PRELIMS
and something that is within our consciousness.
Introduction to Anatomy and
Physiology
WHAT IS ANATOMY?
· The branch of natural science
concerned with the bodily
structure of humans,
animals, and other living
organisms, especially as
revealed by dissection and
the separation of parts.
· It is more focused on the
structure of the entire
organism or its different
components.
· Structure, location,
appearance, etc.
WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY?
· The branch of biology that
deals with the normal
functions of living
organisms and their parts.
· More on functions
Note: Most of the time the anatomy of a
certain body part will reflect its
physiology.
WHAT IS BIOLOGY?
· The study of living organisms.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Adaptation through
evolution
· Physiological Adaptation- It is
something that we can not
control. Our own body’s
mechanism in order to adapt
in a certain situation.
· Behavioral Adaptation- Something that we can control
2. Cellular organization
3. Growth (quantitative) and Development (qualitative)
4. Heredity
5. Homeostasis- The ability to maintain internal balance
environment
6. Metabolism- Has something to do with the ability of
the organism to perform many chemical reactions
inside our body. Has something to do with chemical
reactions and the utilizations of energy.
7. Reproduction
8. Response to stimuli
BIOMOLECULES
· The Biomolecules inside our body are the smallest
entities.
· It is not considered a living organism. We can only start
to call an organism a living thing on the cellular level.
Cell is the smallest living object on earth, anything
smaller than the cell is considered a non-living
organism.
· These biomolecules will gather together to form
organelles and these organelles will form the cell.
What are biomolecules and how are they different from the
other molecules present in our environment?
MOLECULES – this are compounds that are covalently bonded
BIOMOLECULES/MACROMOLECULES – All living things that
are made up of four classes of large biological molecules:
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
NOTE:
· We can only extract biomolecules from living
organisms.
· Living organisms are the only entities that can
manufacture these molecules.
 · Carbohydrates: We
manufacture carbohydrates (Glucose) cellulose)
through the consumption of
starch. Starch when digested Proteins C, H, O, N Amino acids Protein
turns into glucose and
converts into carbohydrates.
(Leucine) Hemoglobin
· Lipids: sex hormones

· Proteins: the muscles are Lipids C, H, O Fatty acids + Fats, oils, wax
made of proteins Glycerol
Bonded to
· Nucleic Acid: DNA, cells glycerol

(Triglyceride)

MONOMER

- The building blocks

· The basic unit of biomolecules. Nucleic Acids C, H, O, N, P Nucleotide DNA and RNA
Every biomolecule has its
own monomer.

· Example: Amino acids are (Guanine)

monomers of polypeptides
(protein).

CREATING AND BREAKING DOWN POLYMERS

POLYMER DEHYDRATION/CONDENSATION REACTION (involve in

- A long/large molecule consisting
of many similar building blocks
-are made up of smaller units or
smaller molecules known as monomers.
We can not create a polymer without its
monomer.
creating polymers)
Two monomers bond together through the loss of water
molecules
· Example: The dehydration reaction produces
Maltose from two Glucose Molecules

· Example: Starch is the C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 ->

polymer of glucose.

C12H22O11

MACROMOLECULE CHART
HYDROLYSIS (involved in breaking down polymers)

Two bonded monomers split apart using a water molecule

Organic Elements Monomer (and
Compound composed example)
· Example: Hydrolysis turns a peptide chain into amino
of
acids
Carbohydrates C, H, O Monosaccharide

1:2:1 ratio

(single sugar)

