Traffic Engineering-IV (UG) - Class Note

4/1/2022
Subject Name- Transportation Engineering
Traffic Control at
Intersections
Prof. Bhargab Maitra
Intersection Control & Critical
Department of Civil Engineering
Aspects of Operation Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
India
IIT Kharagpur | Transportation Engineering
Intersection & Conflict Points
IIT Kharagpur
IIT Kharagpur || Transportation
Transportation Engineering
Engineering 2
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• Intersections are the areas where two or more
roads meet or converge or diverge
• Intersections are potential bottlenecks to

smooth flow of traffic, and major accident
spots
• Therefore, key considerations in intersection design
are
 Satisfying operational traffic-flow needs with

available capacity
 Enhancing road users safety
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• Conflict points are locations in or on the approaches to an intersection
where traffic movements merge, diverge, or cross
Major: Crossing Major: Crossing (Turning) Major: Weaving
Minor: Diverging Minor: Merging No Conflict
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Single Lane Approach Four- Single Lane Approach Three-
legged Intersection legged Intersection Intersection Type 4-Legged 3-Legged
Crossing
4+12 0+3
+Turning
Vehicle
Conflicts Merging 8 3
Diverging 8 3
Total 32 9
Conflict Type
Crossing
Crossing (Turning)
Merging/Diverging
• Intersection crashes are related to the number of

conflicts at the intersection
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• Factors affecting a driver’s ability to avoid
conflicts
 Able to see a potentially conflicting

vehicle/pedestrian in time to implement
an avoidance maneuver
 Presence of reasonable opportunities for s

safe maneuvering at the existing volume
levels
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• Intersection
design aims to minimize the number and/or severity of
potential conflicts between cars, buses, trucks, pedestrians, etc.,
whenever required, through:
 Priority control by “yield” signs and “stop” signs
 Space segregation by channelized islands, grade-separators, etc.
 Time segregation by traffic signals
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Levels of Intersection Control
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• The control of an intersection can be exercised in three levels
Level Details
Level-I Passive control: Basic rules of the road
• Guide signs, warning signs, etc.
• Road markings
Level-II Semi-control: Direct assignment of right-of-way using
YIELD or STOP signs
• Channelization
 Traffic islands, Roundabouts
Level-III Active control: Movements of road users are
regulated through
 Traffic signalization
 Grade separation
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• Adequacy of intersection control depends on:
 If drivers are able to perceive and avoid type and level (number) of
conflicts by their own judgment
 If capacity of the intersection is adequate to serve the traffic demand
with desired level of service
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Level I : Passive Control
• Applicable at any intersection where right-of-way is
not explicitly assigned through the use of traffic
signals, STOP, or YIELD signs
• Driver is expected to obey the basic rules of the

road such as right-of-way rule, etc.
 The driver of a vehicle approaching an

intersection must yield the right-of-way to any
vehicle or pedestrian already in the intersection
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 When two vehicles from different roads are
approaching an intersection at around the
same time, driver of the vehicle on the left must
yield the right-of-way to the vehicle on the right
• Passive control measures like traffic signs, road

markings, etc. are used to complement the
intersection control
• Sufficient sight distance is essential for safe operation
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Level II: Semi-control
• Applicable where basic rules of the road cannot be applied due to factors
such as insufficient sight distance, frequent crashes, high traffic demand,
etc.
• The right-of-way can be modified at through streets or highways by

placing “YIELD” signs or “STOP” signs on one or more approaches
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• STOP or YIELD signs should be used at an intersection if
one or more of the following conditions exist:
 Intersection with a minor and major roads where

application of right-of-way rule would not be
expected to provide reasonable compliance
 A minor street entering a designated through

highway
 Un-signalized intersection within a signalized area
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Channelization
• Channelization is the separation of conflicting traffic

movements into definite paths of travel by traffic islands
or pavement marking to facilitate the orderly movements
of both vehicles and pedestrians
• Types of traffic islands: Channelizing islands, divisional

islands, refuge islands, corner islands, etc.
• Roundabout is a channelized intersection with a central
island around which traffic must travel clockwise and
entering traffic must yield to circulating traffic
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Intersection With Left-Turn Channelization,

