BE3252 Notes Ro - by WWW - Easyengineering.net 2

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.
net
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et
**Note: Other Websites/Blogs Owners Please do not Copy (or) Republish

this Materials, Students & Graduates if You Find the Same Materials with
EasyEngineering.net Watermarks or Logo, Kindly report us to
easyengineeringnet@gmail.com
Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net
ww
w.E
UNIT 1a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
1.1 BASIC ELECTRICAL COMPONENT

What is an Electric Circuit?
An Electric Circuit is a closed path for transmitting an electric current through the medium of
electrical and magnetic fields. The flow of electrons across the loop constitutes the electric current.
Electrons enter the circuit through the ‘Source’ which can be a battery or a generator. The source
provides energy to the electrons, by setting up an electrical field which provides the electromotive
force.
The electrons leave the circuit through the load, to the earth ground, thus completing a closed
path. The load or output can be any simple home appliance like television, lamp, refrigerator, or can be
a complex load such as that on a hydroelectric power generating station.
A simple electric circuit consists of a source (such as a battery), wires as conducting medium
ww
and a load (such as a light bulb). The battery provides required energy for flow of electrons, to the
w.E
light bulb.
Basic Circuit Elements
a
As mentioned above in the introduction, a circuit is an interconnection of elements. These
syE
elements are classified into active or passive elements, based on their capability to generate energy.
Active Circuit Elements
ngi
Active Elements are those which can generate energy. Examples include batteries, generators,
nee
operational amplifiers and diodes. Note that in an electrical circuit, the source elements are the most
significant active elements.
rin
An energy source, whether a voltage or current source, is of 2 types – Independent and
g.n
Dependent sources. Example of an Independent source is the battery which provides a constant voltage
to the circuit, irrespective of the current flowing through the terminals.
et
Example of a dependent source is a transistor, which provides current to the circuit, depending upon
the voltage applied to it. Another example is an Operational Amplifier, which provides voltage,
depending upon the differential input voltage applied to its terminals.
Passive circuit Elements
Passive Elements can be defined as elements which can control the flow of electrons through
them. They either increase or decrease the voltage. Here are some examples of passive elements.
Resistor: A resistor opposes the flow of current through it. For a linear circuit, Ohm’s law is
applicable, which states that voltage across the resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing
through it, the proportional constant being the resistance.
Inductor: An inductor stores energy in form of the electromagnetic field. The voltage across an
inductor is proportional to the rate of change of current flowing through it.
BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Capacitor: A capacitor stores energy in form of the electrostatic field. The voltage across a capacitor is
proportional to the charge.
Inductor
An inductor is a passive electronic component which is capable of storing electrical energy in

the form of magnetic energy. Basically, it uses a conductor that is wound into a coil, and when
electricity flows into the coil from the left to the right, this will generate a magnetic field in the
clockwise direction
Capacitor
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores potential energy in an
electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. ...Capacitors are widely used as parts
ww
of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not
w.E
dissipate energy.
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

1.2 KIRCHHOFFS FIRST LAW – THE CURRENT LAW, (KCL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction
or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to leave, as
no charge is lost within the node“. In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and
leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly
known as the Conservation of Charge.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
Figure 1.2 Kirchhoff Current Law
rin
[Source: “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering” by Kothari D.P, Page – 38]
g.n
Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two currents
et
leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or
more current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for current to flow either
in or out of a node a closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when
analyzing parallel circuits.
Kirchhoff’s Second Law – The Voltage Law, (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage
around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also equal to

zero. In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea
by Kirchhoff is known as the
ww
w.E
Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the voltage
a syE
drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is important to
maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be
ngi
equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analyzing series circuits.
nee
When analyzing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws a number of
definitions and terminologies are used to describe the parts of the circuit being analyzed such as:
rin
node, paths, branches, loops and meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it is
important to understand them.
g.n
et

1.3 MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS

While Kirchhoff´s Laws give us the basic method for analyzing any complex
electrical circuit, there are different ways of improving upon this method by using Mesh
Current Analysis or Nodal Voltage Analysis that results in a lessening of the math’s
involved and when large networks are involved this reduction in math’s can be a big
advantage.
For example, consider the electrical circuit example from the previous section.
Mesh Current Analysis Circuit
ww
w.E
a syE
Figure 1.4.1 Mesh circuit
ngi
[Source: “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering” by Kothari D.P , Page – 75]
nee
One simple method of reducing the amount of math’s involved is to analyse the
circuit using Kirchhoff’s Current Law equations to determine the currents, I1 and I2 flowing
rin
in the two resistors. Then there is no need to calculate the current I3 as its just the sum of I1
and I2. So Kirchhoff’s second voltage law simply becomes:
•
•
Equation No 1 :
Equation No 2 :
10 = 50I1 + 40I2
20 = 40I1 + 60I2 g.n
therefore, one line of math’s calculation have been saved.
et
Mesh Current Analysis
An easier method of solving the above circuit is by using Mesh Current Analysis
or Loop Analysis which is also sometimes called Maxwell´s Circulating Currents
method. Instead of labelling the branch currents we need to label each “closed loop” with a
circulating current.
As a general rule of thumb, only label inside loops in a clockwise direction with
circulating currents as the aim is to cover all the elements of the circuit at least once. Any
required branch current may be found from the appropriate loop or mesh currents as before
using Kirchhoff´s method.
For example: : i1 = I1 , i2 = -I2 and I3 = I1 – I2
We now write Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation in the same way as before to solve

them but the advantage of this method is that it ensures that the information obtained from
the circuit equations is the minimum required to solve the circuit as the information is more
general and can easily be put into a matrix form.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.
ww Figure 1.4.2 Mesh Circuit

w.E
These equations can be solved quite quickly by using a single mesh impedance matrix Z.
Each element ON the principal diagonal will be “positive” and is the total impedance of
a
each mesh. Where as, each element OFF the principal diagonal will either be “zero” or
syE
“negative” and represents the circuit element connecting all the appropriate meshes.
First we need to understand that when dealing with matrices, for the division of two matrices
ngi
it is the same as multiplying one matrix by the inverse of the other as shown.
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
a syE
[I] ngi
[ V ] gives the total battery voltage for loop 1 and then loop 2
states the names of the loop currents which we are trying to find [ R ]
is the resistance matrix
[ R-1 ] is the inverse of the [ R ] matrix nee
and this gives I1 as -0.143 Amps and I2 as -0.429 Amps As :I3 = I1 – I2
rin
The combined current of I3 is therefore given as : -0.143 – (-0.429) = 0.286 Amps
g.n
which is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoff´s circuit law in the
previous tutorial.
et

1.4 NODAL ANALYSIS
Nodal Voltage Analysis complements the previous mesh analysis in that it is equally powerful and
based on the same concepts of matrix analysis. As its name implies, Nodal Voltage Analysis uses
the “Nodal” equations of Kirchhoff’s first law to find the voltage potentials around the circuit.
So by adding together all these nodal voltages the net result will be equal to zero. Then, if there are
“n” nodes in the circuit there will be “n-1” independent nodal equations and these alone are
sufficient to describe and hence solve the circuit.
At each node point write down Kirchhoff’s first law equation, that is: “the currents entering a node
ww
are exactly equal in value to the currents leaving the node” then express each current in terms of
the voltage across the branch. For “n” nodes, one node will be used as the reference node and all
w.E
the other voltages will be referenced or measured with respect to this common node.
asy
For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.
Nodal Voltage Analysis Circuit

E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t
Figure 1.5.1 Nodal Analysis

In the above circuit, node D is chosen as the reference node and the
other three nodes are assumed to have voltages, Va, Vb and Vc with
respect to node D. For example;
As Va = 10v and Vc = 20v , Vb can be easily found by:
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
again is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Law in
the previous tutorial.
From both Mesh and Nodal Analysis methods we have looked at so far, this is the
et
simplest method of solving this particular circuit. Generally, nodal voltage
analysis is more appropriate when there are a larger number of current sources
around. The network is then defined as: [ I ] = [ Y ] [ V ] where [ I ] are the
driving current sources, [ V ] are the nodal voltages to be found and [ Y ] is the
admittance matrix of the network which operates on [ V ] to give [ I ].
Nodal Voltage Analysis Summary.
The basic procedure for solving Nodal Analysis equations is as follows:
1. Write down the current vectors, assuming currents into a node are
BE8253 BASIC ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

positive. ie, a (N x 1) matrices for “N” independent nodes.
2. Write the admittance matrix [Y] of the network where:
o Y11 = the total admittance of the first node.

o Y22 = the total admittance of the second node.
o RJK = the total admittance joining node J to node K.
3. For a network with “N” independent nodes, [Y] will be an (N x
N) matrix and that Ynnwill be positive and Yjk will be negative or zero value.
4. The voltage vector will be (N x L) and will list the “N” voltages to be found.
We have now seen that a number of theorems exist that simplify the analysis of
ww
linear circuits. In the next tutorial we will look at Thevenins Theorem which
allows a network consisting of linear resistors and sources to be represented by an
w.E
equivalent circuit with a single voltage source and a series resistance.
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
1.5 STEADY STATE ANALYSIS OF RLC CIRCUITS

An understanding of the natural response of the series RLC circuit is a necessary
background for future studies in filter design and communications networks.
Consider the series RLC circuit shown in Fig. 3.4.1. The circuit is being excited by the
energy initially stored in the capacitor and inductor. The energy is represented by the
initial capacitor voltage V0 and initial inductor current I0. Thus, at t = 0,
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
e eri
ng.
ne t

EE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
e eri
ng.
ne t

Problem 1:
In Fig. 3.4.1, R = 40 _, L = 4 H, and C = 1/4 F. Calculate the characteristic roots of the
circuit. Is the natural response overdamped, underdamped, or critically damped?
Fig. 1.5.1 For problem 1.
ww
Solution:
[Source: “Fundamentals of Electric Circuits” by charles K. Alexander, page: 301]
w.E
asy
En
gin
e eri
ng.
ne t

ww
w.E
UNIT 2a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

2.1 Domestic wiring

Electricity is generated at the power station. It is brought to our homes by two thick copper wires or
aluminum wires fixed over tall electric poles
Electrical power is transferred from generating stations to consumers at different voltage levels.
Electrical power can be considered just like gas or water and same rule applies to its distribution i.e.
proper pipeline and associated valves/switches.
Electrical wiring is a proper calculation-oriented process and wiring of every installation/facility
varies according to its requirements and expectations. We will discuss the performance needs and
protection schemes that should be installed within a good electrical wiring system of a home.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
Following components are necessary for an efficient electrical wiring system:
et
a. Live and neutral connections from energy meter to the main consumer unit. A split consumer unit is
also installed for more redundancy and user-friendly operations.
b. Proper circuit breakers are part and parcel of a successful electrical supply system. Ring type
circuits are installed for feeding the main sockets of consumer units.
c. Lighting circuits are considered an important part of wiring system and they are radial in nature
(most of the time). Miniature circuit breakers of proper rating (usually 6 amperes) are also installed for
the protection purpose.
d. Incomer to consumer unit grounding connections.
e. Heavy duty electrical wiring backed by dedicated breakers (radial) for high power equipment like
HVAC, cookers, heavy duty geysers etc.

f. Two-way switches as desired.
g. Outdoor connections (outside the premises) are also used for lighting purposes. Rating of the
breaker governing these circuits should be tightly close to the maximum load to avoid power theft (in
case).
h. Very high-power equipment like storage heating equipment should be powered directly by the
consumer unit.
Consumer unit / fuse box

A consumer unit comprises of an isolator, dedicated miniature circuit breakers (separate for every
major circuit), grounding terminals and well-defined circuit paths.
ww
Grounding connections
w.E
Proper grounding connection is a vital part of every electrical installation. Basic purpose of earthing is
to ensure that fault current flows through the system immediately after the fault has occurred
resultantly tripping the main circuit. This prevents the floating voltage condition and thus fatal/non-
a
fatal accidents.
syE
A functional earthing system is a must have for every domestic/industrial wiring system. In case the
ngi
power company does not provide it, it should be arranged locally for the greater good.
Electric shock prevention/minimization

nee
rin
Recent wiring regulations emphasize on RCBOs or RCDs (residual current devices) in an electrical
wiring circuit.
g.n
et
These devices are crucial for electric shock prevention but relying on them for personnel safety is
highly not recommended. Especially sockets and vulnerable switches must be protected by residual
current devices. Separate RCBOs or RCDs are recommended for every ring or radial circuit.