MAJOR CLASSES OF
BIOMOLECULES
CARBOHYDRATES
· The simplest/smallest forms
carbohydrates in the nature
is the monosaccharides
The most abundant
biomolecule in the Human body
Short term source of energy
· Polysaccharides- more
complex carbohydrates
Monosaccharides: Have molecular
formulas that are usually multiples of
CH2O. Meaning all chemical formulas
of monosaccharides whether its
glucose, fructose, galactose have this
multiple. In every carbon atom there are
2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom.
o Glucose (C6H12O6) is the
most common
monosaccharide.
Ø Our number one
source of energy in
our cells
o Some common carbohydrates
monomers:
§ Fructose- Fruit Sugar
Ø It is a kind of
monomer/monosacch
aride that is present
in plant base food
items that are sweet
(example: fruits)
Ø It makes our food
more pleasant to eat
§ Galactose- Milk Sugar
o A monosaccharide that is created by mammals
(only mammals can manufacture milk)
§ Ribose- Component of RNA
§ Deoxyribose- Component of DNA
NOTES:
· Fructose and Galactose share the same chemical
formula of Glucose. The arrangement of their atom is
the difference and this is called isomers
(compounds that contain exactly the same number of
atoms, i.e., they have exactly the same empirical
formula, but differ from each other by the way in
which the atoms are arranged)
Ribose and deoxyribose differ from other
monosaccharides due to the number of carbon
molecules (has 5 carbon - called pentose sugar)
· When 2 monosaccharides bond together using the
dehydration reaction creates a disaccharide
molecule. There are 3 most abundant disaccharides
in nature.
o Sucrose- Glucose + Fructose
Ø Technical term for sugar
o Maltose- Glucose + Glucose
Ø During the digestion in the mouth
starch is converted into Maltose
o Lactose- Glucose + Galactose
Ø This is in milk
Fructose + galactose cannot be naturally possible as
one comes from plants while the latter is from
animals
· Chemical Formula of Disaccharides (C12H22O11)
3 Polymer categories
1. Polysaccharides, the highest category (more than 10
units)
2. Oligosaccharide, the middle category (composed of 3-
10 units)
 3. Disaccharide, the lowest
category (composed of 2 units).
Polysaccharides: Are long chains of
single sugars. Some important
polysaccharides include; Starch (also
called amylose), Glycogen, Cellulose
(found in plant cell walls, the “fiber” that
you see on food labels) and Chitin.
NOTES:
LIPIDS
· Types of Lipids: Oils, Fats, Phospholipids, and
Steroids
· Most common lipids that we take in our diet are
Triglycerides (Fats and Oils): It has two
components; a Glycerol esterified to 3 Fatty acids.
· The major function of Lipids is for long-term energy
storage.

· Storage Polysaccharides- · Lipids are stored faster than Carbohydrates

they are usually stored in the
cells of plants and animals · Chemical Structure:
and they are utilized for
future consumptions

Ø Starch- stored
in plants

Ø Glycogen-
stored in
animals and
human in
skeletal 2 Types of Fatty Acids
muscles and
liver · Saturated Fatty Acids have the maximum number of
hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds (one
· Structural Polysaccharides- carbon atom is attached to at least 2 hydrogen
they provide additional atoms). This are normally present in Fats (solid in
support and protection to room temperature).
organisms where these are
found. · Unsaturated Fatty Acids bended structures have one
or more double bonds. These are present in Oils
Ø Cellulose- (liquid in room temperature).
found in
photosyntheti
c organisms
with cell wall;
plants and
Phospholipids
algae
· This are the major component of all cell membranes
Ø Chitin- present
in the cell wall · The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic (afraid of
of fungi water), but the phosphate, glycerol, and choline form
(heterotrophic a hydrophilic (water lover) head.
organisms)
and also
found in the
exoskeleton Steroids
of arthropods.
· These are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton
· Our body cannot digest consisting of four fused rings.
cellulose
 · Cholesterol, an important
steroid, is a component in
animal cell membranes.
· Vitamin D: A type of steroid
that is found in our skin in
the form of ergosterol.
When we are out in the sun,
ergosterol is transformed
into Vitamin D.
· Sex Hormones: they are
involved in primary and
secondary sexual
characteristics in
animal/humans
PROTEINS
most diverse biomolecule in the
human body and one example of
protein is hemoglobin.
· Are polymers made up of
Amino Acids.
· There are 20 different amino
acids:
o 11 Non-Essential
Amino Acids: can
be made in our body
o 9 Essential Amino
Acids: cannot be
made in our body so
we need to get them
in the food we eat.
(Histidine, Isoleucine,
Leucine, Lysine,
Methionine,
Phenylalanine,
Threonine,
Tryptophan, and
Valine)
The combination of these amino
acids will create the polymers for protein
which are protein/peptide/polypeptide.
· Chemical Structure:
Difference (the R group or
Variable Side Chain)
Similarities: Amino
Group, Carboxyl Acid Group,
Carbon (central atom),
Hydrogen atom
·
Different proteins have specific functions, including:
Ø Structure- Keratin and collagen found in our
integumentary system
Ø Movement- The proteins that are found in the
muscles are actin and myosin
Ø Defense- antibodies
Ø Storage- casein are proteins that are found in
milk
Ø Communication- to be done by hormones,
caries information, for example insulin
Ø Transport- Manifested by Hemoglobin which
is in red blood cells, attracted to oxygen
Ø Assisting in chemical reactions- Done by
the enzymes mostly found in digestive
system
o Enzymes are special proteins that assist in
(catalyze) chemical reactions. Each
enzyme has one specific job, and can
carry out that job over and over again.
· Proteins also provide energy but it is not practical to
utilize protein for energy provisions because it has so
many functions.
*Enzymes- specific
proteins that assist
in chemical
reactions (e.g
saliva amylase)

