FACULTY: ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY.

DEPARTMENT: MEDICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN TECHNOLOGY MEDICAL ENGINEERING

NAME: COLLINS OTIENO ONYANGO

REG NO: DTME/085J/2019
ATTACHED PLACE: PANDYA MEMORIAL HOSPITAL

DURATION: 1ST SEPTEMBER –31ST NOVEMBER

Attachment Report on partial fulfillment of a diploma course at Technical University of

Mombasa.

SUPERVISOR: MR. MAURICE MUSAU

SUBMITED TO: MR. MAURICE M. MUSAU

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................................1
DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................................4
DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.................................................................................................................................6
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................8
1.0. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................8
1.1. OBJECTIVES OF INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT.................................................................................8
1.2. COMPANY’S PROFILE: PANDYA MEMORIAL HOSPITAL................................................................9
1.3. VISION..........................................................................................................................................9
1.4. MISSION.......................................................................................................................................9
1.5. MANDATE OF THE ORGANIZATION..............................................................................................9
1.6. COMPANY’S ORGANIZATION CHART.........................................................................................10
CHAPTER TWO: MEDICAL GAS SUPPLY..........................................................................................11
2.1. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................11
2.2. OXYGEN CYLINDERS AND FLOW METERS.......................................................................................11
2.3. OXYGEN CONCENTRATORS.............................................................................................................12
2.4. OXYGEN PLANT...............................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER THREE: MEDICAL LABORATORY EQUIPMENT............................................................14
3.1. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................14
3.2. BLOOG GAS ANALYZER...................................................................................................................14
3.3. CLINICAL CHEMISTRY ANALYZER.....................................................................................................15
3.4. MEDICAL CENTRIFUGES..................................................................................................................15
3.5. LABORATORY REFRIGIRATORS........................................................................................................16
CHAPTER FOUR: RENAL UNIT............................................................................................................17
4.1. INTRODUCTION TO RENAL UNIT.....................................................................................................17
4.2. DIALYSIS MACHINE.........................................................................................................................17
4.2.1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DIALYSIS MACHINE...................................................................18
4.2.2. MAIN PARTS OF A DIALYSIS MACHINE.....................................................................................18
4.2.3. TROUBLESHOOTING DIALYSIS MACHINE.................................................................................19

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 4.3. WATER TREATMENT IN DIALYSIS UNIT...........................................................................................19
4.3.1. REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO) PLANT................................................................................................19
3.3.2. DESCRIPTION OF RO PLANT.....................................................................................................20
CHAPTER FIVE: THEATRE EQUIPMENT...........................................................................................21
5.1. INTRODUCTION TO THEATRE EQUIPMENT.....................................................................................21
5.2. BASIC OPERATION THEATRE EQUIPMENT......................................................................................21
5.2.1. OPERATING TABLE...................................................................................................................21
5.2.2. THEATRE LAMP........................................................................................................................22
5.2.3. ELECTROSURGICAL UNITS........................................................................................................22
5.2.4. ANASTHESIA MACHINE............................................................................................................23
5.2.5. ENDOSCOPY.............................................................................................................................24
CHAPTER SIX: RADIOLOGY EQUIPMENT........................................................................................26
6.1. INTRODUCTION TO RADIOLOGY EQUIPMENT................................................................................26
6.2. COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY............................................................................................................26
6.3. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI)........................................................................................27
6.4. MAMOGRAPHY UNIT......................................................................................................................28
CHAPTER SEVEN: DENTAL UNIT.......................................................................................................29
7.1. INTRODUCTION TO DENTAL UNIT..............................................................................................29
7.2. DENTAL CHAIR...........................................................................................................................29
7.2.1. OPERATION OF A DENTAL CHAIR.......................................................................................29
7.2.2. SUPPLIES OF THE DENTAL UNIT.........................................................................................29
7.3. BASIC ROTARY INSTRUMENTS...................................................................................................30
CHAPTER EIGHT: ICU EQUIPMENT...................................................................................................32
8.1. INTRODUCTION TO ICU EQUIPMENT..............................................................................................32
8.2. ICU EQUIPMENTS............................................................................................................................32
8.2.1. ECG (Electrocardiograph) MACHINE........................................................................................32
8.2.2. MEDICAL VENTILATOR.............................................................................................................33
8.2.3. PULSE OXIMETERS...................................................................................................................33
8.2.4. PATIENT MONITOR..................................................................................................................34
8.2.5. INFUSION PUMP......................................................................................................................34
8.2.6. NEBULIZER...............................................................................................................................35
CHAPTER NINE: TELEMEDICINE.......................................................................................................36
9.1. INTRODUCTION TO TELEMEDICINE (VIDEO-CONFRENCING)..........................................................36

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CHAPTER TEN: CHALLENGES, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION..............................37
10.1. CHALLENGES FACED......................................................................................................................37
10.2. RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................................................................38
10.3. CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................39
10.4. REFERRENCES...............................................................................................................................40

3
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project entitled “INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT REPORT” submitted
to the Department ILO, Medical Engineering Department, is a record of an original work done
by me and handed over to Mr. Musau attachment coordinator in the same department. This
report is submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of diploma in
Technology Medical Engineering. The institution where this attachment was done is PANDYA
MEMORIAL HOSPITAL.

NAME: COLLINS OTIENO ONYANGO

REG NO: DTME/085J/2019

SIGNATURE: ………….

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 DEDICATION
This report is dedicated to my father Mr. FREDRICK ONYANGO for his continued financial
and emotional support towards my attachment period. I also dedicate this report to my sister
VERONICA AKINYI , for her inspiring moments and exchange of vast academic ideas during
my attachment period.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
The internship opportunity I had with PANDYA MEMORIAL HOSPITAL was a great
chance for learning and professional development. Therefore, I consider myself as very lucky
individual to be part of it. I am also grateful for having a chance to meet so many wonderful
people and professionals who led me though this period.

Thanks to the attachment coordinator Mr. Musau for his continued support and guidance
during compiling of this report.

More thanks goes the COD Medical Engineering Department in TECHNICAL

UNIVERSITY OF MOMBASA for his words of council while compiling this report.

Above all I want to thank the Almighty God for enabling me work things out during my
attachment period.

