Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110

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Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/ locate/ jnoncrysol

High temperature friction characterization for viscoelastic glass

contacting a mold
Balajee Ananthasayanam a, Dhananjay Joshi a, Matthew Stairiker b, Matthew Tardiff b,
Kathleen C. Richardson c,1, Paul F. Joseph a,⁎
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
b
Edmund Optics, Pennsburg, PA 18073, USA
c
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, COMSET, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Computational simulations of glass forming processes when interface slip occurs require a precise characteriza-
Received 9 September 2013 tion of friction since friction, like viscosity, affects how much load is required to deform glass at a given rate. Fric-
Received in revised form 3 November 2013 tion therefore affects the processing time in the case of a load controlled process such as precision glass molding
Available online 25 November 2013
(PGM) and complicates the determination of viscosity when using parallel plate viscometry (PPV). In this com-
bined experimental and computational study the ring compression test, where a “washer” shaped glass specimen
Keywords:
Friction;
is compressed between two flat molds at high temperature, is conducted and simulated. This test is very similar
Ring compression test; to PGM and PPV, making it ideal to quantify friction for these processes. The Coulomb friction model is used due
Precision lens molding; to observed glass slipping behavior and the relatively low values of shear stress encountered in these processes.
Viscoelastic; For glass at high temperature where viscosity is in the range of about 107–1011 Pa · s, it is demonstrated that the
Parallel plate viscometry outcome of the test has a very weak dependence on material properties, which is significant since the stress and
structural relaxation properties of glass within the transition temperature region are temperature dependent and
difficult to obtain. The presented friction calibration curves are therefore material independent when the pro-
posed processing procedure is followed. Sensitivity analysis is performed with respect to various factors, such
as rate of deformation, magnitude of loading, temperature non-uniformity and contact of the inner and outer
cylindrical surfaces with the mold surfaces, providing the experimentalist with guidelines to conduct valid
tests. Using this friction characterization method, the viscosity range for PPV can be increased by accurately
correcting for interface slip.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction when compared to the one-half micron accuracy required in precision

Friction at the glass/mold interface is an important factor in process-
es such as precision glass molding (PGM) due to the following reasons:
a) final size and shape of the lens and the residual stress state of the
molded component are affected [1,2],
b) when friction is high, the pressing force or molding duration must be
increased, which affects mold life and processing time [1,2],
c) wear of the mold surface (coated or uncoated) is affected by high
friction, which decreases its life and affects the surface quality of
the lens [3,4].
Ananthasayanam et al. [2] made use of computational mechanics
and sensitivity analysis to show that the effect of friction on the shape
of a molded lens can be as much as 8 microns, which is significant
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 864 656 0545; fax: +1 864 656 4435.
E-mail address: jpaul@clemson.edu (P.F. Joseph).
1
Currently at the College of Optics and Photonics, University of Central Florida, Orlando,
FL 32816, USA.
lens design. The success of the computational approach, which is the
most cost effective technique to achieve optical precision of the lens
surfaces through logical re-tooling of the mold, therefore depends on
accurate characterizations of behaviors such as friction. Following
Ananthasayanam et al. [1], other important behaviors include the strain
and temperature history dependent thermo-mechanical behavior of
glass and the interface heat transfer behavior. Unfortunately, as with
many of the required input parameters required to model PGM, there
is a lack of friction data in the literature. While extreme cases sometimes
apply, such as complete sticking of the glass to the molds at very high
temperature [5,6] and frictionless contact [7], in the temperature
range of precision lens molding, the actual case is believed to be be-
tween these two extremes, and hence a model and data are required
to quantify slipping behavior.
Parallel plate viscometry (PPV) at viscosity above the recommended
range of 104–108 Pa · s (ASTM standard (2012)) is yet another applica-
tion where frictional slip is important. As shown by Joshi et al. [8], PPV
can be extended to higher viscosity if friction can be quantified and is
taken into account.

