Unit 4

IINTM/BCA-105/FIT/UNIT 4
Lecture 31
Computer Network:
Communication System : Definition, Components of data Communication, Data
Transmission- Modes ( Simplex, half-Duplex and Full duplex)
Data Communication
When we communicate we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communicate usually occurs face to face, while remote communicate
takes place over distance. These are exchange of data between 2 devices via Some form of
transmission medium such as wire cable. 4 characteristics:-
 Delivery The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received
by the intended device or user and only by that device or that user.
 Accuracy The system must deliver data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
 Timeliness The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless.
 Jitter Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
Data Communication has 5 components:-
1. Message: - Information to be communicated. Like text, pictures, audio.

2. Sender:- Device that sends the data message, like comp. telephone, workstation.
3. Receiver:- That receives d massage use handset, computer.
4. Transmission medium: physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
Like radio waves, coaxial cables.
5. Protocol :- Set of rules that govern data communicate without this 2 devices may be
connected between but not communicating, just as person speaking French cannot be
understand by person who speaks only Japanese.
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Prepared by: Ms. Kanika Dhingra Sardana
Distributed processing
Distributed processing is a phrase used to refer to a variety of computer systems that use more
than one computer (or processor) to run an application. This includes parallel processing in
which a single computer uses more than one CPU to execute programs.
More often, however, distributed processing refers to local-area networks (LANs) designed so
that a single program can run simultaneously at various sites. Most distributed processing
systems contain sophisticated software that detects idle CPUs on the network and parcels out
programs to utilize them.
Distributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational
problems. In distributed computing, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is
solved by one or more computers
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers.
Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate
computers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
//Standards and organization.
Line Configuration
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communication pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur , two devices must be
connected in some way to the link at the same time. There are two possible types of connections:
point to point and multipoint.
Point to Point
It provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices. Most point to point connections use an actual length of
wire or cable to connect the two ends. When you change television channels by infrared remote
control, you are establishing a point to point connection between remote control and television
control system.
Multipoint
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This connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. In multipoint
environment, the capacity of the channel is shared ,wither spatially or temporally.
Data Flow/Transmission mode
Data transmission mode refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. It can
be simplex, half duplex or full duplex
Simplex
 In simplex mode, communication is unidirectional, as on a one way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
 Keyboards and monitors are the examples of simplex devices. Simplex mode can use the
entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Advantages of Simplex
 Cheapest communication method.
Disadvantage of Simplex
 Only allows for communication in one direction.
Half Duplex
 Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending other can only receive, and vice versa
 Half duplex is like one lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. Walky Talkies
and CB are both examples of half duplex.
 It is used in the cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time.
Advantages of Half Duplex
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 Costs less than full duplex.

 Enables for two way communications.
Disadvantages of Half Duplex
 Costs more than simplex.

 Only one device can transmit at a time.
Full Duplex
 In full duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

 The full duplex mode is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the
same time.
 Example of full duplex is the telephone network. When two people are communicating
by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. Full duplex is used when
communication in both direction is required all the time.
Advantage of Full Duplex.
 Enables two-way communication simultaneously.
Disadvantage of Full Duplex.
 The most expensive method in terms of equipment because of two bandwidth channels is
required.
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Lecture 32
Transmission Media : Guided media (Twisted pair, Coaxial cable, Optical fibre) and Unguided
media( radio frequency, Microwave and satellite)
Transmission Media/Medium
Transmission media refers to the physical media through which communication signals(data and
information) are transmitted. Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories:
guided media and unguided media
GUIDED MEDIA
The guided transmission media includes cables/wires to transmit the information from source to
destination. The wire may be made up of copper or other metal or may be of glass/fiber. It
includes electrical and light signals to flow in these wires. But these cables are very sensitive to
noise and this degrades the signal also called as attenuation. There are three types of guided
media transmission cables.
I. Twisted Pair Cables
It has two copper wires and twisted with one another to form a helical structure. It is twisted
because to lower the attenuation and crosstalk from the noise. Cross talk is also known as
bleeding of signals. It is common wire used in telephone lines.
Advantages
1. It is simple and flexible.
2. It is easy to install and maintain.
3. Lower in weight and inexpensive.
Disadvantages
1. It possesses high attenuation, so we have to use repeater for long distances.
2. It has low bandwidth, so we can't use broadband applications.
3. Maximum data rate is of 1 Mbps, which is quite lower.
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II. Co-axial Cable
This cable consists of a solid wire core and it is surrounded by one or more wire shield (fishnet),
these are separated by a plastic insulator. The inner core carries signals and shield provides the
ground and protect from electro-magnetic interference. It is used in cable-TV.
Advantages
1. It offers higher bandwidth upto 400 MBPS
2. Transmission is better than twisted pair cable.
3. We can have several channels (frequencies) through one cable, simultaneously.
Disadvantages
1. Expensive as compared to twisted pair.
2. Not compatible with any other cable.
3. Only one use in cable TV.
Types
i. Thick net: The thick net coaxial cable segments can be up to 500 meters long.
ii. Thin net: The thin net coaxial cable segments are up to 185 meters long.
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III. Optical Fiber
These cables are made up of glass or plastic fibers. Its sources are LED or laser diodes. It uses
light beam to transmit the signals. Firstly, the signal converted in to light signal from electrical
signal. It has core and cladding, core is under the cladding. The refractive index of cladding is
lower than that of core.
Advantages
1. It is immune to electro-magnetic interference, as it used light signals.
2. It is suitable in all types of environment.
3. It guarantees the secure transmission of information.
Disadvantages
1. It is quite tough to install the equipment of optical fibers.
2. It is expensive.
3. Connection losses are common problems in optical fiber.
Types
i. Single node: It supports the segment length of up to 2 kilometers.
ii. Multi node: It supports the segment length of up to 100 kilometers.
UNGUIDED MEDIA
Unguided media is data signals that flow through air. They are not guided or bound to a fixed
channel to follow.
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Radio Waves
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum longer than infrared light. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed
of light. Naturally-occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by astronomical objects
Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication,
broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, satellite communication, computer networks
and innumerable other applications.
Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's
atmosphere; long waves may cover a part of the Earth very consistently, shorter waves can
reflect off the ionosphere and travel around the world, and much shorter wavelengths bend or
reflect very little and travel on a line of sight.
 Range:
o 2GHz-6GHz: 70km
o 18GHz-45GHz: 1.6-8km
Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station must be in visible
contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on
the local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature is only 50 km to the
horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump across the
country.
Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry
large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.
Advantages
a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area.
d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.
Disadvantages
a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.
b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects.
d. Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver.
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Satellite
Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit on another) that
are set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator. These geostationary orbits are 36,000 km
from the Earth's surface. At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the centrifugal force
of Earth's rotation are balanced and cancel each other out. Centrifugal force is the rotational force
placed on the satellite that wants to fling it out into space.
The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the receiver of data. Uplinks
and downlinks are also called Earth stations because they are located on the Earth. The footprint
is the "shadow" that the satellite can transmit to, the shadow being the area that can receive the
satellite's transmitted signal.
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S.No.
Guided Media Unguided Media
The signal energy propagates within the guided media .i.e.

