Research Title: The Moderating Effect of I HEART(Intensive, Helping Engag

Researcher: Richelle Ann R. Gonzales

Literature Review Notetaking Table
Bibliographic Entries
Research Title/
Author/s
Book Title

MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM SOLVING

HEURISTICS AND SOLUTION
Denis Abao Tan
STRATEGIES OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS
 Will Heuristics Enhance the Success of
Paul Lau Ngee Kiong
Mathematics Problem Solving?
 Problem Solving Heuristics on Non-Routine
Enya Marie D. Apostol
Problems of College Students
 ENLIVENING PROBLEMS WITH
HEURISTICS THROUGH LEARNING
Jerome A. Chavez
ACTIVITIES AND PROBLEM SOLVING
(LAPS)
 CHANGING TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ABOUT
Boris Koichu, Abraham Berman
STUDENTS’ HEURISTICS IN PROBLEM
and Michael Moore
SOLVING

Problem Solving Heuristics, Affect, and

Gerald A. Goldin
Discrete Mathematics
Parmjit Singh , Sian Hoon Teoh ,
The Use of Problem-Solving Heuristics
Tau Han Cheong , Nor Syazwani
Approach in Enhancing STEM Students
Md Rasid , Liew Kee Kor , Nurul
Development of Mathematical Thinking
Akmal Md Nasir
 A Review of the Effects of Visual-Spatial
Elizabeth Kribbs* , Beth Representations and Heuristics on Word
Rogowsky Problem Solving in Middle School
Mathematics
 Heuristics and CAD modelling: an
Jeffrey Buckley, Niall Seery, examination of student behaviour during
Donal Canty problem solving episodes within CAD
modelling activities
 Development of Heuristics Problem Solving,
and learning achievement of grade 9
Nakin Satchakett, Sitthipon Art-in
students by using learning management
focusing on Heuristics Approach in Thailand

Unconscious processing of prototype

Yushi Ling heuristics in scientific innovation problem-
solving
 Solving the shepherding problem: heuristics
Daniel Strömbom
for herding autonomous, interacting agents
 Non-symbolic Ratio Reasoning in
David Muñez Kindergarteners: Underlying Unidimensional
Heuristics and Relations With Math Abilities
 Metacognitive Cues, Working Memory, and
Math Anxiety: The Regulated Attention in
Daniel A. Scheibe
Mathematical Problem Solving (RAMPS)
Framework
 On the relationship between math anxiety
and math achievement in early elementary
Gerardo Ramirez school: The role of problem solving
strategies
 Cognitive strategy interventions improve
H. Lee Swanson word problem solving and working memory
in children with math disabilities
 Cognition-emotion interactions: patterns of
Kelly Trezise Robert A. Reeve* change and implications for math problem
solving
 Detecting math problem solving strategies:
Caitlin Tenison An investigation into the use of retrospective
self-reports, latency and fMRI data
H. Lee Swanson, PhD, Catherine Cognitive Strategies, Working Memory, and
M. Lussier, PhD, and Michael Growth in Word Problem Solving in Children
J. Orosco, PhD With Math Difficulties
 Problem Representation and Mathematical
Jennifer L. Krawec, PhD Problem Solving of Students of Varying
Math Ability
I HEART(Intensive, Helping Engagement, Active Review And Training) Program on Students

Continent/ Region/
Sources Research Problem and Research Questions
Country

https://www.researchg
ate.net/profile/Denis-
Tan/publication/32654
3518_MATHEMATICAL
_PROBLEM_SOLVING_ Although heuristics of mathematical problem
HEURISTICS_AND_SOLU solving has been identified, this was done
TION_STRATEGIES_OF_ abroad and not in the Philippine setting. This
urges the researcher to conduct this study with
SENIOR_HIGH_SCHOOL
Philippines a hope to identify problem solving heuristics of
_STUDENTS/links/5b54
Filipino high school students specifically in
17aaaca27217ffaf2e41/
Central Mindanao University, Bukidnon. This
MATHEMATICAL- study is guided by Yin’s (1989) case study
PROBLEM-SOLVING- approach.
HEURISTICS-AND-
SOLUTION-STRATEGIES-
OF-SENIOR-HIGH-
SCHOOL-STUDENTS.pdf