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 ABSTRACT
PANDYA MEMORIAL HOSPITAL was place of my attachment as part of my diploma
program’s achievement. Being exposed to the field outside class was not just important as a
necessity but also important towards exposing my personality and training me while preparing
me for the job environment. This attachment report aims at giving the feedback to my great
institution, Technical University of Mombasa, School of Engineering and Technology,
department of Medical Engineering. The report aims at addressing the importance of field
attachment to the life of a student, the structure and organization of my place of attachment, my
experience at the place of attachment, knowledge and skills obtained at the site of attachment as
well as the strengths and weaknesses of the site of attachment. The report will also acknowledge
the very important people that made my industrial attachment and the submission of this report
successful.

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 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0. INTRODUCTION

As a national policy, all students taking courses under technical education program, for
examination by Technical University of Mombasa have to undergo industrial work experience
attachment before taking their final examination. For diploma level course a minimum of 2
months is required. The Cardinal rule that students preceding on attachment must have qualify
and acquired sufficient skills to make them productive. The attachment was conducted at The
PANDYA MEMORIAL HOSPITAL, in the months of September to December 2022. At the end
of the twelve week period, the student is to present a report summarizing on the activities
undertaken during the attachment. It is from this perspective that this report has been compiled
capturing the two months attachment period.

1.1. OBJECTIVES OF INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT

The purpose of industrial attachment program is to try as much as possible to make training
relevant to Job requirements in industry. It's hoped that it could be achieved through:
 Exposing students to industrial work culture through the actual involvement in real work
environment
 Providing opportunities for students to apply skills required through formal instructions
in real work environment
 Building confidence in technical operation and problem solving
 To apply technical skills acquired in classroom in real life situation
 To learn how to work as a team
 To expose students to technical environments so that they would then perform
competently in future
 Provide the student a chance to network with various players in the industry.
 Allow the student develop communication and interpersonal relation in actual work-place
environment

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 1.2. COMPANY’S PROFILE: SAYYIDA FATIMAH HOSPITAL

1.3. VISION

PANDYA MEMORIAL HOSPITAL strives to provide access to quality healthcare to all who
need it.

1.4. MISSION

The mission of the Hospital is to strive for excellence in healthcare through the provision of
expert, compassionate and ethical care to all their clients.

1.5. MANDATE OF THE ORGANIZATION

The hospital was established under legal notice no. 109 of 6th April 2016 and is mandated to:
i. Receive patients on referral from any other hospital within the county and other counties
for specialized health care.
ii. To provide facilities for education and training of nurses and other medical staffs and for
research either directly or through other cooperating health care institutions.
iii. Participate as a county referral hospital in health planning.

iv. To conduct applied research promote innovations in medical field.

1.6. COMPANY’S ORGANIZATION CHART

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 CHAPTER TWO: MEDICAL GAS SUPPLY

2.1. INTRODUCTION

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A hospital basically has to be supplied with medical gases for the wellbeing of patients. Oxygen
is the chief gas required by patients with breathing difficulties. The source of medical oxygen
maybe from purchased cylinders, oxygen concentrators and oxygen plants/
Other medical gases include medical air and nitrous gas.

2.2. OXYGEN CYLINDERS AND FLOW METERS

Medical gases such as oxygen, nitrous oxide etc. are intended for administration to a patient in
anesthesia, therapy or diagnosis. An oxygen cylinder is a cylindrically shaped metal container
used to store oxygen that has been compressed to a very high pressure. Oxygen cylinders, which
come in different sizes, are usually black colored with a white top; in some cases, it may be a
small cylinder that is entirely black. The black colour helps to differentiate it from other
substances that are stored in similar containers. Cylinders are fitted with customized valves
(either bullnose or pin index type) with valve guards, which are opened with valve keys.
A flowmeter is an instrument used to measure the flow rate of a liquid or a gas. In healthcare
facilities, gas flowmeters are used to deliver oxygen at a controlled rate either directly to patients
or through medical devices. Oxygen flowmeters are used on oxygen tanks and oxygen
concentrators to measure the amount of oxygen reaching the patient or user. Sometimes bottles
are fitted to humidify the oxygen by bubbling it through water.

Figure 1: Oxygen cylinders fitted with flow metres

2.3. OXYGEN CONCENTRATORS

An oxygen concentrator draws in room air, separates the oxygen from the other gases in the air
and delivers the concentrated oxygen to the patient. When set at a rate of two litres per minute,

11
the gas that is delivered by the concentrator is more than 90% oxygen. It is used for situations
where bottled gas supply is impractical or expensive, and can be used by patients in the hospital
or the home
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF OXYGEN CONCENTRATOR
Atmospheric air consists of approximately 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen. An oxygen
concentrator uses air as a source of oxygen by separating these two components. It utilizes the
property of zeolite granules to selectively absorb nitrogen from compressed air. Atmospheric air
is gathered, filtered and raised to a pressure of 20 pounds per square inch (psi) by a compressor.
The compressed air is then introduced into one of the canisters containing zeolite granules where
nitrogen is selectively absorbed leaving the residual oxygen available for patient use. After about
20 seconds the supply of compressed air is automatically diverted to the second canister where
the process is repeated enabling the output of oxygen to continue uninterrupted. While the
pressure in the second canister is at 20 psi the pressure in the first canister is reduced to zero.
This allows nitrogen to be released from the zeolite and returned into the atmosphere. The zeolite
is then regenerated and ready for the next cycle. By alternating the pressure between the two
canisters, a constant supply of oxygen is produced and the zeolite is continually being
regenerated. Individual units have an output of up to five litres per minute with an oxygen
concentration of up to 95%

Figure 2: Oxygen concentrator

2.4. OXYGEN PLANT

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Industrial systems designed to generate oxygen are called oxygen plants. They typically use air
as a feedstock and separate it from other components of air using pressure swing adsorption or
membrane separation techniques. Some medical facilities prefers to have an oxygen plant within
the facility in order to reduce the cost of purchasing medical oxygen.
OPERATION OF AN OXYGEN PLANT
In oxygen plant, air from atmosphere is compressed by the air compressor. Afterwards, air is
moved into a cleanup system where it is cleaned of impurities like moisture, hydrocarbons and
carbons dioxide. Now, it is sent into a heat exchanger where it is liquefied at cryogenic
temperatures. Subsequently, it enters high pressure distillation column where oxygen is separated
from nitrogen and other gases present in the air. It is distilled continuously till it meets medical
purity specifications. The diagram below shows the schematic diagram of cryogenic oxygen
plant.