1. The signal energy propagates through air.
through wires.
2. It is mainly suited for point to point line configurations. It is mainly used for broadcasting purpose.
The signal propagates in the form of voltage, current or The signal propagates in the form of
3.
photons. electromagnetic waves.
Examples of guided media are:-

Examples are:-
=>Twisted Pair Cable
4. =>Microwave or Radio Links
=>Co-axial Cable
=>Infrared
=>Optical Fiber Cable
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Lecture 33
Data Transmission Types( Digital & Analog Signals), Network Topologies: Bus Topology, its
advantages and disadvantages,
Data Transmission Types( Digital & Analog Signals)

A signal is any kind of physical quantity that conveys information. Audible speech is certainly a
kind of signal, as it conveys the thoughts (information) of one person to another through the
physical medium of sound. Hand gestures are signals, too, conveying information by means of
light.
An analog signal is a kind of signal that is continuously variable, as opposed to having a limited
number of steps along its range (called digital). A well-known example of analog vs. digital is
that of clocks: analog being the type with pointers that slowly rotate around a circular scale, and
digital being the type with decimal number displays or a "second-hand" that jerks rather than
smoothly rotates. The analog clock has no physical limit to how finely it can display the time, as
its "hands" move in a smooth, pauseless fashion. The digital clock, on the other hand, cannot
convey any unit of time smaller than what its display will allow for.
Analog data
� can take on any value within a continuous range
� Examples:
- human voice
- Boston’s temperature
Digital data
� can take on only a finite set of discrete values
� Examples:
- data stored in binary computers
- the US standard sizes of clothes
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Why consider digital transmission?
Both waves and pulses are difficult to transmit over long distances , Unwanted noice can cause
distortions over copper wire However, It is easier to reconstruct a distorted pulse, We simply
need to decide whether it is a 0 or a 1 Than it is a distorted wave.
- Distortions are usually re-amplified and stay with it
Physical Topology
Way in which network is laid out physically, two or more devices connect to a link; two or more
links form a topology. Topology is geometric representation of relationship of all the links &
nodes to one another.
Types of Topologies
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network. Nodes are connected running between the device & the main cable. A tap is a
connector that either splices into main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a
contact with metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. It becomes weaker & weaker as it travels further & further. For this reason
there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support & on the distance between those tops.
Advantage
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 Ease of installation, bus uses less cabling than mesh or star, redundancy is eliminated.
Disadvantage
 Difficult reconnection & fault isolation.
 Difficult to add new device
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Lecture 34
Ring Topology , its advantages and disadvantages, Star Topology and , its advantages and
disadvantages
Star Topology
Each device has a dedicated point to point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub.
The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology a star topology
doesn't allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device
wants to send data to one another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to
the other connected device.
Advantages:
 It is less expensive than mesh topology.
 In star each device need only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of
others. This makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
 It is robust .If one link fails, only that link is affected
Disadvantage:
It is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point,the hub. If the hub goes down, the
whole system is dead.
Ring topology
Each device has a dedicated point to point connection with only the two devices on either side of
it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its
destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for a device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
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Figure:- Ring topology with six station

Advantages:
 A ring is easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate
neighbors.
 To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
 Fault isolation is simplified.
Disadvantage:
 Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
 In a simple ring, a break in the ring can disable the entire network.
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Lecture 35
Tree Topology , its advantages and disadvantages, Mesh Topology, , its advantages and
disadvantages
Mesh
Every device has a dedicated pt 2 pt link to every other device. Dedicated means that link carries
traffic only between two devices it connects. In mesh topology to find no of physical links in
fully connected mesh network with n nodes we must consider that each mode is connected to
every other node. We need n(n-1)/2 duplex mode links.
Advantages :- Eliminates traffic problem, it is robust, privacy.
Disadvantages. :- Amt. of cabling & no. of I/O parts reqd. installation & reconnection are
difficult. Bulk of wiring can be greater than available space. Hardware reqd. to connect each link
can be expensive.
Tree or Expanded Star

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups
of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 3). Tree
topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a
network to meet their needs.
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Fig. 3. Tree topology
Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Hybrid Topology:-
A network can be Hybrid for ex we can have a main star topology with each branch connecting
several stations in a bus topology as shown in the fig. below.
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Lecture 36
Computer Network : Introduction, types( LAN, WAN, MAN)
Categories of Networks/ Types of Network

Local Area Networks
Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect personal
computers and workstations in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers)
and exchange information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three
characteristics: (1) their size, (2) their transmission technology, and (3) their topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and
known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that
would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management.
LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the machines are
attached, like the telephone company party lines once used in rural areas. Traditional LANs run
at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make
very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.
ADVANTAGES OF LAN
1.It allows sharing of expensive resources such as Laser printers, software and mass storage devices
among a number of computers.
2.LAN allows for highspeed exchange of essential information.
3.It contributes to increased productivity. A LAN installation should be studied closely in the context of
its proposed contribution to the long range interest of the organization.
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DISADVANTAGES OF LAN
1.The financial cost of LAN is still high in comparison with many other alternatives.
2.It requires memory space in each of the computers used on the network. This reduces the memory space
available for the user’s programs.
3. Some type of security system must be implemented if it is important to protect confidential data.
4.Some control on the part of the user is lost. You may have to share a printer with other users. You may
face a situation like, for example, the entire network suddenly locking up because one user has made a
mistake.
Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the
cable television network available in many cities. This system grew from earlier community
antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In these early systems,
a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to the subscribers'
houses.
At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies began jumping into the
business, getting contracts from city governments to wire up an entire city. The next step was
television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only. Often these channels
were highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking, all gardening, and so on. But
from their inception until the late 1990s, they were intended for television reception only.
Starting when the Internet attracted a mass audience, the cable TV network operators began to
realize that with some changes to the system, they could provide two-way Internet service in
unused parts of the spectrum. At that point, the cable TV system began to morph from a way to
distribute television to a metropolitan area network.
1) The network size falls intermediate between LAN and WAN. A MAN typically covers an area of
between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs cover an area the size of a city, although in some cases
MANs may be as small as a group of buildings or as large as the North of Scotland.
2) A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources. It is also frequently
used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.
Characteristics of MAN
1) It generally covers towns and cities (50 kms)
2) It is developed in 1980s.
3) Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
4) Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Wide Area Networks

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It
contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. We will
follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts. The hosts are connected by a
communication subnet, or just subnet for short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g.,
people's personal computers), whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and
operated by a telephone company or Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to carry
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messages from host to host, just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to listener.
Separation of the pure communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the application
aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the complete network design.
In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines
and switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made of
copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links. Switching elements are specialized computers that
connect three or more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching
element must choose an outgoing line on which to forward them. These switching computers
have been called by various names in the past; the name router is now most commonly used
Characterstics of WAN
1) It generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
2) Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are connected by routers.
3) Routers forward packets from one to another (Table 1) a route from the sender to
the receiver.
Personal Area Network

A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized around an individual
person within a single building. This could be inside a small office or residence. A typical PAN
would include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game consoles
and other personal entertainment devices.
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If multiple individuals use the same network within a residence, the network is sometimes
referred to as a home area network, or HAN. In a very typical setup, a residence will have a
single wired Internet connection connected to a modem. This modem then provides both wired
and wireless connections for multiple devices. The network is typically managed from a single
computer but can be accessed from any device.
This type of network provides great flexibility. For example, it allows you to:
 Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are sitting on the couch with your
laptop.
 Upload the photo from your cell phone to your desktop computer.
 Watch movies from an online streaming service to your TV.
Enterprise Private Networks

One of the benefits of networks like PAN and LAN is that they can be kept entirely private by
restricting some communications to the connections within the network. This means that those
communications never go over the Internet.
For example, using a LAN, an employee is able to establish a fast and secure connection to a
company database without encryption since none of the communications between the
employee's computer and the database on the server leave the LAN. But what happens if the
same employee wants to use the database from a remote location? What you need is a
private network.
One approach to a private network is to build an enterprise private network, or EPN. An

EPN is a computer network that is entirely controlled by one organization, and it is used to
connect multiple locations. Historically, telecommunications companies, like AT&T, operated
their own network, separate from the public Internet. EPNs are still fairly common in certain
sectors where security is of the highest concern. For example, a number of health facilities
may establish their own network between multiple sites to have full control over the
confidentiality of patient records.
Storage Area Network