https://opus4.kobv.de/
opus4-hs-
duesseldorf/frontdoor/
Malaysia
deliver/index/docId/17
98/file/Deckert_Creativ
eHeuristics.pdf
(1) What assumption, whether conscious or
unconscious from the teachers and students,
underpin the teaching and learning of
mathematics? (2) Which teaching and learning
theories are assumed? (3) What means are
adopted to achieve the aims of mathematics
education? (4) Are the ends and means
consistent?
 Problem solving heuristics are not clear – cut
rules in coming up with the correct answers,
rather they are possible solutions for certain
problems. However, successful problem solving
includes four steps: a) understanding the
problem; b) choosing strategy; c) solving the
problem; and d) looking back. In order to
achieve a successful resolution of the problem,
students may show their potentials in problem
solving with clear and good reasoning solving
http://article.scieducati skills and problem solving heuristics of college
onalresearch.com/pdf/ Philippines students on non-routine problems. Specifically,
EDUCATION-5-3-16.pdf it aimed to describe and determine the
significant differences in the students’ level of
problem solving performance of the students
on non-routine problems in terms of heuristics
knowledge, conceptual knowledge and
procedural knowledge. Moreover, it also aimed
to identify the commonly used heuristics by the
freshmen college students in each non-routine
problems. Lastly, to propose a strategic
intervention on using heuristics on non-routine
problems.
https://citeseerx.ist.psu
.edu/document?repid=
rep1&type=pdf&doi=e4 Malaysia
7eb2c265845096a263b
a02c0be37a827140237
The study sought to find out how Learning
Activities and Problem Solving (LAPS) stations
improve creative problem solving abilities of the
pupils. Specifically, it aimed to use creative
problem solving activities to improve problem
solving skills of pupils in primary school.
https://www.researchgate.net
/profile/Boris-
Koichu/publication/25306042
9_CHANGING_TEACHERS (1) What, in the opinion of experienced in-
%27_BELIEFS_ABOUT_ST service teachers, are the heuristics commonly
UDENTS%27_HEURISTICS used by high school students with different
_IN_PROBLEM_SOLVING/li Israel mathematical abilities? (2) How do the
nks/0deec53b51cc67564c00 teachers’ beliefs about students’ heuristics
0000/CHANGING- change while engaged in
TEACHERS-BELIEFS- research on teaching heuristic strategies?
ABOUT-STUDENTS-
HEURISTICS-IN-PROBLEM-
SOLVING.pdf

(1) What especially desirable ways of thinking,

powerful problem-solving processes, or other
important mathematical competencies do
discrete mathematical situations naturally
evoke? (2) Why are these particular processes
https://citeseerx.ist.psu or capabilities evoked in students? Under what
.edu/document?repid= problem conditions do we expect them to
rep1&type=pdf&doi=8a New Jersey occur? Why might we anticipate the
2feb3fc748ecb4d5d6fc emergence of previously hidden mathematical
dceb4444013282cd7d capabilities in some students, and which
capabilities are these? (3) How can we
consciously structure students’ activities so as
to best encourage the further development of
the mathematical capabilities we have
identified?

https://www.iejme.co
m/download/the-use-
of-problem-solving-
heuristics-approach-in- Malaysia
enhancing-stem-
students-development-
of-3921.pdf
In this heuristic approach in developing
cognitive thinking towards the development of
mathematical thinking, problem solving as a
tool was used to elicit the thinking process
where students participated in a variety of
exercises, problems, and investigations as they
explored mathematics concepts from a
problemsolving perspective in an interactive
manner through various heuristics. The
emphasis was on exploration of various
mathematics contexts to learn mathematics, to
solve problems, problem extensions, and to
communicate mathematical demonstrations.
Thus, the prime aim of the study was to
investigate the impact of heuristics approaches
on students’ development of mathematical
thinking with the objectives: a) to determine the
current level of High School leavers and 3rd
Year University Students (Majoring in
Mathematics, Science and Engineering)
attainment in the Mathematical Thinking Test b)
to investigate the effect of heuristic teaching
method on High School leavers achievement in
the Mathematical Thinking test and its
comparison with 3rd Year University Students
 what is the effect of using visual-spatial
representations as a word problem-solving
strategy for middle school students? Second,
what is the effect of using problem-solving
https://files.eric.ed.gov
Pensylvania, USA heuristics as a word problemsolving strategy
/fulltext/EJ1105168.pdf
for middle school students? Finally, what are
the associated benefits of visual-spatial
representations and problem-solving heuristics
for students with learning disabilities?
 This paper describes a comparative study
between two fundamentally different CAD
systems. As the CAD system is the primary
independent variable and due to the opposing
nature inherent to these systems, the second
part of the hypothesis is that the heuristics
employed will be different between the control
and experimental group as ecologically rational
file:///Users/macbook/
decisions are made. The employment of such
Downloads/s10798-017- Ireland
heuristics, while supporting the student in
9423-2.pdf
solving proximal problems, may be
circumventing their attainment of learning
objectives concerned with developing problem
solving skills and the acquisition of knowledge.
Furthermore, observing the heuristics which
are evidenced during modelling episodes can
provide insight into how students can be
supported in similar pedagogical activities.
https://reader.elsevier.com/re
ader/sd/pii/S1877042814003 The objectives of this research were: 1) to
541?token=515E8979FE4E9 develop students’ Heuristics Problem Solving
CB556E208EB6C96420D9F ability so that not less than 70% of them would
9382494EBB55C7F0B3A8D have their Heuristics Problem Solving ability in
Thailand
ADD139BA26994E304DD70 “Good” level up, and 2) to develop the students’
D638C01C0C99B2AC9C9B& learning achievement so that the students
originRegion=eu-west- would have average score not less than 70%
1&originCreation=202302181 up .
23823