NUCLEIC ACIDS
· The molecules that code the
genetic information of
organisms
· DNA and RNA are polymers
made up of monomers called
Nucleotides
· Involve in storage of genetic
information
· During reproduction this are
the genetic information that
we pass on to the next
generations in order for them
to have the same
characteristics that we have.
DNA vs RNA
· DNA stores a genetic
information and codes for
out traits
· Without RNA we could not get
the genetic message out to
our cells for them to start
producing proteins
· In eukaryotic cells, DNA tends
to be found in the nucleus.
While RNA is both found
inside and outside of the
nucleus.
· The nucleotides of both RNA
and DNA have three parts: a
phosphate, sugar, and a
base
· The sugar in DNA is
deoxyribose, while in RNA
is ribose
· The bases
DNA are; Adenine,
Thymine, Guanine, and
Cytosine.
RNA; Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine
· 3 types of RNA:
Ø mRNA (messenger)- carry a message based
off of the DNA
Ø rRNA (ribosomal RNA)- ribosome make
protein and RNA is a major component of
ribosome, this type of RNA is called rRNA
Ø tRNA (transfer RNA)- transfer amino acids to
match the correct mRNA codon
· mRNA Codon: a trinucleotide sequence of DNA or
RNA that corresponds to a specific amino acid
Example : GCU AGU UUG CGU *Codon
signal for stop : UAA UAG
Translated : Ala Ser Leu Arg
CELL THEORY
CELL THEORY
1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and
function in living things.
2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.
ALSO:
4. Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells
during cellular division
5. All cells are essentially the same in chemical
composition
6. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs
within cells
·The cell theory describes the basic properties of
all cells.
· The three scientists that contributed to the
development of cell theory are Matthias
Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, and Rudolf
Virchow.
2 Distinct Types of Cells
1.PROKARYOTIC CELLS
comprise bacteria and archaea
2. EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Has nuclear membrane that
surrounds the nucleus, in which
the well-defined chromosomes
(bodies containing the hereditary
material) are located.

Major Events in the Formation of

the Cell Theory:

1670s Antony van Leeuwenhoek

observed the movements of protista
(a type of single-celled organism) and
sperm, which he collectively termed
“animalcules. ”

1665 Acc. to Micrographia publication :

Robert Hooke coined the term “cell”
for the box-like structures he observed
when viewing cork tissue through a
lens.

1830s Matthias Schleiden & Theodor

Schwann were studying tissues and
proposed the unified cell theory. The
unified cell theory states that: all living
things are composed of one or more
cells; the cell is the basic unit of life;
and new cells arise from existing cells.

1830s Rudolf Virchow famously stated

“Omnis cellula e cellula”… “All cells
only arise from pre-existing cells."

TRANSCRIPTION

- The information in DNA is transcribed—or summarized—

into a smaller version (RNA) that can be used by the cell.

-genetic instructions in DNA is transferred to mRNA.

-mRNA exits the Nucleus and attaches to the ribosomes

TRANSLATION
-the ribosomes translate the mRNA
into proteins

*When protein is required outside

the cell, the RER delivers the protein
to the GOLGI APPARATUS .

*Golgi Apparatus delivers the

proteins

3 Main Functions of Smooth ER

SER transforms lipids into other

useful lipids

SER in the liver detoxifies the body

by transforming substances into less
harmful materials or eliminating
them.

SER maintains balance inside the

cell.

MIDTERM

Different Stages of
Eukaryotic Cells
 Interphase
CELL CYCLE
- Known as the non-dividing stage; the stage where the cell is not undergoing cellular division
- The longest part of the cell cycle
- This happens right after the cell is produced
- “Inactive stage

 Cellular Division
o Mitosis (karyokinesis) – involved in repairing of tissues when wounded
o Meiosis – involved in the production of sex cells (sperm and egg cells)

 Cytokinesis
- Focuses on the division of the cytoplasm

INTERPHASE
- The first stage right after the daughter cell is produce via mitosis of
meiosis
- It is when metabolic activities are taking place (example: photosynthesis in
plants; cellular respiration and protein synthesis in humans)

THREE STAGES OF

INTERPHASE G1 (GAP 1)

PHASE

- Period of growth (the growth is for survival)

- Organelles and cytoplasmic components replicate

G1 Check point: it identifies if the cell needs to proceed to the

next stage
o Cell size and the proteins that are needed for DNA replication
o Availability of nutrient and energy
o DNA damage

G0 – Means that there is no longer growth to be expected. This happens

when I the cell does not need to divide. Stage where
the cells stops to grow or die unless accepted to undergo synthesis phase

S (SYNTHESIS) PHASE
- DNA replicates
- Right after this stage it is expected that there will be two copies of the genetic material
G2 (GAP 2) PHASE
- Period of growth (the growth is intended for cellular division)
- Enzymes are produced to prepare and aid cellular division

G2 Check point
o Cell size
o Is the DNA replication done correctly?
o DNA integrity

CELLULAR DIVISION
Similarities: Mitosis and Meiosis

 Strat with a diploid parent cell

o Diploid Cell: In human being this is a cell with 46 chromosomes. A cell with a complete set of
chromosomes.
o Haploid Cells: Is quality of a cell or organism having a single set of chromosomes
 Are preceded by an initial growth period called Interphase, during which the DNA is duplicated.
 Go trough the same basic phases; PMAT: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.