Divisional Islands, and Right-Turn Lanes Left Turn Channelized Four-Leg
Intersection Roundabout
Left Turn Channelized Three-leg Channelized Three-leg Intersection With

Intersection Divisional Island and Turning Roadway
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Level III: Active Control
• Applicable in situations with high intersection
volumes, restricted sight distances & related
crashes, traffic bottlenecks, etc.
Traffic Signalization
• Time segregated right-of-way is assigned to the

various traffic movements, thereby reducing conflicts
• Trafficcontrol signals are valuable devices usually

installed at at-grade intersections in built-up areas for
the control of vehicular and pedestrian traffic
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• Potential
advantages of installation of traffic signal:
Increased capacity, improved safety, orderly
movements in a complex situation, reduced frequency
and severity of crashes, coordinated movements,
permitting other traffic (minor road or pedestrian) to
cross, etc.
• Potential disadvantages of installation of traffic signal:
Delay, disobedience of the signal indication, increased
use of less adequate routes to avoid the traffic control
signal, potential increase in the frequency of rear-end
collisions
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Grade Separation
• The greatest efficiency, safety, and capacity

are attained when the intersecting traveled
ways are grade separated
• Examples: Highway grade separations
without ramps, and interchanges Interchange
• Warrants for interchanges: Highway with full control of

access, insufficient capacity at the intersection of
heavily traveled routes, disproportionate frequency of
serious crashes, long delays, etc.
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Three-Leg Directional All-Directional Four Leg Full Cloverleaf
Trumpet Partial Cloverleaf
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Signal Controllers & Operational

Characteristics
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Signal Controllers & Operational Characteristics

• Cycle: One complete sequence of all signal indications
• Cycle length (C): The amount of time required to display all
phases associated with corresponding movements at an
intersection before returning to the starting point, or the first
phase of the cycle
• Interval:A period of time during which no signal
indication changes
• Phase (φ): The part of a cycle allocated to a movement

or a combination of two or more movements having the
ROW simultaneously
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Types of Traffic Signal Controller
• Broadly categorized as pre-timed and actuated
according to the type of control they provide
Pre-timed Control
• Pre-timedcontrol consists of a fixed sequence of

phases that are displayed in repetitive order
• Thecycle length, phase sequence, and intervals are
constant and fixed
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Actuated Control
• Actuatedcontrol uses information on current demands and operations,
obtained from detectors within the intersection, to alter one or more
aspects of the signal timing on a cycle-by-cycle basis
• Green interval duration is determined by the traffic demand information
obtained from the detector
• Actuated controllers are programmed to accommodate:
 Variable phase sequences (e.g., optional protected RT phases)
 Variable green times for each phase
 Variable cycle length
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Critical Aspects of Flow at Signalized

Intersections
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Critical Aspects of Flow at Signalized Intersections

Effective Green Time (g)
Saturation Flow (s)
Rate of Discharge
Lost
Actual Flow
Time (l2)
Curve
Lost
Time (l1) End Gain
(e)
Actual Green Time (G) Yellow (y) All-Red (ar)
Phase for the Movement

Phase for the Conflicting
Movement
Flow of Traffic During the Green Period from a Saturated Approach
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Discharge Headways
• The 1st headway is the time lapse between the
initiation of green signal and the time when
the front wheels of the first vehicle cross the
stop line
• The second headway is the time lapse between Average Headways Departing Signal
the time the first vehicle’s front wheels cross

the stop line and the time that the second
vehicle’s front wheels cross the stop line
• Subsequent headways are similarly measured