Sockets
Recommended number of sockets are crucial for residents’ satisfaction and safety. Number and
location of sockets in a wiring system should be precisely taken care of. Less and widely spread
sockets encourage the use of circuit extensions which pose a safety risk.
Fuses/MCBs
Fuses and MCBs serve the same purpose i.e. disconnection of fault from the circuit. Fuses are
recommended for lighting circuits as they are less sensitive to false alarms and bulb failure or other
extremely transient faults do not cause trouble or unnecessary nuisance. Some MCBs are lesser
sensitive and they can be used for lighting purpose.
Fuses and miniature circuit breakers are backbone of domestic electrical protection. Failure to design
and implement an effective fuse/breaker sequence always results in catastrophic scenarios.
ww
Voltage fluctuation protection
w.E
Voltage provided by a power company is prone to fluctuate no matter how well designed a system is.
There are documented incidents where domestic electric wiring was exposed to high voltages. This is
a
a very undesirable consequence and should be countered with the installation of voltage sensors.
syE
Voltage fluctuation control system identifies voltage abnormalities and trips the circuit. Over voltage
ngi
exposure can cause the weakening or failure of cables’ insulation. Voltages below the rated values can
also damage the equipment and can render the protection devices useless. A well designed voltage
controller is always recommended for domestic electric wiring.
nee
rin
Colour coding
g.n
Colour coding is an agreed upon standard and should be followed in every electrical wiring. A
separate and distinguishable colour is assigned to every conductors’ insulation and it aids in
identification and fault clearance of a circuit.
et

2.2 Types of Wires

A wire is defined as one electrical conductor, while a cable is defined as a group of individually
insulated wires (conductors) encased together in sheathing. Sheathing is a non-conducting material
with protective properties to shield the conducting part of the wire/cable. Although wire is a good
conductor, it can still have some resistance. Wires and cables can be made from various materials,
such as copper, gold, and aluminum.
The materials each have different resistances. Thick wire will have a lower resistance than thin wire
made from the same material. Resistance of the wire can change proportionally with change in
temperature or length of the wire. Wire size indicates the diameter of the metal conductor of the wire.
When choosing the size of wire, you must consider the gauge of the wire, wire capacity, and what the
wire will be used for. If the wire is too small, too much current will be sent through, causing the wire
to drop more power, in the form of watts, because there is such high resistance.
ww
w.E
Wire:
a syE
The two categories of single-conductor wires are solid and stranded (also called braided). Solid wire is
rigid and conducts electricity better. Stranded wire consists of smaller wires braided together. Stranded
ngi
wires are less prone to breakage when flexed repeatedly, which is why this type of wire is common in
phone chargers
nee
rin
g.n
et
Jumper wires are pre-cut flexible stranded wires of different lengths that have stiff ends to allow the
wire to be easily inserted in a breadboard. Hook-up wire is typically single conductor insulated wire
used in low current, low voltage (<600 Volts) applications for making internal connections. It comes
in a range of gauges and lengths. Once the hook-up wire is cut to the desired length a wire stripper can
be used to strip off the insulation, allowing the metal conductor to be attached to a circuit
Magnet wire is a copper or aluminum wire coated with a very thin layer of insulation. Magnet wire
allows multiple layers of wire to be wound together without short circuiting. When the wire is wound
into a coil and energized, it creates an electromagnetic field. Magnet wire is often used in
transformers, inductors, motors, electromagnets, Tesla coils, and other applications that require tight
coils of insulated wire.
Wire-wrap wire is ideal for wire wrapping, hence the name. The silver-plated copper wire is highly
flexible and well insulated, yet resistant to abrasion. Wire wrapping is great for prototypes because it

is easy to make point-to-point connections and to repair them. The connections made with wire
wrapping is more reliable than soldered connections because of the amount of contact the wire makes
with the post.
Muscle wire is an extremely thin wire made from Nitinol that is known for its ability to contract when
an electric current is applied. It has been used for micro latches on Microsoft® Surface Book laptops.
Check out this more in-depth article about what muscle wires are and how muscle wire works.
Cable
As mentioned earlier, a cable is a group of insulated wires encased together in sheathing. Typically, a
cable has at least one hot wire to carry the current, one neutral wire, and one grounding wire. Cables
are classified according to the number of wires it contains and their size/gauge. The cables are marked
with a series of letters followed by a number, a dash, and another number. The letters indicate the type
of insulation. The first number indicates the resistance of the wires in the cable. And the number
ww
following the dash indicates the number of individual conductors in the cable. If a G follows the final
number, then it means the cable is also equipped with a non-current carrying ground wire.
w.E
AC Power Cords safely deliver the current and voltage from domestic power to an electronic device,
usually an AC to DC power supply. The individually insulated conductors are inside a more durable
a syE
protective outer jacket and are fitted with connectors on one or both ends. Conductor size and count,
current and voltage rating, temperature rating and agency approvals are normally printed along the
jacket.
ngi
Multi-conductor cable is a variation of stranded wire, where each cable hosts 2-60 distinct conductors
nee
inside a common jacket. There can be both stranded and solid conductors wound together within the
jacket. These cables can be used to connect heavy appliances, in medical electronics, in audio systems,
and more.
rin
g.n
Ribbon cable is a series of single-conductor wires connected side-by-side to form a ribbon shape. It
may also be called zip-wire because the conductors can be separated from the ribbon. The wires are
insulated.
et
not encased together in one protective jacket, like the other types of cables, but rather individually
Coaxial cable has an insulated center conductor surrounded by a braided wire shield, which is encased
in a tough outer jacket/sheathing. Coaxial means two or more three-dimensional linear forms that
share a common axis. This type of transmission line carries high frequency electrical signals with low
losses. Some of the applications include carrying cable television signals, broadband internet
networking cables, and connecting radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas. The composition
of the coaxial cable is the outer plastic sheath, woven copper shield, inner dielectric insulator, and the
copper core.
Speaker cable is two or more electrical conductors (typically copper) individually insulated by plastic
or rubber. The two wires are electrically the same but are marked to identify the correct audio signal
polarity. Speaker cable is used for the electrical connections between speakers and amplifier sources.
There are three key electrical properties: resistance, capacitance, and inductance. Low-resistance
allows more of the source’s power through the speaker coil, which means more sound.

2.3 Protective device

Fuse.
Circuit Breaker.
Poly Switch.
RCCB.
Inrush Current Limiter.
Metal Oxide Varistor.
Gas Discharge Tube.
Lighting Arrester.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
Fuse
nee
In electrical circuits, a fuse is an electrical device used to protect the circuit from overcurrent. It
rin
consists of a metal strip that liquefies when the flow of current through it is high. Fuses are essential
electrical devices, and there are different types of fuses available in the market today based on specific
g.n
voltage and current ratings, application, response time, and breaking capacity. The characteristics of
fuses like time and current are selected to give sufficient protection without unnecessary disruption.
Please refer to the link to know more about: Different Types of Fuses and Its Applications
et
Fuse

Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is one kind of electrical switch used to guard an electrical circuit against short circuit
otherwise an overload which will cause by excess current supply. The basic function of a circuit
breaker is to stop the flow of current once a fault has occurred. Not like a fuse, a circuit breaker can be
operated either automatically or manually to restart regular operation.
Circuit breakers are available in different sizes from small devices to large switch gears which are
used to protect low current circuits as well as high voltage circuits. Please refer the link to know more
about: Types of Circuit Breaker and Its Importance
ww
w.E Circuit Breaker
a
Poly Switch or Resettable Fuse
syE
A resettable fuse is a passive electronic component used for protecting electronic circuits from over-
current mistakes. This device is also called as a poly switch or multi fuse or poly fuse. The working of
these fuses is same as PTC thermistors in particular situations, however, work on mechanical
ngi
transforms instead of charge-carrier-effects within semiconductors.
Resettable Fuses are used in several applications like power supplies in computers, nuclear or
aerospace applications where substitution is not easy.
nee
rin
g.n
Poly switch
et
RCCB or RCD
The RCD-residual current device (or) RCCB- residual current circuit breaker is a safety device which
notices a problem in your home power supply then turns OFF in 10-15 milliseconds to stop electric
shock. A residual current device does not give safety against short circuit or overload in the circuit, so
we cannot change a fuse instead of RCD.
RCDs are frequently incorporated with some type of circuit breaker like an MCB (miniature circuit
breaker) or a fuse, which guards against overload current in the circuit. The residual current device
also cannot notice a human being due to by mistake touching both conductors at a time.
These devices are testable as well as resettable apparatus. A test button securely forms a tiny leakage
condition; along with a reset button again connects the conductors after an error state has been cleared.

RCCB
Inrush Current Limiter
ww
This is one type of electrical a component used to stop inrush current for avoiding regular
damage to apparatus and evade tripping circuit breakers and blowing fuses. The best examples of
inrush current limiter device are Fixed resistors as well as NTC thermistors.
w.E
They present a high resistance firstly, which stops huge currents from flowing by turn-on.
Because the flow of current will continue, NTC thermistors heat-up, permitting high flow of current
a syE
throughout normal operation. These thermistors are generally much superior to measurement kind
thermistors, which are intentionally planned for power applications.
ngi
nee
rin
Lightning Protection
g.n
The lightning protection includes MOV (metal oxide varistor) and gas discharge tube
Metal Oxide Varistor

et
A varistor or VDR (voltage dependent resistor) is an electronic component and the resistance
of this is changeable and depends on the applied voltage. The term varistor has been taken from the
variable resistor. When the voltage of this component increases then the resistance decreases. In the
same way, when an extreme voltage increases then the resistance will decrease significantly.
This performance creates them appropriate to guard electrical circuits throughout voltage
flows. Origins of a flow can comprise electrostatic discharges as well as lightning strikes. The most
frequent type of voltage-dependent resistor is the MOV (metal oxide varistor). Please refer the link to
know more about varistor/voltage-dependent resistor circuit with working
Gas Discharge Tube

A gas discharge tube or gas-filled tube is a collection of electrodes in a gas inside a

temperature resistant envelope and insulating. These tubes use phenomena allied to electric discharge
within gases, also work through ionizing the gas by an applied voltage enough to reason electrical
conduction through the fundamental phenomena of the Townsend expulsion.
An expulsion lamp is an electrical device which uses a gas-filled tube such as metal halide
lamps, fluorescent lamps, neon lights, and sodium-vapor lamps. Specific gas-filled tubes namely
thyratrons, ignitrons, and krytrons are employed as switching devices in various electrical devices.
The required voltage to begin and maintain discharge is reliant on the force, geometry of the
tube, and composition of the fill gas. Even though the cover is normally glass, power tubes frequently
employ ceramics, as well as military tubes frequently employ glass wrinkled metal.
ww
w.E
a syE Gas Discharge Tube
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