Differences:
 End Results
o Mitosis – produces two daughter cells
o Meiosis –four daughter cells

 Chromosomal Number
o Mitosis – the daughter cells are diploid (2n)
o Meiosis –haploid (n)

 Genetic Compositions
o Mitosis – daughter cells are genetically identical
o Meiosis – genetically different

 Number of Cellular Division

o Mitosis – Involves one cell division. Steps: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
o Meiosis – two cell divisions. Steps: Meiosis I (PMAT 1), Meiosis II (PMAT 2)

 The Cells they Produces

o Mitosis – creates all body (somatic) cells
o Meiosis – sex (germ) cells

 Purpose
o Mitosis – Growth, repair, and replacement of old, damaged cell in multicellular organisms. A form of
 asexual reproduction
o Meiosis – Formation of sex cells or gametes, necessary for sexual reproduction. Helps to maintain
genetic diversity in the population.
STAGES IN

MITOSIS
- Chromatin condenses and becomes
chromosomes
PROPHASE - Each chromosome contains two identical
chromatids connected to centromere
- Spindle fibers begin to form
- The centrioles migrate to opposite poles
- Nuclear envelope breaks down

METAPHASE - Chromosomes align at the equator of the cell, attached to spindle fiber at the
kinetochores
- The equator is called the “metaphase plate”
- Metaphase Check point: checks if the chromosomes are attached to the
spindle fiber

- Sister chromatids break down and separate at the centromeres and more away from
ANAPHASE each other
- Each chromatid is now a chromosome
- Spindle fibers lengthen, thus elongating the cell

TELOPHASE
- Chromosomes decondense to become thin thread of chromatin
- Each chromatid clusters at opposite poles
- Nuclear membrane reappears and spindle fibers disassemble
- Reverse Prophase
CYTOKINSIS

Animal Cell

- Cytokinesis occurs when a cleavage furrow form. This pinches the cell in half.

Plant Cell
- Occurs when a cell wall forms in between the daughter cells.

STAGES IN

MEIOSIS

PROPHASE I

- Chromosomes thicken and shorten

- Centrioles move to the opposite sides of the nucleus
- Nucleolus disappears
- Nucleus membrane disintegrates
- Crossing over occurs
- Exchange of genetic material
METAPHASE I
- Pairs of HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES move to the equator of the cell

ANAPHASE I
- Homologous Chromosomes move to the opposite poles of the cells
- Pairs are separated

TELOPHASE I
- Chromosomes gather at the poles of the cell
- CYTOKINESIS occurs

Number of daughter cells 2

Genetically identical No

Chromosome number ½ of the Parent cell

Where Gametes/ Sex Cells

When Varied

Role Sexual Reproduction

Status To be continued

PROPHASE II
- For haploids,
- Chromatin condenses, becomes chromosomes
- Each chromosome contains two identical chromatids connected are centromere
- Spindle fibers begin to form
- The centrioles migrate to opposite poles
- Nuclear envelope breaks down

METAPHASE II
- Chromosome align at the equator of the cell, attached to spindle fiber at the kinetochores

ANAPHASE II
- Sister chromatids break down and separate at the centromeres and more away from each other
- Each chromatid is now a chromosome
TELOPHASE
- Chromosomes decondense to become thin thread of chromatin
- Each chromatid clusters at opposite poles
- Nuclear membrane reappears and spindle fibers disassemble
 Number of daughter cells 4

Genetically identical No

Chromosome number ½ of the Parent cell

Where Gametes/ Sex Cells

When Varied

Role Sexual Reproduction

Status Finished

SPERMATOGENESIS
- process of sperm cell development. Rounded immature
sperm cells undergo successive mitotic and meiotic
divisions (spermatocytogenesis) and a metamorphic
change (spermiogenesis) to produce spermatozoa.
- When male enter puberty the parent cells that’s when
spermatogenesis occurs

 Spermatogonium
- cell produced at an early stage in the formation of spermatozoa, formed in the wall of a
seminiferous tubule and giving rise by mitosis to spermatocytes.
- Parents cells will then differentiate or transforms into a Primary Spermatocyte
  Primary Spermatocyte
- are diploid (2N) cells. After meiosis I, two secondary spermatocytes are formed. Secondary
spermatocytes are haploid (N) cells that contain half the number of chromosomes. In all
animals, males produce spermatocytes, even hermaphrodites such as C.