0022-3093/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2013.11.007
 B. Ananthasayanam et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110
Several techniques to measure friction in forming processes under
different operating conditions are presented in the literature [9–13]
including those with applications to glass [14,15,17]. Mossaddegh and
Ziegert [14] applied the double sided shear test for the direct measure-
ment of the force required to push a mold contacting glass at a pre-
scribed rate. Their study was motivated by PGM and was performed in
a modified lens molding machine. Assuming full slip between the
mold surfaces and the glass, the coefficient of friction between N-BK7
glass and a coated WC mold was determined to be in the range of 0.6–
0.7. In the study by Ananthasayanam [17] the ring compression test
was used to determine a much lower coefficient of friction between
L-BAL35 glass and a WC mold with a diamond like carbon (DLC) coat-
ing. The advantage of this test is the extreme sensitivity of the defor-
mation of the inner radius of a ring-shaped specimen to the level of
friction. The cylinder compression test [16] has also been used to char-
acterize the friction coefficient by making use of the bulged shape of
the cylinder, which is sensitive to interface friction. Compared to the
ring compression test, this test has the advantage of simpler specimen
geometry, but lacks the special feature of a quantity that is easy to mea-
sure and is very sensitive to friction. While the profile of the bulged
shape can be used to estimate the friction coefficient, it is not with the
same resolution as with the RCT.
Of all the methods, the ring compression test [18–22] is believed to
be the most relevant to PGM, especially for coefficients of friction less
than about 0.3 which are most desirable for this process to reduce
wear of the expensive coatings on the mold surfaces. In this test a
“washer” shaped specimen is compressed between two flat dies at
high temperature and the change of internal diameter, which is very
sensitive to friction, is measured as a function of the change in height.
Friction calibration curves quantify this response and allow a direct
conversion from experimental data to a friction parameter as long as
the curves are applicable to the material behavior of the specimen. A
precision lens molding machine and the precision lens molding process
are ideally suited to performing this test, since the pressing of a glass
ring is almost identical to the pressing of a lens [1]. The same applies
even more precisely to the use of a parallel plate viscometer where a
glass cylinder is pressed between flat molds. A schematic of the different
outcomes of the ring compression test (RCT) for different interface con-
ditions is shown in Fig. 1. If the friction at the interface is very low, ma-
terial flow is directed radially outward. As a result, both the internal and
the external diameter increase. For the opposite case of high friction, the
inner diameter decreases while the outer diameter increases. If the fric-
tion is between these two extremes, typically around μ = 0.1, the inner
diameter may increase or decrease, depending on the level of axial
deformation.
After deformation
Fig. 1. Outcomes of the RCT for different interfacial conditions for the same mold/material pair.
101
The RCT has been used to quantify interfacial slipping behavior
between mold and workpiece for a variety of materials, ranging from
metals [18,19,21] to softer materials such as plasticine [20]. The two
primary slip models used in ring compression studies are the Coulomb
friction model when the normal stress is low and the friction factor
model when the normal stress is high. This latter model recognizes
that there is an upper limit of shear stress that the interface can support,
which is independent of the normal stress [18]. For the case of metals,
which have received the most attention in the literature, it was shown
by Hayhurst and Chan [22] that in some cases a combination of these
models should be used, while for others one of the models is sufficient.
For plasticine, which is a relatively soft material like glass at high tem-
perature, Sofuoglu and Rasty [20] use only the Coulomb friction model.
While the RCT is a convenient and reliable choice for friction evalu-
ation for some applications, from the point of view of metal extrusion
and forging processes this test is unreliable since the material is not
subjected to realistic conditions [23,24,11]. Compared to these metal
forming operations, the RCT has very low new surface generation,
very low contact pressures and material flow conditions that are not
nearly as severe. For example, Bay [25] has shown that in cold forging
processes, contact pressures can reach 2500 MPa and surface enlarge-
ment can be as high as 3000%. Therefore, in such processes the RCT
can provide only an estimate of the friction coefficient. The study by
Wang et al. [13] presents a review of friction tests that are more appro-
priate for extrusion processes.
Fortunately the limitations of the RCT test to metal extrusion and
forging processes do not apply to the use of the RCT to PGM and PPV,
where realistic interface conditions are simulated very well. In PGM
the workpiece does not undergo significant shape changes or creation
of surface area as in metal forming, since it is already prepared as a “pre-
form” close in shape to the aspherical shape to be achieved through the
molding process. As a result, even for high friction, the stresses at the
preform/mold interface are very low compared to those in extrusion
and metal forming applications. The RCT, which is relatively easy to
conduct at high temperature, is therefore believed to be ideal for esti-
mating friction behavior for the lens molding process.
In the current study the RCT was applied to glass, which has com-
plex, typically unknown, viscoelastic and structural relaxation behavior
in the transition temperature range [1,2]. The Coulomb friction model
was used since the interface shear stresses and the sliding speeds are
relatively low. The goal of this study was to characterize friction behav-
ior accurately between glass and mold surface within the molding tem-
perature range and to quantify the effects of material properties and
loading rate on the friction calibration curves. This study makes use of
the computational model proposed and computationally validated for
(a). Before deformation
(b). Low friction case
(c). Medium friction case
(d). High friction case
102 B. Ananthasayanam et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110
precision lens molding in [1] and validated using experimental data in
[2] for both a bi-convex lens and a steep meniscus lens. Lens profile
deviation [1], which is typically in the range of 10–20 microns for a
lens with a diameter of 10 mm, was used in the validations. The current
study applies the sensitivity approach used in [2] to changes in the inner
radius of the ring in the RCT, which are typically two orders of magni-
tude larger than lens profile deviation. As such, several factors that
were important to deviation in [2] may not be important in the RCT.
2. Experiments
A Toshiba lens molding machine (GMP series) was used to conduct
the RCTs. Special flat molds were created using the same Diamond-
like carbon (DLC) coating that is applied to the actual molds used for
lenses. The DLC coating, which is about 50 μm thick, decreases friction
at the interface, prevents chemical reaction between glass and molds
during the molding stage and also eases the release of the lens once
the molding process is complete. Several glass rings were made of the
molding glass material L-BAL35 with dimensions of 19.15 mm outer
diameter (OD), 9.59 mm inner diameter (ID), and 6.37 mm tall (H)
such that the standard ring ratio from Male and Depierre [18] of OD:
ID:H = 6:3:2 was maintained. These dimensions are used for all speci-
mens in this study, both experimental and computational. This will
be referred to as the “standard ring.” Furthermore, symmetry in the
circumferential direction refers to independence with respect to the
circumferential coordinate, while symmetry in the axial direction corre-
sponds to symmetry with respect to the plane (parallel to the mold
surfaces) that divides the ring into two rings of height H/2. The rings
were ground on a single sided steel tool with emery and then polished
with a pitch tool. The central hole was cored out after polishing with a
diamond core drill. The concentricity of the hole was on the order of a
100 μm and parallelism of the flat surfaces was better than 1 arcmin.
Each ring was used in only one experiment to obtain one data point.
The rings were pressed in a vacuum using the identical processing con-
ditions as in the glass lens molding operation, which are defined in the
study by Ananthasayanam et al. [1]. A vacuum was used as there was
concern that trapped air in the hole would affect the results. As an alter-
native to a vacuum, a small hole could have been drilled in the molds. A
summary of duration times for all the stages of the process is presented
in Table 1.
Newly made and coated molds were used for a set of nine RCTs,
referred to as Data Set #1, followed by eight tests in Data Set #2. The
rings in Data Set #1 were soaked for only 200 s which was not enough
to achieve temperature uniformity in the axial direction. During the
heating and soaking periods a 2.62 mm gap is maintained, which
caused the top surface of the ring to be cooler than the bottom surface
at the start of pressing. This temperature non-uniformity was revealed
Table 1
Recommended duration times for the stages of the RCT used for Data Set #2 and the sim-
ulations unless noted otherwise. Specimen dimensions are always OD = 19.15 mm,
ID = 9.59 mm inner diameter, and H = 6.37 mm.
Stage Description Duration (sec)
Heating Heat sample from room temperature to 210
molding temperature. Glass sample rests on
lower mold with a gap of 2.62 mm from the
upper mold.
Soaking Molding temperature was maintained to N500
achieve uniform temperature distribution
within sample. The gap was maintained
during this stage.
Main pressing Force Control: A pressing force of 1500 N Variable
was applied to the specimen until the
desired center thickness value was achieved.
Slow cooling with a Controlled slow cooling with the applied 300
maintenance force “maintenance” force reduced to 500 N.
Rapid cooling Rapid cooling back to room temperature. 650
in the specimens by the profile of the inner radius in the axial direction
(from top to bottom). As will be discussed in Section 4.1, this profile was
slightly unsymmetric and was also inconsistent with the uniform tem-
perature profile presented in Fig. 1b. The rings in Data Set #1, which
were intended to reach 589 °C, will be used as a validation of the result
determined for the rings in Data Set #2, which had an increased soaking
time of 500 s. For this case six rings were pressed at a temperature
of 589 °C, which resulted in about 50% or more reduction in the axial
dimension. After pressing these rings, two rings were pressed at
569 °C for the same load, resulting in a height reduction of about 20%.
A temperature of 589 °C was chosen as it is an ideal molding tempera-
ture for L-BAL35 type glass and a friction coefficient at this temperature
was desired, while the other temperature was chosen to study the
dependence of friction coefficient on temperature. Examples of two
pressed rings, one at 589 °C and the other at 569 °C are shown in
Fig. 2. Some rings pressed at the higher temperature were slightly ellip-
tical in shape, such as the ring in Fig. 2. In such cases the inner radius was
obtained as an average value.
3. Finite element model
The numerical simulation of the RCT was done using the commer-
cial finite element code ABAQUS [26]. A “*COUPLED-TEMPERATURE
DISPLACEMENT” type of analysis was used in this simulation as the
mechanical properties change significantly with temperature and
the heat conduction at the interface is also affected by the changing
contact surface. All the pressing and cooling stages were modeled.
This model was proposed for precision lens molding in [1] and validated
for lens molding using experimental data for lens profile deviation in
[2]. While the RCT is very similar to lens molding, additional validation
is required in the current study to address contact behavior associated
with the ninety degree corners of the initial geometry of a ring or
glass cylinder used in PPV that are not present in the smooth preforms
used for a lens.
3.1. Model geometry
The initial geometry of the model is shown in Fig. 3. An axisymmetric
model (symmetry with respect to the circumferential coordinate) is
used since the ring and the molds are circular and the loading can be
approximated as symmetric around the central axis. Symmetry in the
axial direction is not assumed due to the gap maintained during the
heating and soaking stages that are described in Table 1. The ring is
modeled as a linear viscoelastic material, while both the upper and
lower molds are modeled as linear elastic materials. The glass ring and
the molds were meshed with CAX4T elements, which are continuum
axi-symmetric 4-noded elements with temperature degree of freedom.
The upper and lower molds had 1284 and 1107 elements, respectively,
and the glass ring was meshed with 3072 elements. It was determined
that this level of meshing for the ring provided convergence for all
cases when the ring had the same coefficient of friction on all surfaces.
Generally speaking, the convergence of the inner radius of a ring is a
straightforward computation compared to convergence of lens profile
deviation in the study presented by Ananthasayanam et al. [1]. Howev-
er, convergence in the current study was complicated when the coeffi-
cient of friction on the plane and cylindrical surfaces were different. A
convergence study for this case, which should be avoided by proper
polishing of all glass surfaces, is presented in Section 4.5.
3.2. Interface behavior
The normal contact behavior was modeled as “hard” contact in
ABAQUS while the tangential behavior was modeled using a penalty
formulation with a Coulomb friction model. Two master-slave types of
contact interaction pairs were created; one between the top surfaces
of the ring and the bottom surface of the top mold and the other
 B. Ananthasayanam et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110 103