2.3 Protective device

Fuse.
Circuit Breaker.
Poly Switch.
RCCB.
Inrush Current Limiter.
Metal Oxide Varistor.
Gas Discharge Tube.
Lighting Arrester.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
Fuse
nee
In electrical circuits, a fuse is an electrical device used to protect the circuit from overcurrent. It
rin
consists of a metal strip that liquefies when the flow of current through it is high. Fuses are essential
electrical devices, and there are different types of fuses available in the market today based on specific
g.n
voltage and current ratings, application, response time, and breaking capacity. The characteristics of
fuses like time and current are selected to give sufficient protection without unnecessary disruption.
Please refer to the link to know more about: Different Types of Fuses and Its Applications
et
Fuse

Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is one kind of electrical switch used to guard an electrical circuit against short circuit
otherwise an overload which will cause by excess current supply. The basic function of a circuit
breaker is to stop the flow of current once a fault has occurred. Not like a fuse, a circuit breaker can be
operated either automatically or manually to restart regular operation.
Circuit breakers are available in different sizes from small devices to large switch gears which are
used to protect low current circuits as well as high voltage circuits. Please refer the link to know more
about: Types of Circuit Breaker and Its Importance
ww
w.E Circuit Breaker
a
Poly Switch or Resettable Fuse
syE
A resettable fuse is a passive electronic component used for protecting electronic circuits from over-
current mistakes. This device is also called as a poly switch or multi fuse or poly fuse. The working of
these fuses is same as PTC thermistors in particular situations, however, work on mechanical
ngi
transforms instead of charge-carrier-effects within semiconductors.
Resettable Fuses are used in several applications like power supplies in computers, nuclear or
aerospace applications where substitution is not easy.
nee
rin
g.n
Poly switch
et
RCCB or RCD
The RCD-residual current device (or) RCCB- residual current circuit breaker is a safety device which
notices a problem in your home power supply then turns OFF in 10-15 milliseconds to stop electric
shock. A residual current device does not give safety against short circuit or overload in the circuit, so
we cannot change a fuse instead of RCD.
RCDs are frequently incorporated with some type of circuit breaker like an MCB (miniature circuit
breaker) or a fuse, which guards against overload current in the circuit. The residual current device
also cannot notice a human being due to by mistake touching both conductors at a time.
These devices are testable as well as resettable apparatus. A test button securely forms a tiny leakage
condition; along with a reset button again connects the conductors after an error state has been cleared.

RCCB
Inrush Current Limiter
ww
This is one type of electrical a component used to stop inrush current for avoiding regular
damage to apparatus and evade tripping circuit breakers and blowing fuses. The best examples of
inrush current limiter device are Fixed resistors as well as NTC thermistors.
w.E
They present a high resistance firstly, which stops huge currents from flowing by turn-on.
Because the flow of current will continue, NTC thermistors heat-up, permitting high flow of current
a syE
throughout normal operation. These thermistors are generally much superior to measurement kind
thermistors, which are intentionally planned for power applications.
ngi
nee
rin
Lightning Protection
g.n
The lightning protection includes MOV (metal oxide varistor) and gas discharge tube
Metal Oxide Varistor

et
A varistor or VDR (voltage dependent resistor) is an electronic component and the resistance
of this is changeable and depends on the applied voltage. The term varistor has been taken from the
variable resistor. When the voltage of this component increases then the resistance decreases. In the
same way, when an extreme voltage increases then the resistance will decrease significantly.
This performance creates them appropriate to guard electrical circuits throughout voltage
flows. Origins of a flow can comprise electrostatic discharges as well as lightning strikes. The most
frequent type of voltage-dependent resistor is the MOV (metal oxide varistor). Please refer the link to
know more about varistor/voltage-dependent resistor circuit with working
Gas Discharge Tube

A gas discharge tube or gas-filled tube is a collection of electrodes in a gas inside a

temperature resistant envelope and insulating. These tubes use phenomena allied to electric discharge
within gases, also work through ionizing the gas by an applied voltage enough to reason electrical
conduction through the fundamental phenomena of the Townsend expulsion.
An expulsion lamp is an electrical device which uses a gas-filled tube such as metal halide
lamps, fluorescent lamps, neon lights, and sodium-vapor lamps. Specific gas-filled tubes namely
thyratrons, ignitrons, and krytrons are employed as switching devices in various electrical devices.
The required voltage to begin and maintain discharge is reliant on the force, geometry of the
tube, and composition of the fill gas. Even though the cover is normally glass, power tubes frequently
employ ceramics, as well as military tubes frequently employ glass wrinkled metal.
ww
w.E
a syE Gas Discharge Tube
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

2.5 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

An Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical installations (both
residential and commercial) with high Earth impedance to prevent electric shocks. It detects small
stray voltages on the metal enclosures of electrical equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a
dangerous voltage is detected.
ELCBs help detect current leaks and insulation failures in the electrical circuits that would cause
electrical shocks to anyone coming into contact with the circuit.
Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
The working principle of voltage ELCB is quite simple. One terminal of the relay coil is connected
to the metal body of the equipment to be protected against earth leakage and other terminal is
connected to the earth directly.
ww
If any insulation failure occurs or live phase wire touches the metal body, of the equipment, there
w.E
must be a voltage difference appears across the terminal of the coil connected to the equipment
body and earth. This voltage difference produces a current to flow the relay coil.
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
If the voltage difference crosses, a predetermined limit, the current through the relay becomes
et
sufficient to actuate the relay for tripping the associated circuit breaker to disconnect the power
supply to the equipment.
The typicality of this device is, it can detect and protect only that equipment or installation with
which it is attached. It cannot detect any leakage of insulation in other parts of the system. Study
our Electrical MCQs to learn more about the operation of ELCBs.
Current ELCB or Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB)
The working principle of current earth leakage circuit breaker or RCCB is also very simple as
voltage operated ELCB but the theory is entirely different and residual current circuit breaker is
more sensitive than ELCB.
Actually, ELCBs are of two kinds, but it is general practice to refer voltage based ELCB as simple
ELCB. And current based ELCB is referred to as RCD or RCCB. Here one CT (Current
Transformer) core is energized from both phase wise and neutral wire.

Single Phase Residual Current ELCB. The polarity of the phase winding and neutral winding on the
core is so chosen that, in normal condition mmf of one winding opposes that of another.
As it is assumed that, in normal operating conditions the current goes through the phase wire will
ww
be returned via neutral wire if there’s no leakage in between.
As both currents are same, the resultant mmf produced by these two currents is also zero-ideally.
w.E
The relay coil is connected with another third winding wound on the CT core as secondary. The
terminals of this winding are connected to a relay system.
a syE
n normal operating condition there would not be any current circulating in the third winding as here
is no flux in the core due to equal phase and neutral current.
ngi
When any earth leakage occurs in the equipment, there may be part of phase current passes to the
earth, through the leakage path instead of returning via mental wire.
nee
Hence the magnitude of the neutral current passing through the RCCB is not equal to phase current
passing through it.
rin
g.n
et

2.6 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND FIRST AID
Chemicals (dyes, dyeing assistants, wetting and penetrating agents, after-treating agents, etc.) can
cause severe burns and may irritate the eyes, respiratory system and skin. Some chemicals are
poisonous when swallowed or absorbed through the skin or mouth.
Accidents can usually be prevented by maintaining a clean and tidy working area, wearing protective
clothing (aprons or overalls, gloves, facemasks, goggles) and always taking safety precautions.
Instructors should stress these points at every opportunity.
If chemicals must be used, the following precautions must be observed:
ww
1. Avoid contact with the chemical. Always wear protective clothing.
w.E
2. Avoid breathing the dust or vapour. Always wear facemasks. Use narrow-mouthed beakers, jars or
bottles whenever possible. Pour or spoon carefully.
a syE
3. Avoid using concentrated solutions whenever possible.
ngi
4. Avoid handling large containers of chemicals whenever possible. Transfer some of the chemical to
nee
a smaller container-accurate pouring or spooning is then much easier and safer.
5. Always wipe up spillages immediately and rinse the cloth thoroughly.

rin
6. Always wash all utensils thoroughly after use.
g.n
7. Always wash hands thoroughly with soap and water after using any chemicals.
First aid treatment

et
Splashes of chemicals on the skin
1. Flood the splashed area with large quantities of running water and continue for at least 10 minutes.
2. Remove all contaminated clothing, taking care not to cause further contamination.
3. If the situation warrants it, arrange for transport to hospital or refer for medical advice to the nearest
doctor. Provide information to accompany the casualty on the chemical responsible and brief details of
the first aid treatment given.

Splashes of chemicals in the eye
1. Flood the eye thoroughly with large quantities of gently running water either from a tap or from an
eyewash bottle and continue for at least 10 minutes.
2. Ensure the water bathes the eyeball by gently prising open the eyelids and keeping them apart until
the treatment is ended.
3. All eye injuries due to chemicals require medical advice. Arrange for transport to hospital. Provide
information to accompany the casualty on the chemical responsible and brief details of the first aid
treatment given.
ww
Ingestion of poisonous chemicals
w.E
1. If the chemical has been confined to the mouth, give large quantities of water as a mouth wash.
Ensure that the mouth wash is not swallowed.
a syE
2. If the chemical has been swallowed, give copious drinks of water or milk to dilute it in the stomach.
3. Do not induce vomiting.

ngi
nee
4. Arrange for transport to hospital. Provide information to accompany the casualty on the chemical
rin
swallowed and brief details of the first aid treatment given and if possible an estimate of the quantity
and concentration of the chemical consumed.
g.n
et

ww
w.E
UNIT 3a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

3.1 CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC MOTOR

CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR
Yoke: Yoke is the magnetic core of stator. It provides path for the pole flux Ø and carries half of it.
Apart from this, it provides mechanical support to the whole machine. The Yoke of DC machine is not
laminated as it carries stationary flux and hence there is no eddy current. Iron core is used for the
construction of Yoke for small DC machine whereas Steel is used for large DC machine.
Field Poles: Field pole consists of pole core and pole shoe. The pole core is made from the cast steel.
The pole shoe of DC machine is laminated and fixed to the pole core. These Filed Poles are welded or
bolted to the Yoke.
ww
Field Winding or Exciting Winding: The pole is excited by a winding wound around the pole core.
w.E
This winding is called the Field Winding or Exciting Winding and made from copper.
Brushes: Brushes are housed in the brush holder and connected to the end cover. It is made up of
asy
Carbon for small DC machine. For large DC machine, electrographite is used to make
Figure 3.1.1 Construction of DC Motor
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e
brushes. A spring keeps the brushes pressed on the commutator surface.
t
Armature Core: It is a magnetic core made of laminated silicon steel of thickness 0.30 to 0.50 mm to
minimize the iron losses. The main purpose of armature core is to house the armature conductor in its
slot and provide low reluctance path to magnetic flux Ø/2 as shown in the labelled diagram of DC
machine.
Armature Winding: Armature winding is made from copper. It consists of large number of insulated
coils having one or more than one turns. Theses coils are placed in the armature core slots and
connected appropriately in series and parallel depending on the type of winding. There are basically
two types of winding: Lap Winding and Wave Winding.