 Spermatids
- haploid male gamete that results from division of secondary spermatocytes
- must undergo cellular differentiation and will then transform into spermatozoa or sperm cells

Normal Sperm Count

- 15 million/mL
- Anything LESS THAN 15 million/mL or 39 million/ejaculation is considered low
- Production of sperm cell/s is 1500 to 3500/second that takes about 2.5 to 3 months to create

OOGENESIS
- the process of formation of female gametes.”
Oogenesis is the type of gametogenesis through
which ova, also called the female gametes are
formed and the produced female gamete is known
as an ovum.

 Oogonium
- an immature female reproductive cell that gives rise
to primary oocytes by mitosis.

 Oocyte
- cell in an ovary which may undergo meiotic
division to form an ovum.

 Zygote
- fertilized egg cell that results from the union of a female gamete (egg, or ovum) with a male
gamete (sperm)

At Birth; there are approximately 1 million egg cells, and by the time of puberty, about 300000
remain.
Only 300 to 400 will be ovulated during a woman’s reproductive lifetime
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Major Function - Produce sperm (or spermatozoa) via meiosis within the seminiferous tubules of the testes.

Spermatogenesis – The production of sperm cells

Testes/testis - Main organ of the male reproductive system. It both a reproductive organ (produce sperm cell) and
endocrine organ (produce testosterone and other sex hormone)

Illustration of a testis

Seminiferous Tubules – Spermatogenesis takes place here

Different cells associated with sperm cell

Sustenticular or Sertoli Cells – One of the important cells found inside the seminiferous tubules and its function
is to facilitate the process of spermatogenesis. They guide the developing sperm cell or the sperm cell that is
undergoing meiosis, moving toward the center. It also provides nourishments.

Interstitial Cells – Also known as the cell of Leydig. Found outside the seminiferous tubules and produces
testosterone

Testosterone - The male sex hormone and promotes primary (any developmental feature that is associated with the
genitals or the male reproductive system) and secondary (characteristics associated with males that are not with the
reproductive system, e.g. facial hair, toned muscles and larger bones) sexual characteristics in males.
PATH OF THE SPERM
TUBULE EPIDIDYMIS VAS DEERENCES URETHRA

TWO MAJOR REASON WHY A MAN IS INFERTILE

1. Sperm count – A normal healthy male can produce 300 million sperm cell per day, in every second 3,500
sperm cells are produced. The duration in its creation is 65-75 days.
2. Erectile disfunction

Epididymis – The sperm cells transfer here after they are created. It serves as a temporary storage site before the
sperm cells are release out of the male’s body. The sperm cells can stay here for 14 days (life spam of sperm cell when
it reaches the epididymis). The sexual activity will trigger the sperm cell to move to the Vas Deference.

Internal and External Male Reproductive System

INTERNAL MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 From the Epididymis the sperm cell will pass through the Vas
Deference or Ductus Deference.
 Sperm cell will build up in the Ejaculatory ducts (ditto nabubuo yung
semen).
 Semen is the thick fluid that comes from men's penis when they
ejaculate during sexual activity. It carries sperm out of a man's body so it can fertilize an egg and create an
embryo (the first stage of pregnancy).
 The Prostate gland creates the alkaline prostatic fluid which is an important material that is added to the
building of semen. Another role of the prostate gland is to facilitate urination and ejaculation.
 Alkaline Prostatic Fluid helps neutralize the acidity of the vaginal tract, prolonging the lifespan of sperm.
 Seminal Vesicle contributes 70-80 percent of semen. The two important contributions of seminal vesicle
are prostaglandins and fructose. Prostaglandins are lipid substances and its role in the semen is to promote
sperm transport and motility (the ability of the sperm to swim the right way).
 The main role of the Fructose in the semen is to provide food for the sperm cell so that they will have the
energy to move.
 Copper’s gland also known as the bulbourethral gland produces pre-cum. One of its main roles is to
lubricate the urethra. During sexual course it serves as a introductory fluid in the female reproductive system.
 Urethra is a passage way that is both a reproductive and urinary structure.
 Orgasm is the effect of the many structures present in the male reproductive system which may also include
some structures that are related with the nervous and muscular system (pleasurable part of a sexual activity).
 Ejaculation is more focused on the release of the semen out of the male body.