A storage area network (SAN) is any high-performance network whose primary purpose
is to enable storage devices to communicate with computer systems and with each
other.
What Makes a SAN Different?
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Universal Storage Connectivity
Computers are indeed connected to storage today, but are all of an installation's
computers connected to all of its storage? That's the key point about SANs—they
connect lots of computers to lots of storage devices, enabling the computers to
negotiate device ownership among themselves and, ideally, to share data. If there is
one defining characteristic of a SAN, it's universal connectivity of storage devices and
computers.
To appreciate the value of universal storage connectivity, consider the conventional

client/server computer system depicted in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Client/Server information islands
From this business-as-usual picture of client/server computing, it's immediately

apparent that by deploying multiple servers, an organization automatically creates
unconnected islands of information. Each island is accessible by one computer but not
the others. If Computer B needs to use data that was produced by Computer A, that
data has to be copied to Computer B.
There are several techniques for moving data between computers: backup, file transfer;
and interprocess communication, to name a few. But the real issue is that the
information services organization has to acquire and manage the extra resources
required both to copy data from Computer A to Computer B and to store it at both sites.
There's no business reason for this duplication of effort, other than that a computer
needs data that was produced by another computer.
There's a more serious implication of an information processing strategy that relies on

regular copying of data from computer to computer. Computers that receive data copies
are often forced to work with data that is out of date simply because it's physically
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impossible to make copies in a timely fashion. Moreover, the extra operational

complexity introduced by having to copy data between servers creates additional
opportunity for costly errors.
Contrast this with the SAN based distributed system architecture illustrated in Figure
1.2.
Figure 1.2 A SAN eliminates islands of information
With a SAN, the concept of a single host computer that owns data or storage isn't
meaningful. All of the servers in Figure 1.2 are physically connected to all of the storage
devices. If Server F needs data that was produced by Server E, there's no need to copy
it, because Server F can access the devices on which Server E stored the data. All
that's required is a logical change of storage device ownership from Server E to Server
F or better yet, an agreement by Server E to stay out of the way while Server F is
actively using the data.
Universal storage connectivity has some pretty powerful implications for information
services departments:
 There's no need to devise mid schedule data transfers between pairs of servers.
 There's no need to purchase and maintain extra storage for temporarily staging one
server's data at another server.
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 There's no need to worry about whether copies of data being used by two computers
running different applications are synchronized (i.e., have exactly the same
contents), because the two computers are working from the same copy of data.
Virtual Private Network

A virtual private network (VPN) extends a private network across a public network,
such as the Internet. It enables a computer or Wi-Fi-enabled device to send and receive
data across shared or public networks as if it were directly connected to the private
network, while benefiting from the functionality, security and management policies of the
private network. A VPN connection across the Internet is similar to a wide area
network (WAN) link between websites. From a user perspective, the extended network
resources are accessed in the same way as resources available within the private
network.[2] One major limitation of traditional VPNs is that they are point-to-point, and do
not tend to support or connect broadcast domains. VPNs allow employees to securely
access their company's intranet while traveling outside the office. Similarly, VPNs
securely connect geographically separated offices of an organization, creating one
cohesive network. VPN technology is also used by individual Internet users to secure
their wireless transactions, to circumvent geo restrictions and censorship, and to
connect to proxy servers for the purpose of protecting personal identity and location.
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Lecture 37
Client and Server Technology, Intranet: introduction, benefits , Limitation, Extranet : introduction,
benefits , Limitation
Client and Servers

Client/server describes the relationship between two computer programs in which one program,
the client, makes a service request from another program, the server, which fulfills the request.
Although the client/server idea can be used by programs within a single computer, it is a more
important idea in a network. In a network, the client/server model provides a convenient way to
interconnect programs that are distributed efficiently across different locations. The client/server
model is a computing model that acts as a distributed application which partitions tasks or
workloads between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters,
called clients. Computer transactions using the client/server model are very common. For
example, to check your bank account from your computer, a client program in your computer
forwards your request to a server program at the bank. That program may in turn forward the
request to its own client program that sends a request to a database server at another bank
computer to retrieve your account balance. The balance is returned back to the bank data client,
which in turn serves it back to the client in your personal computer, which displays the
information for you.
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Intranet
Intranet is the generic term for a collection of private computer networks within an
organization. An intranet uses network technologies as a tool to facilitate communication
between people or work groups to improve the data sharing capability and overall knowledge
base of an organization's employees.
Intranets utilize standard network hardware and software technologies like Ethernet, WiFi,
TCP/IP, Web browsers and Web servers. An organization's intranet typically includes Internet
access but is firewalled so that its computers cannot be reached directly from the outside.
An intranet is a computer network that uses Internet Protocol technology to share information,
operational systems, or computing services within an organization. The term is used in contrast
to internet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network within an
organization.
Benefits of intranet
 Workforce productivity: Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster and
use applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities. With the help of a web
browser interface, users can access data held in any database the organization wants to make
available, anytime and — subject to security provisions — from anywhere within the
company workstations, increasing employees' ability to perform their jobs faster, more
accurately, and with confidence that they have the right information. It also helps to improve
the services provided to the users.
 Time: Intranets allow organizations to distribute information to employees on an as-
needed basis; Employees may link to relevant information at their convenience, rather than
being distracted indiscriminately by electronic mail.
 Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an
organization, vertically and horizontally. From a communications standpoint, intranets are
useful to communicate strategic initiatives that have a global reach throughout the
organization. The type of information that can easily be conveyed is the purpose of the
initiative and what the initiative is aiming to achieve, who is driving the initiative, results
achieved to date, and who to speak to for more information. By providing this information
on the intranet, staff have the opportunity to keep up-to-date with the strategic focus of the
organization. Some examples of communication would be chat, email, and or blogs. A great
real world example of where an intranet helped a company communicate is when Nestle had
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a number of food processing plants in Scandinavia. Their central support system had to deal
with a number of queries every day.When Nestle decided to invest in an intranet, they
quickly realized the savings. McGovern says the savings from the reduction in query calls
was substantially greater than the investment in the intranet.
 Web publishing allows cumbersome corporate knowledge to be maintained and easily
accessed throughout the company using hypermedia and Web technologies. Examples
include: employee manuals, benefits documents, company policies, business standards, news
feeds, and even training, can be accessed using common Internet standards (Acrobat files,
Flash files, CGI applications). Because each business unit can update the online copy of a
document, the most recent version is usually available to employees using the intranet.
 Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used as a platform for
developing and deploying applications to support business operations and decisions across
the internetworked enterprise.
 Cost-effective: Users can view information and data via web-browser rather than
maintaining physical documents such as procedure manuals, internal phone list and
requisition forms. This can potentially save the business money on printing, duplicating
documents, and the environment as well as document maintenance overhead. For example,
People soft "derived significant cost savings by shifting HR processes to the
intranet". McGovern goes on to say the manual cost of enrolling in benefits was found to be
USD109.48 per enrollment. "Shifting this process to the intranet reduced the cost per
enrollment to $21.79; a saving of 80 percent". Another company that saved money on
expense reports was Cisco. "In 1996, Cisco processed 54,000 reports and the amount of
dollars processed was USD19 million".
 Enhance collaboration: Information is easily accessible by all authorised users, which
enables teamwork.
 Cross-platform capability: Standards-compliant web browsers are available for Windows,
Mac, and UNIX.
 Built for one audience: Many companies dictate computer specifications which, in turn,
may allow Intranet developers to write applications that only have to work on one browser
(no cross-browser compatibility issues). Being able to specifically address your "viewer" is a
great advantage. Since Intranets are user-specific (requiring database/network authentication
prior to access), you know exactly who you are interfacing with and can personalize your
Intranet based on role (job title, department) or individual ("Congratulations Jane, on your
3rd year with our company!").
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 Promote common corporate culture: Every user has the ability to view the same
information within the Intranet.
 Immediate updates: When dealing with the public in any capacity, laws, specifications, and
parameters can change. Intranets make it possible to provide your audience with "live"
changes so they are kept up-to-date, which can limit a company's liability.
 Supports a distributed computing architecture: The intranet can also be linked to a
company’s management information system, for example a time keeping system.
Limitations for Intranet
Management concern
1. Management fears loss of control
2. Hidden or unknown complexity and costs
3. Potential for chaos (confusions)
Security concern
1. Unauthorized access
2. Misuse of access
3. Rejection of services
Productivity concern
1. Overburden of information
2. Information overload lower s productivity
3. User set up own web pages
Extranet
An extranet is a computer network that allows controlled access from the outside, for specific
business or educational purposes. In a business-to-business context, an extranet can be viewed as
an extension of an organization's intranet that is extended to users outside the organization,
usually partners, vendors, and suppliers, in isolation from all other Internet users. An extranet is
a private network that uses Internet technology and the public telecommunication system to
securely share part of a business's information or operations with suppliers, vendors, partners,
customers, or other businesses. An extranet requires security and privacy. These can include
firewall server management, the issuance and use of digital certificates or similar means of user
authentication, encryption of messages, and the use of virtual private networks (VPNs) that
tunnel through the public network.
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Benefits of extranet
Information sharing:
An extranet allows a company to quickly post announcements and items of interest to the
group, without tying up e-mail servers. The advantage over regular e-mail is that an
extranet can more easily store large file sizes and longer messages, graphics and multiple
Web pages; can place a priority on certain messages; can more easily allow for
collaboration on a message, and can keep a message in front of people for as long as
necessary.
Document sharing:
Most businesses already share files through one or more servers. With an extranet, you
benefit from a digital dashboard for project information and include status reports of who
has reviewed and signed off on various documents. An extranet also allows for quicker
access to files, and easier management, organization, storage and transfer of documents.
Repository for vitals:
Employee contact information, sales and marketing data and brochures, appointment
calendars, project calendars, vacation schedules and other vital statistics can be kept in a
central location, for employees to easily access and to add their own contributions.
Project collaboration:
An extranet allow an administrator the ability to restrict read-or-write privileges,
depending on the employee or project. That means certain parts of the company extranet
can be off-limits to certain people, enabling smaller groups to collaborate among
themselves at a project level to get work done.
Discussion boards:
Most extranets include discussion boards, where issues can be hashed out in an open
forum, without creating massive e-mail threads.
Work Log:
Team members can have a central location to file their work logs and update the status of
tasks that have been assigned to them.
Limitations of Extranet
Security
 On the one hand, security is an added advantage if you implement an extranet because you
control who accesses your site and thus who gets access to your data. Conversely, extranets can
open your systems up to breaches in system security because you grant outsiders access to your
system and internal databases. To grant access to external associates, you must create openings
in your firewalls. Multiple openings in your firewalls create higher risks for unauthorized entries.
Also, keep in mind that extranets grant access to proprietary data, and this access to your
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information can provide another opportunity for unauthorized users to access sensitive and
confidential information.
Expense
 It can be costly to implement an extranet as you may have to foot the cost of hardware, software,
manpower and any other associated costs, including training of external affiliates. Repairs and
maintenance can also increase the expense of managing an extranet. While start-up costs may be
significant, you may experience reductions in other expense areas if you implement an extranet.
For example, because your affiliates have direct access to documents on your network, costs
associated with mailing or faxing information are significantly reduced or eliminated.
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Lecture 38
Internet—Introduction, History, Basic Governing bodies, Application, Requirement of Internet: hardware