Fig. 2. Rings pressed to their maximum change in height at 589 °C and 569 °C are shown at the left and right, respectively.

between the bottom surfaces of the ring and the top surface of the
bottom mold as shown in Fig. 3. These definitions allow the inner and
outer cylindrical surfaces of the glass to come in contact with the
molds, which occur for cases of high friction. Furthermore, the mold
surface is the master surface and the glass surfaces are the slave sur-
faces. This master-slave type contact definition was used since the
glass is much softer than the molds. Care was taken while meshing
such that the mold elements were at least five times larger than the
glass elements. This was done to avoid contact penetration because
the master surface can penetrate the slave surface while the slave
surface cannot penetrate the master surface. Referring to Fig. 3, two
coupling constraints are also defined; one between RPTOP and the top
surface of the top mold and the other between RPBOT and the bottom
surface of the bottom mold. In these constraints the vertical compo-
nents of displacements of the slave surfaces were constrained to move
along with their respective master reference points, while the horizon-
tal components of displacements are free to slide.
To address thermal interactions, the glass and mold surfaces ex-
changed heat by contact/gap conductance and radiation and the details
are given in Ananthasayanam et al. [1,2].
3.3. Material behavior of glass and molds

The molds were modeled as linear elastic materials, while the glass
was modeled as a linear viscoelastic material including structural relax-
ation to account for thermal history dependent thermal expansion and
thermo-rheologically simple (TRS) behavior to account for temperature
dependence of material properties. The theory and FEA implementation
for structural relaxation along with the viscoelastic and TRS behaviors of
glass are presented in detail by Ananthasayanam et al. [1,2] and are not
repeated here. Experiments were performed using the Ohara molding
glass, L-BAL35 [27], and tungsten carbide mold material [28] with a
diamond like coating (DLC). The elastic and thermal properties of the
molds and the glass are presented in Table 2, while the stress relaxation
parameters for the viscoelastic behavior along with the TRS constants
are given in Table 3. Material Set A given in Table 3 represents the full
viscoelastic treatment of material behavior with a multiple term prony
series for the response to shear and a single term prony series for the
bulk response. Material Set B represents a simplified viscoelastic mate-
rial behavior that involves a single Maxwell element in shear and an
elastic bulk behavior. Material Sets A and B have the same value of

Table 2
Thermal and mechanical properties of the glass and mold materials.

Property Glass Mold

Density, ρ (kg/m3) 2550 14,650

Young's Modulus, E (GPa) 100.8, T ≤ 510 °C 570
10, T ≥ 560 °C
Poisson's Ratio, ν 0.252 0.22
Specific Heat, cp (J/kg/K) 1100, T ≤ 470 °C 314
1730, T ≥ 570 °C
Thermal Conductivity, κ (W/m/K) 1.126 38
Thermal Expansion Coefficient, α (K−1) a
4.9 × 10−6
Glass Transition Temperature, Tg (°C) 527 –
a
The structural relaxation behavior of glass is presented in Table 3 of Ananthasayanam
Fig. 3. Axisymmetric finite element model used for simulation of the RCT. et al. [1].
104 B. Ananthasayanam et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110