In a set of three experiments, we used scientific

innovation problems (SIP) as insight metrics
and distractor tasks to induce UC. Experiment
1 confirmed that, compared with conscious
processing, unconscious processing is more
conducive to obtaining prototype heuristics for
correctly solving scientific innovation problems
creatively. Furthermore, Experiment 2 found
https://www.frontiersi that different levels of unconscious processing,
which were induced by different distractor
n.org/articles/10.3389/
Chongqing, China tasks, made a different impact on high or low
fpsyg.2023.1056045/ful
difficulty creative problem solving. Experiment 3
l
indicated that unconscious processing could
improve prototype activation and the ability to
use key heuristics information in prototype
heuristics processing by improving working
memory, inhibitory control, and shifting ability of
EFs. Overall, the present results provide
additional evidence for the role of
consciousness levels in insight problem
solving.
 we propose a self-propelled particle model of
local attraction–repulsion type to model herding
of a group of interacting agents by one
shepherd towards a predetermined destination.
We begin by investigating how the success of
https://royalsocietypub the general algorithm depends on both group
lishing.org/doi/10.1098 size and the degree of locality in the agent
/rsif.2014.0719 interactions. Then we focus on the shepherd
dynamics that result from the application of the
algorithm. Finally, we compare the model
against empirical data obtained from real-life
herding experiments with an Australian
sheepdog and merino sheep
 Thus, the first goal of the current study is
twofold: first, to determine whether
kindergarteners’ ratio reasoning skills are
based on specific unidimensional heuristics,
and second, to examine whether children’s
approach to ratio reasoning varies as a function
of representation format. The literature review
suggests that children’s approach to ratio
reasoning may vary across representation
https://www.frontiersin.org/art
formats because continuous and discrete
icles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.800 Singapore, Singapore
representations naturally afford different
977/full#B31
opportunities to estimate the absolute
magnitude of each dimension within each ratio
set and across ratio sets. For instance, it is
feasible that continuous representations allow
additive approaches (e.g., focusing on the
magnitude of both target and non-target
dimension) since each dimension is
perceptually more salient than in discrete
representations.
 A primary aim is to propose clarifying relations
between metacognitive experiences, WM, and
MA in mathematical problem solving.
Theoretical contributions to elucidate these
relations are valuable; but could this work be
extended to improve mathematical problem-
mdpi.com/2079-
OH 44240, USA solving outcomes? That is, could metacognitive
3200/11/6/117
experiences be manipulated to decrease state
MA and thus relieve the task-irrelevant taxing
of WM? These and many other open questions
should be investigated using experimental
methods to explore and test the RAMPS
framework.
 Leveraging a large dataset of first and second
grade students’ math achievement scores,
math problem solving strategies, and math
attitudes, we explored the possibility that
children’s math anxiety (i.e., a fear or
apprehension about math) negatively relates to
their use of more advanced problem solving
strategies, which in turn relates to their math
https://www.sciencedirect.co
achievement. Our results confirm our
m/science/article/abs/pii/S00
Los Angeles, CA hypothesis and, moreover, demonstrate that
22096515001812?via%3Dihu
the relation between math anxiety and math
b
problem solving strategies is strongest in
children with the highest working memory
capacity. Ironically, children who have the
highest cognitive capacity avoid using
advanced problem solving strategies when they
are high in math anxiety and, as a result,
underperform in math compared with their
lower working memory peers.

https://www.frontiersin.org/art
icles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.010
99/full
This study investigated the role of strategy
instruction and working memory capacity
(WMC) on problem solving solution accuracy in
children with and without math disabilities
(MD).this study addresses three questions:
CA, USA 1). Do cognitive strategies place different
demands on WMC in children with MD?
2). Are some cognitive strategies more
effective than others for children with MD?
3). Does practice solving problems that
gradually increase irrelevant information
influence WM performance?

https://www.frontiersin.org/art
icles/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.008
40/full
Our research addresses three questions. First,
can we identify WM-worry relationships similar
to those identified by Trezise and Reeve
(2014)?Second, does WM-worry subgroup
membership change over time? Third, we
expect that WM-worry relationships would
predict problem solving ability. Individuals with
high WM capacity or low math anxiety show
faster and more accurate arithmetic problem
solving ability (Ashcraft and Faust, 1994; Faust
et al., 1996; Imbo and Vandierendonck, 2007;
Imbo and LeFevre, 2010; Alloway and
VIC, Australia Passolunghi, 2011; Caviola et al., 2012; Geary
et al., 2012; Simmons et al., 2012). Given that
both WM and worry/anxiety affect math
problem solving, if worry and/or WM change
over time, a question of some interest is
whether changes to worry and/or WM affect
math problem solving abilities. We expected
that high WM and low Worry would be
associated with accurate and fast algebraic
problem solving, and that low WM and high
Worry would be associated with inaccurate and
slow algebraic problem solving.
 The principal interest of this study was to form
a prediction of strategy use for each item
solved in the scanner. We trained a classifier to
distinguish between trained and untrained
problems. We expected the classifier to use
neural evidence of retrieval in making this
https://www.sciencedirect.co classification. For any given trial, the classifier
m/science/article/abs/pii/S00 Pittsburgh, PA computes the evidence that the trial belongs to
28393213004417?via%3Dihu 15213, United States the ‘trained’ category. This evidence can be
b used as an indicator of whether the trial
involved retrieval. We also collected RSAs
where participants tell us after the fMRI session
whether a retrieval strategy was employed for
particular problems. Just as the classifier is an
imperfect reflection of retrieval, such a report is
also imperfect.
 To explore the relationship between strategy
training and WMC in children with MD, this
study addressed three questions.1. Do some
strategies place greater demands on the WMC
https://journals.sagepub.com/ in children with MD than other strategies?2. Are
Riverside, CA 92521,
doi/10.1177/0022219413498 some cognitive strategies more effective than
USA
771 others in reducing the performance differences
between children with and without MD?3. Are
the effects of WMC on strategy intervention
more pronounced on the earlier rather than
later treatment phases?
 The following research questions were
addressed in the present study.
1.
Do students with LD, LA students, and AA
students differ in paraphrasing and visual
representation accuracy, and, if so, do these
https://journals.sagepub.com/
Springfield, MO ability differences differentially affect math
doi/10.1177/0022219412436
65897, USA problem-solving accuracy?
976
2.
Are there differences between students with LD
and LA students in the use of relevant and
irrelevant paraphrasing and visual
representation processes during math problem
solving?
gram on Students’ Heuristics and Academic Performance in Math Problem-solving