Commutator: It is a cylindrical structure made up of wedge shaped segments of high conductivity

hard drawn copper. Hard drawn copper is used to reduce wear and tear of commutator surface. The
segments are insulated from each other by 0.8 mm thick mica sheet.
Shaft: Shaft of DC Motor is coupled to the load to transfer mechanical power. For DC Generator,
shaft is coupled to prime mover to convert mechanical input energy into electrical output. Armature
core, bearing, commutator etc. are mounted on the Shaft.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
ww
w.E Figure 3.1.2 Principle of Operation
asy
•
force tending to move it”. E
Basic principle is “whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field, it experiences a
ngi
• nee
Above the conductor-field is weakened, below-field is strengthened, conductor moves upwards.
Force exerted upwards depends upon the intensity, the direction of the current is reversed.
• Now field below-less, field above-more, conductor moves downwards.
rin
•
•
F= BLI newtons
B= magnetic field intensity in wb /m2. g.n
• L= length of the conductor. e t
• Direction of motion-Flemings left hand rule.
• Thumb, fore finger, middle finger – mutually perpendicular.
• Fore finger-direction of field,
• Middle finger-direction of current,
• Thumb-direction of motion of conductor.

BACK EMF:
• Machine is working as a motor-voltages are induced, called as back emf.

• Lenz’s law-direction of back emf opposes the supply voltage.
• Eb=Φzn/60 x P/A volts.
• Voltage equation =V=Eb + Ia Ra.
• Ia = V-Eb/Ra.
• Eb –armature speed and armature current.
• Motor speed is high-back emfEb is large, armature current is small.
ww
• Motor speed is low-back emf is less, armature current is high.
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

3.2 E.M.F EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER
ww
w.E
a syE
Figure 3.2 EMF Equation
ngi
nee
Transformer EMF Equation Let,
NA = Number of turns in primary
NB = Number of turns in secondary rin

Ømax = Maximum flux in the core in g.n
webers = Bmax X A f = Frequency of
alternating current input in hertz (HZ)

et
As shown in figure above, the core flux increases from its zero value to maximum
value Ømax in one quarter of the cycle , that is in ¼ frequency second.
Therefore, average rate of change of flux = Ømax/ ¼ f = 4f ØmaxWb/s
Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced electro
motive force in volts. Therefore, average electro-motive force
induced/turn = 4f Ømaxvolt
If flux Ø varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f is obtained by

multiplying the average value with form factor.
Form Factor = r.m.s. value/average value = 1.11
Therefore, r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11 X 4f
Ømax = 4.44f Ømax Now, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f
in the whole of primary winding
= (induced e.m.f./turn) X Number of
primary turns Therefore,
ww
EA = 4.44f NAØmax = 4.44fNABmA
Similarly, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in secondary is EB = 4.44f NB Ømax = 4.44fNBBmA
w.E
In an ideal transformer on no load,
a syE
VA = EA and VB = EB , where VB is the terminal voltage
ngi
Voltage Transformation Ratio (K) From the above equations we get EB/ EA = VB/ VA =
NB/NA = K
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.

nee
rin
(1) If NB>NA , that is K>1 , then transformer is called step-up transformer.
(2) If NB<1, that is K<1 , then transformer is known as step-down transformer. g.n
Again for an ideal transformer, Input VA = output VA et
VAIA = VBIB
Or, IB/IA = VA/VB = 1/K
Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformation ratio.
Applications of a transformer
Transformers are used in most electronic circuits. A transformer has only 3 applications;
1. To step up voltage and current.

2. To Step down voltage and current

3. To prevent DC – transformers can pass only Alternating Currents so they totally

prevent DC from passing to the next circuit.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

3.3 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Construction of a single phase induction motor is similar to the construction of three phase
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
induction motor having squirrel cage rotor, except that the stator is wound for single phase supply.
Stator is also provided with a 'starting winding' which is used only for starting purpose. This can
nee
be understood from the schematic of single phase induction motor at the left.
Working Principle Of Single Phase Induction Motor

rin
g.n
When the stator of a single phase motor is fed with single phase supply, it produces alternating
e t
flux in the stator winding. The alternating current flowing through stator winding causes induced
current in the rotor bars (of the squirrel cage rotor ) according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. This induced current in the rotor will also produce alternating flux. Even after both
alternating fluxes

are set up, the motor fails to start (the reason is explained below). However, if the rotor is given a
initial start by external force in either direction, then motor accelerates to its final speed and keeps
running with its rated speed. This behavior of a single phase motor can be explained by double-
field revolving theory.
Double-Field Revolving Theory
The double-field revolving theory states that, any alternating quantity (here, alternating flux) can
be resolved into two components having magnitude half of the maximum magnitude of the
alternating quantity, and both these components rotating in opposite direction.
ww
Following figures will help you understanding the double field revolving theory.
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t
Why Single Phase Induction Motor Is Not Self Starting?
The stator of a single phase induction motor is wound with single phase winding. When the stator
is fed with a single phase supply, it produces alternating flux (which alternates along one space
axis only). Alternating flux acting on a squirrel cage rotor can not produce rotation, only
revolving flux can. That is why a single phase induction motor is not self starting.

How To Make Single Phase Induction Motor Self Starting?
▪ As explained above, single phase induction motor is not self-

starting. To make it self- starting, it can be temporarily converted
into a two-phase motor while starting. This can be achieved by
introducing an additional 'starting winding' also called as auxillary
winding.
▪ Hence, stator of a single phase motor has two windings: (i) Main
winding and (ii) Starting winding (auxillary winding). These two
windings are connected in parallel across a single phase supply
ww and are spaced 90 electrical degrees apart. Phase difference of 90

degree can be achieved by connecting a capacitor in series with
w.E the starting winding.

Hence the motor behaves like a two-phase motor and the stator produces revolving magnetic
a syE
field which causes rotor to run. Once motor gathers speed, say upto 80 or 90% of its normal
speed, the starting winding gets disconnected form the circuit by means of a centrifugal
ngi
switch, and the motor runs only on main winding.
nee
rin
g.n
et
BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGIN

3.4 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Construction and Working
Synchronous motor and induction motor are the most widely used types of AC motor.
Construction of a synchronous motor is similar to an alternator (AC generator). A same
synchronous machine can be used as a synchronous motor or as an alternator. Synchronous
motors are available in a wide range, generally rated between 150kW to 15MW with speeds
ranging from 150 to 1800 rpm.
ww
Construction of Synchronous Motor
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
The construction of a synchronous motor (with salient pole rotor) is as shown in the figure at
g.n
left. Just like any other motor, it consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator core is constructed with
e
thin silicon lamination and insulated by a surface coating, to minimize the eddy current and
t
hysteresis losses. The stator has axial slots inside, in which three phase stator winding is placed.
The stator is wound with a three-phase winding for a specific number of poles equal to the rotor
poles.
The rotor in synchronous motors is mostly of salient pole type. DC supply is given to the rotor
winding via slip-rings. The direct current excites the rotor winding and creates electromagnetic
poles. In some cases, permanent magnets can also be used. The figure above illustrates the
construction of a synchronous motor very briefly.
Working of Synchronous Motor

The stator is wound for the similar number of poles as that of rotor, and fed with three phase AC
supply. The 3 phase AC supply produces rotating magnetic field in stator. The rotor winding is fed
with DC supply which magnetizes the rotor. Consider a two-pole synchronous machine as shown
in figure below.
ww▪
w.E
Now, the stator poles are revolving with synchronous speed (let’s say clockwise). If the rotor
position is such that, N pole of the rotor is near the N pole of the stator (as shown in first
asy
schematic of above figure), then the poles of the stator and rotor will repel each other, and
the torque produced will be anticlockwise.
▪
E ngi
The stator poles are rotating with synchronous speed, and they rotate around very fast and
interchange their position. But at this very soon, rotor cannot rotate with the same angle (due
nee
to inertia), and the next position will be likely the second schematic in above figure. In this
case, poles of the stator will attract the poles of rotor, and the torque produced will be
clockwise.
rin
▪
g.n
Hence, the rotor will undergo to a rapidly reversing torque, and the motor will not start.
(in the direction of revolving field of the stator), and the rotor field is e
But, if the rotor is rotated up to the synchronous speed of the stator by means of an external force
excited
t
near the
synchronous speed, the poles of stator will keep attracting the opposite poles of the rotor (as the
rotor is also, now, rotating with it and the position of the poles will be similar throughout the
cycle). Now, the rotor will undergo unidirectional torque. The opposite poles of the stator and rotor
will get locked with each other, and the rotor will rotate at the synchronous speed.
Characteristic Features of A Synchronous Motor
▪ Synchronous motor will run either at synchronous speed or will not run at all.
▪ The only way to change its speed is to change its supply frequency. (As Ns = 120f / P)
▪ Synchronous motors are not self-starting. They need some external force to bring them near

to the synchronous speed.

▪ They can operate under any power factor, lagging as well as leading. Hence, synchronous
motors can be used for power factor improvement.
Application of Synchronous Motor
▪ As synchronous motor is capable of operating under either leading and lagging power factor,
it can be used for power factor improvement. A synchronous motor under no-load with
leading power factor is connected in power system where static capacitors cannot be used.
▪ It is used where high power at low speed is required. Such as rolling mills, chippers, mixers,
pumps, pumps, compressor etc.
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOG
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

3.5 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
A three phase induction motor runs on a three phase AC supply. 3 phase induction motors
are extensively used for various industrial applications because of their following advantages -
▪ They have very simple and rugged (almost unbreakable) construction
▪ they are very reliable and having low cost
▪ they have high efficiency and good power factor
▪ minimum maintenance required
ww▪ 3 phase induction motor is self-starting hence extra starting motor or any special starting
w.E
arrangement is not required
They also have some disadvantages
▪ asy
speed decreases with increase in load, just like a DC shunt motor
▪
E ngi
if speed is to be varied, we have sacrifice some of its efficiency
Construction of A 3 Phase Induction Motor nee

rin
g.n
Just like any other motor, a 3-phase induction motor also consists of a stator and a rotor.
Basically, there are two types of 3 phase IM - 1. Squirrel cage induction motor and 2. Phase
Wound induction motor (slip-ring induction motor).
Stator
e t
The stator of a 3 phase IM (Induction Motor) is made up with number of stampings, and these
stampings are slotted to receive the stator winding. The stator is wound with a 3-phase winding
which is fed from a 3-phase supply. It is wound for a defined number of poles, and the number of
poles is determined from the required speed. For greater speed, lesser number of poles is used and
vice versa. When stator windings are supplied with 3 phase ac supply, they produce alternating
flux which revolves with synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is inversely proportional to
number of poles (Ns = 120f / P). This revolving or rotating magnetic flux induces current in rotor
windings according to Faraday's law of mutual induction.