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of cryogenic oxygen plant

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 CHAPTER THREE: MEDICAL LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
3.1. INTRODUCTION

A medical laboratory is a laboratory where clinical pathology tests are carried out on clinical
specimen to obtain information about the health of a patient to aid in diagnosis, treatment and
prevention of disease. Some of the equipment found in a medical laboratory include;

3.2. BLOOG GAS ANALYZER

Analyzers used to measure blood gas, pH, electrolytes, and some metabolites in whole blood
specimens. They can measure pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide and oxygen, and
concentrations of many ions (sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate) and metabolites
(calcium, magnesium, glucose, and lactate). They are also used to determine abnormal
metabolite and/or electrolyte levels in blood and the patient’s acid-base balance and levels of
oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF BLOOD GAS ANALYZER
Blood gas/pH analyzers use electrodes to determine pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, and
partial pressure of oxygen in the blood. Chemistry analyzers use a dry reagent pad system in
which a filter pad impregnated with all reagents required for a particular reaction is placed on a
thin plastic strip. Electrolyte analyzers use ion-selective electrode (ISE) methodology in which
measurements of the ion activity in the solution are made potentiometrically using an external
reference electrode and an ISE containing an internal reference electrode.

Figure 4: Blood gas analyzer

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3.3. CLINICAL CHEMISTRY ANALYZER

Clinical chemistry analyzers are devices used to determine the concentration of certain
metabolites, electrolytes, proteins, and/or drugs in samples of serum, plasma, urine,
cerebrospinal fluid, and/or other body fluids. Samples are inserted in a slot or loaded onto a tray,
and tests are programmed via a keypad or bar-code scanner. Reagents may be stored within the
analyzer, and it may require a water supply to wash internal parts. Results are displayed on a
screen, and typically there are ports to connect to a printer and/or computer.
OPERATION OF CLINICAL CHEMISTRY ANALYZER
After the tray is loaded with samples, a pipette aspirates a precisely measured aliquot of sample
and discharges it into the reaction vessel; a measured volume of diluent rinses the pipette.
Reagents are dispensed into the reaction vessel. After the solution is mixed (and incubated, if
necessary), it is either passed through a colorimeter, which measures its absorbance while it is
still in its reaction vessel, or aspirated into a flow cell, where its absorbance is measured by a
flow-through colorimeter. The analyzer then calculates the analyte’s chemical concentrations.

Figure 5: Clinical chemistry analyzer

3.4. MEDICAL CENTRIFUGES

A medical centrifuge is a laboratory device that is used for the separation of fluids, gas or liquid,
based on density. Separation is achieved by spinning a vessel containing material at high speed;
the centrifugal force pushes heavier materials to the outside of the vessel. Two major
components of a centrifuge are the drive mechanism, and the rotor. The drive mechanism is the
source of rotary motion, and is powered by an electric motor, by air pressure, or by oil turbines,
depending upon the type of centrifuge. The rotor is the large rotating element of a centrifuge into
or onto which samples are loaded. It is driven about a fixed axis (or shaft) by the drive
mechanism, with expenditure of large amounts of energy. A loaded rotor must be well-balanced

15
about its axis of rotation, so as to minimize vibration and strain on the shaft and bearing. The
figure below shows a laboratory centrifuge.

Figure 6: Medical centrifuge

3.5. LABORATORY REFRIGIRATORS

Laboratory refrigerators are used to provide safe and reliable cold storage facility for vaccines,
blood, blood derivatives and drugs. Laboratory refrigerators need to maintain a consistent
temperature in order to minimize the risk of bacterial contamination and explosions of volatile
materials. To achieve a high degree of accuracy the refrigerator needs air to circulate and a fan to
maintain an even temperature at all times. The fan turns off when the door is open to prevent
cold air from blowing out of the unit. Laboratory refrigerators feature separate compartments to
prevent cross contamination and can hold specific medical supplies, such as blood or vaccines.
There are four types of laboratory refrigerators.
a) Explosion proof refrigerators; they are designed to store flammable liquids and hazardous
chemical substances. A lack of electrical equipment prevents fire caused by sparks in the storage
area, making it safe to use with combustible materials.
b) Lab fridges; they are designed to maintain consistent temperatures and monitor the
temperatures with digital displays. They are general laboratory refrigerators and need to include
lockable easy-to-clean sections. They are also used to cool samples and for preservation.
c) Blood bank refrigerators; they comply with all American and European regulations.
Reliability is critical for this type, along with the ability to monitor temperatures. They also need
to have separate compartments for storing different sample types.
d) Chromatography refrigerators; are designed for research experiments. They are best used
for laboratories where medical samples and procedures require precise temperature settings and
stability. For example, a lab refrigerator can be used to set up a chromatography apparatus within
the refrigerator chamber

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 CHAPTER FOUR: RENAL UNIT
4.1. INTRODUCTION TO RENAL UNIT

Renal unit is a designated area for patients with kidney failures. Patients with such conditions
undergoes special treatment known as dialysis. Dialysis is a treatment criteria that filters and
purifies blood using dialysis machine. Dialysis is used as a temporary measure in either acute
kidney injury or those awaiting kidney transplant.
There are three different types of dialysis;
a) Hemodialysis; It is the most common type of dialysis. It uses an artificial kidney
(hemodialyzer) to remove waste and extra fluid from the blood. The blood removed from
the body is filtered through the artificial kidney. The filtered blood is then returned to the
body with the help of a dialysis machine.
b) Peritoneal dialysis: It involves surgery to implant a peritoneal dialysis catheter into the
abdomen. The catheter helps in filtering blood through peritoneum, a membrane within
the abdomen. During treatment, a special fluid called dialysate flows into the peritoneum
and absorbs wastes. Once waste is drawn from the blood stream, it is drained from the
abdomen.
c) Continuous renal replacement therapy; also known as hemofiltration, it used primarily
in the intensive care unit for people with acute kidney failure. A machine passes the
blood through tubing. Filter then removes waste products and water, with the blood being
returned to the body alongside replacement fluid.