& Software, Protocols
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet protocol suite (often called TCP/IP, although not all applications use TCP) to
serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private,
public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by
a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an
extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext
documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support email.
History of internet
The history of the Internet began with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s.
This began with point-to-point communication between mainframe computers and terminals,
expanded to point-to-point connections between computers and then early research into packet
switching. Packet switched networks such as ARPANET, Mark I at NPL in the
UK, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and
early 1970s using a variety of protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of
protocols for internetworking, where multiple separate networks could be joined together into a
network of networks.
In 1982 the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized and the concept of a world-wide
network of fully interconnected TCP/IP networks called the Internet was introduced. Access to
the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation(NSF) developed
the Computer Science Network (CSNET) and again in 1986 when NSFNET provided access
to supercomputer sites in the United States from research and education organizations.
Commercial internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the late 1980s and 1990s. The
ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The Internet was commercialized in 1995 when
NSFNET was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry
commercial traffic.
Since the mid-1990s the Internet has had a drastic impact on culture and commerce, including
the rise of near-instant communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) "phone calls", two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web with
its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites. The research and
education community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as NSF's very high
speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS), Internet2, and National LambdaRail. Increasing
amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating
at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts
of online information and knowledge, commerce, entertainment and social networking.
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Application of internet
1. Communication: it is used for sending and receiving message from one and other
through internet by using electronic mail. Some of the web sites providing this service are
yahoomail.com Hotmail.com rediffmail.com etc
2. Job searches: getting information regarding availability of job in different sectors and
areas. You can publish your resume in online for prospective job. Some of the web sites
providing this service are naukri.com, monster.com, summerjob.com,
recruitmentindia.com etc.
3. Finding books and study material : books and other study material stored around the
world can be easily located through internet. Latest encyclopaedias are available online.
4. Health and medicine: internet provide information and knowledge about field of health
medicine people can have information about various disease and can receive help .patient
can be taken to virtual check room where they can meet doctors.
5. Travel: one can use internet to gather information about various tourist place . it can be
used for booking Holiday tours , hotels, train and flights. Some of the web sites providing
this service areindiatravelog.com, rajtravel.com, makemytrip.com.
6. Entertainment: one can download jokes, songs, movies, latest sports updates through
internet Some of the web sites providing this service arecricinfo.com, movies.com
espn.com
7. Shopping : internet is also used for online shopping. By just giving accounts details you
can perform the transaction. You can even pay your bills and perform bank related
transaction.
8. Stock market updates : you can sell or buy shares while sitting on computer through
internet. Several websites like ndtvprofit.com, moneypore.com, provide information
regarding investment.
9. Research : a large number of people are using internet for research purposes you can
download any kind information by using internet
10. Business use of internet: different ways by which intenet can be used for business are:
• Information about the product can be provided can be provided online to the the
customer .
• Provide market information to the business
• It help business to recruit talented people
• Help in locating suppliers of the product .
• Fast information regarding customers view about companies product
• Eliminate middle men and have a direct contact with contact with customer .
• Providing information to the investor by providing companies back ground and
financial information on web site.
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Requirements of internet: Hardware, Software, Protocol

To establish a connection to internet the following are required:
1) Computer with facility to connect a modem. A separate port is to be provided for external
modem or an expansion slot for internal modem.
2)A telephone connection
3)A modem
4) A TCP/IP account with an internet Service provider
5) The computer should have the respective software to avail the various internet resources. It
should have a web browser to view the web pages, and an e-mail software to compose, send and
organise e-mail messages
Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules to govern the data transfer between the devices. The
rules are used for the following purposes.
1. For compressing the data.
2. For sending device to indicate that it has finished sending a message.
3. For receiving device to indicate that it has received a message.
Types of Protocols :
There are different types of Protocol such as:

1. Transmission control Protocol (TCP)
2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. Internet Address Protocol (IP Address)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Ethernet
9. Telnet
10. Gopher
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1. Transmission control Protocol (TCP)
This is a communication protocol that computers use to communicate over a

network. TCP divides message into stream of packets which are sent and then
reassembled at the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet protocol is addressing protocol. It is always used together with TCP. IP

addresses of packet, routes them through different nodes and networks until it
reaches its final destination. TCP/IP is perhaps the most used standard protocol for
connecting computer networks.
3. Internet Address Protocol (IP Address)
This is the address that identifies a computer on a network using TCP/IP. An IP

address contains series of four numbers unique to the computer concerned Eg :
90.399.424.34. This address is usually supplied by a Internet Service Provider.
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
This is used to receive incoming E-mail .
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
This protocol is used for sending and distributing outgoing E-Mail .
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6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
This is a system that allows users to transfer files from one computer to another
computer. Files that can be transfered may include program files, text files and
multimedia files ect. This method of file transfer is faster than that using HTTP.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP is used to transfer a hyper text between two or more computers. Hyper text
is the text that is coded using the language called HTML. HTML codes are used to
create links. This link may be in any format such as text or graphics.
HTTP is based on the Client/server principles. HTTP allows a client to establish

connection with a server and make a request. The server accepts the connection
initiated by the client and send back the response. An HTTP request identifies the
resources that the client is interested it and tells the server what action to take on
the resource.
8. Ethernet
Ethernet is a most popular protocol used for LAN communication. It transfer the
information in digital packets. Every computer that uses this protocol contains
the Ethernet Network Interface Card (NIC).
This card is an unique address code embedded in microchip. This address is used to
identify the system. When a packet is placed on a network, The packet is sent to
every computer on the networks but only the computer which has the same
address as Network Interface Card address is allowed to claim that packet and
receive the digital information contained with it.
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Only one packet is placed at a time in the network. If two systems placed packets
on the network on same time. When NIC tries to place a packet it first looks
whether a packet already exit or not. If it exits the NIC is forced to wait for a
random milliseconds before trying again. This continues until a 'gap' is found then
the packet can be successfully transmitted on to a network.
9. Telnet
Telnet is a set of rules used to connect one computer to another computer. The
process of this connection is called as remote login. The computer who request
connection is called local computer, who accept the connection is called remote
computer. If you type commands in local computer remote login these commands
executed in the remote computer. You can see in your monitor what is the process
going on in this remote computer.
Telnet also operates on the client/server principle. The establishment of connection

and display data on the local computer uses a Telnet server program to accept the
connection and send responses to requests for information back to the local
computer.
10. Gopher
Gopher is a sot of rules used to search, retrieve and display documents from
remote sites. It is possible to initiate on-line connections with other systems
through Goper. It also operates on client/server principal.
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Lecture 39
Addressing System: letter and Number , Domain Name, Web Search Engine
Terminologies related to internet
Protocol:
In information technology, a protocol is the special set of rules that end points in a
telecommunication connection use when they communicate. Protocols specify interactions
between the communicating entities.
Protocols exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection. For example, there are
protocols for the data interchange at the hardware device level and protocols for data interchange
at the application program level. In the standard model known as Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI), there are one or more protocols at each layer in the telecommunication exchange that both
ends of the exchange must recognize and observe. Protocols are often described in an industry or
international standard.
The TCP/IP Internet protocols, a common example, consist of:
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which uses a set of rules to exchange messages
with other Internet points at the information packet level
 Internet Protocol (IP), which uses a set of rules to send and receive messages at the
Internet address level
 Additional protocols that include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), each with defined sets of rules to use with corresponding
programs elsewhere on the Internet.
Domain Name:
A domain name is an identification string that defines a realm of administrative autonomy,

authority, or control on the Internet. It is a sequence of labels from a node to the root, separated
by dots (“.”s), read left to right
Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System (DNS).
Domain names are used in various networking contexts and application-specific naming and
addressing purposes. In general, a domain name represents an Internet Protocol (IP) resource,
such as a personal computer used to access the Internet, a server computer hosting a web site, or
the web site itself or any other service communicated via the Internet.
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IP address:
Every machine on a network has a unique identifier. Just as you would address a letter to send in
the mail, computers use the unique identifier to send data to specific computers on a network.
Most networks today, including all computers on the Internet, use the TCP/IP protocol as the
standard for how to communicate on the network. In the TCP/IP protocol, the unique identifier
for a computer is called its IP address.
There are two standards for IP addresses: IP Version 4 (IPv4) and IP Version 6 (IPv6).
IPv4 uses 32 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network.
URL:
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) it is the global address of documents and other resources on
the World Wide Web. It is a specific character string that constitutes a reference to an Internet
resource.
Every URL consists of some of the following: the scheme name (commonly called protocol),
followed by a colon, two slashes, then, depending on scheme, a server name (exp. ftp., www.,
smtp., etc.) followed by a dot (.) then a domain name (alternatively, IP address), a port number,
the path of the resource to be fetched or the program to be run, then, for programs such as
Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts, a query string,and an optional fragment identifier.
The syntax is:

scheme://domain:port/path?query_string#fragment_id
World Wide Web:
The World Wide Web (abbreviated as WWW or W3, commonly known as the Web), is a
system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one
can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia, and navigate
between them via hyperlinks.
The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much
distinction. However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same. The
Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks. In contrast, the Web is one of
the services that runs on the Internet. It is a collection of text documents and other resources,
linked by hyperlinks and URLs, usually accessed by web browsers from web servers. In short,
the Web can be thought of as an application "running" on the Internet.
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Viewing a web page on the World Wide Web normally begins either by typing the URL of the
page into a web browser or by following a hyperlink to that page or resource. The web browser
then initiates a series of communication messages, behind the scenes, in order to fetch and
display it. As an example, consider accessing a page with the URL
http://example.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web .
Web Search Engines

A web search engine is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web. The search
results are generally presented in a line of results often referred to as search engine results
pages (SERPs). The information may be a specialist in web pages, images, information and other
types of files. Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories.
Unlike web directories, which are maintained only by human editors, search engines also
maintain real-time information by running an algorithm on a web crawler.
A search engine operates in the following order:
1. Web crawling
2. Indexing
3. Searching
Web search engines work by storing information about many web pages, which they retrieve
from the HTML itself. These pages are retrieved by a Web crawler (sometimes also known as a
spider) — an automated Web browser which follows every link on the site. The contents of each
page are then analyzed to determine how it should be indexed (for example, words can be
extracted from the titles, page content, headings, or special fields called meta tags). Data about
web pages are stored in an index database for use in later queries. A query can be a single word.
The purpose of an index is to allow information to be found as quickly as possible.
When a user enters a query into a search engine (typically by using keywords), the engine
examines its index and provides a listing of best-matching web pages according to its criteria,
usually with a short summary containing the document's title and sometimes parts of the text.
The index is built from the information stored with the data and the method by which the
information is indexed.
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Lecture-40
IP Address, Internet Service Provider, Internet Security, Client Server Technology, Host
and Terminals, Uniform Resource Locater, Web Browser: Internet Explorer, Netscape
Navigator
IP address:
Every machine on a network has a unique identifier. Just as you would address a letter to send in
the mail, computers use the unique identifier to send data to specific computers on a network.
Most networks today, including all computers on the Internet, use the TCP/IP protocol as the
standard for how to communicate on the network. In the TCP/IP protocol, the unique identifier
for a computer is called its IP address.
There are two standards for IP addresses: IP Version 4 (IPv4) and IP Version 6 (IPv6).
For Eg. 225.225.225.0
Internet Service Provider
An Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides access to the Internet. Internet
service providers can be either community-owned and non-profit, or privately owned and for-
profit. it refers to a company that provides Internet services, including personal and business
access to the Internet. For a monthly fee, the service provider usually provides a software
package, username, password and access phone number. Equipped with a modem, you can then
log on to the Internet and browse the World Wide Web and USENET, and send and receive e-
Page 41
mail. For broadband access you typically receive the broadband modem hardware or pay a
monthly fee for this equipment that is added to your ISP account billing.
In addition to serving individuals, ISPs also serve large companies, providing a direct connection
from the company's networks to the Internet. ISPs themselves are connected to one another
through Network Access Points (NAPs). ISPs may also be called IAPs (Internet Access
Providers). More recently, wireless Internet service providers or WISPs have emerged that offer
Internet access through wireless LAN or wireless broadband networks.
In addition to basic connectivity, many ISPs also offer related Internet services like email, Web
hosting and access to software tools. For eg. Many ISPs provide free web space so that users can
create their own websites, free email addresses and so on.
Internet Security
Internet security is a branch of computer security specifically related to the Internet, often
involving browser security but also network security on a more general level as it applies to other
applications or operating systems on a whole. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to
use against attacks over the Internet. The Internet represents an insecure channel for exchanging
information leading to a high risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing. Different methods have
been used to protect the transfer of data, including encryption.
Firewalls
A firewall controls access between networks. It generally consists of gateways and filters which
vary from one firewall to another. Firewalls also screen network traffic and are able to block
traffic that is dangerous. Firewalls act as the intermediate server between SMTP and HTTP
connections.
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Role of firewalls in Internet security and web security
Firewalls impose restrictions on incoming and outgoing packets to and from private networks.
All the traffic, whether incoming or outgoing, must pass through the firewall; only authorized
traffic is allowed to pass through it. Firewalls create checkpoints between an internal private
network and the public Internet, also known as choke points. Firewalls can create choke points
based on IP source and TCP port number. They can also serve as the platform for IPsec. Using
tunnel mode capability, firewall can be used to implement VPNs. Firewalls can also limit
network exposure by hiding the internal network system and information from the public
Internet.
Types of firewalls
Network layer or Packet filters
Packet filters are one of several different types of firewalls that process network traffic on a
packet-by-packet basis. Their main job is to filter traffic from a remote IP host, so a router is
needed to connect the internal network to the Internet. The router is known as a screening router,
which screens packets leaving and entering the network.
Application-layer
Application-layer firewalls work on the application level of the TCP/IP stack (i.e., all browser
traffic, or all telnet or ftp traffic), and may intercept all packets traveling to or from an
application. They block other packets (usually dropping them without acknowledgment to the
sender).
On inspecting all packets for improper content, firewalls can restrict or prevent outright the
spread of networked computer worms and trojans. The additional inspection criteria can add
extra latency to the forwarding of packets to their destination.
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Application firewalls function by determining whether a process should accept any given
connection.
Proxies
A proxy server (running either on dedicated hardware or as software on a general-purpose