Table 3
Stress relaxation functions of L-BAL35 glass used in the numerical simulations. The TRS
behavior is given by TR = 569 °C, C1 = 12.41, C2 = 129 °C.
Shear relaxation function
1 ðt Þ
ψ1 ðt Þ ¼ G2G
0 0
Material set A (full viscoelastic material behavior)
wi
0.5794458
0.3624554
0.03
0.028
Material set B (simplified material behavior)
1.0
the equilibrium viscosity. The parameters presented in Tables 2 and 3
are similar to those used by Ananthasayanam et al. [1,2], while the
structural relaxation parameters used in this study are identical to
those of Ananthasayanam et al. [1,2] and are therefore not repeated.
4. Results
In this section friction calibration curves (FCC) will be generated for
glass using the Coulomb friction model with different material models
and different loading. Experimental data will be used to determine the
friction coefficient for a specific case in precision lens molding. Then
the goal will be to identify the requirements for a universal set of FCC
that can be used with reasonable accuracy for a glass with unknown
material properties. Finally, through sensitivity analysis, some issues
that can lead to error in the data will be quantified.
4.1. Comparison with experimental data
The FCC in Fig. 4 show how the simulation results compare with
the data from the set of eight experiments in Data Set #2 performed
on L-BAL35 glass rings at 569 °C and 589 °C as discussed in Section 2.
The number beside each data point (solid square or solid circle) in the
figure corresponds to the order number of the test, which shows that
0 tion about the mid-plane of the ring. This symmetry is due to the nature
% Decrease in internal diameter of the ring
after the first two specimens the results were more consistent. The
material behavior for L-BAL35 glass used in the model is defined in
Tables 2 and 3 (Material Set A), and Ananthasayanam et al. [1] for the
Hydrostatic relaxation function structural relaxation parameters. Equilibrium viscosity values at these
2 ðt Þ
ψ2 ðt Þ ¼ G3K two temperatures are 1010.0 Pa · s and 108.33 Pa · s, respectively. The
computational data was generated in an identical manner as in the
experiments, i.e., the simulations model the entire process, which in-
τi (s) vi ¼ 1− KK∞0 λi (s) cludes heating, soaking, pressing to the desired level of deformation
0.38 0.85 10 and cooling to obtain each data point. Only the press time in Table 1
0.48
was varied to complete this calculation. Based on the FCC in Fig. 4, it is
0.88
74.4 concluded that the friction coefficient between the L-BAL preform and
the DLC coated mold in this temperature range is between 0.04 and
0.05, but closer to 0.05. The insert in the figure corresponds to an axi-
2.504 K 0 ¼ 3ð1−2ν
E
Þ symmetric view of the ring at a low level of friction, which compares
to Case (b) in Fig. 1. Similar values of friction coefficients associated
with DLC coatings for related applications and much lower values for
other applications have been reported in the literature [29,30].
The nine data points from Data Set #1 will now be used in a compu-
tational study to show the importance of measuring the ring at the cen-
terline and the complicating effects of non-uniform temperature. The
rings used in Data Set #1 had a soak time of 200 s which resulted in a
non-uniform temperature in the axial direction of the ring at the start
of the pressing stage. In this case the bottom of the ring was hotter,
which affects the profile of the inner radius of the ring. Before present-
ing the FCC, the profile of the inner diameter of the ring will be studied
for this case of low friction.
The profile presented in Fig. 1b indicates that the centerline has the
maximum inner diameter and the top and bottom of the ring, which are
symmetric, have the minimum diameter. The specimens from Data Set
#1 did not have this profile, although they were almost symmetric.
Computational simulations of the 200 s soak time experiments provid-
ed the explanation. Actual results from computational simulations that
show the contour of the deformed shape of the ring are presented in
Fig. 5. These results include the entire heating and cooling process and
are presented for uniform and non-uniform temperature. This figure
shows how the inner diameter measured at the top or bottom of the
ring compared to the measurement at the center are much different
between the isothermal and non-isothermal cases. Based on a visual
inspection, the profile of the inner diameter of the non-uniform temper-
ature case in Fig. 5 was similar to that of the rings from Data Set #1. Even
though the temperature was not symmetric, the deformation profile
tended to be nearly symmetric, indicating that temperature non-
uniformity cannot always be identified by lack of symmetry of deforma-

2 µ = 0.06 of deformation in the RCT and also the fact that upon contact with the
7
-5 8
top mold, the upper surface of the ring heats relatively quickly. This
heating can provide a self-correcting mechanism when there is non-
-10 uniform temperature at the start of the pressing stage if the rate of
µ = 0.05 axial deformation occurs slowly compared to the rate of heat transfer.
-15 Given that the upper surface of the ring is cooler than the lower surface,
3
Top Mold 6
4 in a force controlled test the press time must be increased due to the
-20
5
µ = 0.04
Ring
1
-25 Bottom Mold

Experimental Data at 589oC

Top Mold Top Mold
-30
µ = 0.03
o
Experimental Data at 569 C
Friction Calibration Curves Ring Ring
-35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
% Deformation in the axial direction Bottom Mold Bottom Mold
Fig. 4. FCC from simulations compared with experimental data for L-BAL35 glass pressed
between tungsten carbide molds with a DLC coating. The heating, soaking, pressing and Fig. 5. Computational simulations of a deformed ring for a coefficient of friction of 0.05 at
cooling stage durations for the Data Set #2 experiments and simulations are presented 50% axial deformation for uniform temperature on the left and non-uniform temperature
in Table 1. The number (1–8) beside each data point corresponds to the order of the on the right. The non-uniform results correspond to a 200 second soak time and a gap
test. The insert is the outline of the deformed shape from the simulations for 50% axial conductance parameter of h = 5000 W/m2/K. Emphasis is on the difference between
deformation at the higher temperature. centerline and top/bottom values of the inner radius for the two cases.
 B. Ananthasayanam et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110 105

60
presence of stiffer (cooler) material which favors this mechanism. The
actual process