Rotor
As described earlier, rotor of a 3-phase induction motor can be of either two types, squirrel
cage rotor and phase wound rotor (or simply - wound rotor).
Squirrel Cage Rotor
ww
w.E
asy
Most of the induction motors (upto 90%) are of squirrel cage type. Squirrel cage type rotor has
E
very simple and almost indestructible construction. This type of rotor consists of a cylindrical
ngi
laminated core, having parallel slots on it. These parallel slots carry rotor conductors. In this type
nee
of rotor, heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys are used as rotor conductors instead
of wires. Rotor slots are slightly skewed to achieve following advantages -
rin
1. it reduces locking tendency of the rotor, i.e. the tendency of rotor teeth to remain under stator
teeth due to magnetic attraction.
g.n
2. increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor
e t
3. increases rotor resistance due to increased length of the rotor conductor
The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded to short circuiting end rings at both ends. Thus,
this rotor construction looks like a squirrel cage and hence we call it. The rotor bars are
permanently short circuited; hence it is not possible to add any external resistance to armature
circuit

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOG
Phase Wound Rotor
ww
w.E
Phase wound rotor is wound with 3 phase, double layer, distributed winding. The number of
a
poles of rotor are kept same to the number of poles of the stator.
syE
wound 3 phases even if the stator is wound
The rotor is always
two phases. The three-phase rotor
winding is internally star connected. The other three terminals of the winding are taken out
ngi
via three insulated sleep rings mounted on the shaft and the brushes resting on them. These
nee
three brushes are connected to an external star connected rheostat. This arrangement is done to
introduce an external resistance in rotor circuit for starting purposes and for changing the
rin
speed / torque characteristics. When motor is running at its rated speed, slip rings are
g.n
automatically short circuited by means of a metal collar and brushes are lifted above the slip
rings to minimize the frictional losses.
et

3.6 TRANSFORMER
A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of

electric power in one circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. The
voltage can be raised or lowered in a circuit, but with a proportional increase or decrease in
the current ratings. In this article we will be learning about Transformer basics and working
principle
Transformer – Working Principle
ww
The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits
w.E
which is linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that
are electrically separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of
asy
reluctance. The working principle of the transformer can be understood from the figure
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t
below.
Transformer Working

As shown above the electrical transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core
laminations are joined in the form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are
some narrow gaps right through the cross-section of the core. These staggered joints are
said to be ‘imbricated’. Both the coils have high mutual inductance. A mutual electro-
motive force is induced in the transformer from the alternating flux that is set up in the
laminated core, due to the coil that is connected to a source of alternating voltage. Most of
the alternating flux developed by this coil is linked with the other coil and thus produces
the mutual induced electro-motive force. The so produced electro-motive force can be
explained with the help of Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction as
ww
e=M*dI/dt
w.E
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flow in it and thus electrical energy is
asy
transferred magnetically from the first to the second coil.
E
The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called as the
ngi
primary winding. The energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be called as
the secondary winding.
nee
In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:
rin
1. Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another. g.n
2. Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
3. Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
e t
4. The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.
Transformer Construction
For the simple construction of a transformer, you must need two coils having mutual
inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and from
the steel core. The device will also need some suitable container for the assembled core and
windings, a medium with which the core and its windings from its container can be
insulated.

In order to insulate and to bring out the terminals of the winding from the tank, apt
bushings that are made from either porcelain or capacitor type must be used.
In all transformers that are used commercially, the core is made out of transformer sheet
steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with minimum of air-
gap included. The steel should have high permeability and low hysteresis loss. For this to
happen, the steel should be made of high silicon content and must also be heat treated. By
effectively laminating the core, the eddy-current losses can be reduced. The lamination can
be done with the help of a light coat of core plate varnish or lay an oxide layer on the
ww
surface. For a frequency of 50 Hertz, the thickness of the lamination varies from 0.35mm to
0.5mm for a frequency of 25 Hertz.
w.E
Types of Transformers
asy
Types by Design
E ngi
The types of transformers differ in the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are
nee
provided around the laminated steel core. According to the design, transformers can be
classified into two:
rin
1. Core- Type Transformer
g.n
e
In core-type transformer, the windings are given to a considerable part of the core. The coils
used for this transformer are form-wound and are of cylindrical type. Such a type of t
transformer can be applicable for small sized and large sized transformers. In the small
sized type, the core will be rectangular in shape and the coils used are cylindrical. The
figure below shows the large sized type. You can see that the round or cylindrical coils are
wound in such a way as to fit over a cruciform core section. In the case of circular
cylindrical coils, they have a fair advantage of having good mechanical strength. The
cylindrical coils will have different layers and each layer will be insulated from the other
with the help of materials like paper, cloth, micarta board and so on. The general
arrangement of the core-type transformer with respect to the core is shown below. Both
low-voltage (LV) and high voltage (HV) windings are shown.

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

2. Shell-Type Transformer
In shell-type transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings. The comparison
is shown in the figure below.
ww
w.E
asy
E
The coils are form-wound but are multi layer disc type usually wound in the form of pancakes.
ngi
Paper is used to insulate the different layers of the multi-layer discs. The whole winding consists
nee
of discs stacked with insulation spaces between the coils. These insulation spaces form the
horizontal cooling and insulating ducts. Such a transformer may have the shape of a simple
rectangle or may also have a
rindistributed form.
g.n
e t

A strong rigid mechanical bracing must be given to the cores and coils of the transformers. This will
help in minimizing the movement of the device and also prevents the device from getting any insulation
damage. A transformer with good bracing will not produce any humming noise during its working and
will also reduce vibration.
A special housing platform must be provided for transformers. Usually, the device is placed in tightly-
fitted sheet-metal tanks filled with special insulating oil. This oil is needed to circulate through the
device and cool the coils. It is also responsible for providing the additional insulation for the device
when it is left in the air.
ww
There may be cases when the smooth tank surface will not be able to provide the needed cooling area.
w.E
In such cases, the sides of the tank are corrugated or assembled with radiators on the sides of the device.
The oil used for cooling purpose must be absolutely free from alkalis, sulphur and most importantly
asy
moisture. Even a small amount of moistures in the oil will cause a significant change in the insulating
property of the device, as it lessens the dielectric strength of the oil to a great extent
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

3.7 TYPES OF DC MOTOR:

1.Separately excited DC motor
2. Self-excited dc motor
• Series motor
• Shunt motor
• Compound motor
1. Long shunt compound motor
2. Short shunt compound motor
SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR:
ww
w.E
asy
•
E ngi
Field winding and armature are separated.
•
• nee
Field winding is excited by a separate DC source-separately excited dc motor.
Ia=Il
DC SERIES MOTOR:
• Eb =V-Ia Ra-Vbrush
rin
•
•
Field winding is connected in series with armature.
g.n
•
•
•
Less number of turns.
Rse –resistance of series field winding-small.
Il=line current
Ia=series field
e t
• V=Eb + Ia Ra +IscRsc+V brush.
• V= Eb+(Ra +Rse).
• Φ α Ise α Ia

DC SHUNT MOTOR:
• Field winding is connected across the armature.

• More number of turns with less cross-sectional area.
ww
•
•
Rsh is the shunt field winding
Ra is the armature resistance.
•
•
•
w.E
Ra is small, Rsh is large.
Voltage v=voltage across the armature and field winding.
Il is the line current, divided into two paths
1.
2.
Field winding
Armature winding asy
•
•
•
Il = Ia + Ish
Ia = armature current
Ish =shunt field current
E ngi
•
•
Ish = V /Rsh
V = Eb + Ia Ra + V brush nee
•
•
Φ α Ish
Input is constant, so flux is constant. rin
• Also known as constant flux motor.
DC COMPOUND MOTOR: g.n
1. LONG SHUNT:
e t
• Shunt field winding is connected to both the armature and the field
winding.
• Il = Isc + Ish
• Ise = Ia
• Il =Ia + Ish
• Ish = V/Rsh
• Voltage equation V = Eb + Ia(Ra + Rse )+ V brush

2. SHORT SHUNT:
ww
•
w.E
Shunt field winding is connected across armature and series field winding is
• Il = Ise asy
connected in series.
•
•
•
Il = Ia + Ish
E
Il = Ise=Ia + Ish
Voltage drop= v –Il Rse ngi
•
•
V = Eb + Ia Ra + V brush
Ish = V- IlRse/ Rsh. nee
rin
g.n
e t

ww
w.E
UNIT 4a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AN TECHNOLOGY
4.1 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
Successive Approximation type ADC is the most widely used and popular ADC method. The
conversion time is maintained constant in successive approximation type ADC, and is proportional to the
number of bits in the digital output, unlike the counter and continuous type A/D converters. The basic
principle of this type of A/D converter is that the unknown analog input voltage is approximated against
an n-bit digital value by trying one bit at a time, beginning with the MSB. The principle of successive
approximation process for a 4-bit conversion is explained here. This type of ADC operates by
successively dividing the voltage range by half, as explained in the following steps.
ww
The MSB is initially set to 1 with the remaining three bits set as 000. The digital equivalent voltage is
w.E
compared with the unknown analog input voltage.
asy
If the analog input voltage is higher than the digital equivalent voltage, the MSB is retained as 1 and the
second MSB is set to 1. Otherwise, the MSB is set to 0 and the second MSB is set to 1. Comparison is
E ngi
made as given in step (1) to decide whether to retain or reset the second MSB.
nee
rin
g.n
e t

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AN TECHNOLOGY
It consists of a successive approximation register (SAR), DAC and comparator. The output of SAR
is given to n-bit DAC. The equivalent analog output voltage of DAC, VD is applied to the non-
inverting input of the comparator. The second input to the comparator is the unknown analog input
voltage VA. The output of the comparator is used to activate the successive approximation logic of
SAR. When the start command is applied, the SAR sets the MSB to logic 1 and other bits are made
logic 0, so that the trial code becomes 1000.
Advantages:
1. Conversion time is very small.
2. Conversion time is constant and independent of the amplitude of the analog input
ww
signal VA.
1. w.E
Disadvantages:
Circuit is complex.
2.
Applications
a The conversion time is more compared to flash type ADC.
syE
ngi
The SAR ADC will used widely data acquisition techniques at the sampling rates higher than
10KHz.
nee
rin
g.n
et
BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION EN

4.2 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

In common emitter configuration, base is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal and
emitter is the common terminal for both input and output. That means the base terminal and common
emitter terminal are known as input terminals whereas collector terminal and common emitter terminal
are known as output terminals.
In common emitter configuration, the emitter terminal is grounded so the common emitter configuration
is also known as grounded emitter configuration. Sometimes common emitter configuration is also
referred to as CE configuration, common emitter amplifier, or CE amplifier. The common emitter (CE)
configuration is the most widely used transistor configuration.
ww
The common emitter (CE) amplifiers are used when large current gain is needed.
The input signal is applied between the base and emitter terminals while the output signal is
w.E
taken between the collector and emitter terminals. Thus, the emitter terminal of a transistor is common
for both input and output and hence it is named as common emitter configuration.
asy
The supply voltage between base and emitter is denoted by VBE while the supply voltage
E
between collector and emitter is denoted by VCE.
ngi
In common emitter (CE) configuration, input current or base current is denoted by IB and output
current or collector current is denoted by IC. nee
rin
The common emitter amplifier has medium input and output impedance levels. So, the current
gain and voltage gain of the common emitter amplifier is medium. However, the power gain is high.
g.n
To fully describe the behavior of a transistor with CE configuration, we need two set of
characteristics – input characteristics and output characteristics.
e t

ww
w.E
asy
Input characteristics E ngi
The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current (IB) and
input voltage or base-emitter voltage (VBE).
nee
rin
First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-axis and horizontal
line represents x-axis. The input current or base current (IB) is taken along y-axis (vertical line) and the
input voltage (VBE) is taken along x-axis (horizontal line).
g.n
e
To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage VCE is kept constant at zero volts and
t
the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each voltage level of
input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is recorded.

