire shelf life of raw chopped tomatoes (5).
Therefore, the potential exists that cheeses, vegetables, and/
or eggs added to dressings as flavorings and emulsifiers
could be contaminated with L. monocytogenes. Even at re-
 J. Food Prot., Vol. 63, No. 8

TABLE 4. Summary of storage temperatures, pH values, DRT, and titratable acidity (TA) in the water phase of some foodborne pathogens calculated from published literature on mayonnaise,
dressings, and sauces (6, 26, 28, 30, 33, 36, 50, 57, 61, 64, 68, 75, 77, 81)
Storage pH DRT (h) TA water phase
temperature
Organism Product (n) (⬚C) Minimum Mean Maximum Minimum Mean Maximum Minimum Mean Maximum

E. coli O157:H7 RMa and 20–25 3.6 3.81 4.08 7.7 58.3 174.0 0.80 1.71 2.10
RCMb (15)
RM and 5–7 3.6 3.77 4.08 174.0 267.8 448.8 0.80 1.72 2.10
RCM (11)
SDc (8) 4–5 3.6 4.27 4.51 9.36 140.4 312.0 NAf NA NA
L. monocytogenes RCM, 23.9–26.6 3.3 3.95 4.3 8.21 28.44 61.0 0.10 0.65 0.99
CFRCM,d
SS,e RCM
(9)
Salmonella spp. RCM, RM 20–26.6 2.6 3.99 4.7 0 5.15 52.7 0.10 0.65 0.99
CFRCM
(28)
Y. enterocolitica RM (3) 21 3.78 3.78 1.13 8.92 13.52 NA NA NA NA
RM (3) 5 3.78 3.78 5.41 5.81 25.5 NA NA NA NA
a Real mayonnaise.
b Reduced-calorie mayonnaise.
c Salad dressing.
d Cholesterol-free reduced-calorie mayonnaise.
e Sandwich spread.
f Not available.
MICROBIOLOGICAL SAFETY OF DRESSINGS
1149

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1150 SMITTLE J. Food Prot., Vol. 63, No. 8

TABLE 5. Analysis of variance of decimal reduction times (h) of TABLE 6. Analysis of variance of decimal reduction times (h) of
Salmonella spp. in real mayonnaise, reduced-calorie mayonnaise, L. monocytogenes in real mayonnaise, reduced-calorie mayon-
cholesterol-free reduced-calorie mayonnaise, and sandwich naise, cholesterol-free reduced-calorie mayonnaise, and sandwich
spread at 23.9 to 26.6⬚C, pH 3.3 to 4.3, and titratable acidity in spread at 23.9 to 26.6⬚C, pH 3.3 to 4.3, and titratable acidity in
the water phase 0.1 to 0.99% (26, 33, 50, 57, 61, 68) the water phase 0.1 to 0.99% (26, 30, 36)
Source df SS MS F value P Source df SS MS F value P

pH 4 2,974.27 743.57 93.23 ⬍0.001 pH 4 1,895 474 4.12 0.076

Error 5 39.88 7.98 Error 5 575 115
TA 7 2,802 400 3.76 0.226 TA 7 2,119 303 1.72 0.415
Error 2 213 106 Error 2 351 176
Total 9 3,014 Total 9 2,470

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frigeration temperatures and with adapted cells they would
probably die off and not present a health hazard in well-
formulated products (30). This is providing the pH is 3.0
with the predominant acid being acetic. For those products
with milder pHs, that contain cheese or other dairy ingre-
dients or both, and that rely on refrigeration, there might
be a problem with the survival of this organism. Research
studies in the literature are lacking in this area. Until an-
swers are provided, it would be prudent for manufacturers
to screen critical ingredients or use suppliers with hazard
analysis and critical control point (HACCP) plans that ad-
dress the presence of L. monocytogenes and its control or
both.
E. coli O157:H7 is a pathogen associated with under-
cooked ground beef meat (24). However, raw milk, unpas-
teurized apple cider, water, and food service-contaminated
mayonnaise have been implicated in illness from E. coli
O157:H7 (4, 24, 77). Dairy cattle have been shown to har-
bor the organism and dairy cattle have been implicated as
the source of beef for at least one outbreak (24). The key
to controlling E coli O157:H7 successfully in dairy plants
is proper pasteurization and good sanitation to prevent cross
contamination after pasteurization (22, 24). Because dairy
products are an essential ingredient of some dressings, the
potential exists that this organism could be present in chees-
es, buttermilk, yogurt, sour cream, and other dairy ingre-
dients (22, 24). In a simulation of postprocessing contam-
ination by E. coli O157:H7, Dineen et al. (22) found that
at 1,000 CFU/ml this organism could be recovered for up
to 12 days in yogurt (pH 4.0), 28 days in sour cream (pH
4.3), and at ⬎100 CFU/ml at 35 days in buttermilk. In
addition, exposure to lactic acid, the principal acid in fer-
mented dairy products, has been found to induce acid tol-
erance in E. coli O157:H7 (31), thus improving their sur-
vival characteristics for subsequent addition to dressings. E.
coli O157:H7 is remarkably acid tolerant and has been
shown to remain viable for extended periods of time in
mayonnaise and dressings (Tables 4 and 5). The organism
gradually dies off in all of these products (DRT 448.8 h or
18.7 days) but can remain viable at refrigerated tempera-
tures for 93 days in real mayonnaise (36). Under normal
mayonnaise and reduced-calorie mayonnaise manufacturing
conditions and storage, E. coli O157:H7 will not survive
(36). Death is most rapid at 20 to 30⬚C, which is the normal
temperature at which these products are stored and distrib-
uted (36). Furthermore, commercial mayonnaise and re-
duced-calorie mayonnaise produced under good manufac-
turing practices does not represent a health risk from E. coli
O157:H7 (36). Erickson et al. (28) in a survey of mayon-
naise and dressing manufacturer’s facilities and pasteurized
eggs for E. coli O157:H7 did not recover this organism in
114 environmental swabs representing 3 manufacturing fa-
cilities and in 188 lots of liquid pasteurized eggs, thus em-
phasizing the almost negligible contamination risk. The ex-
tremes of the typical manufactured dressings in the United
States are pH 4.4 to 2.6 and titratable acidity as acetic in
the water phase of 0.43 to 5.25% (Table 3). Tables 7 and
8 present the analysis of variance of DRT for E. coli O157:

TABLE 7. Analysis of variance of decimal reduction times (h) of

E. coli O157:H7 in real mayonnaise and reduced-calorie may-
onnaise at 5 to 7⬚C, pH 3.6 to 4.08, and titratable acidity in the
water phase 0.8 to 2.1% (36, 77, 81)
Source df SS MS F value P

pH 6 75,409 12,568 23.50 0.004

FIGURE 1. Relationship between pH and log DRT in minutes of
Error 4 2,139 535
Salmonella Enteritidis and various Salmonella spp. inoculated
TA 5 73,708 14,742 19.19 0.003
into real mayonnaise, reduced-calorie, garlic, lemon, and dairy
Error 5 3,840 768
substitute commercial mayonnaises produced in the United King-
Total 10 77,548
dom and the United States (26, 33, 50, 51).
J. Food Prot., Vol. 63, No. 8
TABLE 8. Analysis of variance of decimal reduction times (h) of
E. coli O157:H7 in real mayonnaise and reduced-calorie may-
onnaise at 20 to 25⬚C, pH 3.6 to 4.08, and titratable acidity in
water phase 0.8 to 2.1% (36, 64, 77, 81)
Source df SS MS F value P The author thanks the members of The Association for Dressings
pH 7 36,500 5,214 31.34 ⬍0.001
Error 7 1,165 166
TA 6 28,686 4,781 4.26 0.032
Error 8 8,980 1,122
Total 14 37,665
H7 in real mayonnaise and reduced-calorie mayonnaise at
5 to 7⬚C and 20 to 25⬚C (36, 64, 77, 81). Both pH and
titratable acidity at 5 to 7⬚C and 20 to 25⬚C have a signif-
icant effect on the reduction of this organism. The reported
upper limit on products containing acetic/lactic acid that
were challenged with E. coli O157:H7 was pH 4.51 (Table
4). E. coli O157:H7 was shown to decrease gradually in
these dairy products containing dressings stored at 4 to 5⬚C.
E. coli O157:H7 remained viable for ⬎35 days (77). These
data suggest that this organism could be a potential problem
given the opportunity, albeit a remote one. Because there
is no way to acidify to eliminate this hardy organism, the
only recourse is to ensure that the ingredient manufacturer
has a properly developed HACCP plan in place that ad-
dresses cross contamination of this organism.
The analysis of variance for pH and titratable acidity
to DRT clearly shows the overall importance of pH in con-
trolling these pathogens in dressings, sauces, and mayon-
naise. Because titratable acidity is significant in the destruc-
tion of E. coli O157:H7, this chemical parameter must also
be an important tool for controlling these pathogens.
SUMMARY
There are no reported incidences where foodborne
pathogens will grow in commercially produced mayonnaise
or dressing. In all reported studies foodborne pathogens die
off at various rates depending on the organism, acid type,
acid concentration, storage temperature, organism adapt-
ability, and pH. From a survey of U.S. manufacturers, the
highest reported pH was 4.4 with the predominant acid be-
ing acetic and 0.43% titratable acidity as acetic of the water
phase. Although foodborne pathogens die when introduced
into these products, some die at very slow rates, especially
E. coli O157:H7. Consequently, the intrinsic preservative
systems of these products cannot be relied upon to guar-
antee absolute safety. It is the responsibility of the manu-
facturer to assure the safety of these products for consump-
tion through properly implemented good manufacturing
practices and HACCP systems, and reasonable manufac-
turing precautions are taken to select pathogen-free critical
ingredients and prevent cross contamination. Numerous re-
searchers have reported on the safety of these products and
all have shown that foodborne pathogens die when intro-
duced into these products at very high populations not nor-
mally encountered and at pH levels not encountered under
manufacturing conditions or using acids not normally em-
ployed. These facts all support the remarkable safety record
MICROBIOLOGICAL SAFETY OF DRESSINGS 1151
of mayonnaise and dressings and their continued exclusion
from the acidified foods category of 21 CFR 114.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
and Sauces for their data on dressings and sauces produced in the United
States. In addition, I thank the Executive Technical Board and staff of
The Association for Dressings and Sauces for their review and comments
on this manuscript. Finally, I especially thank Ms. Jeannie Milewski for
her efforts in coordinating the review and data collection processes.
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