% Decrease in internal diameter of the ring

FCC for both the center and the minimum values of the inner diameter cooling omitted µ = 0.15
will next be considered. A very important point in what follows is that 40
heating, soaking and cooling omitted
the gap conductance parameter, h, which quantifies how heat flows
from the molds to the glass, is not known with certainty. As will be 20
seen below, when uniform temperature is not achieved, some results
are very sensitive to this parameter. 0
Comparisons between the nine data points in Data Set #1 and three
simulation results are presented in Fig. 6. The rings, which are no longer
µ = 0.04
-20
available, were (incorrectly) measured only at the minimum value of the
inner diameter and not at the centerline. The three simulation results in -40
Fig. 6, which are provided for both the centerline and the top/bottom
values of the inner diameter, correspond to: 1) standard FCC for uniform
µ=0
-60
temperature (solid lines), 2) non-isothermal case with 200 s soak time
using a gap conductance parameter of h = 5000 W/m2/K (dashed
-80
lines) and 3) non-isothermal case with h = 280 W/m2/K (dotted 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
lines). These results show that in addition to the importance of achieving % Deformation in the axial direction
temperature uniformity, it is essential to measure the value of the inner
diameter at the centerline of the ring. It is observed that in spite of tem- Fig. 7. FCC showing the effects of structural relaxation (thermal expansion and contrac-
tion) during the heating and cooling stages.
perature non-uniformity, the FCC of the centerline provides a reasonable
estimate of the correct result and this result is not too sensitive to the
value of the gap conductance parameter, h. The results in Fig. 6 also third also omits the heating and soaking stages. It is noted that the
show the high sensitivity of the minimum diameter to the details of cooling stage also includes the unloading of the specimen. As seen
the non-uniform temperature distribution indicating that the minimum from the results in Fig. 7, the sensitivity of the combination of unloading
diameter should not be used for these low friction cases, even though it is and the thermal expansion and contraction behavior on the FCC is
easier to measure. Sensitivity of the FCC to non-uniform temperature for negligible. While the effects of thermal expansion are significant for
the full range of friction coefficients is considered in Section 4.5. Finally, many dimensional changes, such as lens profile deviation in lens mold-
the comparison with results in Fig. 6 helps to validate the results from ing [2], the results in Fig. 7 show that thermal expansion for this glass
Fig. 4, which indicated that μ was slightly less than 0.05. type is not significant for the dimensional change of the inner radius
of the ring. This is because the displacement of the inner radius due
4.2. Sensitivity to thermal expansion behavior (structural relaxation) to the combination of bulging and interface slip is very large relative
to the effects of unloading and structural relaxation. This is the key
From a computational point of view it is numerically intensive to advantage of the RCT. Furthermore, this feature allows the test to be
produce the FCC when each data point must experience the entire conducted on a more accessible parallel plate viscometer, since the
heating, soaking, pressing and cooling cycles. The extreme sensitivity sophisticated cooling capability of a lens molding machine is not neces-
of the inner radius of the ring to the level of friction sometimes allows sary. This result for L-BAL35 glass can be extended to other glass types
for a simplification of the modeling process. This is demonstrated by since dimensional changes due to structural relaxation are not expected
the results in Fig. 7, which presents a study of the FCC for three levels to produce a significant shift in the friction curve. In order to quantify
of friction for three different thermal histories using the material behav- this and provide a way to check the validity of this statement for another
ior defined in Tables 2 and 3. The first thermal history is the actual pro- glass type, an approximation of the change in inner diameter due to
cess, the second omits the cooling stage so that the change in inner cooling alone is made. Assuming no friction, uniform temperature in
radius can be generated continuously as the ring is pressed, and the the glass ring and no cooling rate dependence for thermal contraction,
the change in inner diameter is given by

5
TZ
% Decrease in internal diameter of the ring

ΔD
Room
α þ α 
L G
¼ α ðT ÞdT ¼ α G ðT Room −T t Þ þ ðT t −T Mold Þ; ð1Þ
D 2
0 Top / Bottom of Ring T Mold

where the room temperature value of the coefficient of thermal

-5
expansion is assumed to be constant (αG) for T b Tt and varies line-
arly to that of the liquid phase value, αL, at the molding temperature,
TMold. The “transition” temperature Tt is selected to represent
-10 approximately the lower limit of the actual transition region. For L-
BAL35 the values used in this approximation are: TRoom = 20 °C,
Expt Set #1
Tt = 490 °C, TMold = 590 °C, αG = 8 × 10− 6 °C− 1 and αL = 70 ×
-15
Uniform Temperature 10− 6 °C− 1. These values lead to a 0.76% reduction in the diameter
h = 5000 W/m 2/K which corresponds to an increase in the value of the FCC. Given the
h = 280 W/m 2/K Center actual results using the full process (both in Fig. 7 and results to be pro-
-20 vided later), if a different glass has a comparable approximation, it is be-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
% Deformation in the axial direction lieved that the FCC will not be appreciably affected. For most precision
molding glasses, the liquid and glassy thermal expansion coefficients
Fig. 6. Comparison of experimental data from Data set #1 with FCC from simulations for are not very different from L-BAL35 to affect the change in inner diam-
a friction coefficient of 0.05 with a short soak time. The inner diameter measured at top/
bottom and center of ring (refer to Fig. 5) are indicated in the plot for three different ther-
eter significantly. For example, αG = 9.2 × 10−6 °C−1 and αL = 70 ×
mal conditions: isothermal ring and non-isothermal ring for two values of the gap conduc- 10−6 °C−1 for P-SK57. It is noted that based on the results in Fig. 7,
tion heat transfer parameter, h. which include all the deformation mechanisms and heating cycles,
106 B. Ananthasayanam et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110
this approximation is an overestimate of the change. The conclusion
that heating and cooling do not significantly alter the FCC is very impor-
tant since it shows that the complex structural relaxation behavior of
the glass does not need to be known before conducting the RCT. Fur-
thermore, from a computational point of view, for cases when mechan-
ical unloading does not affect the FCC results, it appears that calibration
curves can be generated at isothermal conditions which would simplify
the analysis. This possibility will be studied further. In addition, if a sen-
sitivity analysis is conducted and the results are closer together than
those in Fig. 7, the results will not be presented.
4.3. Sensitivity to viscoelastic material behavior (stress relaxation)
When glass is in the transition temperature range the material
behavior is viscoelastic, i.e., there is a transition from purely elastic
behavior at low temperature to purely viscous behavior at high temper-
ature. The transition temperature range includes the glass transition
temperature, Tg and spans about 50–100 °C above and below Tg. This
transition is composition-dependent and gradual, and since the mold-
ing process occurs in this temperature range, details of the material
behavior in this transition region should not be neglected. All results
in this section are for a constant load of 1500 N. The cases of a rate con-
trolled test and a higher creep load are considered in the next section.
The logical starting point for an investigation of the effect of mechan-
ical behavior of glass is to quantify the effect of viscosity on the FCC,
since this is the deformation mechanism at high temperature and is
also the dominant deformation mechanism in the transition tempera-
ture range. First, based on press time, it is necessary to determine the
range of viscosities that is practical for a load of 1500 N to reach a
level of deformation of 50% for the standard ring specimen. These
results are presented in Fig. 8, which shows that a press time of
about an hour is required when the viscosity is between 109.5 and
1010 Pa · s. The results apply to the full range, 7 b log(η) b 11, which
should easily include all practical values of viscosity since glass is unlike-
ly to slip at a viscosity of 107 Pa · s and a creep test to 50% deformation
is not practical for a viscosity of 1011 Pa · s or higher due to the long
press time. The results from an isothermal study making use of Material
Set B show that the FCC were independent of viscosity for the full range
of friction. This was also been verified for the full process for selected
cases which will be presented later.
While viscosity is the most important part of the Maxwell ele-
ment, the effect of the initial elastic response on the FCC was also
considered using computational simulations with low (~ 1 GPa)
Fig. 8. Press times required for an axial deformation of 50% for the standard ring compres-
sion specimen and constant loads of 1500 N and 15,000 N. Both no-slip and no friction are
considered for viscosity ranging from 107 to 1011 Pa · s.
and high (~100 GPa) values of elastic modulus (E) at high tempera-
tures. For this study the entire cycle of heating, soaking, pressing and
cooling was simulated. The results indicate that the elastic modulus at
high temperature has a negligible effect on final dimensions of the
ring and the FCC remain practically unchanged. In cases where the elas-
tic modulus is relatively high, an isothermal analysis gives good results.
However, for low values of elastic modulus such as 1 GPa and high fric-
tion, it might be necessary to unload to obtain an accurate FCC. The
insensitivity of unloading on the FCC for low friction can be understood
by considering an approximate analysis that is analogous to the devel-
opment of Eq. (1). Again the no friction case is considered and temper-
ature is assumed to be uniform throughout the ring as it cools. The
primary contribution to the change in diameter comes when the press-
ing force (FP) is reduced to the maintenance force (FM) at the molding
temperature where the elastic modulus is its smallest value. The change
in diameter for this case can be approximated by
ΔD F −F M
¼ −ν P : ð2Þ
D AE
Using the values ν = 0.252, A = 2.16 × 10−4 m2, FP = 1500 N
and FM = 500 N gives a percent change in the decrease of the diameter
of only 0.1% for E = 1 GPa, which shows that for low friction unloading
is not an issue. For high friction, however, the full process results indi-
cate that unloading is important when the elastic modulus is low and
therefore unloading should be included when approximating the full
process with an isothermal process.
The effect of compressibility on the FCC was also considered by com-
paring the elastic bulk behavior results to those for both a rigid bulk
response and a single term prony series bulk response. These results
were identical so it is concluded that the effect of compressibility on
the FCC is also negligible.
Since glass behavior is viscoelastic within the transition temperature
range, it is necessary to investigate the effects of additional time-
dependent modes of deformation introduced by additional prony series
terms in shear and bulk modulus. The results in Fig. 9 compare FCC for
Material Sets A and B given in Table 3. These results show a small but
negligible effect due to this more detailed material behavior at all levels
of friction. Given the complexity of the material characterization re-
quired for a given glass, it is significant that simplified material behavior
can be used without a loss of accuracy to characterize the friction coef-
ficient of glass at high temperature.
80
% Decrease in internal diameter of the ring
Material Set A µ > 0.6
Material Set B
60
40
µ = 0.15
20
-20
-40
µ = 0.02
-60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
% Deformation in the axial direction
Fig. 9. Comparison of simulated FCC for different relaxation behaviors. Material Set A
(Table 3) corresponds to a four-term series in shear and single term series for the bulk
response. Material Set B (Table 3) corresponds to a simplified viscoelastic model utilizing
a single Maxwell element in shear, keeping equilibrium viscosity the same.
 B. Ananthasayanam et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110 107