machine) may act as a firewall by responding to input packets (connection requests, for example)
in the manner of an application, while blocking other packets. A proxy server is a gateway from
one network to another for a specific network application, in the sense that it functions as a proxy
on behalf of the network user.
Network address translation(NAT)
Firewalls often have network address translation (NAT) functionality, and the hosts protected
behind a firewall commonly have addresses in the "private address range", as defined in RFC
1918. Firewalls often have such functionality to hide the true address of protected hosts.
Originally, the NAT function was developed to address the limited number of IPv4 routable
addresses that could be used or assigned to companies or individuals as well as reduce both the
amount and therefore cost of obtaining enough public addresses for every computer in an
organization. Hiding the addresses of protected devices has become an increasingly important
defense against network reconnaissance.
Malicious software and antivirus
Malware
Commonly, a computer user can be tricked or forced into downloading software onto a computer
that is of malicious intent. Such programs are known as malware and come in many forms, such
as viruses, Trojan horses, spyware, and worms. Malicious software is sometimes used to form
botnets.
Viruses
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Viruses are programs that can replicate their structures or effects by infecting other files or
structures on a computer. The common use of a virus is to take over a computer to steal data.
Trojan horse
A Trojan horse (commonly known as a Trojan) is a general term for malicious software that
pretends to be harmless so that a user willingly allows it to be downloaded onto the computer.
Spyware
The term spyware refers to programs that surreptitiously monitor activity on a computer system
and report that information to others without the user's consent.
Worms
Worms are programs that can replicate themselves throughout a computer network, performing
malicious tasks throughout.
Botnet
A botnet is a network of "zombie" computers that have been taken over by a "bot" that performs
large-scale malicious acts for the creator of the botnet.
Antivirus
Antivirus programs and Internet security programs are useful in protecting a computer or
programmable device from malware. Such programs are used to detect and usually eliminate
viruses; however, it is now common to see security suites, containing also firewalls, anti-
spyware, theft protection, and so on to more thoroughly protect users.
Traditionally, a user would pay for antivirus software; however, computer users now can, and do,
download from a host of free security applications on the Internet.
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Client and Servers
Client/server describes the relationship between two computer programs in which one program,
the client, makes a service request from another program, the server, which fulfills the request.
Although the client/server idea can be used by programs within a single computer, it is a more
important idea in a network. In a network, the client/server model provides a convenient way to
interconnect programs that are distributed efficiently across different locations. The client/server
model is a computing model that acts as a distributed application which partitions tasks or
workloads between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters,
called clients. Computer transactions using the client/server model are very common. For
example, to check your bank account from your computer, a client program in your computer
forwards your request to a server program at the bank. That program may in turn forward the
request to its own client program that sends a request to a database server at another bank
computer to retrieve your account balance. The balance is returned back to the bank data client,
which in turn serves it back to the client in your personal computer, which displays the
information for you.
Terminal and Host
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A computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that is used for

entering data into, and displaying data from, a computer or a computing system. Early terminals
were inexpensive devices but very slow compared to punched cards or paper tape for input, but
as the technology improved and video displays were introduced, terminals pushed these older
forms of interaction from the industry. A related development was timesharing systems, which
evolved in parallel and made up for any inefficiencies of the user's typing ability with the ability
to support multiple users on the same machine, each at their own terminal.
The function of a terminal is confined to display and input of data; a device with significant local
programmable data processing capability may be called a "smart terminal" or fat client. A
terminal that depends on the host computer for its processing power is called a dumb terminal or
thin client. A personal computer can run terminal emulator software that replicates the function
of a terminal, sometimes allowing concurrent use of local programs and access to a distant
terminal host system.
A network host is a computer connected to a computer network. A network host may offer
information resources, services, and applications to users or other nodes on the network. A
network host is a network node that is assigned a network layer host address.
Computers participating in networks that use the Internet Protocol Suite may also be called IP
hosts. Specifically, computers participating in the Internet are called Internet hosts, sometimes
Internet nodes. Internet hosts and other IP hosts have one or more IP addresses assigned to their
network interfaces. The addresses are configured either manually by an administrator,
automatically at start-up by means of the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), or by
stateless address auto configuration methods.
Every network host is a physical network node (i.e. a network device), but not every physical
network node is a host. Network devices such as modems, hubs and network switches are not
assigned host addresses (except sometimes for administrative purposes), and are consequently
not considered as network hosts. Devices such as network printers and hardware routers have IP
addresses, but since they are not general-purpose computers, they are sometimes not considered
as hosts.
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Network hosts that participate in applications that use the client-server model of computing, are
classified as server or client systems. Network hosts may also function as nodes in peer-to-peer
applications, in which all nodes share and consume resources in an equipotent manner.
Host Server
Always a physical node Can be a physical node or a software program
Can run both server and client programs Installed on a host
Provides specific services Provides specific services