Methodology (Research Method, Participants,

Theoretical Framework
Survey/Interview, Statistical Tools)

This study is mainly descriptive and qualitative in

nature. Methods of case analysis were applied. The
main purpose of this in-depth study is to examine the N/A
problem solving heuristics of the senior high school
students of CMULHS.
This research is predominantly quantitative. It consists
of two phases, in attempting to gather information to
answer the objectives. The objectives are to identify
the ability of form four students employing heuristics,
to examine the consistency of these students
employing heuristics, to examine the impact of
N/A
heuristics teaching on students’ mathematics problem
solving and to recommend a guideline and the list of
heuristics to be used for each mathematics topics.
Phase I – The participating students will be given a
pre-test. Phase II – The participating students will be
given 3 post-tests after an intervention on heuristics.
 Data gathered from the problem solving test and
interview were treated statistically using descriptive
statistics namely, frequency, percentage and mean.
One way ANOVA was used to determine the
magnitude of difference among the variables. N/A
Homogeneity of variances was checked prior to the
use of analysis of variance in order to ensure that
variances of each population is equal as an
assumption of ANOVA.
 The data were taken from a project work carried out
by eight participants who attended the course PM-
4264 Higher Order Thinking and Creative Problem
Solving in Student-Centred Primary Mathematics
Classrooms which was supervised by this author from
N/A
20 February to 17 March 2006 in SEAMEO RECSAM,
Penang, Malaysia. The participants selected the
topics, activities and heuristics used to help students
solve problems. They also accommodated the
constraints of language and time.
 Twenty in-service high-school teachers (on average,
19 years of pedagogical experience, M.Sc. degree)
took part in a 120-minute workshop dealing with
heuristic strategies. One of the authors acquainted the
teachers with the formulations, similar to those
presented in Table 1. Then the teachers were divided N/A
into small groups and encouraged to formulate
mathematical problems that provide examples of
using a particular strategy. All the examples were
presented in front of the entire group and discussed
from the heuristic point of view.

N/A N/A
 his two-phase study utilised a purely quantitative
approach involving a descriptive design and an
experimental design. Descriptive design seeks to
investigate the current condition of an identified
variable. The descriptive design was undertaken to
depict a picture of student’s capability in solving non-
routine problems. On the other hand, a quasi-
experimental design was used with the aim to
establish cause effects relationships among the
variable, namely heuristics as the treatment
(independent variable) and the mathematical thinking
test (dependent variable). In other words, this
experimental design enabled the researchers to
assess the effectiveness of the heuristics as a tool in
enhancing student’s development of mathematical
thinking.
 Van Garderen and Montague (2003) evaluated
student mathematical problem solving through an
assessment called The Mathematical Processing
Instrument test (MPI; p. 247) which was developed by
Hegarty and Kozhevnikov (1999, p. 686). The results
from this 15-item assessment found that 70 percent of
the total number of incorrect solutions on the MPI
were connected to a pictorial representation (p. 250).
This means that students who use pictorial
representations have a 30 percent chance of getting a
correct solution. Educators cannot rely on this kind of
empirical result in the classroom. In conjunction with
their research of pictorial methods, these scholars
looked at schematic strategies. They determined that
schematic representations are significantly positively
correlated with problem-solving skills (Hegarty &
Kozhevnikov, 1999, p. 688; van Garderen &
Montague, 2003, p. 250). In the same van Garderen
and Montague (2003) study that found a 30 percent
success rate when using pictorial representations, the
researchers also determined that 76 percent of the
total number of correct solutions on the MPI were
connected to a schematic representation (p. 250).
These findings support the use of schematic
representations in order to increase word problem-
solving ability.
The aim of the study was to explore the approaches to
problem solving employed by students when CAD
modelling. A comparative study was designed
between two CAD systems of different natures; a
parametric CAD modelling system and a freeform
moulding CAD system. Two distinctly different CAD
systems were included to investigate the potential for
specific heuristics to be unique to each type of
system. A control and experimental group were
formulated within a cohort of post-primary students for
the purposes of this study with the control group
utilising SolidWorks and the experimental group
utilising CRE8. Both groups were administered an
identical design brief for which they had to conceive
an idea and model it using their designated CAD
system. Following this, the students were asked to
model a prescribed organic geometry using their
designated CAD system to induce further problem
solving episodes thus affording the potential for a
greater insight into the heuristics exhibited by the
students. All modelling was captured and analysed
through a visual and verbal protocol analysis
(Middleton 2008) and an adaptation of Spillane et al.
(2012) ‘Multidimensional Problem-Solving Codex’ was
used to code the data of the modelling organic
geometry task.
 Target group consisted of 36 Grade 9 Students,
Nogbuawittayakan School, Muang District,
Nongbualampoo Province, Thailand, under jurisdiction
of the Office of Secondary Educational Service Area
19, during the first semester of 2012 school year.