To further explore the effect of the details of the shear relaxation

function, FCC were determined for the two different shear relaxation
functions presented in Fig. 10. Once again the FCC showed almost no
dependence of material property on the curves, so they were not pro-
vided. Based on the material behavior study in this sub-section, it can
be concluded that the viscoelastic material properties of glass do not
affect the FCC substantially.

4.4. High and low viscosity testing

The results of Figs. 4–10 were obtained for a constant load of 1500 N,
where the duration of the pressing stage is presented in Fig. 8 as a func-
tion of viscosity and friction level. Due to the long press times required
for η ≥ 109.5 Pa · s, it is of interest to consider more convenient ways to
characterize friction for such high viscosity cases. A constant rate test is
considered next, using Material Set A from Table 3. The rate of deforma-
tion, which was selected to be 0.5 mm/min, corresponds to how fast the
molds approach each other as the standard ring is pressed. These tests
follow the process in Table 1, understanding that the pressing stage
ends when the center thickness is reached. The results for the maximum
force required to press a ring to 50% axial deformation are presented in
Fig. 11. The inset in this figure corresponds to the force as a function of
time for a viscosity of 109 Pa · s. This shows that the force increases dra-
matically as the deformation increases. Due to the possible develop-
ment of such high forces that could damage the testing apparatus or
the glass ring, a rate controlled test is not recommended at high viscos-
ity. However, it is possible that the rate controlled test can be useful at
low viscosity. As stated earlier, at a viscosity of 107 Pa · s glass behaves
more like a fluid and is not expected to slip. For example, a standard pro-
cedure to determine the viscosity of glass in the range 104–108 Pa · s
makes use of a parallel plate viscometer and the assumption of no slip,
which is presented as an ASTM standard [31]. The experimental data
at 589 °C presented in Fig. 4 corresponds to a viscosity of 108.33 Pa · s.
One use of a rate controlled test could be to more carefully study the
onset of slip at low viscosity. The important point for a rate controlled
test is that for a reasonable range of viscosity, less than or equal to
109 Pa · s, the same FCC obtained for a creep test of 1500 N apply for
this pressing rate taking into account the full process in Table 1.
As shown in Fig. 8 another way to reduce the press time and not
overload the specimen and/or testing apparatus is to use a higher
creep load. The case of a 15,000 N load was considered, which decreases
press time by more than a factor of ten compared to 1500 N. For exam-
ple, for a viscosity of η = 109.5 Pa · s, the press time for zero friction
and 1500 N is 1544 s, while for a load of 15,000 N it is 133 s, which cor-
responds to a decrease by a factor of 11.6. The corresponding press
Fig. 11. Maximum force required to reach an axial deformation of 50% for the standard ring
compression specimen and a constant rate 0.5 mm/min. Both no-slip and no friction are
considered for viscosity ranging from 107 to 1011 Pa · s. The inset shows how force chang-
es as a function of time for a viscosity of 109 Pa · s.
times for no-slip are, respectively, 3313 s and 248 s, which is a factor
of 13.4. Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 12, the FCC using the full process
are nearly insensitive to load and Log of viscosity/ (Pa*s) in the range of
8.3–10.5. It is also observed from this figure that an isothermal approx-
imation is reasonably close to the full process results. The isothermal re-
sults are very insensitive to load and viscosity, so one curve represents
all the cases. This study was conducted for the case of high friction
which is the most sensitive to changes in loading and material behavior.
A more detailed study of the effect of loading and viscosity on the FCC, as
well as on how the isothermal approximation compares to the full pro-
cess FCC results, is presented in Table 4. This study is again for the case of
high friction. This table shows two important trends which are both
consequences of the extreme sensitivity of the inner radius of the cylin-
der to friction in the RCT. First, for the full process the FCC are basically
the same for a large range of viscosity and loading. The largest variations
are on the order of 3%. For cases of lower friction this variation will de-
crease. Second, the isothermal results are very reasonable approxima-
tions of the full process results.
4.5. Sources of experimental error
In this section computational analysis is used to study the effects of
three practical issues in completing a successful test. All the results in