EXTERNAL MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 The role of the Penis is to deliver the semen to the female reproductive system. Also, during sexual
intercourse, the pleasure is centered to the penis because of the many nerve endings present in here.
 Corpus cavernosum is a connective tissue that is present inside the penis. Corpus cavernosum smooth
muscle (CCSM) in the penis is unique in that it exhibits a high resting tone and, on stimulation, the muscle
cells relax, allowing cavernous spaces to fill with blood, which results in an erection (tumescence).

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Major Function – Produces egg cell and house developing offspring

Gestation - is the period of time between conception and birth.

During this time, the baby grows and develops inside the mother's
womb.

INTERNAL FEMALE REPRODUCTUVE SYSTEM

 Ovulation is the process of releasing the egg cell from

the ovart going to the fallopian tube.
 Ovulation occurs only one time during each menstrual
cycle and sperm live for around five days. Eggs can only be fertilized for around 24 hours (one day) after
being released from the ovary, before it disintegrates into the uterine lining and is shed with the woman's
monthly period.
 Fallopian tube – receives the egg cell coming from the ovary post ovulation
 Uterus/womb – during gestation or pregnancy this is where the offspring will develop.
 Ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg implants and grows
outside the main cavity of the uterus.
 Cervix serve as the boundary between the uterus and vagina.
 Vagina (internal) or Vulva (external)
 Inside the Labia Minora are two openings; urethral opening or urethral
orifice and the vaginal opening. The ultimate role of labia minora is to
provide protection. It is also filled with blood vessels and nerve cells.
  Clitoris - the female penis and the main site for female pleasure

 Follicles are group of cells surrounding the egg cell while it’s inside the ovary.
 1-2 million - number of primordial follicles present in the ovary when a female child is born.
 300,000 – if a female reaches puberty and out of this 300,000 every month, 6-12 will become primary
follicles.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

 The menstrual cycle in on average 28 days

 It is divided in to two: Follicular phase (follicle is still growing) and Luteal phase (post-ovulation, the
former follicle starts to die
 14th day the time when ovulation will take place
 Menstruation is trigged by the very low amount of estrogen and progesterone and this also triggers the
pituitary gland to release another hormone which is the follicle stimulating hormone.
 The Estrogen will trigger the uterus or specifically the endometrium lining to thicken in preparation for
pregnancy.
  Too much amount of estrogen will trigger the pituitary gland to release another hormone which is the
Luteinizing hormone or LH (the hormone that trigger ovulation).
 Ones the egg cell release it now becomes the corpus luteum (progesterone nag nirerelease)
 Progesterone will make the uterine lining thicker and nagkakaroon ng blood vessels
 The blood vessels will be connected to the developing embryo to provide nourishment

 The fertile window is the day an egg is released from the ovary (ovulation) and the five days
beforehand. Having sex (intercourse) during this time gives you the best chance of getting pregnant.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Major function – to break down the nutrients present in the food into their simplest forms

Digestion occurs within the gastrointestinal tract and involves breaking down the components of food into their
subunits.

TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Gastrointestinal Track – It is where the food will pass through. It includes the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
2. Accessory Glands and Organs – This are glands and organs attached to the gastrointestinal track.

Example: mouth – salivary glands | small intestine – liver and pancreas | small and large intestine
– mesentery
THREE MAJOR PROCESSES OF DIGESTION

1. Mechanical Digestion – associated by physical change

2. Chemical Digestion
3. Absorption

 Mouth – First part of the digestive system. One of the processes happening in the mouth is
mastication (the act of chewing food).
 The process of swallowing, also known as Deglutition
 The three major Salivary glands are parotid gland (in front of the ears and the largest salivary gland),
submandibular (below the lower jaw or mandible), and sublingual glands (under the tongue). Tubarial gland
is a newly discovered salivary gland and it is found beneath the cranium.
 As we swallow the food it is called bolus
 Pharynx is a shared passage way for food and air.
 Epiglottis - When a person swallows the epiglottis folds backward to cover the entrance of the larynx so
food and liquid do not enter the windpipe and lungs.
 Esophagus - the primary function of your esophagus is to carry food and liquid from your mouth to your
stomach.

 The main stomach is composed of the Fundus, Body, and Antrum.