Serves multiple users and devices Serves only clients
URL:
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) it is the global address of documents and other resources on
the World Wide Web. It is a specific character string that constitutes a reference to an Internet
resource.
Every URL consists of some of the following: the scheme name (commonly called protocol),
followed by a colon, two slashes, then, depending on scheme, a server name (exp. ftp., www.,
smtp., etc.) followed by a dot (.) then a domain name (alternatively, IP address), a port number,
the path of the resource to be fetched or the program to be run, then, for programs such as
Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts, a query string,and an optional fragment identifier.
The syntax is:

scheme://domain:port/path?query_string#fragment_id
Web Browser
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A web browser is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information
resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource
Identifier (URI) and may be a web page, image, video or other piece of content. Hyperlinks
present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. A web
browser can also be defined as an application software or program designed to enable users to
access, retrieve and view documents and other resources on the Internet.
Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, they can also be used to
access information provided by web servers in private networks or files in file systems. The
major web browsers are Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer, Opera, and Safari.
Internet Explorer
Internet Explorer (formerly Microsoft Internet Explorer and Windows Internet Explorer,
commonly abbreviated IE or MSIE) is a series of graphical web browsers developed by
Microsoft and included as part of the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, starting in
1995. It was first released as part of the add-on package Plus! for Windows 95 that year. Later
versions were available as free downloads, or in service packs, and included in the OEM service
releases of Windows 95 and later versions of Windows. Internet Explorer is one of the most
widely used web browsers.
Netscape Navigator
Netscape Navigator was a proprietary web browser popular in the 1990s. It was the flagship
product of the Netscape Communications Corporation and for a time was the dominant web
browser in terms of usage share, although by 2002 its usage had almost disappeared. This was
primarily due to the increased usage of Microsoft's Internet Explorer web browser software, and
partly because the Netscape Corporation (later purchased by AOL) did not sustain Netscape
Navigator's technical innovation after the late 1990
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Lecture 41
World wide Web: Introduction, Evolution, Owners of web, how web works, web features:
hypertext & Multimedia
World Wide Web
The World Wide Web (called WWW or W3 in short) is the most popular and promising method
of accessing the Internet. The main reason for its popularity is the use of a concept called
hypertext. Hypertext is a new way of information storage and retrieval that enables authors to
structure information in novel ways. An effectively designed hypertext document can help users
rapidly locate the desired type of information from the vast amount of information on the
Internet. Hypertext documents enable this by using a series of links. A link is a special type of
item in a hypertext document that connects the document to another document.
Hypertext documents on the Internet are known as Web Pages. Web Pages are created by using a
special language called Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML). HTML is a subset of the more
generalized language called Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML in short) which is a
powerful language for linking documents for easier electronic access and manipulation of
documents.
The WWW uses the client-server model and an Internet Protocol called Hyper Text Transport
Protocol (HTTP in short) for interaction between the computers on the Internet. Any computer
on the Internet that uses the HTTP protocol is called a Web Server and any computer that can
access that server is called a Web Client. The use of the client-server model and the HTTP
allows different kinds of computers on the Internet to interact with each other. For example, a
Unix workstation may be the web server and a Windows PC may be the web client if both of
them use the HTTP protocol for transmitting and receiving information.
WWW BROWSERS
To be used as a web client, a computer needs to be loaded with a special software tool that is
known as WWW browser (or browser in short). Browsers normally provide the following
navigation facilities to help users save time when they are jumping from server to server while
Internet surfing:-
1. Unlike FTP and Telnet, browsers do not require a user to remotely log in to a
server computer and then to log out again when the user has finished accessing
information stored on the server computer.
2. Browsers allow a user to specify an URL address of a server computer to

facilitate the user to directly visit the server computer's site and to access
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information stored on it. URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It is an

addressing scheme used by WWW browsers to locate sites on the Internet.
3. Browsers allow a user to create and maintain a personal hotlist of favorite

URL addresses of server computers that the user is likely to frequently visit in
future. A user's hotlist is stored on his/her local web client computer. Browsers
provide hotlist commands to allow the user to add, delete, update URL addresses
in the hotlist and to select an URL address of a server computer from the hotlist
when the user wants to visit that server computer.
4. Many browsers have a "history" feature. These browsers maintain a history of

the server computers visited in a surfing session. That is, they save (cache) in the
local computer's memory, the URL addresses of the server computers visited
during a surfing session, so that if the user wants to go back to an already visited
server later on (in the same surfing session), the link is still available in the local
computer's memory.
5. Browsers allow a user to download (copy from a server computer to the local
computer's hard disk) information in various formats (i.e., as a text file, as an
HTML file, or as a PostScript file). The downloaded information can be later (not
necessarily in the same surfing session) used by the user.
Browsers come in various forms and capabilities. The currently available browsers
can be broadly classified into the following three types:
1. Line browsers
2. Graphical browsers
3. Java-enabled browsers
Evolution of World Wide Web

The World Wide Web ("WWW" or simply the "Web") is a global information medium which
users can read and write via computers connected to the Internet. The term is often mistakenly
used as a synonym for the Internet itself, but the Web is a service that operates over the Internet,
just as e-mail also does. 1979–1991: Development of the World Wide Web.
How the web works

The model of web communication conforms to client server communication . The client is the
web browser like netscape or internet explorer and the server is the web server where the
requested web pages are residing .The user uses a web browser and clicks on a document link.
The browser reads the URL of the link and recognizes the different parts of URL. The client (the
users computer) contacts the web server (through the appropriate port number) and requests the
file. The server retrieves the the file from its storage device( eg a hard disk). If no file name is
specified, default page(usually the home page ) is retrieved. If the file is a program ,the program
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is run on the server. If the file contains images, those are also retrieved, one by one. The server
sends the result of the request to the web browser, usually in the form of an HTML document the
web browser reads the HTML codes, formats the document and images, and displays the result
for the user to see.
MULTIMEDIA
A multimedia computer system is a computer system that has the capability to integrate two or
more types of media (text, graphics, image, audio, and video) for the purpose of generation,
storage, representation, manipulation and access of multimedia information. Advances in
computer hardware and software have led to the development of inexpensive input, output,
storage and processing devices for multimedia computer systems. Technically, multimedia on
computer systems is not as new as many people think. For example, computer systems capable
of displaying graphs (such as sales graphs), charts (such as bar charts, pie charts), maps (such as
contour maps) and engineering drawings (such as mechanical drawings, building plans, circuit
diagrams, perspective views) along with text information have been in use for several years.
What is more exciting and relatively new about multimedia computer systems is their enhanced
capability to handle additional media like sound and video for better information presentation.
In general, the data size for multimedia information is much larger than plain text information
because representation of graphics, animation, audio or video media in digital form requires
much larger number of bits than that required for representation of plain text. Because of this,
multimedia computer systems require:
1. Faster CPU (for more quickly processing large amount of data),

2. Larger storage devices (for storing large data files),
3. Larger main memory (for running programs with large data size),
4. Good graphics terminals (for displaying graphics, animation and video), and
5. I/O devices required to play any audio associated with a multimedia
application program.
Note that logically speaking, all multimedia computer systems need not have all the features
listed above. For example, a computer system that does not have the capability to handle audio
and video media can still be called a multimedia computer system because it can still handle
multiple media (text and graphics). However, a full-fledged multimedia computer system must
be capable of handling all types of media.
Multimedia Components are:-
1.Text (alphanumeric characters)

2. Graphics (line drawings and images)
3. Animation (moving images)
4. Audio (sound)
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5. Video (Video graphed real-life events)
MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS
Education
Education is an area that has benefited a lot with the advent of multimedia. There are many
multimedia applications that directly or indirectly contribute to better education mechanisms.
Some of the main applications are described below.
Multimedia Books
Multimedia books use audio, animation and video to enrich text and still images used in printed
books to provide better understanding of the subject matter covered in a book. These books also
provide a very effective way of searching for specific facts in a variety of ways such as searching
mechanisms for words and phrases and hypertext and hypermedia techniques. Due to these
reasons, several reference books such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, telephone directories, etc.
are now being published and made available on CD-ROMs, which allow users to access the
information they need quickly.
Better Presentation
We saw that multimedia applications can present information in a variety of forms(text, graphics,
animation, audio, video) involving the use of more of our senses. Hence multimedia presentation
can be used to better explain a subject matter to the students because it enhances the
comprehension capability of the students. It is extremely effective in getting across new ideas
and concepts.
Foreign Language Learning
Using a book for learning a foreign language is difficult because one is not sure how to
pronounce the words written in text form. The book can have an accompanying audio tape to
solve this problem, but it is inconvenient for the learner to keep rewinding the tape to find
specific information. Moreover, the learner also does not have the flexibility to quickly hear the
pronunciation for a specific word. Using a multimedia program incorporating both text and
sound, the learner can see words and phrases on the screen as they are pronounced by the
computer program.
Natural Learning Environment
Multimedia course materials provide a natural learning environment because they allow different
students to learn and proceed at their own pace of learning. For example, beginners may like to
spend more time on a subject matter to understand the basic concepts, while advanced learners
may like to skip rudimentary information and directly go to more advanced concepts. Hypertext
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and hypermedia technologies may be used in multimedia course materials to provide this
flexibility to the students.
Training
Employee training is an important aspect of any organization. An organization often needs to