90
% Decrease in internal diameter of the ring

Isothermal Pressing
0.9
80
(t)

Full Process ( = 8.3 Pa·s, F = 1500 N)

1

0.8 Full Process ( = 9.5 Pa·s, F = 15,000 N)

70 Full Process ( = 10.5 Pa·s, F = 15,000 N)
Shear Relaxation Function -

0.7
60
0.6
50
0.5

0.4 40

0.3 30

0.2 20
0.1 Duffrene - multiplied by 2
10
Material Set A
-4 -2 0 2 0
10 10 10 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
log (t)
10 % Deformation in the axial direction

Fig. 10. Stress relaxation functions used in a sensitivity study on the friction calibration Fig. 12. FCC for different load and viscosity combinations using the full process presented
curves, which indicated no significant change for coefficients of friction of 0.02 and 0.6. in Table 1.
108 B. Ananthasayanam et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110

Table 4 curve corresponds to the axial deformation level when the outer cylin-
Comparison of percentage change in inner diameter of the ring at 35% and 50% axial drical surface first comes into contact with the molds, which is indepen-
deformation with the baseline case under various pressing conditions for high friction.
dent of the level of friction on the cylindrical surface. This bifurcation
Load Viscosity, % Decrease in inner diameter point and consequently the entire FCC beyond this point are difficult
10x (Pa · s) to determine for some friction cases due to convergence with respect
Isothermal pressing & Full process
unloading to the mesh. The convergence results in Fig. 14 are discussed below.
35% height 50% height 35% height 50% height As demonstrated in Fig. 14, the baseline mesh of 3072 elements pro-
reduction reduction reduction reduction vides converged FFCs for all constant coefficient of friction results, since
1500 N 7 23 52 23 50
the FCC results obtained using a mesh with 12,096 elements are nearly
8 23 52 23.5 50 identical. However, the baseline mesh did not always provide a con-
9 24 52 24 49 verged result when the coefficient of friction is different on the flat
10 23 52 23 49 and cylindrical surfaces. For low friction (μ = 0.04) the result converges
11 24 52 24 50
since the cylindrical surface does not contact the mold. For high friction
15,000 N 8 22 51 22 50
9 20.5 49 22 48 (μ = 0.6) the results converge for the baseline mesh since there is very
10 21 48 21 47 little difference between 0.6 and 1.0, i.e., μ = 0.6 is enough to essentially
11 21 48 20 47.5 prevent slip. However, when friction is high enough to cause cylindrical
0.5 mm/min 7 19 47 17.5 47 surface contact, but low enough to allow significant slip, the baseline
8 23 51 22 50
9 23 51 23 51
mesh did not provide a correct result. This is due to behavior at both
the inner and outer radii of the ring. For the two friction cases presented,
which are μ = 0.12 and 0.2, a much finer mesh has to be used to obtain
a mesh independent solution. To summarize, the results in Fig. 14 show
this section are for a constant load of 1500 N. The first addresses the the following: 1) the cylindrical surfaces play a significant role in the
question of reuse of a specimen, since it is a burden to sacrifice each RCT for coefficients of friction higher than about 0.1, 2) the FCCs are uni-
specimen to obtain just one data point. Assuming that the frictional versal only if the friction behavior is the same on all the surfaces of the
characteristics of the sample's surfaces are not altered during a test, cylinder, and 3) when the coefficient of friction is not the same, compu-
the results in Fig. 13 show that within a reasonable error tolerance, it tational convergence can be achieved but it is more difficult.
is acceptable to reuse a specimen. To produce the multiple pressing Temperature non-uniformity is the third consideration, such as
results in this figure, the sample was put through successive cycles of what occurred in the first set of experimental results described in
heating, soaking, pressing to the indicated level of deformation and Sections 2 and 4.1. In the discussion of Fig. 6 it was demonstrated that
then cooling. As such, the simulation of this realistic situation is non- for low friction if a temperature variation in the axial direction exists
trivial. Each data point for the change in dimension of the ring is record- at the start of the pressing stage, the FCC measured at the centerline
ed at room temperature at the end of a cooling cycle. The next data point had an error of about 2%. The error was small due to relatively rapid
involves re-subjecting the ring, which now has a residual stress state, to heating once the upper mold came into contact with the top of the
the same complete cycle. ring. This self-correcting mechanism is dependent on the rate of heat
As a second important issue, at high levels of friction the inner and transfer being significantly higher than the rate of axial deformation,
outer cylindrical surfaces of the ring come in contact with molds as which might not always be the case. Therefore, in order to estimate a
deformation is increased. This can be an issue if these surfaces cannot maximum error due to non-uniform temperature at the start of the
be polished to the same specifications as the flat surfaces. To study pressing stage, a numerical experiment using the procedure in Table 1
this effect standard FCC were compared to those generated when a was performed in which a temperature difference of 10 °C between
high level of friction of μ = 1.0 was considered at the inner and outer the upper (594 °C) and lower (584 °C) mold surfaces was imposed.
cylindrical surfaces. As can be seen from the results in Fig. 14, which This temperature difference remained unchanged throughout the
also includes a convergence study, for cases of about μ = 0.1 and higher pressing stage, which could correspond to inadequate soak time
the useable portion of the FCC is limited. The point of bifurcation of each with a relatively high rate of axial deformation or a case where the

100
% Decrease in internal diameter of the ring

Isothermal Press µ = 0.4 120

1
% Decrease in internal diameter of the ring

80 Single sample pressed and cooled

100
60
80
40
µ 1 = 0.1 60
20
40
0
µ = 0.04 20
1
-20
0
-40
µ 1 = 0.02 -20 1
-60
-40
-80
-60
-100 =1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 2
-80
% Deformation in the axial direction 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% Deformation in the axial direction
Fig. 13. Comparison of simulated FCC obtained using single isothermal pressing (line) to
computationally generated data for a single sample that has been re-used with three cy- Fig. 14. Sensitivity of FCC to a high level of friction on the inner and outer cylindrical
cles of heating, soaking, pressing and cooling. Material Set A from Table 3 was used for surfaces of the ring sample. Convergence with respect to a uniform mesh is also
generating results. demonstrated.
 B. Ananthasayanam et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110 109

100
upper and lower mold surfaces are incorrectly heated to different tem-
0.6
peratures that remain constant. The results of this numerical experi- = 0.4
80 = 0.3
ment are presented in Fig. 15 for friction coefficients of 0, 0.04, 0.2 and