Seventy-eight participants (aged between 18 and 27

years, mean age = 21.48 years, SD = 1.68) from
Southwest University were recruited. Participants were
randomly assigned to the conscious condition (n = 38)
and the unconscious condition (n = 40). After
removing one subject who failed to complete all the
experimental tasks, the final number of effective
subjects was 77. All participants provided informed
consent before participating and received some
remuneration after the experiment. Experimental
protocols for all three experiments were approved by
the University’s local ethics committee.
Initially, N agents are randomly positioned in the upper
right quarter of an L × L square and a shepherd
released in the lower left quarter. The square is not
enclosed so the agents and shepherd may leave it at
a later time. Denote the position of the shepherd
by Inline Formula and the position of the ith agent
by Inline Formula. If an agent is further away
than rs from the shepherd it grazes. That is, it is
typically stationary, but exhibits small random
movements. If the distance to the shepherd is shorter
than rs, then each agent i will be repelled directly
away from it in the direction of Inline Formula and at
the same time will be attracted to the centre of mass
of its n nearest neighbours Inline Formula in the
direction of Inline Formula. Agents are also locally
repelled from each other, so that if two or more agents
are within a distance of ra of each other there will be a
repulsive force acting to separate them. More
precisely, if agent i has k neighbours within a distance
of ra at positions Inline Formula, the repulsive force
on i is defined by
 Data from the current study were drawn from a
longitudinal study examining the interplay between
ratio reasoning, numerical magnitude processing, and
fractions understanding. One-hundred and thirty-two
children (Mage = 68 months, range = 62–75, SD =
3.5; 48% females) participated in the current study.
Children were recruited from three government-
operated kindergartens in Singapore and were tested
during the first half of the second year in kindergarten
(K2; the year children turn 6 years old). We chose this
age because there is evidence that these children may
operate with continuous representations but fail to
operate with discrete representations during ratio
reasoning (Jeong et al., 2007).
 Regulated attention in
mathematical problem
solving (RAMPS)
framework. Note: The
primary use of the
RAMPS framework is a
reference tool to discuss
the proposed
interrelations between
metacognitive
experiences, MA, and
WM during a math task.
There are multiple
recursive loops within
this framework; thus, it is
better suited as a
framework for future
discussions and testable
models than as a
testable path model.
 The data for this study were collected as part of a
larger study examining children’s achievement and
attitudes about math (Maloney, Ramirez, Gunderson,
Levine, & Beilock, 2015). The sample consisted of 256
children in the first grade (139 girls) and 308 children
in the second grade (167 girls). The sample of 564
children includes those who attended a traditional
elementary school (i.e., not a gifted school), who are
native English speakers, and who were not identified
as requiring special
 Participants were comprised of 204 third grade
students from two public school districts in southern
California. The research was carried in accordance of
the Human Subjects committee and written informed
consent at the University of California-Riverside
protocol number (HS-O6-099) and Federal grant
number USDE R324A090002 Institute of Education
Sciences. Written informed consent was received
from parents and/or guardians prior to testing and
intervention in accordance with the Declaration of
Helsinki. This data was gathered in 2010 as part of a
larger research project that occurred from 2009 to
2014. The overall goal of the project was to identify an
array of strategy conditions that facilitate problem
solving in children with math disabilities. Of the 204
children selected for this study, 101 were female and
103 were male. Ethnic representation of the sample
was 116 Anglo, 38 Hispanic, 16 African American, 11
Asian, and 28 mixed and/or other (e.g., Anglo and
Hispanic, Native American). The mean SES of the
sample was primarily low SES to middle SES based
on free lunch participation, parent education, and
occupation. However, the sample varied from low
middle class to upper middle class.
 Students completed three algebraic tasks: an (1)
algebraic WM, (2) algebraic judgment/worry (worry);
and (3) algebraic problem solving test; and two
domain general tasks: (1) Corsi Block (visuo-spatial
working memory, VSWM), and (2) Go No-Go
(response inhibition). Tasks were completed in two
sessions in a single day (see Figure 1 for test
sequences). In Session 1, students completed tasks in
a fixed order: (1) Corsi Block, (2) WM, and (3) worry.
In Session 2 the order was: (1) worry, (2) WM, (3)
Go/No-Go, and (4) problem solving. As WM is thought
to directly impact math reasoning, we deemed it
important to establish WM abilities at the beginning of
testing, and immediately prior to the problem solving
task. All tasks were completed on 15” laptop
computers running Inquisit Web 3.0.6.0 software
(2011).
The current study spanned two consecutive days. On
the first day, the participant completed a behavioral
training session. The second day, the participant
returned for an fMRI scan
For the first year of intervention, 192 children from
Grades 2 and 3 from a large southwestern public
school district participated in this study. Children were
selected from a larger longitudinal sample (N = 420)
that included children with a wide array of reading and
math ability levels including reading difficulties and
MD. We chose to focus on children with MD in the
lower grades because this is when word problems are
introduced into the curriculum. Of the 192 children
selected, 98 were males and 94 were females. Ethnic
representation of the sample was 109 Anglo, 36
Hispanic, 14 African American, 10 Asian, and 23
mixed and/or other (e.g., Anglo and Hispanic or Native
American). The mean socioeconomic status (SES) of
the sample was primarily low SES to middle SES
based on federal free and reduced-price lunch
participation, parent education, or parent occupation.
After random assignment to conditions within
classrooms, children were divided into those with MD
(n = 100) and those without MD (n = 92) based on the
criteria provided below.For the second year of
intervention, the sample size was reduced. The
nonretained children had moved out of the school
district. Only 42 of the children with MD and 58 of the
children without MD were retained for the last
treatment phase. No significant differences occurred
between retained and nonretained children as a
function of assignment to treatment conditions,
χ2(3, n = 192) = 3.53, p = .31 or gender, χ2(1, n =
 A total of 84 eighth grade students (students with
LD, n = 25; LA students, n = 30, and AA students, n =
29) were recruited from four middle schools in a
southeastern metropolitan school district. The school
district serves more than 350,000 students (64%
Hispanic, 25% African American, 9% Anglo, and 2%
Other; 60% free or reduced-price lunch; Florida
Department of Education, 2010). Students with LD
were district identified and met the following criteria:
(a) a deficit in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using
language; (b) academic achievement that differs
significantly (i.e., at least one standard deviation) from
the student’s measured aptitude where at least one of
the WISC scale scores is greater than 85; (c) a
learning problem not primarily the result of other
disabilities, economic status, or cultural difference;
and (d) ineffectiveness of research-based teaching
strategies in the general education setting. For this
study, the students with LD also scored at Level 1 or
Level 2 (range from a low of 1 to 5) on the previous
year’s standardized math assessment, a criterion-
referenced test that measures benchmarks from the
state standards (Florida Department of Education,
2005).
Math Problem-solving