ww
A curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBE at constant output voltage VCE (0 volts).
w.E
Next, the output voltage (VCE) is increased from zero volts to certain voltage level (10 volts) and
the output voltage (VCE) is kept constant at 10 volts. While increasing the output voltage (VCE), the input
asy
voltage (VBE) is kept constant at zero volts. After we kept the output voltage (VCE) constant at 10 volts,
E
the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each voltage level of
ngi
input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is recorded.
A curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBE at constant output voltage
VCE (10 volts).
nee
This process is repeated for higher fixed values of output voltage (VCE).
rin
When output voltage (VCE) is at zero volts and emitter-base junction is forward biased by input
g.n
voltage (VBE), the emitter-base junction acts like a normal p-n junction diode. So the input
e
characteristics of the CE configuration is same as the characteristics of a normal pn junction diode.
t
The cut in voltage of a silicon transistor is 0.7 volts and germanium transistor is 0.3 volts. In our
case, it is a silicon transistor. So, from the above graph, we can see that after 0.7 volts, a small increase
in input voltage (VBE) will rapidly increases the input current (IB).
In common emitter (CE) configuration, the input current (IB) is very small as compared to the
input current (IE) in common base (CB) configuration. The input current in CE configuration is
measured in microamperes (μA) whereas the input current in CB configuration is measured in
milliamperes (mA).
In common emitter (CE) configuration, the input current (IB) is produced in the base region
which is lightly doped and has small width. So, the base region produces only a small input current (IB).
On the other hand, in common base (CB) configuration, the input current (IE) is produced in the emitter
region which is heavily doped and has large width. So, the emitter region produces a large input current

(IE). Therefore, the input current (IB) produced in the common emitter (CE) configuration is small as
compared to the common base (CB) configuration.
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

Due to forward bias, the emitter-base junction acts as a forward biased diode and due to reverse
bias, the collector-base junction acts as a reverse biased diode.
Therefore, the width of the depletion region at the emitter-base junction is very small whereas
the width of the depletion region at the collector-base junction is very large.
If the output voltage VCE applied to the collector-base junction is further increased, the depletion
region width further increases. The base region is lightly doped as compared to the collector region. So
the depletion region penetrates more into the base region and less into the collector region. As a result,
the width of the base region decreases which in turn reduces the input current (IB) produced in the base
region.
From the above characteristics, we can see that for higher fixed values of output voltage VCE, the
ww
curve shifts to the right side. This is because for higher fixed values of output voltage, the cut in voltage
is increased above 0.7 volts. Therefore, to overcome this cut in voltage, more input voltage VBE is
w.E
needed than previous case.
Output characteristics
asy
The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current (IC) and output
voltage (VCE).
E ngi
First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-axis and horizontal
nee
line represents x-axis. The output current or collector current (IC) is taken along y- axis (vertical line)
and the output voltage (VCE) is taken along x-axis (horizontal line).
rin
To determine the output characteristics, the input current or base current IB is kept constant at 0
μA and the output voltage VCE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. output voltage,
g.n
e t

A curve is then drawn between output current IC and output voltage VCE at constant input
current IB (0 μA).
When the base current or input current IB = 0 μA, the transistor operates in the cut-off region. In
this region, both junctions are reverse biased.
Next, the input current (IB) is increased from 0 μA to 20 μA by adjusting the input voltage
(VBE). The input current (IB) is kept constant at 20 μA.
A curve is then drawn between output current IC and output voltage VCE at constant input current
IB (20 μA). This region is known as the active region of a transistor. In this region, emitter-base junction
ww
is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.
w.E
This steps are repeated for higher fixed values of input current IB (I.e. 40 μA, 60μA,
80 μA and so on).
asy
When output voltage VCE is reduced to a small value (0.2 V), the collector-base junction
becomes forward biased. This is because the output voltage VCE has less effect on collector-base
junction than input voltage VBE.
E ngi
As we know that the emitter-base junction is already forward biased. Therefore, when both the
nee
junctions are forward biased, the transistor operates in the saturation region. In this region, a small
increase in output voltage VCE will rapidly increases the output current IC.
rin
g.n
e t

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

4.3 IGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER

The binary-weighted-input DAC, is a variation on the inverting summer op-amp circuit. If
you recall, the classic inverting summer circuit is an operational amplifier using negative feedback
for controlled gain, with several voltage inputs and one voltage output. The output voltage is the
inverted (opposite polarity) sum of all input voltages:
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
For a simple inverting summer circuit, all resistors must be of equal value. If any of the input
resistors were different, the input voltages would have different degrees of effect on the output, and
e
the output voltage would not be a true sum. Let’s consider, however, intentionally setting the input
resistors at different values. Suppose we were to set the input resistor values at multiple powers oft
two: R, 2R, and 4R, instead of all the same value R:
Starting from V1 and going through V3, this would give each input voltage exactly half the effect on

the output as the voltage before it. In other words, input voltage V1 has a 1:1 effect on the output
voltage (gain of 1), while input voltage V2 has half that much effect on the output (a gain of 1/2), and
V3 half of that (a gain of 1/4). These ratios were not arbitrarily chosen: they are the same ratios
corresponding to place weights in the binary numeration system.
ww
w.E
asy
If we chart the output voltages for all eight combinations of binary bits (000 through 111) input to
Disadvantages:
E
this circuit, we will get the following progression of voltages:
ngi
nee
1) When number of binary input increases, it is not easy to maintain the resistance ratio.
rin
2)Very wide ranges of different values of resistors are required. For high accuracy of
conversion, the values of resistances must be accurate.
g.n
3)Different current flows through resistors, so their wattage ratings are also different.
4)Accuracy and stability of conversion depends primarily on the absolute accuracy of the
resistors and tracking of each other with temperature.
e t
5)Since ‘R’ is very large, op-amp bias currents gives a drop which offsets output.
Resistances of switches may be comparable with smallest resistor.

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

4.4 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
In an inverting amplifier circuit, the operational amplifier inverting input receives feedback
from the output of the amplifier. Assuming the op-amp is ideal and applying the concept of
virtual short at the input terminals of op-amp, the voltage at the inverting terminal is equal to
non-inverting terminal. The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier is connected to
ground. As the gain of the op amp itself is very high and the output from the amplifier is a
matter of only a few volts, this means that the difference between the two input terminals is
exceedingly small and can be ignored. As the non-inverting input of the operational amplifier is
held at ground potential this means that the inverting input must be virtually at earth potential.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et
Applying KCL at inverting node we can calculate voltage gain,
Voltage gain (A)= Vout/ Vin = – Rf/Rin

NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Non-Inverting amplifier is one in which the output is in phase with respect to the input. The
feedback is applied at the inverting input. However, the input is now applied at the non-inverting
input. The output is a non-Inverted (in terms of phase) amplified version of input. The gain of the
non-inverting amplifier circuit for the operational amplifier is easy to determine. The calculation
hinges around the fact that the voltage at both inputs is the same. This arises from the fact that the
gain of the amplifier is exceedingly high. If the output of the circuit remains within the supply rails
of the amplifier, then the output voltage divided by the gain means that there is virtually no
difference between the two inputs.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
The voltage gain can be calculated by applying KCL at the inverting node.
Voltage gain (A) = Vout/ Vin = (1+ Rf/Rin) et

4.5 MOSFET
ww
w.E
asy
Construction of a MOSFET.
E
Figure shows the construction of an N-channel depletion MOSFET. It consists of a
ngi
highly doped P-type substrate into which two blocks of heavily doped N-type material are
diffused forming the source and drain. An N-channel is formed by diffusion between the
nee
source and drain. The type of impurity for the channel is the same as for the source and
rin
drain. Now a thin layer of SiO2 dielectric is grown over the entire surface and holes are cut
through the SiO2 (silicon-dioxide) layer to make contact with the N-type blocks (Source
g.n
and Drain). Metal is deposited through the holes to provide drain and source terminals, and
e
on the surface area between drain and source, a metal plate is deposited. This layer
t
constitutes the gate. Si02 layer results in an extremely high input impedance of the order of
1010 to 1015 Q for this area.
The chip area of a MOSFET is typically 0.003 um2 or less which is about only
5%of the area required by a BJT. A P-channel DE-MOSFET is constructed like an N-
channel DE-MOSFET, starting with an N-type substrate and diffusing P-type drain and
BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS ANDINSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

Operation of MOSFET.
DE-MOSFET can be operated with either a positive or a negative gate. When gate is positive
with respect to the source it operates in the enhancement—or E-mode and when the gate is negative
with respect to the source, as illustrated in figure, it operates in depletion- mode.
When the drain is made positive with respect to source, a drain current will flow, even with
zero gate potential and the MOSFET is said to be operating in E-mode. In this mode of operation gate
attracts the negative charge carriers from the P-substrate to the N-channel and thus reduces the
channel resistance and increases the drain-current. The more positive the gate is made, the more drain
current flows.
ww On the other hand, when the gate is made negative with respect to the substrate, the gate
repels some of the negative charge carriers out of the N-channel. This creates a depletion region in
w.E
the channel, as illustrated in figure, and, therefore, increases the channel resistance and reduces the
drain current. The more negative the gate, the less the drain current. In this mode of operation, the
asy
device is referred to as a depletion-mode
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

Characteristics of MOSFET
Transfer characteristics
The transfer (or transconductance) characteristic for an N-channel DE-MOSFET is shown in
figure. IDSS is the drain current with a shorted gate. Since the curve extends to the right of the origin,
IDSS is no longer the maximum possible drain current.
Mathematically, the curve is still part of a parabola and the same square-law relation exists as
with a JFET. In fact, the depletion-mode MOSFET has a drain current given by the same
transconductance equation as before, equation. Furthermore, it has the same equivalent circuits as a
JFET. Because of this, the analysis of a depletion-mode MOSFET circuit is almost identical to that of
ww
a JFET circuit. The only difference is the analysis for a positive gate, but even here the same basic
formulas are used to determine the drain current ID, gate- source voltage VGS etc.
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOL
Drain characteristics
Typical drain characteristics, for various levels of gate-source voltage, of an N- channel
MOSFET are shown in figure. The upper curves are for positive VGS and the lower curves are for
negative VGS. The bottom drain curve is for VGS = V GS(OFF). For a specified drain-source
voltage VDS, VGS (OFF) is the gate-source voltage at which drain current reduces to a certain
specified negligibly small value, as shown in figure. This voltage corresponds to the pinch-off
voltage Vp of JFET. For VGS between VGS (0FF) and zero, the device operates in depletion-mode
while for VGS exceeding zero the device operates in enhancement mode. These drain curves
again display an ohmic region, a constant-current source region and a cut-off region. MOSFET
has two major applications: a constant current source and a voltage variable resistor.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et
Symbols for MOSFET

4.6 PN JUNCTION DIODE
A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows

the electric current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in opposite or reverse
direction. If the diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On the other hand, if
the diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. P-N junction semiconductor diode is
also called as p-n junction semiconductor device.
In n-type semiconductors, free electrons are the majority charge carriers whereas in p-type
semiconductors, holes are the majority charge carriers. When the n-type semiconductor is joined
with the p-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed. The p-n junction, which is formed when
the p- type and n-type semiconductors are joined, is called as p-n junction diode.
ww The p-n junction diode is made from the semiconductor materials such as silicon,
w.E
germanium, and gallium arsenide. For designing the diodes, silicon is more preferred over
germanium. The p-n junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors works at higher
asy
temperature when compared with the p-n junction diodes made from germanium semiconductors.
The basic symbol of p-n junction diode under forward bias and reverse bias is shown in the
below figure
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
e t