 Sphincters are circular muscles that serve as valves to open and close certain parts of the body.
 Cardiac or esophageal sphincter that divides the tract above. Pyloric sphincter or pyloric orifice
that divides the stomach from the small intestine.
 Three secretions made by the stomach: hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, and mucus
 Pepsinogen serves as the enzyme and requires an acidic environment before performing its function
 Hydrochloric acid provides the acidity required by the pepsinogen and it will transform into pepsin
 Pepsin is the active form of a pepsinogen that chemical digest proteins
 Mucus provides the protection for the linings of the stomach against hydrochloric acid

 The Liver will create raw materials form the absorbed nutrients from the small intestine and converts
these raw materials into other substances. It also detoxifies or breaks down drugs and chemicals including
alcohol that can be toxic in the body
  Digestive function of the liver – it produces bile (digestive juice) and will be temporarily stored in
the gallbladder
 Bile is necessary for the digestion for fats and oils
 Non-digestive function of the Pancreas – controls blood pressure level

 The pancreas will create insulin if the blood sugar level is high
 The pancreas will create glucagon if the blood sugar level is low
 Digestive function of the pancreas – produce the pancreatic juices; sodium bicarbonate and
digestive enzymes.
 Chyme – the food coming from the stomach (acidic)
 Sodium bicarbonate (base) – once it is mixed by the chyme it will be neutralized
 Digestive enzymes- lipase (enzymes for lipids), protease (for protein), amylase (for carbohydrates)
 Small V.S. Large Intestine:

Small Intestine Large Intestine

Length 4.5 to 7 meters 1.5 meters

Diameter 3.5 to 4.5 cm 4 to 6 cm

Caecum, Colon, Rectum,

Parts Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
Anus

Villi Present Absent

Absorbs the digested Absorbs water from

Function
nutrients indigestible residue

 Caecum – the food in here can already be called feces

 The Colon is divided into four parts; Ascending Colon, Traversing Colon, Descending Colon, and the
Sigmoid Colon
 Rectum – the storage site of feces
 Intestinal villi are tiny, finger-like projections made up of cells that line the entire length of your small
intestine. Your villi (villus is the singular, villi is the plural) absorb nutrients from the food you eat and then
shuttle those nutrients into your bloodstream so they can travel where they're needed.
 The small intestine is the site of absorption of the major nutrients in our body.
 Fat soluble vitamins – A, D, E, K
 Water soluble vitamins – C, B, ….
 Mesentery – Attached the intestine to the wall of the abdomen to keep them in place. Houses many lymph
nodes that fights infection. Mesentery is capable of producing a protein that will cause inflammation.
  The Rectum is triggered by the nervous system
 Internal (involuntary) and External Anal Sphincter (voluntary)

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Major Functions:

1. To deliver oxygen and other necessary materials (nutrients that are absorb in the small intestine)
2. To pick up carbon dioxide and other waste materials (toxins, pathogen)

Blood Circulation
TWO CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN OUR BODY

1. Pulmonary Circuit – refers to the lungs or the respiratory system (path of blood form the heart –
lungs – back to heart)
2. Systemic Circuit – it has something to do with the delivery of oxygen and other necessary material to the
different parts of the body (path of blood from the heart – different parts of the body – back to the
heart)

THREE MAIN PARTS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

1. Blood
2. Blood Vessels - The function of blood vessels is to deliver blood to the organs and tissues in your body.
Blood vessels also carry waste products and carbon dioxide away from your organs and tissues.
3. Heart - Its role is to pump oxygen-rich blood to every cell in the body.

HEART CHAMBERS

Your heart is divided into four chambers. You have two chambers on the top (atrium, plural atria) and two on the
bottom (ventricles), one on each side of the heart.

 Right atrium: Two large veins deliver oxygen-poor blood to your right atrium. The superior vena cava
carries blood from your upper body. The inferior vena cava brings blood from the lower body. Then the right
atrium pumps the blood to your right ventricle.

 Right ventricle: The lower right chamber pumps the oxygen-poor blood to your lungs through the
pulmonary artery. The lungs reload blood with oxygen.

 Left atrium: After the lungs fill blood with oxygen, the pulmonary veins carry the blood to the left atrium.
This upper chamber pumps the blood to your left ventricle.

 Left ventricle: The left ventricle is slightly larger than the right. It pumps oxygen-rich blood to the rest of
your body.

HEART WALLS

Your heart walls are the muscles that contract (squeeze) and relax to send blood throughout your body. A layer of
muscular tissue called the septum divides your heart walls into the left and right sides.

Your heart walls have three layers:

 Endocardium: Inner layer.

 Myocardium: Muscular middle layer.

  Epicardium: Protective outer layer.

The epicardium is one layer of your pericardium. The pericardium is a protective sac that covers your entire heart. It
produces fluid to lubricate your heart and keep it from rubbing against other organs.
HEART VALVES

Your heart valves are like doors between your heart chambers. They open and close to allow blood to flow through.

The atrioventricular (AV) valves open between your upper and lower heart chambers. They include:

 Tricuspid valve: Door between your right atrium and right ventricle.