4.2. DIALYSIS MACHINE

Dialysis is a machine used in dialysis that filters patient’s blood to remove excess water and
waste products when kidneys are damaged. The dialysis machine itself can be thought of as an
artificial kidney. The figure below shows the picture of a dialysis machine;

Figure 7: SURDIAL NIPRO 55PLUS DIALYSIS MACHINE

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4.2.1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DIALYSIS MACHINE

Single-patient hemodialysis systems can be divided into three major components: the dialysate
delivery system, the extracorporeal blood-delivery circuit, and the dialyzer. Blood is taken via
the extracorporeal circuit, passed through a dialyzer for solute and fluid removal, and returned to
the patient. Each system has its own monitoring and control circuits. The delivery system
prepares dialysate—a solution of purified water with an electrolyte composition similar to that of
blood—and delivers it to the dialyzer. The external blood-delivery system (extracorporeal
blood circuit) circulates a portion of the patient’s blood through the dialyzer and returns it to the
patient. The dialyzer is a disposable component in which solute exchange, or clearance, takes
place.

4.2.2. MAIN PARTS OF A DIALYSIS MACHINE

1) Dialysis Membrane (sometimes referred to as simply a "dialyzer”):- Hemodialysis uses

a cellulose-membrane tube immersed in fluid, whereas peritoneal dialysis uses the lining
of the patient's abdominal cavity (peritoneum), as a dialysis membrane
2) Dialysate: - The dialysate (solution) has the same solute concentrations as those in
ordinary plasma. Therefore if the patient's blood plasma contains excess concentrations of
any solutes, these will move into the dialysate, and if the blood plasma lacks the ideal
concentration of any solutes, these will move into the patient's blood. Conversely, the
dialysate fluid does not contain any waste products such as urea – so these substances in
the patient's blood move down the concentration gradient into the dialysate.
3) Anticoagulant:-Heparin is the usual anticoagulant that is added to the patient's blood as
it enters the dialysis machine (in order to prevent the blood from clotting as it passes
through the machine). Preventing the blood from clotting should, in turn, prevent any
blood clots from blocking the filtration surface of the system. However, heparin is not
added during the final hour of dialysis in order to enable the patient's blood clotting
activity to return to normal before he/she leaves.
4) Pumps: - Peristaltic pumps are commonly used for driving the various higher volume
fluids in the machine: blood, dialysate, water, and saline. This type of pump is very
convenient because it does not touch the fluids directly. Instead, a section of flexible
tubing runs through the pump mechanism where it is compressed by rollers to push the
fluid forward.
5) Valves:-Several valves with electronic actuation are needed in the machine to allow
variable mixing ratios. Various implementations are possible from simple opened/closed
valves driven by solenoids to precision variable-position valves driven by stepper motors
or other means.
6) Sensors: - Dialysis machines require many different types of sensors to monitor various
parameters. Blood pressure at various points in the extracorporeal circuit, dialysate
pressure, temperature, O2 saturation, motor speed, dialyzer membrane pressure gradient,
and air are all monitored for proper values during dialysis.

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 7) Cleaning system: - Between patient sessions, any reused components must be sterilized.
One approach is to heat water or saline to a high sterilizing temperature and then run it
through the machine, both through the extracorporeal circuit and through the dialysate
circuit.

4.2.3. TROUBLESHOOTING DIALYSIS MACHINE

1. Based on the type of alarm that has occurred, check whether the blood pump has stopped.
2. For arterial pressure alarm, check for kinks or clothing in the arterial blood tubing
between the patient and the blood pump.
3. Adjustment of the patient vascular access may be necessary in order to reduce the
occurrence of alarms.
4. For high venous pressure alarms, check for clotting or kinking in the dialyzer and the
venous blood tubing between the dialyzer and the patient.
5. A low venous pressure or a positive arterial pressure may indicate that the patient tubing
has disconnected from the machine or the blood tubing connection is otherwise not
secure. Check that connection to ensure they are secured before resuming treatment.
6. Address dialysate conductivity alarms. These alarms do not stop the blood pumps.
Reasons for conductivity alarms including dialysate incorrect formulation entering into
the machine, initiation of sodium profiling and empty acid or bicarbonate jugs.
7. Address dialysate temperature alarms. Check is dialysate is set at 37°c.
8. Address blood leak alarms. These alarms is due to broken fiber in the dialyzer and a dirty
blood leak sensor. If the dialyzer has broken, treatment must stop and the dialyzer must
be replaced. A dirty blood leak sensor is remedied by cleaning the mirror next to the
blood leak sensor.

4.3. WATER TREATMENT IN DIALYSIS UNIT

Water treatment for preparation of dialysate is most important during dialysis. Quality of water
contributes very significantly in acute and long term morbidity and prognosis. Therefore, water
quality has to be improved before being utilized in the dialysis units.
Treatment of water for dialysis process undergoes reverse osmosis.

4.3.1. REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO) PLANT

Reverse osmosis plant purifies water using reverse osmosis technique in order to be fit for use in
the dialysis stations. The figure below shows the schematic representation of reverse osmosis
plant.

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 Figure 9: Schematic diagram of RO plant

3.3.2. DESCRIPTION OF RO PLANT

Large particulates of >10 microns such as dirt, are removed by a multimedia depth filter.
Flocculants can clog the carbon and softener tanks, destroy the RO pump, and foul the RO
membrane
Contain multiple layers of various sized rocks that trap the large particles as the water filtered
downward
Carbon tanks removes chlorine and chloramine. These are high level oxidative chemicals. They
are added to municipal water systems to kill bacteria, but they also cause hemolysis
Water containing Ca and Mg form deposits on RO membrane. Softeners work on ion exchange
basis. The resin beads within the tank have a high affinity for the cations Ca and Mg (divalent)
present in the source water and release 2 sodium ions (monovalent) for one Ca or Mg captured
The softener needs regenerating on a routine basis with concentrated NaCl solution (brine)
before the resin capacity is used up. The resin is backwashed to loosen the media and clean any
particulates from the tank. After the backwashing step, the brine solution is drawn into the tank.
Pre-filters are particulate filters positioned immediately before the RO pump and membrane.
Carbon fines, resin beads, and other debris exiting the pretreatment could destroy the pump and
RO membrane. Pre-filters range in pore size from 3-5 microns.
RO overcomes natural osmosis by forcing feed water under pressure thru a semi-permeable
membrane leaving contaminants behind (ions, organics). The RO membrane most important
component of the system. Produces purified water through RO.
Polyamide thin membranes most common in HD
RO distribution systems: direct feed and indirect feed Direct feed: directly delivers the product
water from the RO unit to the loop for distribution Indirect feed: involves a storage tank that
accumulates the product water and delivers to the distribution loop. Unused portions are
recirculated back into the storage tank.