In the above figure, arrowhead of a diode indicates the conventional direction of electric
current when the diode is forward biased (from positive terminal to the negative terminal). The
holes which moves from positive terminal (anode) to the negative terminal (cathode) is the
conventional direction of current.
The free electrons moving from negative terminal (cathode) to the positive terminal (anode)
actually carry the electric current. However, due to the convention we have to assume that the
current direction is from positive terminal to the negative terminal.
Biasing of p-n junction semiconductor diode
ww The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode is called
biasing. External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied in any of the two methods: forward
w.E
biasing or reverse biasing.
If the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. Under
asy
forward biased condition, the p-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of battery
whereas; the n-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of battery.
E ngi
If the p-n junction diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. Under reverse
biased condition, the p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of battery
nee
whereas; the n-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of battery.
Terminals of pn junction diode
rin
Generally, terminal refers to a point or place at which any object begins or ends. For
g.n
example, bus terminal or terminus is a place at which all the buses begin or ends. Similarly, in a p-
n junction diode, terminal refers a point at which charge carriers begins or ends.
e t
P-n junction diode consists of two terminals: positive and negative. At positive terminal, all
the free electrons will end and all the holes will begin whereas at negative terminal all the free
electrons will begins and all the holes will end.
• Terminals of diode under forward bias
In forward biased p-n junction diode (p-type connected to positive terminal and n-type
connected to negative terminal), anode terminal is a positive terminal whereas cathode terminal is
negative terminal.
Anode terminal is a positively charged electrode or conductor, which supplies holes to the
p-n junction. In other words, anode or anode terminal or positive terminal is the source of positive
charge carriers (holes), the positive charge carriers (holes) begins their journey at anode terminal
and travel through the diode and ends at cathode terminal.

Cathode is the negatively charged electrode or conductor, which supplies free

electrons to the p-n junction. In other words, cathode terminal or negative terminal is the
source of free electrons, the negative charge carriers (free electrons) begins their
journey at cathode terminal and travel through the diode and ends at anode terminal.
ww The free electrons are attracted towards the anode terminal or positive terminal
whereas the holes are attracted towards the cathode terminal or negative terminal.
w.E
Terminals of diode under reverse bias
asy
If the diode is reverse biased (p-type connected to negative terminal and n-type
connected to positive terminal), the anode terminal becomes a negative terminal
E
whereas the cathode terminal becomes a positive terminal.
ngi
Anode terminal or negative terminal supplies free electrons to the p-n junction. In other
nee
words, anode terminal is the source of free electrons, the free electrons begin their journey at
negative or anode terminal and fills the large number of holes in the p-type semiconductor.
rin
The holes in the p-type semiconductor get attracted towards the negative terminal. The free
g.n
e t
electrons from the negative terminal cannot move towards the positive terminal because the
wide depletion region at the p-n junction resists or opposes the flow of free electrons.
Cathode terminal or positive terminal supplies holes to the p-n junction. In other words,
cathode terminal is the source of holes, the holes begin their journey at positive or cathode
terminal and occupies the electrons position in the n-type semiconductor. The free electrons
in the n-type semiconductor gets attracted towards the positive terminal. The holes from the
positive terminal cannot move towards the negative terminal because the wide depletion
region at the p-n junction opposes the flow of holes.

ww
w.E
•
a syE
Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-
ngi
type material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has
the effect of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.
•
nee
Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-
rin
type material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has
the effect of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.
g.n
et

4.7 SEMICONDUCTORS TYPES / CLASSIFICATIONS
There are two basic groups or classifications that can be used to define the different
semiconductor types:
Intrinsic material: An intrinsic type of semiconductor material made to be very pure

chemically. As a result, it possesses a very low conductivity level having very few numbers
of charge carriers, namely holes and electrons, which it possesses in equal quantities.
Extrinsic material: Extrinsic types of semiconductor are those where a small amount of
impurity has been added to the basic intrinsic material. This 'doping' uses an element from a
different periodic table group and in this way it will either have more or less electrons in the
ww
valence band than the semiconductor itself. This creates either an excess or shortage of
electrons. In this way two types of semiconductor are available: Electrons are negatively
w.E
charged carriers.
•
a syE
N-type: An N-type semiconductor material has an excess of electrons. In this way, free
electrons are available within the lattices and their overall movement in one direction under
ngi
the influence of a potential difference results in an electric current flow. This in an N-type
semiconductor, the charge carriers are electrons.
•
nee
P-type: In a P-type semiconductor material there is a shortage of electrons, i.e. there are
rin
'holes' in the crystal lattice. Electrons may move from one empty position to another and in
this case, it can be considered that the holes are moving. This can happen under the influence
g.n
of a potential difference and the holes can be seen to flow in one direction resulting in an
et
electric current flow. It is actually harder for holes to move than for free electrons to move and
therefore the mobility of holes is less than that of free electrons. Holes are positively charged
carriers.

ww
w.E
UNIT 5a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

5.1 TRANSDUCERS
The input quantity for most instrumentation systems is nonelectrical. In order to use
electrical methods and techniques for measurement, the nonelectrical quantity is
converted into a proportional electrical signal by a device called transducer.
• Another definition states that transducer is a device which when actuated by

energy in one system, supplies energy in the same form or in another form to a
second system.
• When transducer gives output in electrical form it is known as electrical

transducer. Actually, electrical transducer consists of two parts which are very
ww closely related to Each other.
w.E
• These two parts are sensing or detecting element and transduction element. The
sensing or detecting element is commonly known as sensor.
asy
• Definition states that sensor is a device that produces a measurable response to
a Change in a physical condition.
En
gin
• The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor to an electrical
output, as shown in the Fig 5.1.
eer
i ng.
net
Fig 5.1.1 Transducer elements in cascade
Classification of Electrical Transducers
Transducers may be classified according to their structure, method of energy conversion
and application.
Thus, we can say that transducers are classified
• As active and passive transducer

• According to transduction principle
• As analog and digital transducer
• As primary and secondary transducer
BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
• As transducer and inverse transducer
Active and Passive Transducer Active Transducers

• Active transducers are self-generating type of transducers.
• These transducers develop an electrical parameter (i.e. voltage or current) which is
proportional to the quantity under measurement.
• These transducers do not require any external source or power for their operation.
• They can be subdivided into the following commonly used types
ww
w.E
asy
Fig 5.1.2 Active Transducers
Passive Transducers
En
gin
• Passive transducers do not generate any electrical signal by themselves.
eer
• To obtain an electrical signal from such transducers, an external source of
power is essential.
i ng.
• Passive transducers depend upon the change in an electrical parameter (R, L, C).
• They are also known as externally power-driven transducers.
• They can be subdivided into the following commonly used types.
net
According to Transduction Principle
The transducers can be classified according to principle used in transduction.
• Capacitive transduction
• Electromagnetic transduction
• Inductive transduction
• Piezoelectric transduction
• Photovoltaic transduction
• Photoconductive transduction

ww
w.E Fig 5.1.3 Passive Transducers
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.2 Analog and Digital Transducers
The transducers can be classified on the basis of the output which may be a
continuous function of time or the output may be in discrete steps.
Analog Transducers
• These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a
continuous function of time.
• A strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouples or thermistors are called analog transducers as
they produce an output, which is a continuous function of time.
Digital Transducers
ww
• Digital transducers produce an electrical output in the form of pulses which forms
an unique code.
w.E
• Unique code is generated for each discrete value sensed.
Primary or Secondary
asy
En
• Some transducers consist of mechanical device along with the electrical device.
gin
• In such transducer’s mechanical device acts as a primary transducer and converts
physical quantity into mechanical signal.
eer
• The electrical device then converts mechanical signal produced by primary
transducer into an electrical signal.
i ng.
• Therefore, electrical device acts as a secondary transducer.
• For an example, in pressure measurement Bourdons tube acts as a primary

net
transducer which converts a pressure into displacement and LVDT acts as a
secondary transducer which converts this displacement into an equivalent
electrical signal.

Fig 5.2.1 Pressure Measurement
Transducer and Inverse Transducer
• Transducers convert non-electrical quantity into electrical quantity whereas inverse

ww transducer converts electrical quantity into non-electrical quantity.
w.E
• For example, microphone is a transducer which converts sound signal into an
asy
electrical signal whereas loudspeaker is an inverse transducer which converts
electrical signal into sound signal.
Advantages of Electrical Transducers En
gin
• Electrical signal obtained from electrical transducer can be easily processed
eer
(mainly amplified) and brought to a level suitable for output device which may be
an indicator or recorder.
i ng.
• The electrical systems can be controlled with a very small level of power
net
• The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted, and processed for the purpose
of measurement.
• With the advent of IC technology, the electronic systems have become extremely
small in size, requiring small space for their operation.
• No moving mechanical parts are involved in the electrical systems. Therefore,
there is no question of mechanical wear and tear and no possibility of mechanical
failure.
• Electrical transducer is almost a must in this modem world. Apart from the merits
described above, some disadvantages do exist in electrical sensors.

Disadvantages of Electrical Transducers
• The electrical transducer is sometimes less reliable than mechanical type because
of the ageing and drift of the active components.
• Also, the sensing elements and the associated signal processing circuitry are
comparatively expensive.
• With the use of better materials, improved technology and circuitry, the range of
accuracy and stability have been increased for electrical transducers.
• Using negative feedback technique, the accuracy of measurement and the stability
of the system are improved, but all at the expense of increased circuit complexity,
ww more space, and obviously, more cost.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.3 Characteristics of Transducer

Accuracy: It is defined as the closeness with which the reading approaches an accepted
standard value or ideal value or true value, of the variable being measured.
Ruggedness: The transducer should be mechanically rugged to withstand overloads.

It should have overload protection.
Linearity: The output of the transducer should be linearly proportional to the input
quantity under measurement. It should have linear input - output characteristic. –
Repeatability: The output of the transducer must be exactly the same, under same
environmental conditions, when the same quantity is applied at the input repeatedly.
ww
High output: The transducer should give reasonably high output signal so that it can
w.E
be easily processed and measured. The output must be much larger than noise. Now-
a-days, digital output is preferred in many applications;
asy
High output: The transducer should give reasonably high output signal so that it can
En
be easily processed and measured. The output must be much larger than noise. Now-
gin
a-days, digital output is preferred in many applications;
eer
High Stability and Reliability: The output of the transducer should be highly stable
i
and reliable so that there will be minimum error in measurement. The output must
ng.
remain unaffected by environmental conditions such as change in temperature,
pressure, etc.
net
Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the electrical transducer is defined as the electrical
output obtained per unit change in the physical parameter of the input quantity. For
example, for a transducer used for temperature measurement, sensitivity will be
expressed in mV/’ C. A high sensitivity is always desirable for a given transducer.
Dynamic Range: For a transducer, the operating range should be wide, so that it can
be used over a wide range of measurement conditions.
Size: The transducer should have smallest possible size and shape with minimal weight
and volume. This will make the measurement system very compact.

Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which the transducer responds to changes
in the measured quantity. The speed of response of the transducer should be as high as
practicable.
Transducer Selection Factors
• Nature of measurement
• Loading effect
• Environmental considerations
• Measuring system
• Cost & Availability
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.4 Resistance Transducers
Temperature Sensors
Temperature is one of the fundamental parameters indicating the physical

condition of matter, i.e. expressing its degree of hotness or coldness. Whenever a body
is heat’ various effects are observed. They include
• Change in the physical or chemical state, (freezing, melting, boiling etc.)