Results

The mathematical problem solving heuristics and

solution strategies presented below were used by
the respondents in the different mathematical
problems they solved. They claimed that the use
of a specific solution strategy depends on the
problem type. Likewise, computational
strategy depends on the degree of difficulty of the
problem and the numbers involved. Most of
the time students do not know the specific name
of a strategy they used in solving a specific
problem, but their actual solution of the problem
indicates otherwise.
 Students participating in the pilot test were
evaluated based on their use of heuristics and the
overall scores in answering the pre-test question
paper which was made up of 4 open-ended
questions and 4 guided questions. Table 1 shows
the result of the analysis done on the 4 open-
ended questions. A total of 159 attempts by
students used heuristics. Out of this number,
63.5% or 101 questions had the correct answers.
However, only 22 out of the 77 attempts by
students or 28.6% obtained the correct answers
without using heuristics. This implies that
heuristics is important to successful mathematics
problem solving.
The result implies that most of the students are
more precise in using mathematical terms,
principles or procedures. They enable to carry out
a procedure completely, however the process
they used to verify the solution is incorrect.
 Observations on the posttest results show that
the pupils gave more and varied answers to the
same problem as compared to that of the pretest
results. Examples of pupils’ answers on the
pretest and posttest in the two items.
Twelve of the teachers answered question D. All
of them considered that the planned (not only
intuitive) teaching of heuristic strategies is a
worthwhile tool of improving students’
mathematical achievements. A few teachers
(including both who participated in the teaching
experiment) believed that heuristic training might
mainly help their “strong” and “weak” students.
They suggested to teach heuristic “by examples”,
“in problem solving”, “by thinking aloud in front of
the class” and “as integral part of teaching
mathematics”.