impart training to its employees on the processes, products and services offered by the
organization. Many organizations have developed and use interactive multimedia training
programs for this purpose. A computer based training has many advantages. It allows the
employees to take training at their own convenient time. For example, workers on a night shift
can learn as conveniently as those working during the day, and an employee can stop training
when other more important work must be done, and resume training when his/her schedule
allows.
Entertainment
Computer systems were normally considered as a device that is useful in our education, research,
and work. However, multimedia technology has now also made them an interesting
entertainment tool. The applications described below are few examples of this.
Video Games
With the advent of multimedia, there has been a boom in the different types of video games
available on computer systems. Sound and animation have been particularly important in these
applications to make the games thrilling and exciting for the user.
Special Effects in Films
Multimedia technology is also being exploited by the film industry for providing special effects
in films. Several movies now contain many visual tricks that could never be accomplished
without the aid of computers. For example morphing. In the English movie, Jurassic Park, the
dinosaurs were shown as living creatures (although they are extinct and no more exist) by the use
of multimedia technology only. Similarly, a number of very successful films, including Titanic,
Star Wars, Superman, have used multimedia technology for special effects.
Animation Films
Computerized animation and coloring have given a new life to the animation film industry. In
animation films of the past, animations were created by using hand drawing technique, which
was a very tedious and time consuming process.
Because of hand-drawing, the quality of animations was also not very good (was far from
realistic). Using computer programs based on the precise mathematical laws of physics,
animators can now create animations that are far more realistic than ever before.
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Interactive TV
Interactive TV allows users to select TV programs of their interest from remote massive video
archives, view at the time they wish without leaving the comfort of their homes, and interact with
the programs via VCR-like functions, such as fast forward and rewind. In essence, it implements
a virtual video-rental shop from which customers can borrow and view the videos of their choice
at their own convenient time.
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Lecture 42
Services on Internet: E-mail, FTP, Telnet, Chat, Instant messaging
Services on Internet
E-mail:
Electronic mail, also known as email or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages
from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or other
computer networks. Some early email systems required that the author and the recipient both be
online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Today's email systems are based on
a store-and-forward model. Email servers accept, forward, deliver and store messages. Neither
the users nor their computers are required to be online simultaneously; they need connect only
briefly, typically to an email server, for as long as it takes to send or receive messages.
An Internet email message consists of three components, the message envelope, the message
header, and the message body. The message header contains control information, including,
minimally, an originator's email address and one or more recipient addresses. Usually descriptive
information is also added, such as a subject header field and a message submission date/time
stamp.
FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host
or to another host over a TCP-based network, such as the Internet.
FTP is built on a client-server architecture and uses separate control and data connections
between the client and the server.FTP users may authenticate themselves using a clear-text sign-
in protocol, normally in the form of a username and password, but can connect anonymously if
the server is configured to allow it.
Telnet
Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a
bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual terminal connection.
User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet control information in an 8-bit byte oriented data
connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Telnet is a client-server protocol,
based on a reliable connection-oriented transport. Typically this protocol is used to establish a
connection to Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) port number 23, where a Telnet server
application (telnetd) is listening. Telnet offers users the capability of running programs remotely
and facilitates remote administration.
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Instant Messaging
Instant messaging (IM) is a form of communication over the Internet, that offers quick
transmission of text-based messages from sender to receiver. Instant messaging falls under the
term online chat, since it is also text-based, bi-directionally exchanged, and happens in real-time.
IM is distinct from chat in that IM is based on clients that facilitate connections between
specified known users (often using a contact list, buddy list, or friend list). Online 'chat' includes
web-based applications that allow communication between (often directly addressed, but
anonymous) users in a multi-user environment. Instant messaging is a set of communication
technologies used for text-based communication between two or more participants over the
Internet or other types of networks. IM–chat happens in real-time. Of importance is that online
chat and instant messaging differ from other technologies such as email due to the perceived
quasi-synchronicity of the communications by the users. IM allows effective and efficient
communication, allowing immediate receipt of acknowledgment or reply. However IM is
basically not necessarily supported by transaction control.
Chat
Chat programs allow users on the internet to communicate with each other by typing in real time.
They are sometimes included as a feature of a website, where users can log into chat rooms to
exchange comments and information about the topics addressed on the site. For example,
America online is well known for sponsoring a number of topical chat rooms. Chatting has
become one of the “killer applications” of internet and has become quite popular with all kinds
of internet users. It is quite cheap as well as to chat online. Although e-mail is also a cheap
source of communication but it is not done on “real time” and the response to the message solely
depends on the recipient.
A variation of chat is instant messaging where a user on the web can contact another user
currently logged in the and type a conversation. To avail this internet messenger installed on the
system. Instant messaging is just as if making text- only phone call over the internet, that is, the
user is “talking” to the other person instantly. There are various products for instant messaging
such as MSN messenger and YAHOO messenger.
Page 57

Unit 4

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Data Communication has 5 components:-

1. Message: - Information to be communicated. Like text, pictures, audio.

//Standards and organization.

Data Flow/Transmission mode

Advantages of Half Duplex

 Costs less than full duplex.

Disadvantages of Half Duplex

 Costs more than simplex.

 In full duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

Advantage of Full Duplex.

 Enables two-way communication simultaneously.

Disadvantage of Full Duplex.

I. Twisted Pair Cables

II. Co-axial Cable

III. Optical Fiber

The signal energy propagates within the guided media .i.e.

Examples of guided media are:-

Data Transmission Types( Digital & Analog Signals)

Why consider digital transmission?

Figure:- Ring topology with six station

Advantages :- Eliminates traffic problem, it is robust, privacy.

Tree or Expanded Star

Fig. 3. Tree topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

Computer Network : Introduction, types( LAN, WAN, MAN)

Categories of Networks/ Types of Network

Metropolitan Area Networks

Wide Area Networks

Personal Area Network

Enterprise Private Networks

One approach to a private network is to build an enterprise private network, or EPN. An

Storage Area Network

What Makes a SAN Different?

Universal Storage Connectivity

To appreciate the value of universal storage connectivity, consider the conventional

Figure 1.1 Client/Server information islands

From this business-as-usual picture of client/server computing, it's immediately

There's a more serious implication of an information processing strategy that relies on

impossible to make copies in a timely fashion. Moreover, the extra operational

Figure 1.2 A SAN eliminates islands of information

Virtual Private Network

Client and Servers

Limitations for Intranet

Internet—Introduction, History, Basic Governing bodies, Application, Requirement of Internet: hardware

Requirements of internet: Hardware, Software, Protocol

There are different types of Protocol such as:

1. Transmission control Protocol (TCP)

This is a communication protocol that computers use to communicate over a

2. Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet protocol is addressing protocol. It is always used together with TCP. IP

3. Internet Address Protocol (IP Address)

This is the address that identifies a computer on a network using TCP/IP. An IP

4. Post office Protocol (POP)

This is used to receive incoming E-mail .

5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)

This protocol is used for sending and distributing outgoing E-Mail .

6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is based on the Client/server principles. HTTP allows a client to establish

Telnet also operates on the client/server principle. The establishment of connection

Terminologies related to internet