        

      a  ( b  c )  b  ( c  a )  c  (a  b)
Note: (i) a  a ' b  b' c  c'  0 i. e. 
[ a b c]
         
(ii) (a  b  c).(a ' b' c' )  3 (as a · b  a · c  0 etc)
    1      
(iii) If [a b c ]  V then [a ' b' c' ]   [ a b c ] [a ' b ' c ' ] = 1
v
  
      abc 
(iv) a '  b '  b '  c '  c '  a ' =    , [a b c ]  0
[a b c ]

Isolating an known vectors :

Satisfying a given relationship with some known vectors:

There is no general method for solving such equations, however dot or cross with known or unknown
 
vectors or dot with a  b , generally isolates the unknown vector. Use of linear combination also proves
to be advantageous.

THREE DIMENSION
COORDINATES OF A POINT IN SPACE :
y
Consider a point P in space whose position is given by (x, y, z) R Q
where x, y, z are perpendicular distance from yz plane, zx plane
and xy plane respectively.
S P
If we assume î , ˆj, k̂ unit vectors along OX, OY, OZ (x, y, z)
x
respectively then the position vector of point P is x î  y ĵ  z k̂ O C

or simply (x, y, z).

A B
z

When a point lies on Co-ordinates

(i) x – axis (, 0, 0)

(ii) y – axis (0, , 0)
(iii) z – axis (0, 0, )
(iv) XY – plane (, , 0)
(v) XZ – plane (, 0, )
(vi) YZ – plane (0, , )

Distance formulae :

Distance between the points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is equal to ( x1  x 2 ) 2  ( y1  y 2 ) 2  (z1  z 2 ) 2 .

Section formulae :

(1) Coordinates a point P which divides line joiningA(x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) in the ratio m : n internally
 mx 2  nx1 my2  ny1 mz 2  nz1 
is given by  , , .
 mn mn mn 
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 (2) Coordinates of a point P which divides line joining A (x1, y1, z1) and B (x2, y2, z2) in the ratio m : n

externally is given by  mx 2  nx1 , my2  ny1

,
mz 2  nz1  .

 mn mn mn 

(3) Coordinates of mid-point of line joining A (x 1 , y1 , z 1 ) and B (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) is

 x1  x 2 y1  y 2 z1  z 2 
 , , .
 2 2 2 

Direction cosines :

If , ,  are the angles which vector a  a1î  a 2 ĵ  a 3k̂ makes with positive direction of the x, y, z axes
respectively then , ,  are called direction angles and their cosines cos , cos , cos  are called the
direction cosines of the vector and are generally denoted l, m, n respectively.
Thus l = cos , m = cos , n = cos 

Note :
(i) If a line makes , ,  with positive direction of x, y, z axes respectivelythen direction cosines of line will
be cos , cos , cos  or – cos , – cos , – cos .
(ii) A unit vector along the line whose direction cosines are cos , cos , cos  can be written as
(cos ) î  (cos ) ˆj  (cos  ) k̂ .

(iii) If a vector a  a1î  a 2 ĵ  a 3k̂ makes angles , ,  with positive direction of x, y, z axes respectively
  
a · î a1 a · ĵ a2 a · k̂ a3
then cos  =  =  , cos  =  =  and cos  =  = 
| a | | î | | a | | a | | ĵ | | a | | a | | ĵ | | a |

a12  a 22  a 32
 cos2 + cos2 + cos2 =   cos2 + cos2 + cos2 = 1
| a |2
Also note that sin2 + sin2 + sin2 = 2

(iv) Direction cosines of x-axis are (1, 0, 0) or (–1, 0, 0).

Direction cosines of y-axis are (0, 1, 0) or (0, – 1, 0).
Direction cosines of z-axis are (0, 0, 1) or (0, 0, – 1).

Direction ratios :
If a, b, c are three numbers proportional to the direction cosines l, m, n of a straight line, then a, b, c are
called its direction ratios. They are also called direction numbers or direction components.
l m n
Hence, we have   =  (say)  l = a, m = b, n = c
a b c
1
 l2 + m2 + n2 = 1  (a2 + b2 + c2)2 = 1  = ±
a 2  b 2  c2
a b c
 l=  ,m=  and n = 
a 2  b 2  c2 a 2  b 2  c2 a 2  b 2  c2

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 Note :
(i) Direction ratios of a line is not unique but infinite in number but direction cosines will be for a line will be
only two. (l, m, n or – l, – m, – n)

(ii) A vector along the line with direction ratios a, b, c can be aî  bˆj  ck̂ .
(iii) Direction ratios of a line joining two points A and B are proportional to x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1.