N/A
The descriptive statistics show that the post-test
scores of high school leavers (M=15.67, SD=
7.00) is higher as compared to the Third-year
university students (Mean=10.50, SD= 4.72) who
have taken the various university level
mathematics courses. There is a difference of
12.9% between these two groups of students. In
other words, this signifies that High school
leavers mathematical thinking development is
significantly enhanced as compared to the
various university level math courses taken by the
students over the past five to six semesters.
The results for the effectiveness of schematic
strategies are positive; however, it is still
important for educators to maintain a layer of
skepticism. Representations, whether pictorial or
schematic, are difficult to categorize and, even if
drawn properly, they can lead students astray
though the misinterpretation of the diagram.
Additional research is needed in the areas of
schematic construction and application for
mathematics word problems. Problem-solving
heuristics need additional empirical findings as
they are still shrouded in controversy. Broad
conclusions cannot be drawn at this point but
additional studies related to specific gaps in the
research may help. A future longitudinal study
should be created to determine whether or not
heuristics are effective when taught in third grade
and retaught regularly for several years. This
research would help to determine the actual
benefits of the consistent use of a strategy.
 A number of educationally relevant insights
emerged from the results. The control group
spent over twice as long on average (89.69 s)
engaging with the problems they encountered
than the experimental group (42.88 s). This may
be due to slight differences in the initial
approaches to solving the problems evidenced by
each group. The participants in the control groups
initial strategy to solving 12 of the problems they
encountered was to explore various ways to
make their initial approach work while for 10 of
the problems they immediately requested
assistance. In comparison, only two of the
problems encountered by the experimental group
were initially explored while for nine problems
assistance was immediately sought.Both groups
had similar success rates in resolving their
problems. The control group had
two unresolved problems. No assistance was
sought in either problem. In both cases the
participants abandoned the problems and
progressed to modelling different aspects of their
designs. The problem areas were not revisited
with the features being omitted in the final
models. There was one unresolved problem in
the experimental group. During this problem
the participant immediately sought assistance
asking could flat geometry be created. The
relevant feature was identified to the participant
 The findings of development in Mathematical
Problem Solving Ability by using the Heuristics
Approach, according to the evaluation of
Heuristics Problem Solving Ability of students
obtaining the Learning Management focusing on
Heuristics Approach considering in spiral 3, found
that 29 out of 36 student s, or 80.56% of them,
had Heuristics Approach Ability in “Good,” level
up passing th e specified criterion. It was because
of the learning.

Three trained psychology majors were asked to

rate participants’ SIP-solving scores according to
the method we presented in the Data Analysis
section earlier. The scorer reliability was 0.918.
Descriptive statistics for the prototype activation
rate and accuracy rate are provided in Table
1.Table 1. Descriptive statistics of prototype
activation rate and accuracy rate in conscious
and unconscious processing conditions (M ± SD).
 Using a set of simple heuristics, we show that a
shepherd can herd autonomous, interacting
agents towards a target destination. The
shepherd heuristics are based on adaptive
switching between collecting agents when they
are too dispersed and driving them once they are
aggregated. These rules function to (i) reduce the
probability that the group splits and (ii) allow the
shepherd to keep the group moving towards a
target location. A side-to-side motion of the
shepherd also emerges as a consequence of
these rules, a feature which has previously been
hard-coded into shepherd movement rules in
other models to improve efficiency
 The models revealed that the association
between RDHM and the pattern of errors was
substantially different from zero. That is,
children’s errors responded to specific
unidimensional approaches. Nonetheless, this
effect was qualitatively different across models.
The positive coefficients indicate that children’s
patterns of errors reflected an approach based on
the magnitude of the target dimension across
ratio sets and the absolute magnitude of a ratio
set. This is also confirmed by the negative
coefficient regarding the model non-target
dimension—children’s approach was the opposite
to focusing on the non-target dimension across
ratio sets. The association between RDHM and
the pattern of errors was moderated by the format
of presentation in the model absolute
magnitude. The negative coefficient regarding
this cross-level interaction indicates that such an
approach to ratio reasoning was less evident
when it comes to discrete representations (coded
as 1).
 Two independent coders showed a simple
agreement of 90% after the initial pass (kappa of
.91, p < .001). For all of the trials where the
coders did not initially agree (as well as those
where they indicated that the strategy was
unknown), the two independent raters clarified the
final assigned code through either an examination
of visible counting references that were initially
noted by research assistants (.05% of trials), a
discussion between coders (∼4% of trials)
 Three important findings occurred. First, support
was found for the notion that strategy instruction
facilitates solution accuracy but the effects of
strategy instruction were moderated by individual
differences in WM span. Second, some strategies
yielded higher post-test scores than others, but
these findings were qualified as to whether
children were or were not at risk for MD. Finally
support was found for strategy training on
problem solving measures in facilitating a transfer
to working memory measures. Given these
general findings, the results will now be placed
within the three questions that directed this study.
 Overall, the findings show that students in the
high WM/low worry status showed the highest
accuracy, for both easy and hard problem solving,
and average speed for easy, but slower
responses for hard problems. The high WM/high
worry status displayed slow responses for all
problems and high accuracy for easy problems,
but average accuracy for hard problems. The
moderate WM/low worry status showed high
accuracy and moderate speed for easy and hard
problems. The moderate WM/high worry status
showed inaccurate and slow responses for easy
problems and very low accuracy with average RT
for hard problems. The low WM/low worry status
showed average accuracy and RT for easy
problems and low accuracy with fast responses
for hard problems. The low WM/high worry status
had very fast RT for easy and hard problems, and
inaccurate problems solving for hard problems.
The findings suggest that for individuals with high
worry, problem solving RT is likely to vary
depending on WM.
 Our measure of latency was calculated as the
time between the appearance of the problem on
the screen and the point at which the participant
pressed the return key to indicate readiness to
input the solution. We only considered correct
trials in our analysis of latency and the fMRI data.
Fig. 1 shows average performance during
training. A repeated measures ANOVA on
solution times of correctly solved problems with
training block (block 1 through block 6) and
operation (Pyramid and Formula)
In summary, regardless of whether the intent-to-
treat or as-treated sample was analyzed, a
treatment advantage when WMC was set to a
high level was found for the visual-only condition
relative to the other conditions for children with
MD. In contrast, an advantage for the children
without MD was found for the verbal + visual
condition when compared to the other conditions.
The results also showed that the majority of
difference scores in Tables 3 and 4 were positive,
suggesting increased performance related to
strategy conditions was more likely to occur when
WMC was set to a high rather than low level.
 In summary, the inclusion of the interaction term
revealed that interpreting the main effect of visual
representation of relevant information was not in
itself accurate since its relationship to problem-
solving accuracy varied as a function of ability,
specifically for students with LD as compared to
AA students. However, differences in the
relationships between predictors and the outcome
variable were not found between students with LD
and LA students.
 Recommendations