 Mitral valve: Door between your left atrium and left ventricle.

Semilunar (SL) valves open when blood flows out of your ventricles. They include:

 Aortic valve: Opens when blood flows out of your left ventricle to your aorta (artery that carries
oxygen-rich blood to your body).

 Pulmonary valve: Opens when blood flows from your right ventricle to your pulmonary arteries (the only
arteries that carry oxygen-poor blood to your lungs).

Main Function: keep blood moving through the heart in the right direction to prevent backflow of blood

Right side of the heart is deoxygenated (blue)

Left side of the heart is oxygenated (red)

The ventricles of the heart have thicker muscular walls than the atria. This is because blood is
pumped out of the heart at greater pressure from these chambers compared to the atria.
The vena cava has two parts: the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. The superior
vena cava carries blood from the head, neck, arms, and chest. The inferior vena cava carries
blood from the legs, feet, and organs in the abdomen and pelvis.

Pulmonary and Systemic Blood Circulation

 BLOOD VESSELS

Your heart pumps blood through three types of blood vessels:

 Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from your heart to your body’s tissues. The exception is your
pulmonary arteries, which go to your lungs.

 Veins carry oxygen-poor blood back to your heart.

 Capillaries are small blood vessels where your body exchanges oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood.

Your heart receives nutrients through a network of coronary arteries. These arteries run along your heart’s surface.
They serve the heart itself.

Why are there Valves in Veins and not Arteries?

Unlike arteries, veins contain valves that ensure blood flows in only one direction. (Arteries don't require
valves because pressure from the heart is so strong that blood is only able to flow in one direction.) Valves also help
blood travel back to the heart against the force of gravity.

COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD

NOTES FROM THE INTERNET:

How does the circulatory system work?

Your circulatory system functions with the help of blood vessels that include arteries, veins and capillaries. These
blood vessels work with your heart and lungs to continuously circulate blood through your body. Here’s how:
1. The heart’s bottom right pumping chamber (right ventricle) sends blood that’s low in oxygen (oxygen-
poor blood) to the lungs. Blood travels through the pulmonary trunk (the main pulmonary artery).
2. Blood cells pick up oxygen in the lungs.
3. Pulmonary veins carry the oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart’s left atrium (upper heart
chamber).
4. The left atrium sends the oxygenated blood into the left ventricle (lower chamber). This muscular part of
the heart pumps blood out to the body through the arteries.
5. As it moves through your body and organs, blood collects and drops off nutrients, hormones and waste
products.
6. The veins carry deoxygenated blood and carbon dioxide back to the heart, which sends the blood to the
lungs.
7. Your lungs get rid of the carbon dioxide when you exhale.

Visit these sites:

 Circulatory System:

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21775-circulatory- system#:~:text=The%20circulatory
%20system%20(cardiovascular%20system,start%20the%20 circulation%20process%20over.

 Anatomy and Function of the Heart:

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21704-heart

BLOOD TYPING
 Why do we need to know Blood Typing?

The importance of knowing your blood type is to prevent the risk of you receiving an incompatible blood type at a
time of need, such as during a blood transfusion or during surgery. If two different blood types are mixed, it can lead
to a clumping of blood cells that can be potentially fatal.

Two Important Factors that We Need to Take into Consideration in Blood

Typing

1. ABO category
2. RH factor

Example:

 If you are A positive, it means that you are type A in the ABO category. Positive means that you
having the RH factor.
 If you are A negative your blood type is type A in the ABO category.

Antigen are proteins present in the cell membrane of red blood cells. It serves as an identification card,
identifying the default blood type in your body.
ABO Blood Group an example of a genetic inheritance pattern known as codominance.
If you possess a recessive trait means that there is something missing in you or there is a protein that is not
being produces in your system.
Spike Proteins are antigen present in the viruses and this are found in the outermost part of the virus If you
are transfused with a wrong type of blood it will cause coagulation in your blood.
Coagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a
blood clot. It potentially results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by
repair.
RESPITORY SYSTEM

Major Function:

1. Acquire oxygen from the external environment from the atmosphere

2. To release or excrete carbon dioxide from our system

PARTS OF THE RESPIRATOTY SYSTEM

Nose – Nasal Cavity – Pharynx – Larynx – Trachea – Bronchi (2) – Bronchioles - Alveoli

Gas Exchange (example 1)

The interaction of the alveoli and capillaries of the circulatory system is the point of gas
exchange Gases present in the alveoli: 1. Nitrogen (we inhale but it will not be
absorbed) 2. Oxygen 2. Carbon dioxide
The mechanism/driving force involve in the gas exchange is called Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of lower
concentration. The process of diffusion does not require energy.

Gas Exchange (example 2)