(iv) Projection of a Point on a Line :

Let P be a point andAB be a given line. Draw perpendicular PQ from P onAB which meets it at Q. This
point Q is called projection of P on the line AB.

(v) Projection of a Line Segment Joining Two Points on a Line :

Projection of the line segment joining two points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) on another line whose
direction cosines are l, m, n is AB = | l (x2 – x1) + m (y2 – y1) + n (z2 – z1) |.
Q (x2, y2, z2)

Proof :
Vector PQ  ( x 2  x1) î  ( y2  y1 ) ĵ  (z 2  z1 ) k̂
P (x1, y1, z1)
A unit vector along another line â  l î  m ˆj  n k̂ .

PQ · â
 Projection AB = Projection of PQ on â = A â  l î  m ˆj  n k̂ B
| â |
= | l (x2 – x1) + m (y2 – y1) + n (z2 – z1) |

Angle between two lines :

C
If direction ratios of two lines are a 1 , b 1 , c 1 and B
a2, b2, c2 then acute angle between two lines is given by 
A
a1a 2  b1b 2  c1c 2
cos  =
a12  b12  c12 a 22  b 22  c22

Proof : Vector along lines can be taken as â  a1î  b1ˆj  c1k̂ and b̂  a 2 î  b 2ˆj  c 2 k̂ .
 
Acute angle between lines = acute angle between vectors a and b .
 
a·b a1a 2  b1b 2  c1c 2
 cos  =   =
| a || b| a12  b12  c12 a 22  b22  c22
If direction cosines of lines are l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 then acute angle between them is given by
cos  = | l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 |.
Note :
(i) If lines are perpendiculars (i.e. vectors along them are also perpendicular) then
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0 or l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0.
a1 b1 c1 l m n
(ii) If lines are parallel (i.e. vectors along them are also parallel) then   or 1  1  1 .
a 2 b2 c2 l2 m 2 n 2

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 PLANES :
Definition :
A plane is a surface such that a line joining any two points on the surface lies completelyon it.

General equation of plane :

A linear equation in three variables of the type ax + by + cz + d = 0 represents the general equation
of a plane.
where a, b, c are not simultaneously zero.
a b c
Dividing by d we get   x    y    z + 1 = 0.
d d d
Thus equation of plane involves only three arbitrary constants. Hence in order to determine a unique
plane 3 independent conditions are needed.

Note :
(i) Equation of xy plane is z = 0.
(ii) Equation of yz plane is x = 0.
(iii) Equation of zx plane is y = 0.

Division by Coordinate Planes :

The ratios in which the line segment PQ joining P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) is divided by coordinate
planes are as follows.
x1
(i) by yz - plane : – ratio
x2
y1
(ii) by zx - plane : – ratio
y2
z1
(iii) by xy - plane : – ratio
z2

DIFFERENT FORMS OF THE EQUATIONS OF PLANES :

1. A point in the plane and a vector normal to it is given :
 
Let a point A (a ) lies in the plane and a vector normal to it is n  aî  bˆj  ck̂ .
 
P ( r ) is a moving point whose locus is plane then for every position of vector AP , vector n will be
perpendicular to it.
n  aî  bˆj  ck̂

 AP · n = 0
      
 (r  a) · n = 0  r · n  a · n P (r )
 
 r · n = d is general equation of plane in vector form.
A (a )
It is also known as equation of plane in dot (or scalar) product form.

 
If r  x î  yˆj  zk̂ and a  x 0î  y0 ĵ  z 0k̂ the equation of plane will be
a (x – x0) + b (y – y0) + c (z – z0) = 0.
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 This is equation of plane containing point (x0, y0, z0) and perpendicular to vector aî  bˆj  ck̂ .

Note :
If equation of a plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0 then a, b, c are direction ratio of normal to the plane.

2. Plane passing through three given points :

   
Let three points A (a ), B ( b) and C ( c ) lies in the plane and point P ( r ) is moving point whose locus is
plane.
A (a ) P (r )
 AP, AB and AC are coplanar..

  r  a    
ba ca  0 B (b ) C (c )
It represents equation of plane passing through three points.