• Change in physical dimensions,
• Changes in electrical properties, mainly the change in resistance,
• Generation of an emf at the junction of two dissimilar metals.
ww
One of these effects can be employed for temperature measurement purposes. Electrical
w.E
methods are the most convenient and accurate methods of temperature measurement.
These methods are based on change in resistance with temperature and generation of
asy
thermal e.m.f. The change in resistance with temperature may be positive or negative.
According to that there are two types
En
gin
• Resistance Thermometers —Positive temperature coefficient
• Thermistors —Negative temperature coefficient
eer
Construction of Resistance Thermometers i ng.
net
The wire resistance thermometer usually consists of a coil wound on a mica or ceramic
former.
The coil is wound in bifilar form so as to make it no inductive. Such coils are available
in different sizes and with different resistance values ranging from 10 ohms to 25,000
ohms.

Fig 5.4.1 Resistance Thermometer
ww
Advantages of Resistance Thermometers
• The measurement is accurate.
w.E
• Indicators, recorders can be directly operated.
asy
• The temperature sensor can be easily installed and replaced.
En
• Measurement of differential temperature is possible.
• Resistance thermometers can work over a wide range of temperature from
-20’ C to + 650° C. gin
• They are suitable for remote indication. eer
• They are smaller in size
• They have stability over long periods of time.
i ng.
Limitations of Resistance Thermometers
net
• A bridge circuit with external power source is necessary for their operation.
• They are comparatively costly.

5.5 Inductive Transducers
An LVDT, or Linear Variable Differential Transformer, is a transducer that converts a

linear displacement or position from a mechanical reference (or zero) into a
proportional electrical signal containing phase (for direction) and amplitude
information (for distance). The LVDT operation does not require electrical contact
between the moving part (probe or core rod assembly) and the transformer, but rather
relies on electromagnetic coupling; this and the fact that they operate without any built-
in electronic circuitry are the primary reasons why LVDTs have been widely used in
applications where long life and high reliability under severe environments are a
ww
required, such Military/Aerospace applications. It’s shown in fig5.11
w.E
The LVDT consists of a primary coil (of magnet wire) wound over the whole length
of a non-ferromagnetic bore liner (or spool tube) or a cylindrical coil form. Two
asy
secondary coils are wound on top of the primary coil for “long stroke” LVDTs (i.e. for
actuator main RAM) or each side of the primary coil for “Short stroke” LVDTs (i.e.
En
for electro-hydraulic servo-valve or EHSV). The two secondary windings are typically
gin
connected in “opposite series” (or wound in opposite rotational directions). A
eer
ferromagnetic core, which length is a fraction of the bore liner length, magnetically
of the core. i
couples the primary to the secondary winding turns that are located above the length
ng.
net
When the primary coil is excited with a sine wave voltage (Vin), it generates a variable
magnetic field which, concentrated by the core, induces the secondary voltages (also
sine waves). While the secondary windings are designed so that the differential output
voltage (Va-Vb) is proportional to the core position from null, the phase angle (close
to 0 degree or close to 180 degrees depending of direction) determines the direction
away from the mechanical zero. The zero is defined as the core position where the
phase angle of the (Va-Vb) differential output is 90 degrees.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Fig 5.5.1 The LVDT: construction and principle of operation
eer
The differential output between the two secondary outputs (Va-Vb) when the core is
i ng.
at the mechanical zero (or “Null Position”) is called the Null Voltage; as the phase
net
angle at null position is 90 degrees, the Null Voltage is a “quadrature” voltage. This
residual voltage is due to the complex nature of the LVDT electrical model, which
includes the parasitic capacitances of the windings.

5.6 Digital Transducers
A transducer measures physical quantity and transmits the information as coded digital
signals rather than as continuously varying currents or voltages.
Any transducer that presents information as discrete samples and that does not
introduce a quantization error when the reading is represented in the digital form may
be classified as a digital transducer.
Most transducers used in digital systems are primarily analogue in nature and
incorporate some form of conversion to provide the digital output.
Many special techniques have been developed to avoid the necessity to use a
ww
conventional analogue- to-digital conversion technique to produce the digital signal.
w.E
This article describes some of the direct methods which are in current use of producing
digital outputs from transducers. Some of the techniques used in transducers which are
asy
particularly adaptable for use in digital systems are introduced.
En
The uses of encoder discs for absolute and incremental position measurement and to
provide measurement of angular speed are outlined.
gin
eer
The application of linear gratings for measurement of translational displacement is
i
compared with the use of Moire fringe techniques used for similar purposes.
ng.
Synchro devices are briefly explained and the various techniques used to produce a
digital output from synchro resolvers are described. net
Brief descriptions of devices which develop a digital output from the natural frequency
of vibration of some part of the transducer are presented.
Digital techniques including vortex flowmeters and instruments using laser beams are
also briefly dealt with.
Some of them are as follows:
• Shaft Encoders
• Digital Resolvers
• Digital Tachometers
• Hall Effect Sensors
• Limit Switches
Shaft Encoders:
An encoder is a device that provides a coded reading of a measurement. A Shaft

encoder can be one of the encoders that provide digital output measurements of
angular position and velocity.
This shaft encoders are excessively applicable in robotics, machine tools, mirror
positioning systems, rotating machinery controls (fluid and electric), etc. Shaft
encoders are basically of two types-Absolute and Incremental encoders.
An "absolute" encoder maintains position information when power is removed from
ww
the system. The position of the encoder is available immediately on applying power.
w.E
The relationship between the encoder value and the physical position of the
controlled machinery is set at assembly; the system does not need to return to a
asy
calibration point to maintain position accuracy.
En
An "incremental" encoder accurately records changes in position, but does not
gin
power up with a fixed relation between encoder state and physical position. Devices
controlled by incremental encoders may have to "go home" to a fixed reference point
eer
to initialize the position measurement. A multi-turn absolute rotary encoder includes
additional code wheels and gears.
i ng.
A high-resolution wheel measures the fractional rotation, and lower-resolution
geared code wheels record the number of whole revolutions of the shaft. net
An absolute encoder has multiple code rings with various binary weightings which
provide a data word representing the absolute position of the encoder within one
revolution. This type of encoder is often referred to as a parallel absolute encoder.
An incremental encoder works differently by providing an A and a B pulse output

that provide no usable count information in their own right. Rather, the counting is
done in the external electronics.
The point where the counting begins depends on the counter in the external
electronics and not on the position of the encoder.

To provide useful position information, the encoder position must be referenced to

the device to which it is attached, generally using an index pulse.
The distinguishing feature of the incremental encoder is that it reports an

incremental change in position of the encoder to the counting electronics.
ww
w.E Fig 5.6.1 Shaft Encoders
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.7 Piezoelectric Transducers
Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage when a force is applied to them.

They are frequently used as ultrasonic receivers and also as displacement transducers,
particularly as part of devices measuring acceleration, force and pressure.
In ultrasonic receivers, the sinusoidal amplitude variations in the ultrasound wave
received are translated into sinusoidal changes in the amplitude of the force applied to
the piezoelectric transducer. In a similar way, the translational movement in a
displacement transducer is caused by mechanical means to apply a force to the
piezoelectric transducer. Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric
ww
materials. These have an asymmetrical lattice of molecules that distorts when a
w.E
mechanical force is applied to it. This distortion causes a reorientation of electric
charges within the material, resulting in a relative displacement of positive and
asy
negative charges. The charge displacement induces surface charges on the material of
opposite polarity between the two sides. By implanting electrodes into the surface of
En
the material, these surface charges can be measured as an output voltage. For a
gin
rectangular block of material, the induced voltage is given by:
𝑣=
𝐾𝐹𝑑 eer
𝐴
i ng.
net
Where F is the applied force in g, A is the area of the material in mm, d is the thickness
of the material and k is the piezoelectric constant. The polarity of the induced voltage
depends on whether the material is compressed or stretched.
Materials exhibiting piezoelectric behaviour include natural ones such as quartz,

synthetic ones such as lithiumsulphate and ferroelectric ceramics such as barium
titanate. The piezoelectric constant varies widely between different materials. Typical
values of k are 2.3 for quartz and 140 for barium titanate. Applying equation (13.1) for
a force of 1 g applied to a crystal of area 100 mm2 and thickness 1 mm gives an output
of 23 μV for quartz and 1.4 mV for barium titanate.
The piezoelectric principle is invertible, and therefore distortion in a piezoelectric

material can be caused by applying a voltage to it. This is commonly used in ultrasonic
transmitters, where the application of a sinusoidal voltage at a frequency in the ultra-
sound range causes a sinusoidal variation in the thickness of the material and results in
a sound wave being emitted at the chosen frequency. This is considered further in the
ww
section below on ultrasonic transducers.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
i ng.
net

5.8 Hall-effect transducers
Basically, a Hall-effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the magnitude of a

magnetic field. It consists of a conductor carrying a current that is aligned orthogonally
with the magnetic field, as shown in Fig.5.13. This produces a transverse voltage
difference across the device that is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength.
For an excitation current I and magnetic field strength B, the output voltage is given
by V D KIB, where K is known as the Hall constant
ww
w.E
asy
En
Fig 5.8.1 Hall-effect transducers
gin
The conductor in Hall-effect sensors is usually made from a semiconductor material as
opposed to a metal, because a larger voltage output is produced for a magnetic field of a
eer
given size. In one common use of the device as a proximity sensor, the magnetic field is
provided by a permanent magnet that is built into the device.
i ng.
The magnitude of this field changes when the device becomes close to any ferrous metal
object or boundary. The Hall Effect is also commonly used in keyboard pushbuttons, in
which a magnet is attached underneath the button. When the button is depressed, the
net
magnet moves past a Hall-effect sensor. The induced voltage is then converted by a trigger
circuit into a digital output. Such pushbutton switches can operate at high frequencies
without contact bounce.

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et


BE3252 Notes Ro - by WWW - Easyengineering.net 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BE3252 Notes Ro - by WWW - Easyengineering.net 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.

**Note: Other Websites/Blogs Owners Please do not Copy (or) Republish

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

1.1 BASIC ELECTRICAL COMPONENT

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

An inductor is a passive electronic component which is capable of storing electrical energy in

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

1.2 KIRCHHOFFS FIRST LAW – THE CURRENT LAW, (KCL)

Kirchhoff’s Second Law – The Voltage Law, (KVL)

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

1.3 MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS

Mesh Current Analysis Circuit

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

ww Figure 1.4.2 Mesh Circuit

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

1.4 NODAL ANALYSIS

Nodal Voltage Analysis Circuit

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

As Va = 10v and Vc = 20v , Vb can be easily found by:

Nodal Voltage Analysis Summary.

The basic procedure for solving Nodal Analysis equations is as follows:

BE8253 BASIC ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

positive. ie, a (N x 1) matrices for “N” independent nodes.

2. Write the admittance matrix [Y] of the network where:

o Y11 = the total admittance of the first node.

BE8253 BASIC ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

1.5 STEADY STATE ANALYSIS OF RLC CIRCUITS

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Fig. 1.5.1 For problem 1.

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

2.1 Domestic wiring

d. Incomer to consumer unit grounding connections.

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

f. Two-way switches as desired.

Consumer unit / fuse box

Electric shock prevention/minimization

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

2.2 Types of Wires

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

2.3 Protective device

BE3252 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net