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Engineering 27

Saturation Headway and Saturation Flow
• The constant headway achieved by the stored vehicles in queue after the
signal turned green is referred to as saturation headway (h)
• Ifevery vehicle consumes the constant headway equal to saturation

headway and if the signal were always green then the flow will be
saturation flow (s)
• The saturation flow rate is, in effect, the capacity of the

approach lane or lanes if they were available for use all
of the time (i.e., if the signal were always green)
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• This is the theoretical movement capacity if one ignores the fact that the
movement is shut down by red for some of the time
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
Saturation flow, 𝒔 =
𝒉
where,
s = saturation flow rate, vehicles per hour of green per lane (veh/hr/ln)
h = saturation headway, seconds/vehicle (s/veh)
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Lost Time
Start Up Lost Time: Additional times associated
with the first three or four headways as drivers
react to the green signal and accelerate are
referred to as the startup lost time
The additional times are added, and given as
𝒍𝟏 = ∆𝒊
where,
l1 = start-up lost time, s/phase;
Δi = incremental headway (above h secs) for vehicle i, s
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Clearance Lost Time (l2)
• As the green phase ends, yellow is presented, and
approaching drivers prepare to stop
• During the initial portion of the yellow, drivers,
who are unable to stop, enter the intersection to
cross (flow lower than saturation flow)
• All-redis given to ensure that the last vehicle
which enters the intersection legally (in yellow) is
able to cross the intersection safely before the
green is initiated for the conflicting movement(s)
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𝒍𝟐 = 𝒚 + 𝒂𝒓 − 𝒆
where,
y= yellow change interval (s);
ar= red clearance interval;
e= end gain
Total Lost time (t ): If the start-up lost time occurs each

time a queue starts to move and the clearance lost time
occurs each time the flow of vehicles stops, then for
each green phase-
𝒕 𝑳 = 𝒍𝟏 + 𝒍 𝟐
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Interval
• The interval is a period of time during which no signal indication changes.
It is the smallest unit of time described within a signal cycle
Green Interval (G): The duration of the green associated with a phase. A
green indication is displayed for this duration
Effective Green Interval (g): The time during which a

combination of traffic movements is considered to
proceed effectively at the saturation flow rate
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𝒈𝒊 = 𝑮𝒊 + 𝒀𝒊 − 𝒕𝑳𝒊
where,
tLi = total lost time (l1+l2) for phase ‘i’
Gi = actual green time for phase ‘i’;
Yi = sum of yellow and all red intervals for phase ‘i’;
gi = effective green time for phase ‘i’
Red Interval (R): The time in the signal cycle during

which the signal indication is red for a given phase
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Yellow Change Interval (y)
• Duration of the steady yellow signal

indication following the green interval
indication which is used to warn the traffic
of an impending change in right-of-way
assignment
Red Clearance Interval (ar): Duration following the yellow change interval
which is used to provide additional time for a vehicle legally in the
intersection to clear before conflicting movements receive a green indication
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Engineering 35

Capacity of Intersection or Lane Group
• Capacity at signalized intersections is based upon the concept of
saturation flow and effective green ratio for intersection or lane group
𝒈𝒊
𝒄𝒊 = 𝒔𝒊
𝑪
where:
ci = capacity of a lane or a lane group ‘i’, veh/h
si = saturation flow rate for lane or lane group ‘i’, veh/ h
gi = effective green time for lane or lane group ‘i’, s
C = signal cycle length, s
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Example: Consider a given movement at a signalized intersection with the
following known characteristics: Cycle length, C = 60 s; Green time, G = 25
s; Yellow plus all-red time, (y + ar) = 4 s; Saturation headway, h = 2.4 s/veh;
Start-up lost time, l1 = 2.0 s; Clearance lost time, l2 = 1.0 s. For these
characteristics, what is the capacity (per lane) for approach?
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
Solution: 𝒔 = = 3600/2.4 = 1500 veh/h/ln
𝒉
𝒕𝑳 = 𝒍𝟏 + 𝒍𝟐 = 2 + 1 = 3 s
𝒈𝒊 = 𝑮𝒊 + 𝒀𝒊 − 𝒕𝑳𝒊 = 25 + 4 - 3 = 26 s
𝒈𝒊
𝒄𝒊 = 𝒔𝒊 = 1500*(26/60) = 650 veh/h/ln
𝑪
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Pre-Timed Signal Design:

Webster’s Method
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Webster’s Method
• Cycle length corresponding to minimum intersection delay is obtained as
𝟏. 𝟓𝑳 + 𝟓
𝑪𝒐 =
𝟏 − ∑∅𝒊 𝟏 𝒀𝒊
Yi= maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to saturation flows for all lane groups
using phase ‘i' (i.e., qij/Sj)
∅ = number of phases
L = total lost time per cycle (s)
qij = flow on lane groups having the right of way during phase i
Sj = saturation flow of a lane group j
𝐂𝐨 = optimum cycle length (s)
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Webster’s Method
• Lost time per phase (li )
𝒍𝒊 = 𝑮𝒊 + 𝒚𝒊 − 𝒈𝒊
where,
Gi = Actual green time for phase i
yi = yellow time for phase i
gi = effective green time for phase i
• Total lost time (L) ∅

𝑳= 𝒍𝒊 + 𝑨𝑹
𝒊 𝟏
where,
AR is the total all-red time during the cycle
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Webster’s Method
• Total effective green time available per cycle (gtot)
gtot = C – L
• Effective green time for each phase (gi)

𝒀𝒊
𝒈𝒊 = 𝒈
∑ 𝒀𝒊 𝒕𝒐𝒕
• Actual green time for each phase (Gi)

𝑮𝒊 = 𝒈𝒊 + 𝒍𝒊 − 𝒚𝒊
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Webster’s Method
Example: Determine a suitable signal timing for the given
Phase A
intersection using the four-phase system. For each phase: y= 3 s
and ar = 1 s, total lost time = 3.5 s. PHF: 0.95. Phase B
Sat. Flow
Phase Lane Group
N (veh/h)
C Phase C
75 109 EB: RT 1615
A
EB: TH+LT 3700
Phase D
WB: RT 1615
321 B
321 25 WB: TH+LT 3700
222
A 128 B
352 464 SB: RT 1615
464
C
SB: TH+LT 3700
NB: RT 1615
D
206 NB: TH+LT 3700
100
D The influence of heavy vehicles and turning movements and all other
factors that affect the saturation flow have already been considered
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Webster’s Method
Solution: Ratios of approach flows to saturation flows (Yi) for all lane groups
Total Eq. Sat.
Hourly Eq. Hourly For EB:RT
Hourly Flow
Phase Lane Group Volumes Volumes qij / Sj Yi Eq. Hourly Volume = 128/0.95
Volumes (veh/h)
(per lane) (per lane) = 135
(qij)
EB: RT 128 135 135 1615 0.084
A 0.183 ∑Yi= (0.183 + 0.264 +
EB: TH+LT 321 338 676 3700 0.183
0.052 + 0.230)= 0.729
WB: RT 222 234 234 1615 0.145
B 0.264
WB: TH+LT 464 488 976 3700 0.264
SB: RT 25 26 26 1615 0.016
C 0.052
SB: TH+LT 75 +109 79+115 194 3700 0.052
NB: RT 352 371 371 1615 0.230
D 0.230
NB: TH+LT 100+ 206 105 + 217 322 3700 0.087
Eq. Hourly Volumes per lane is calculated considering PHF
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Webster’s Method
Total lost time = 𝑳 = ∑∅𝒊 𝟏 𝒍𝒊 + 𝑨𝑹 = 4 x 3.5 + 4 x 1 = 18 s
Optimum Cycle Length