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CHAPTER FIVE: THEATRE EQUIPMENT
5.1. INTRODUCTION TO THEATRE EQUIPMENT

An operating theater is a facility within a hospital where surgical operations are carried out in an
aseptic environment. There is a definite number of essential operating room equipment that
operational room professionals need on a per case basis. Each piece of equipment serves a
distinct purpose and makes it easier for operating room personnel to get the job done.

5.2. BASIC OPERATION THEATRE EQUIPMENT

5.2.1. OPERATING TABLE

Tables are required to hold the patient in a position comfortable both for themselves and for
medical staff during procedures. They can include dedicated supports for head, arms and legs
and often have movable sections to position the patient appropriately. They are made both with
wheels and on static platforms and can have movements powered by electric motors, hydraulics
or simply manual effort. The diagram below shows schematic diagram of an operating table;

Figure 10: Schematic diagram of operating table

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5.2.2. THEATRE LAMP

A surgical light, also referred to as an operating light or surgical light head is a medical device
intended to assist medical personnel during a surgical procedure by illuminating a local area or
cavity of the patient. A combination of several surgical lights is often referred to as a “surgical
light system”. The diagram below shows an operating theatre lamp;

Figure 11: Theatre lamp

5.2.3. ELECTROSURGICAL UNITS

Electrosurgery is the application of a high-frequency electric current to biological tissue as a

means to cut, coagulate, desiccate, or fulgurate tissue. Its benefits include the ability to make
precise cuts with limited blood loss in hospital operating rooms or in outpatient procedures.

5.2.3.1. OPERATION OF ELECTROSURGICAL UNIT

In electrosurgical procedures, the tissue is heated by an alternating electric current being passed
through it from a probe. Electrocautery uses heat conduction from an electrically heated probe,
much like a soldering iron. Electrosurgery is performed using an electrosurgical generator (also
referred to as power supply or waveform generator) and a hand piece including one or several
electrodes, sometimes referred to as an RF Knife, or informally by surgeons as a "Bovie knife"
after the inventor. Bipolar electrosurgery has the outward and return current passing through the
hand piece, whereas monopolar electrosurgery returns the current through a plate normally under
the patient.

Figure 12: Electrosurgical generator (Surgical diathermy

machine)

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5.2.4. ANASTHESIA MACHINE

The anesthetic machine is used by anesthesiologists and nurse anesthetists to support the
administration of anesthesia. The most common type of anesthetic machine is the continuous-
flow anesthetic machine, which is designed to provide an accurate and continuous supply of
medical gases (such as oxygen and nitrous oxide), mixed with an accurate concentration of
anesthetic vapor (such as halothane or isoflurane), and deliver this to the patient at a safe
pressure and flow. Modern machines incorporate a ventilator, suction unit, and patient
monitoring devices. The figure below shows anesthetic system with ventilation system.

Figure 13: Modern anesthetic machine

5.2.4.1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF ANESTHETIC MACHINE

Oxygen (O2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and sometimes air sources are connected to the machine.
Through gas flowmeters (or rotameters), a controlled mixture of these gases along with
anesthetic vapor passes through a vaporizer and is delivered to the patient. Sometimes a
ventilator is also connected with the machine for rebreathing thus making it a closed circuit.
With ventilators or a re-breathing patient circuit, soda lime canisters are used to absorb the
exhaled carbon dioxide and fresh gases are added to the circuit for reuse. Pressure gauges are
installed on the anesthesia machine to monitor gas pressure. Generally, 25% (or 21%) oxygen is
always kept in the circuit (delivered to patient) as a safety feature. The device which ensures this
minimum oxygen in the circuit is called a hypoxic guard. Some basic machines do not have this
feature, but have a nitrous lock which stops the delivery of N2O in absence of O2 pressure.
Machines give various alarms to alert operators.
The figure below shows schematic diagram of the anesthetic machine

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 Figure 15: Schematic diagram of anesthetic machine

5.2.4.2. TROUBLESHOOTING ANESTHETIC MACHINE

 If the equipment is not running, check if the main switch is on or replace the blown fuse
with correct voltage and current rating.
 If there is no gas output, possible causes maybe lack of gas supply; Restore gas supply or
replace gas cylinders.
 Oxygen failure alarm not working; possible causes maybe low alarm battery or alarm
device not working; replace the battery or check the alarming circuit.
 Presence of leaks; possible cause maybe poor seal or cylinders not seated in yokes
properly. Clean leaking seal or gasket, replace if broken. Refit cylinders in yokes and
retest.
 Electric shocks maybe as a result of electric faults. Refer to electrician immediately.

5.2.5. ENDOSCOPY

Endoscopy means looking inside the body using an endoscope, an instrument used to examine
the interior of a hollow organ or cavity of the body. Endoscopes are inserted directly into the
organ. An endoscope can consist of a rigid or flexible tube, a light delivery system (light source),
an optical fiber system, a lens system transmitting the image to the viewer, an eyepiece and often
an additional channel to allow entry of medical instruments, fluids or manipulators. There are
many different types of endoscopy, including arthroscopy, bronchoscopy, colonoscopy,
colposcopy, cystoscopy, laparoscopy and laryngoscopy.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF ENDOSCOPY
Endoscopes may be rigid or flexible, although most endoscopes in routine use are flexible. Both
use lenses, tubes and light to magnify and view the internal structures of the body. Water and air,

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as well as surgical instruments that may be necessary to take a tissue sample, can also be passed
along the hollow Centre of the endoscope. The view can be recorded by a camera and displayed
on a computer screen. Rigid endoscopes are usually much shorter than flexible endoscopes. They
are often used to look at the surface of internal organs, and may be inserted through a small cut
in the skin or a natural orifice. Gas or fluid is sometimes used to move the surface tissues of
organs in order to see them more clearly. Rigid endoscopes are commonly used to examine the
joints and bladder. The figure below shows endoscopy machine;

Figure 16: Endoscopic machine

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 CHAPTER SIX: RADIOLOGY EQUIPMENT

6.1. INTRODUCTION TO RADIOLOGY EQUIPMENT

Radiology equipment are used for imaging services, in providing image of internal structure of
body in order to track, diagnose and treat certain medical conditions. Such imaging modalities
include X-ray, CT scan and MRI.