If A = (x1, y1, z1), B = (x2, y2, z2), C = (x3, y3, z3) and P (x, y, z) then equation of plane is
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1  0
x3  x1 y3  y1 z3  z1

3. Plane containing two intersecting lines :

     
Let the equations of two lines are r  a  b and r  a  b .
n
  q
Now, n  p  q is a vector perpendicular to the plane.
   
Hence equation of plane is ( r  a ) · ( p  q ) = 0 R (r )
         
  r  a p q  = 0   r p q   a p q  A (a )
    p
Since vectors r  a , p, q are coplanar..
       
Therefore r  a  p  q  r  a  p  q
  
It represents equation of a plane containing point a and parallel to two non-collinear vectors p and q .
This is also known as parametric equation.

4. Equation of plane containing two parallel lines :

     
Let lines be r  a  b and r  c  µb
A (a ) c n
vector normal to plane is
   
n  a  c   b c
P ( r)
 equation of plane is B (b )

r  a  · a  c   b  0
    
Alternatively : Vectors r  a , c  a and b are coplanar
 equation of plane is

    
r a c  a b  0 . 
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 5. Normal form of the plane :
A unit vector n̂ normal to the plane from origin is known and
perpendicular distance of the plane from the origin is d. 
 R(0)
Projection of r on n̂  d
 d
 r · n̂  d ........(1) n

Note : d > 0, as d is distance of the plane from origin. O(0)
Cartesian form of the plane is
lx + my + nz = d
where l, m, n are dcs of normal to plane.

6. Intercept form of the plane :

z
C (0, 0, c)
x y z
Equation of plane in the intercept form is   = 1.
a b c
where a = x-intercept, O x
b = y-intercept, A (a, 0, 0)

c = z-intercept
y B (0, b, 0)

Proof :
Equation of plane passing through three points A (a, 0, 0), B (0, b, 0) and C (0, 0, c) will be
xa y0 z0
a b 0 = 0.
a 0 c
 (x – a) bc – y (– ac – 0) + z (0 + ab) = 0
 xbc + yac + zab = abc
x y z
   =1
a b c

1 1 ˆ 1
Note : Area of ABC = AB  BC = ( bj  a î )  (ck̂  bˆj) = bc î  acˆj  abk̂
2 2 2
2 2 2
1  ab   bc   ca 
= a 2 b 2  b 2 c 2  c 2a 2 =      
2  2  2  2

 Area of ABC = (area of OAB) 2  (area of OBC) 2  (area of OCA)2

PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE OF A POINT FROM A PLANE :

 
Let equation of plane is r · n = d then perpendicular distance A(x1, y1, z1)

  (r1)
from the point A ( r1 ) on the plane = projection of RA on n . P
r1  r0  · n    
r1 · n  r0 · n 
n = ai^ + bj^ + ck^
 p=  = 
|n| |n| 
R(r0)
(x0, y0, z0)
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  
r ·n d
 p= 1 
|n|
If equation of plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0 then perpendicular distance from point (x1, y1, z1) is given
| ax1  by1  cz1  d |
by .
a 2  b2  c2
Note :
(i) Planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 are
a1 b c d
(a) parallel if = 1 = 1  1
a2 b2 c2 d2
(b) perpendicular if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
a1 b c d
(c) identical if a = 1 = 1 = 1
2 b2 c2 d2
(ii) The equation of a plane parallel to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is ax + by + cz + k = 0, where k is an
arbitrary constant and is determined by the given condition.

(iii) Distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and ax + by + cz + d2 = 0 is equal to

| d1  d 2 |
.
a 2  b 2  c2
(iv) 3 planes arx + bry + crz = dr , where r = 1, 2, 3
(a) Can intersect at a point  system of equations in 3 variables having unique solution.
(b) Can intersect coaxially  system of equations in 3 variables having infinite solutions.
(c) May not have a common point system of equations in 3 variables having no solution.

EQUATION OF PLANES BISECTING THE ANGLES BETWEEN TWO

GIVEN PLANES :
Cartesian Form :
The equation of the planes bisecting the angles between the planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1= 0 and
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 are
(a1x  b1y  c1z  d1 ) (a 2 x  b 2 y  c 2 z  d 2 )
=±
a12  b12  c12 a 22  b22  c22
Note :
If angle between bisector plane and one of the plane is less than 45° then it is acute angle bisector
otherwise it is obtuse angle bisector.
Vector Form :
   
The equation of the planes bisecting the angles between the planes r · n1  d1 and r · n 2  d 2 are
   
| r · n1  d1 | | r · n 2  d 2 |
  
| n1 | | n2 |
   
| r · n1  d1 | | r · n 2  d2 |
or   
| n1 | | n2 |
 d d
or r · ( n̂1  n̂ 2 )  1   2
| n1 | | n 2 |
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 FAMILY OF PLANES :
The equation of a plane passing through the lines of intersection of a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and
a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is (a1x + b1y + c1z + d1) +  (a2x + b2y + c2z + d2) = 0, where  is a constant.