𝟏.𝟓𝑳 𝟓 𝟏.𝟓∗𝟏𝟖 𝟓
𝑪𝒐 = = = 118 s
𝟏 ∑∅
𝒊 𝟏 𝒀𝒊
𝟏 𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟗
Total effective green time = gtot = C – L = 118 – 18 = 100 s
Effective green times

𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟐
𝒈𝑨 =
𝟎.𝟏𝟖𝟑
∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎= 25.1 s 𝒈𝑪 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎= 7.1 s
𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟗 𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟗
𝟎.𝟐𝟑
𝒈𝑩 =
𝟎.𝟐𝟔𝟒
∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎= 36.2 s 𝒈𝑫 = ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎= 31.6 s
𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟗 𝟎.𝟕𝟐𝟗
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Webster’s Method
Actual green time G(i) for each phase
𝑮𝒊 = 𝒈𝒊 + 𝒍𝒊 − 𝒚𝒊
GA = 25.1 + 3.5 – 3 ≈ 25.6 s GB = 36.2 + 3.5 – 3 ≈ 36.7 s
GC =7.1 + 3.5 – 3 ≈ 7.6 s GD = 31.6 + 3.5 – 3 ≈ 32.1 s
Check: Sum of Actual green times + Yellow times+ All-

red times = Cycle length
25.6+ 3+1+36.7+3+1+7.6+3+1+32.1+3.1= 118 (OK)
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Engineering 45
THANK YOU
IIT Kharagpur
Engineering 46
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4/1/2022

Subject Name- Transportation Engineering

IIT Kharagpur | Transportation Engineering

Intersection & Conflict Points

Intersection & Conflict Points

• Intersections are potential bottlenecks to

 Satisfying operational traffic-flow needs with

Intersection & Conflict Points

Major: Crossing Major: Crossing (Turning) Major: Weaving

Minor: Diverging Minor: Merging No Conflict

Intersection & Conflict Points

• Intersection crashes are related to the number of

Intersection & Conflict Points

 Able to see a potentially conflicting

 Presence of reasonable opportunities for s

Intersection & Conflict Points

 Time segregation by traffic signals

Levels of Intersection Control

Levels of Intersection Control

Levels of Intersection Control

Levels of Intersection Control

• Driver is expected to obey the basic rules of the

 The driver of a vehicle approaching an

Levels of Intersection Control

• Passive control measures like traffic signs, road

• Sufficient sight distance is essential for safe operation

Levels of Intersection Control

• The right-of-way can be modified at through streets or highways by

Levels of Intersection Control

 Intersection with a minor and major roads where

 A minor street entering a designated through

 Un-signalized intersection within a signalized area

Levels of Intersection Control

• Channelization is the separation of conflicting traffic

• Types of traffic islands: Channelizing islands, divisional

Levels of Intersection Control

Intersection With Left-Turn Channelization,

Left Turn Channelized Three-leg Channelized Three-leg Intersection With

Levels of Intersection Control

• Time segregated right-of-way is assigned to the

• Trafficcontrol signals are valuable devices usually

Levels of Intersection Control

Levels of Intersection Control

• The greatest efficiency, safety, and capacity

• Warrants for interchanges: Highway with full control of

Levels of Intersection Control

Three-Leg Directional All-Directional Four Leg Full Cloverleaf

Trumpet Partial Cloverleaf

Signal Controllers & Operational

Signal Controllers & Operational Characteristics

• Phase (φ): The part of a cycle allocated to a movement

Signal Controllers & Operational Characteristics

• Pre-timedcontrol consists of a fixed sequence of

Signal Controllers & Operational Characteristics

Critical Aspects of Flow at Signalized

Critical Aspects of Flow at Signalized Intersections

Actual Green Time (G) Yellow (y) All-Red (ar)

Phase for the Movement

Flow of Traffic During the Green Period from a Saturated Approach

Critical Aspects of Flow at Signalized Intersections

the time the first vehicle’s front wheels cross

• Subsequent headways are similarly measured

Critical Aspects of Flow at Signalized Intersections