6.2. COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY

These scanners are used for a wide variety of diagnostic procedures, including spine and head
injuries, lesions, and abdominal and pelvic malignancies; to examine the cerebral ventricles, the
chest wall, and the large blood vessels; and to assess musculoskeletal degeneration.
CT scanners consist of an x-ray subsystem, a gantry, a patient table, and a controlling computer.
A high-voltage x-ray generator supplies electric power to the x-ray tube, which usually has a
rotating anode and is capable of withstanding the high heat loads generated during rapid
multiple-slice acquisition. The gantry houses the x-ray tube, x-ray generator, detector system,
collimators, and rotational frame.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF CT SCAN
CT scanners use slip-ring technology, which was introduced in 1989. Slip-ring scanners can
perform helical CT scanning, in which the x-ray tube and detector rotate around the patient’s
body, continuously acquiring data while the patient moves through the gantry. The acquired
volume of data can be reconstructed at any point during the scan. All modern CT scanners are
multi slice. Inside the gantry, an x-ray tube projects a fan-shaped x-ray beam through the patient
to the detector array. As the x-ray tube and detector rotate, x-rays are detected continuously
through the patient. The computer mathematically reconstructs data from each full rotation to
produce an image of one slice.
During a CT scan, the table moves the patient into the gantry and the x-ray tube rotates around
the patient. As x-rays pass through the patient to the detectors, the computer acquires and
processes data to form an image

Figure 17: A CT scan machine

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6.3. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI)

MRI is primarily used to identify diseases of the central nervous system, brain, and spine and to
detect musculoskeletal disorders. It is also used to view cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. MRI
can also be used to image the eyes and the sinuses. MRI can be used to help diagnose infectious
diseases; to detect metastatic liver disease; to display heart-wall structure; to stage prostate,
bladder, and uterine cancer; to evaluate kidney transplant viability; and to study marrow
diseases.
An MRI unit consists of a magnet, shimming magnets, an RF transmitter/receiver system with an
antenna coil, a gradient system, a patient table, a computer, display monitors, and an operator
console. They typically have static magnetic fields ranging from 0.064 to 3.0 T. Three basic
magnet designs are available for diagnostic MRI applications: the permanent magnet, the
resistive magnet, and the superconducting magnet. Most systems today use a superconducting
magnet. A standard MRI suite comprises three main rooms: the procedure room, the equipment
room, and the control room.
6.3.1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF MRI
MRI units use strong electromagnetic fields and radio-frequency radiation to translate the
distribution of hydrogen nuclei in body tissue into computer-generated images of anatomic
structures. MRI depends on the magnetic spin properties of certain atomic nuclei in body tissue
and fluids and their behavior in the applied magnetic field. These nuclei are normally aligned
randomly in tissue until an external magnetic field is applied and the nuclei align themselves
with that field.
During an MRI scan the patient is moved into the bore of the MRI magnet while the operator
adjusts the controls depending on the section(s) of the anatomy being scanned. Before the
procedure begins patients are checked for metal jewelry or other metal objects which can distort
the image or cause injury. Images are processed by the MRI system’s computer and are
generated for viewing and diagnosis. Images are typically transferred to a picture archiving and
communication system

Figure 18: MRI scanner

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6.4. MAMOGRAPHY UNIT

Mammographic radiographic units use x-rays to produce images of the breast—a mammogram
—that provide information about breast morphology, normal anatomy, and gross pathology.
Mammography is used primarily to detect and diagnose breast cancer and to evaluate palpable
masses and non-palpable breast lesions.
A complete mammographic radiographic system includes an x-ray generator, an x-ray tube and
gantry, and a recording medium. The x-ray generator modifies incoming voltage to provide the
x-ray tube with the power necessary to produce an x-ray beam. They also include a “paddle” for
compression and placement of the breasts during imaging. Screen-film systems consist of a high-
resolution phosphorescent screen with phosphor crystals that emit light when exposed to x-rays.
Digital mammographic computed radiography (CR) uses a “digital” cassette to replace the
traditional film cassette and digital cassette reader, producing a digital image from the cassette
instead of developing film through a film processor.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Low energy X-rays are produced by the x-ray tube (an evacuated tube with an anode and a
cathode) when a stream of electrons, accelerated to high velocities by a high-voltage supply from
the generator, collides with the tube’s target anode. The cathode contains a wire filament that,
when heated, provides the electron source. The target anode is struck by the impinging electrons.
X-rays exit the tube through a port window of beryllium. Additional filters are placed in the path
of the x-ray beam to modify the x-ray spectrum. The x-rays that pass through the filter are
shaped by either a collimator or cone apertures and then directed through the breast.
The mammography technician positions the patient, aligns the X-ray tube for projection,
compresses the patient’s breast with the compression paddles, and then steps away to avoid
X-ray exposure before initiating the exposure to the patient. Developed images are typically sent
to a view box or work station for viewing.

Figure 19: Mammogram machine

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 CHAPTER SEVEN: DENTAL UNIT
7.1. INTRODUCTION TO DENTAL UNIT

Dental unit is a very crucial room that houses dental chair to facilitate easy treatment of the
patient by dentist during examination of tooth.
A dental unit consists of specific pars that includes dental chair, stool, and lighting, among
others. The most important equipment in the dental unit is the dental chair.

7.2. DENTAL CHAIR

A dental chair is a chair in which the patient sits and a clinician can operate or treat the patient by
looking into his/her mouth easily.
A dental chair comprises of electrically operated, retractable patient seating chair to which
compressed air, water line, micro motor, spittoon bowl and an overhead light is attached. It also
has a stool in which the clinician sits while handling the patient’s procedures.

7.2.1. OPERATION OF A DENTAL CHAIR

The dental chair is electronically controlled and hydraulically powered. Electronic motor drives
the hydraulic pumps enabling the back of the chair to tilt and the base of the chair to lift. The
movements are controlled by switches located on the back of the chair. Most dental chairs have
movable armrests that either slide back or raise up to provide easier patient entry and exit. A
form of a release button locks and unlocks the armrest. A swivel/brake device allows the dental
chair to rotate to approximately 45 degrees from either side of the center and then lock into
position. Dental chairs are equipped with either an articulating or a horseshoe-style headrest. The
articulating headrest allows you to move the patient’s head in approximately a 60° arc. It is
adjusted by a release button located on the backside of the headrest. The horseshoe-style headrest
is adjusted by pushing or pulling down on the headrest. The horseshoe headrest may also have an
adjustable strap on the backside to make up and down movements of the horseshoe.