% Decrease in internal diameter of the ring

0.6. It is clear from these results that a significant temperature differ-
ence results in relatively small changes in the FCCs when measured at 60 = 0.2
the centerline. Consistent with Fig. 6, the FCC at the minimum radius
40 = 0.15
has a more significant error.
A conclusion from the study of non-uniform temperature in Fig. 6 is = 0.12
that the load-controlled process considered can be self-correcting in 20 = 0.1
terms of inadequate soak time. In a rate-controlled process or a load- = 0.08
= 0.07
controlled process at higher temperature, press time will be reduced 0
= 0.06
and this self-correction mechanism is less likely. The limiting case of a = 0.05
short press time for temperature non-uniformity is presented in -20 = 0.04
Fig. 15. As a general statement, while the recommendation is to achieve = 0.03
a near uniform temperature at the start of the pressing stage, as long as -40
= 0.02
the diameter is measured at the centerline, as shown in Figs. 6 and 15,
the error in the estimation of the friction coefficient is small. -60 = 0.01
= 0.0
4.6. Universal friction calibration curves -80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% Deformation in the axial direction
Based on the results presented in this study, universal FCC, which by
definition are measured at the centerline of the ring, can be generated Fig. 16. Universal FCC for glass at high temperature.
for glass at high temperature under conditions of constant load and
also constant rate for relatively low viscosity. Friction is assumed to be
the same on all surfaces and the glass should have reached a near con- with a sandwich seal solution [17] well known in the glass literature
stant temperature before the ring is pressed. A single term prony series and then in another study [2] by predicting lens profile deviation in pre-
in shear is sufficient to account for mechanical behavior and material cision lens molding to within one micron of experimental measure-
compressibility need not be taken into account. Furthermore, the ther- ments for two different lens types. In that study several factors were
mal expansion behavior of the glass need not be known since it has identified that caused a change in over two microns, which is significant
been shown that the entire computations can be carried out at constant to a lens designer. Structural relaxation of the glass was determined to
temperature. For these assumptions, the final FCC are presented in be the most significant factor, which can cause changes of 10 μ or
Fig. 16. Friction coefficients so obtained can be used to: 1) provide a nec- more. Since the pressing of a ring is very similar to the pressing of a
essary input to computational simulations of processes like PPV and lens, it is believed that this validation applies to the study of the RCT,
PGM and 2) to quantify the level of shear stresses that can lead to and similarly that the friction results apply to lens molding. Finally,
wear of mold surfaces in processes such as PGM. convergence of the computational solution for the ring geometry was
demonstrated herein, which showed the importance of polishing the
5. Discussion cylindrical surfaces of the ring, which come into contact with the
molds for coefficients of friction higher than about 0.1.
Use of the RCT depends on computational mechanics to link the The RCT is useful since the displacement of the inner diameter of the
change in the inner diameter to the friction coefficient. As such, the ring is both large and very sensitive to changes in interface friction. This
computational approach must be validated, especially for glass due to displacement is due to the complex combination of glass deformation
its complex thermo-mechanical time-dependent material behavior. and interface behavior that can include full slip, no-slip or partial slip.
The general approach used in the current study was validated first Through a significant effort to prove the universal nature of the FCCs,
the computational model takes all this complexity into account to
capture whether the glass surface is slipping or not slipping. This is a
100
µ = 0.6 non-trivial point since in any process involving glass deformation at
% Decrease in internal diameter of the ring

Uniform
80 Non-uniform, center relatively high temperature, the displacement component due to glass
Non-uniform, minimum µ = 0.2 deformation can be large making the degree of slip that contributes to
60
the displacement response uncertain [8].
40 As seen from the FCC in Fig. 16, the change in the 9.59 mm inner
diameter ranges from a decrease of over 7 mm for high friction to an
20 increase of over 5 mm for low friction. Compared to the micron scale
0
changes in lens profile deviation, the displacements of the inner diame-
= 0.04 ter are three orders of magnitude larger. This difference is the primary
-20 reason the FCC are not sensitive to material behavior. While all the fac-
tors considered in this study affect the inner diameter, they do not affect
-40
it enough to be significant as long as the recommended procedures for
-60 conducting the test are followed. Interface slip and bulging dominate
µ=0 the change in the inner diameter of the ring and these mechanisms
-80 are not affected significantly by the material behavior of glass.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% Deformation in the axial direction 6. Conclusions

Fig. 15. Sensitivity of FCC to a non-uniform temperature in the ring due to an imposed
temperature difference of 10 °C between the upper and lower mold surfaces. Equilibrium
viscosity log(ηR) = 8.33 Pa · s and the WLF equation with TR = 589 °C, C1 = 5,
C2 = 149 °C were assumed for TRS behavior.
The RCT is a reliable test to characterize friction behavior at a glass/
mold interface for PGM and PPV. Although this test can be unreliable
for metal extrusion and cold forming applications where the contact
110 B. Ananthasayanam et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 385 (2014) 100–110
pressures can be very high, it is ideal for these applications since: 1) the
maximum contact pressure is on the order of 10–20 MPa [3], which is
very low, 2) the same precision lens molding machine and processing
conditions used to press a lens can be used to conduct the RCT, and
3) a parallel plate viscometer can also be used to conduct the RCT by fol-
lowing the same PPV procedure used to press a glass cylinder.
The key point of the study is that the RCT provides a universal set of
FCC for glass rings as long as the ring is at a nearly uniform temperature
during pressing, friction is the same on all surfaces and the ring is
pressed under conditions of constant load or at low rates. Therefore,
the FCC allow for a reliable test to characterize friction at any tempera-
ture without the need for material properties. This is significant since
the time dependent material behavior of glass is very difficult to charac-
terize and there is very little material property data available in the
literature. As a general statement, the RCT is best applied to cases with
a coefficient of friction that is less than about 0.3, since at higher values
the calibration curves become less sensitive to friction, more sensitive to
factors such as differences in material behavior and loading rate, and
involve the contact of the outer cylindrical surface of the ring. This
range of friction coefficients is desired for reduced wear of expensive
coatings in precision lens molding. The results are also important for
parallel plate viscometer testing at high viscosity when slip with friction
can occur. As shown by Joshi et al. [8], in such cases a correct estimate of
the viscosity of glass requires knowledge of the level of friction.
Acknowledgment
This material is based upon work supported in part by the U.S. Army
Research Laboratory and the U. S. Army Research Office under contract/
grant number ARO No. 56858-MS-DPS and by a DoD-ARO Cooperative
Research Agreement, “Molding Science of IR Optics,” through Benét
Labs and Edmund Optics, with subcontract to Clemson University.
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