Vectorially :
 
Equation of a plane passing through the line of intersection of planes r .n1  d1 and r .n 2  d 2 is given by
 
( r .n1  d1 )  ( r .n 2  d 2 )  0

ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PLANES :

1. Vector form :
The angle between the two planes is defined as the angle between their normals.
Let be the angle between planes;
   
r . n1 = d1 and r . n 2 = d2 is given by
 
n1 . n 2
cos =  
| n1 || n 2 |
2. Cartesian form :
The angle  between the planes a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 is given by
a1a 2  b1b 2  c1c2
cos  =
a12  b12  c12 a 22  b22  c 22

3. Two planes are perpendicular iff

 
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0 & Parallel if n1  n2  0

Angle between a line and a plane :

The angle between a line and a plane is the complement of the angle between the line and the normal to
the plane
If , ,  be the direction ratios of the line and ax + by + cz + d = 0 be the equation of plane and be
the angle between the line and the plane.
a  b  c
 cos (90° – ) = a 2  b 2  c 2  2   2   2

a  b  c
or sin = a 2  b 2  c 2  2   2   2

Vector form :
    
If is the angle between the line; r  a   b and plane r . n = d
 
b.n
sin=  
| b ||n |

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 STRAIGHT LINES :

Symmetric Form :
1. Equation of a straight line passing through (x1, y1, z1) and having drs as a, b, c is
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
  
a b c P( r )
k (x,y,z)
Proof : A(x1,y1,z1) j +c
ai +b
A vector parallel to line will be a î  bˆj  ck̂ .
A vector along the line can be written as
AP  ( x  x1)î  ( y  y1)ˆj  (z  z1 )k̂ O

 vector AP is parallel to a î  bˆj  ck̂

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
   
a b c
• Any point on this line can be taken as (x1 + a, y1 + b, z1 + c).
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
• If dcs of line be l, m, n then its equation will     and any point on this line can
l m n
be taken as (x1 + a, y1 + b, z1 + c).
2. Equation of straight line passing through two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) will be
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1
Note :
x y z
(i) (a) Equation of x-axis is   (or) y = z = 0
1 0 0
x y z
(b) Equation of y-axis is   (or) x = z = 0
0 1 0
x y z
(c) Equation of z-axis   (or) x = y = 0
0 0 1
Here zero in denominator represents that line is perpendicular to that axis.
x  2 y 1 x  2 y 1 z  2
(ii) Line  and z = 2 is written as  
3 2 3 2 0
This line is perpendicular to z-axis or parallel to xy plane at a distance of 2 units.

Unsymmetrical form of straight line:

The equations a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 together represents a line in
unsymmetrical form. This represent equation of line of intersection of planes a1x + b1y+ c1z + d1 = 0 and
a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0.

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 Procedure to convert Unsymmetrical Form of straight line to Symmetrical
Form :
Let the direction ratios of the line of intersection (AB) of two planes
a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 .....(1) and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 .....(2) are a, b, c
Direction ratios of normal to plane (1) are a1, b1 , c1 and
Direction ratios of normal to plane (2) are a2 , b2 , c2
LineAB lies in both the planes (1) and (2)
hence normals to (1) and (2) are perpendicular to AB.
Hence aa1 + bb1 + cc1 = 0 and aa2 + bb2 + cc2 = 0
these two will give the proportional values of a, b, c.
Let the line AB cuts the xy plane at (x1 , y1 , 0)
Hence a1x1 + b1y1 = – d1 and a2x1 + b2y1 = – d2 This will give a point on the line AB
x  x1 y  y1 z  0
 equation of AB is   .
a b c

Line of Greatest slope in a plane :

It is aline in the plane and perpendicular to the line of intersection

of the given plane with the horizontal plane. PQ is the line of
greatest slope . Its direction cosines
can be determined by the facts that
(i) It lies in G-plane
(ii) It is perpendicular toAB, the line of intersection of G and H plane.

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