7.2.2. SUPPLIES OF THE DENTAL UNIT

Operation As with the dental chair, begin each day by making a visual inspection and
operational check of the unit. During the inspection, first look for obvious problem areas, such as
frayed electrical wiring, missing screws, and water leaks. Then conduct an operational check for
each system. For example, you can test the water, air, electrical, and vacuum systems by
operating the 3-way syringe, fiber-optic hand piece, dental light, and saliva ejector.
Water System. A malfunctioning water system affects the operation of the 3-way syringe,
cuspidor, cup filler, and hand piece water spray. Water leaks are usually the result of loose
connections or defective washers and valves. The new self-contained water systems are designed
so you can optimize the quality of your dental unit water. The benefits from this system only

29
occur when periodic system flushing and disinfection procedures are followed or sterile water to
operate. A 750ml bottle constructed of polyethylene plastic is used to hold the water for the
system. The bottle cannot be heat sterilized, but can be sterilized using ethylene oxide.
Air System A large central air compressor provides compressed air which enables most dental
units to operate up to three dental handpieces and the 3-way syringe. Because of the noise level
and for safety reasons, this system is located outside of the patient treatment area. Most units
have a type of control system located on the bracket tray where air pressure can be adjusted.
Electrical System Probably the most complex system on a dental unit is the electrical system.
Among the items affected by a dental unit’s electrical system are the water heaters and solenoids
Central Vacuum System Generally, a central vacuum system provides suction to numerous
dental units. The vacuum is connected to the unit with hoses and oral evacuation equipment,
such as high-volume evacuator (HVE) and saliva ejector. A filtering component of the central
vacuum for both the HVE and saliva ejector is the solids separator. It contains a strainer which
collects large pieces of debris that could clog suction hoses. At least once a week or if a decrease
in vacuum is detected, remove and clean the strainer. This ensures proper suction from the
central vacuum and maintains proper DTR infection control.

Figure 20: Dental chair

7.3. BASIC ROTARY INSTRUMENTS

Rotary instruments, such as burs, have three basic parts: head, neck, and shank. The head of the
bur is the working or cutting portion, which is made in many sizes and shapes. The neck is the
30
narrow portion of the bur connects the shank and the head. The part of the bur that fits into the
hand piece is the shank. The length of the shank depends on the specific use of the bur, whereas
the shape of the shank is designed to fit into a specific hand piece. The straight hand piece rotary
instruments are used in electric straight handpieces and in slow-speed, air driven straight
handpieces. The shank on the straight hand piece instruments is larger in diameter than the FG
shank and at least twice as long. The latch contra-angle hand piece is used in conventional latch
contra-angle handpieces. Dental burs are available in many shapes and sizes. The basic shapes of
bur heads are the round, inverted, pear-shaped, end and side cutting, straight/tapered plain
fissure, and tapered/straight crosscut fissure Burs are made of either steel or carbide. Steel bars
are used in the slow-speed hand piece and dull after only one use when cutting enamel of teeth
and should be discarded after use or when directed by the dentist. Steel burs being used on dentin
under slow-speed often generate heat in the tissue of the tooth, causing discomfort to the patient.
The dentist will use the very lowest speed to reduce the chance of heat and discomfort. High
speed handpieces use a carbide bur. Because of its hardness, the carbide bur can be used many
times to cut hard enamel tooth structure without becoming dull. The carbide bur operates most
efficiently at high speeds with light pressure.

Figure 21: Basic rotary instruments

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 CHAPTER EIGHT: ICU EQUIPMENT
8.1. INTRODUCTION TO ICU EQUIPMENT

Intensive care unit (ICU), also known as an intensive therapy unit or intensive treatment unit
(ITU) or critical care unit (CCU), is a special department of a hospital or health care facility that
provides intensive treatment medicine. Intensive care units cater to patients with severe or life-
threatening illnesses and injuries, which require constant care, close supervision from life
support equipment and medication in order to ensure normal bodily functions. They are staffed
by highly trained physicians, nurses and respiratory therapists who specialize in caring for
critically ill patients.

8.2. ICU EQUIPMENTS

8.2.1. ECG (Electrocardiograph) MACHINE

ECG machines are used to monitor the electrical activity of the heart and display it on a small
screen or record it on a piece of paper. The recordings are used to diagnose the condition of the
heart muscle and its nerve system.
The electrical activity is picked up by means of electrodes placed on the skin. The signal is
amplified, processed if necessary and then ECG tracings displayed and printed. Some ECG
machines also provide preliminary interpretation of ECG recordings. There are 12 different types
of recording displayed depending upon the points from where the recordings are taken. Care
must be taken to make the electrode sites clean of dirt before applying electrode jelly. Most
problems occur with the patient cables or electrodes.

Figure 22: Modern ECG machine

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8.2.2. MEDICAL VENTILATOR

Medical ventilator is a machine designed to provide mechanical ventilation by moving

breathable air into and out of the lungs, to deliver breaths to a patient who is physically unable to
breathe, or breathing insufficiently. Modern ventilators are computerized machines, patients can
be ventilated with a simple, hand-operated bag valve mask.
OPERATION OF A MEDICAL VENTILATOR
The machine works by bringing oxygen to the lungs and taking carbon dioxide out of the lungs.
This allows a patient who has trouble breathing to receive the proper amount of oxygen. It also
helps the patient’s body to heal, since it eliminates the extra energy of labored breathing. A
ventilator blows air into the airway through a breathing tube. One end of the tube is inserted into
patient’s windpipe and the other end is attached to the ventilator. The breathing tube serves as an
airway by letting air and oxygen from the ventilator flows into the lungs. Depending on the
patient’s medical condition, they may be able to use a respiratory mask instead of the breathing
tubes.

Figure 23: Medical ventilator

8.2.3. PULSE OXIMETERS

A pulse oximeter is a device that non-invasively monitors the oxygen saturation of a patient's
blood. It measures the amount of oxygen in a patient s arterial blood during operations and
diagnosis. This level of oxygen, or oxygen saturation is often referred to SpO2, measured in %,
and this is displayed on the pulse oximeter. A pulse oximeter also displays pulse rate.
OPERATION OF PULSE OXIMETER

33
The colored substance in blood, hemoglobin, is carrier of oxygen and the absorption of light by
hemoglobin varies with the amount of oxygenation. Two different kinds of light (one visible, one
invisible) are directed through the skin from one side of a probe, and the amount transmitted is
measured on the other side. The machine converts the ratio of transmission of the two kinds of
light into a % oxygenation. Pulse oximeter probes can be mounted on the finger or ear lobe.

