11/1/2022

CRS 7101/CRS9103:
Applied Statistics and Biometry

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Thomas Odong, Paul Gibson and Settumba Mukasa,

School of Agricultural Sciences,
CAES, MAK

ABOUT THE COURSE

• Students will be equipped with statistical techniques for designing experiments, analyzing,
interpreting and presenting research data.
• The course covers: Approaches to data collection; Research objectives and hypothesis;
Principles of experimental design; Basic experimental designs and analysis of variance;
Sampling and categorical data analysis; Treatment comparisons and contrasts; Factorial
experiments; Assumptions underlying ANOVA and remedies for violation; Regression and
correlation; Non-parametric methods; Multivariate data analysis; Use of statistical software.
• At the end of this course students should be able:
• To explain the essential components of experimental design agriculture and biological
disciplines.
• To design an experiment and conduct analysis of variance on experimental data, interpret
the results and present them meaningfully.
• To critic published papers with regard to statistical techniques used therein.

1
 11/1/2022

1.0 RESEARCH AND THE RESEARCH PROCESS

What is • The systematic investigation into and study of materials
research? and sources in order to establish facts and reach new
conclusions (n).
• Investigate systematically (v)
• Most research can be divided into three different
categories: exploratory, descriptive and causal. Each
serves a different end purpose and can only be used in
certain ways. In the online survey world, mastery of all
three can lead to sounder insights and greater quality
information.
• What are the importance and limitations of research?

1.0 RESEARCH AND THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The Research • There are various approaches to conducting research;
Process whether you are doing basic research or applied research.
• Conducting research might be difficult, but there are clear
processes to follow. The research process starts with a broad
idea for a topic.
• The research process is an expression of the basic scientific
method using the following steps: focusing on the core
problem, statement of the problem, review of relevant
studies, generating a hypothesis, choosing appropriate
measures and research design, collecting data, analyzing data,
reporting results, implementing findings, and forming new
research questions.

2
 11/1/2022

1.1 IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

What is a • A problem is some undesirable state. Problems come in a
problem? variety of shapes and sizes.
• E.g., in motoring, we can use the word ‘problem’ to
cover: A car breakdown, High running costs , Locking keys
inside, Which car to buy, Not being able to afford a car
• Some problems are short term, some are long term.
• Some involve a whole range of problems from which
priorities must be chosen. Some may not be completely
solvable and may have to be coped with.
• There is no one way that will solve all problems. There
are various approaches, or ‘tools’, which can help to solve
certain types of problems.

3
 11/1/2022

1.1 IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

Problem identification • A well-defined research problem (issue) will
guide the researcher through all stages of the
and conceptualization research process, from setting objectives to
choosing a research design.
• Objective Analysis Tree is a project planning
tool that helps to analyze and graphically
break down (partitioned) higher objectives
into smaller and more manageable parts
(causes).
• The Objective Analysis Tree is a tool derived
from its parent tool the Problem Analysis
Tree.

1.1 IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

The Problem Tree • The problem tree, together with the objective tree
Analysis and analysis of strategies, is a methodology of three
steps for identifying main problem, along with its
causes and effects, helping project planners to
formulate clear and manageable objectives and the
strategies of how to achieve them.

4
 11/1/2022

1.1 IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

The • By defining a problem statement properly, you make problem
solving easier, which means saving time, money and resources.
Problem
• The primary purpose of a problem statement is to focus the
Statement attention of the problem solving team. However, if the focus is
too narrow, creativity and innovativeness can be stifled.
• The problem statement enables the project manager to identify
the project scope as well as the project stakeholders.
A good problem statement should answer these questions:
• What problem is addressed? Why is the problem important?
• How will the problem be solved?
• When and where will the activities take place?
• Who has the problem or who is the direct beneficiary?
• What form can the solution be? A new feature for a product?

1.1 IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

Some Concepts for guiding in
writing a problem statement

5
 11/1/2022

1.1 IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

Example of a
Problem Tree - 1

1.1 IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

Example of a
Problem Tree - 1

6
 11/1/2022

1.1 IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

Research • Stating objectives is one of the most important stages of
Objectives research
• In fact, different milestones levels can be considered as
different objective levels.
• Research objectives are best specified in terms of:
• A general/overall objective – Broad goals to be achieved;
what is expected to be achieved in general terms.
General objectives can be broken down into small
logically connected parts to form specific objective
• A set of specific objectives - Specific objectives
systematically address various aspects of the problem.
Specific objectives are short term and narrow in focus.

1.1 IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM

Characteristics of • Research objectives should be SMART – Specific,
Good Research Measurable, Achievable, Realistic & Time bound.
Objectives • Alternatively, one should check that objectives are:
• Sufficiently specific.
• Relevant to solving an identified problem and should
be justified by background information
• Attainable - capable of being met by research. N.B
Not every research question needs an experiment.
• All questions that could be met by the study are
included in the statement of objectives; if not, some
questions may remain unanswered

7
 11/1/2022

1.2 REVIEW AVAILABLE STUDIES

Review • A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to
Relevant the research process. It enables the researcher to identify
the precise aspects of the problem. Once a problem has
Literature been found, the researcher needs to find out more about it.
• This stage gives background to the research. It teaches the
investigator about previous research, how they were
conducted, and its conclusions. The researcher can build
consistency between his work and others through a literature
review.
• Such a review exposes the researcher to a more significant
body of knowledge and helps him follow the research
process efficiently.