Figure 24: Pulse oximeter

8.2.4. PATIENT MONITOR

A patient monitor is an electronic medical device that consists of one of more monitoring
sensors, a processing component(s), and a screen display (also called a "monitor") that provide
and record for medical professionals a patient's medical vital signs (body temperature, blood
pressure, pulse rate and respiratory rate) or measurements of the activity of various body organs
such as ECG monitors, anesthesia monitors, or EKG monitors.

Figure 25: Patient monitor

8.2.5. INFUSION PUMP

An infusion pump is a medical device that delivers fluids, such as nutrients and medications, into
a patient’s body in controlled amounts. There are many different types of infusion pumps, which

34
are used for a variety of purposes and in a variety of environments. Infusion pumps may be
capable of delivering fluids in large or small amounts, and may be used to deliver nutrients or
medications – such as insulin or other hormones, antibiotics, chemotherapy drugs, and pain
relievers.

Figure 26: Patient monitor

8.2.6. NEBULIZER

A nebulizer is a device used to administer medication in the form of a mist inhaled into the
lungs. Nebulizers are commonly used for treatment of cystic fibrosis, asthma and other
respiratory diseases. The reason for using a nebulizer for medicine to be administered directly to
the lungs is that small aerosol droplets can penetrate into the narrow branches of the lower
airways. Large droplets would be absorbed by the mouth cavity, where the clinical effect would
be low.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The common technical principle for all nebulizers is to use oxygen, compressed air or ultrasonic
power as means to break up medical solutions or suspensions into small aerosol droplets. These
are passed for direct inhalation either through the mouthpiece of the device or a hose set. Gas
powered devices use a small pump to force the gas through the solution and will normally have a
filter for the gas inlet. Ultrasonic devices use a small crystal to generate vibrations in the solution
that cause droplets to break off.

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 CHAPTER NINE: TELEMEDICINE

9.1. INTRODUCTION TO TELEMEDICINE (VIDEO-CONFRENCING)

These systems are used for diagnosis and prescription of medical treatment for patients at remote
locations, for remote clinical consultations between medical professionals, for education and
training of medical staff, and for administrative/business functions. Telemedicine can be as
simple as a telephone conversation between personnel or a fax transmission, or as complex as a
real-time interactive video examination of a patient conducted by physicians separated by
hundreds of mile.
Components of a telemedicine videoconferencing system vary, depending on the configuration
chosen by the buyer. In general, system components include a codec, viewing monitor(s),
camera(s), control/user interaction devices (e.g., mouse, keyboard,) input devices (e.g., document
scanner, medical scopes), and output and storage devices (e.g., printers, CD-ROM drives). Most
suppliers offer different configurations customized to the buyer’s needs.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF TELEMEDICINE
Telemedicine videoconferencing uses video and telecommunications technology to transmit
medical information (audio, video, and graphics) between two or more sites.
Patient examinations are conducted using instruments (e.g., stethoscopes, ophthalmoscopes) and
examining cameras connected to the telemedicine system, allowing a physician at a remote site
real-time access to the patient and real-time interaction with the examining physician, physician
assistant, or nurse. A technician or nurse typically operates the instruments with the patient in an
examination room. Images and data are then transmitted to the remote physician for viewing and
analysis, and interacting with the patient.
The telemedicine system should have some form of security to avoid problems with data
confidentiality. Electric fluctuations can damage computer components, impair system
performance, disrupt program operation, and destroy data. Preventive measures include installing
an online uninterruptible power supply. A dedicated power line isolated for the central
processing unit may be useful to reduce signal noise. Copying disks at regular intervals protects
stored information.
Examples of Telemedicine services include:
a) Tele radiology
b) Tele-cardiology
c) Tele-neurology

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 CHAPTER TEN: CHALLENGES, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
CONCLUSION

10.1. CHALLENGES FACED

During the attachment the following challenges were encountered;

 Financial challenges for upkeep and bus fare proved to be difficult at some point.
 There is no clearly outlined policies and structures tailor-made to degree student in
routine handling and managing students. Whatever has been put in place was the
normal rotational rosters with key areas of interest that a degree student would have
optimally gained having been left out.
 Assumption by some of the technologists that we had been taught everything yet we
were getting to know of some equipment for the first time.
 It was difficult to access some of the critical medical equipment for they were in
constant use.

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10.2. RECOMMENDATIONS

A number of measures can be instituted by in addressing challenges faced by students in

attachment which include but not limited to:

 I recommend the administration to liaise with the attachment industry so that attachés
get attached to the industry easily.
 There is need for continuous review of curriculum to ensure seamless transfer of
latest technology to class and lecture rooms. Tutors and lecturers need keep pace in
conveying latest technological knowledge to students at all times. This will ensure the
gap between industry and classroom is minimized.
 The university should laisse with industrial supervisors on the basic skills and
knowledge required for their students.

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10.3. CONCLUSION

The attachment period was well utilized at the institution and the interaction with other students
made me gain a lot. I was able to put to practice most of the class work and it was a nice
experience to be exposed to some medical equipment. Cooperation between the students and the
trainers in future would make it more fun to be in the practical field.

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10.4. REFERRENCES

 “The Production and Properties of X Rays”, Radiation Dosimetry I Text: H.E Johns and
J.R. Cunningham, The physics of radiology, 4th ed.
http://www.utoledo.edu/med/depts/radther
 Bronzino J. D., Peterson D. R. (2014) Medical Devices and Human Engineering (The
Biomedical Engineering Handbook, ),Fourth Ed.,CRC Press, ISBN-13: 978-
1439825259,ISBN10: 1439825254
 Azzam T, Paul G., Dave L., Paul W. (2014). CLINICAL ENGINEERING A Handbook
for Clinical and Biomedical Engineers. Elsevier Ltd, USA. ISBN: 978-0-12-396961-3
 Mostafa A., Joseph D., Donald R (2013) Medical imaging Principles and Practices
 Biomedical Engineering handbook 2nd Edition volume 2 by Robert C Weast, Joseph D
of 2000
 Maintenance and Repair of Laboratory, Diagnostic Imaging and Hospital Equipment
WHO, Geneva, 1994.
 Maintenance Manual for Laboratory Equipment WHO, Geneva, 2008.
 Maintenance of Cold Chain Equipment Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, New
Delhi, 2009
 Biomedical Engineering handbook 2nd Edition volume 2 by Robert C Weast, Joseph D
of 2000

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