1.3 HYPOTHESES AND SETTING HYPOTHESES

What is a • A hypothesis (plural: hypotheses), in a scientific context,
Hypothesis? is a testable statement about the relationship between
two or more variables or a proposed explanation for
some observed phenomenon.
• A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis
of limited evidence as a starting point for further
investigation [cf A theory is a principle formed to explain
the things already shown in data].
• There are basically two types, namely, null hypothesis
and alternative hypothesis.

8
 11/1/2022

1.3 HYPOTHESES AND SETTING HYPOTHESES

Some simple • Relevant and specific to the research question or
problem.
rules in research • Stated in such a way as to provide direction for
hypothesis research
formulation • Predicts the relationship and outcome (stated in a
way that suggests a solution to a problem)
• Simple and concise – avoid wordiness and with no
ambiguity.
• Observable and testable results. Capable of
verification or rejection

Why State • In developing the hypothesis, you can be influenced by

Hypotheses? • An existing theory,
• Related research,
• Personal experience.
• A clearly stated hypothesis will:
• aid and determine the design of an
experiment/survey
• help identify appropriate treatments and controls
• determine the type of data to collect, and
• (probably) suggest a method of analysis

9
 11/1/2022

More guidance • Inductive reasoning is used to try to discover a new piece of

on formulation information; deductive reasoning is used to try to prove it.
of hypothesis • Inductive reasoning: Hypothesis testing is often a result of
inductive reasoning where observations lead to the
formation of theory.
• Today, I left for work at 8 am, and was on time. Therefore,
every day that I leave the house at 8 am, I will arrive at work
on time.
• Deductive reasoning: starts with a general principle and
deduces that it applies to a specific case.
• Every day, I get in my car to leave for work, at 8 am. Every
day, the journey takes 45 min, and I arrive at work on time. If
I leave for work at 8 am today, I will be on time.

10
 11/1/2022

Formulation of Problem:
Research • Low yield (farmers’ problem) and lack information on how to
Hypotheses – A improve yield of Acholi white groundnut variety (Researcher’s
Real Example problem)
Research Question:
• “Why are farmers in Uganda getting low yield when they grow
Acholi white?” Or
• “How can we increase Acholi white yield on the farmers’ fields?”
• “Your idea”: Acholi white variety has become susceptible to
ground rosette virus disease
Possible hypothesis:
• “Resistance to groundnut rosette virus disease in Acholi white is
broken down due to emergence of new virus strain.”

Bad Vs Good Bad Good

Hypothesis 1. Improved fallows increase 2. Improved fallows using Sesbania
crop yields and Tephrosia increase maize yields
compared to continuous
unfertilised maize or maize
following a natural fallow
This raises several questions: This is related to the problem (low
what type of fallows? maize yields)
what crops? suggests a solution
increase yields, compared to also identifies appropriate control
what ? treatments

11
 11/1/2022

1.4 THE RESEARCH DESIGN

• Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and
answering research questions. It outlines how to get the
relevant information. Its goal is to design research to test
hypotheses, address the research questions, and provide
decision-making insights.
• The research design aims to minimize the time, money,
and effort required to acquire meaningful evidence. This
plan fits into three categories:
• Exploration and Surveys
• Experiment
• Observation

1.5 DELIMIT THE STUDY POPULATION

• Research projects usually look at a specific group of
people, facilities, or how technology is used. In research,
the term population refers to this study group. The
research topic and purpose help determine the study
group.
• Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain
group of people in the community. In that case, the
research could target a specific age group, males or
females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group. A final
step in a study’s design is to specify its sample or
population so that the results may be generalized.

12
 11/1/2022

1.6 DATA COLLECTION

• Data collection is important in obtaining the
information required to answer the research
question. Data may be collected from the two
categories of data sources:
• Primary data:
• Experiment
• Questionnaire/Interview
• Observation
• Secondary data:
• Literature survey
• Official, unofficial reports

1.7 DATA ANALYSIS

• During research design, the researcher plans data
analysis. After collecting data, the researcher analyzes it.
The data is examined based on the approach in this step.
• Data analysis involves a number of closely related stages,
such as setting up categories, applying these categories
to raw data through coding and tabulation, and then
carrying out statistical analysis.
• The researcher can examine the acquired data using a
variety of statistical methods.

13
 11/1/2022

1.8 REPORT RESULTS

• The report should be composed with the following in mind:
• The Layout: Title, date, acknowledgments, and preface should be on the first
page the report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables,
graphs, and charts if any.
• Summary: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations.
• Introduction: It should state the research background and purpose, and study’s
scope and limits.
• Methodology. It should include the procedures used during the research.
• Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be
broken up into sections that are easy to understand.
• Conclusions (and Recommendations): The researcher should restate his findings
at the end of the main text.

1.9 ASSIGNMENT - 01
• 1.1 State an issue (core problem). You can use a real examples in 1-3 words.

• 1.2 Pose the mentioned problem in form of a research question in one sentence.

• 2.1 Draw a problem tree (problem tree analysis) highlighting 5 key causes and 5
key effects of the problem (1 page).

• 2.2 From the above (2.1), identify 3 major causes of the problem mentioned
above that are within your means to solve. Use the three (3) to craft impact
pathways / a theory of change for your study.

14