The findings of this study will inform educators to expose

students to varied problems in mathematics so that they
are able to develop the different solution strategies and
problem solving heuristics. When teachers provide similar
activities and problems to the students, their problem
solving skills and strategies will just be limited to the ones
presented and discussed to them.
N/A
Nowadays, heuristics teaching method is one of the most
important teaching methods that can be utilized in
teaching and learning problem solving in Mathematics. It
is imperative that when teaching specifically in problem
solving in mathematics, new information must be
embedded meaningfully in relevant, previously existing
knowledge to ensure that it will be retrievable when
necessary. A wide variety of variables may directly and
indirectly affect the capacity to collect and retrieve
information from memory, including patterns, formula,
models or diagrams and the context and manner in which
information is learned, and relevant practice in retrieval.
This is whether students “possession” of knowledge is
being evaluated/tested based on their “use” of knowledge.
Each of the activities in the LAPS stations tried to develop
a mathematical concept through the different heuristics
which the pupils should learn after carrying out the
activities. The understanding of these concepts is
manifested in the way the pupils responded to the
problems given in the worksheet. As pupils responded
creatively to each question and with varied alternate
answers, it could be claimed that the activities engaged
with in each session were significant in enhancing pupils’
creativity to solve problems. The problem solving abilities
of the 18 pupils improved after the use of the LAPS
stations had been employed by the teachers; moreover,
the pupils had responded to the activities positively. The
results of the study are revealing. The pupils had
definitely improved after receiving inputs from the
teachers. This study shows that LAPS station is an
effective approach to learn problem solving.
N/A

N/A
It is important to note that, although the heuristic method
could serve as guideline in the solution of relatively
unknown problems, it cannot replace knowledge of
subject content. Quite often the successful
implementation of a heuristic strategy is based on the
fixed foundations of subject specific knowledge
(Schoenfeld, 1985). In other words, with the introduction
of the domain of heuristics as a tool of learning together
with the domain of math concepts (to be learnt), we
strongly believe both these domains propagates a way of
completing the learning of mathematics concepts rather
than competing with each other. Yet, it is significant to
highlight that there have been virtually no reforms that are
aimed at changing the pedagogy perspective especially
the teaching and learning process of the particular
content in colleges. Many schools have introduced
curriculums on entrepreneurship, study skills, time
management. There is a mushrooming of leadership and
motivational courses to inspire learners in their pursuit of
academic excellence (Zachry, 2008; Zeidenberg, Jenkins,
& Calcagno, 2007).
Throughout this review, a few developments have
become clear. Educators need to understand the value of
diagrams and the effects that the schematic or pictorial
nature of a diagram can have on mathematic success.
They should be aware of the heuristic controversies
related to word problem solving and their implications for
the classroom. Most importantly, educators should
recognize that utilizing the components of an effective
strategy independently of the designated procedure does
not guarantee student success.
While the results of this study offer significant educational
insight, further research is needed into the behaviours
exhibited by students and their subsequent effects during
educational transactions. The study cohort, while
representative of the demographic of technology
education at a national level, contained only three female
students. Linn and Petersen (1985) provide evidence
showing that males and females engage with problems in
different ways. Their results identify females as more
analytical and males as more holistic. Therefore, further
work should consider the potential for gender differences
in the adoption of heuristics in educational settings. In
addition, while in this study the nature of the students’
previous educational experience likely influenced their
behaviour, this past experience was uncontrolled. It would
be of interest to examine behaviours from a longitudinal
perspective where previous educational experiences
could be designed to examine the effect of such
experiences on behaviour selection. Finally, it is important
to note that the use of heuristics can be both positive and
negative.
 The students should be allowed to construct body of
knowledge by themselves through the Open Approach.
The Learning Management Model focusing on Heuristics
Approach wasn’t appropriate to be used in situation that
most of students didn’t have sufficient Mathematical
Knowledge. The Heuristics Approach should be
inculcated in students since the recent instructional
management caused by searching for the occurred
model, and transferred. For He uristics Approach, it would
cause the students to be able to create new body of
knowledge by themselves without waiting for being given
knowledge. It would lead to attitude towards problem
solving in future.

The current study first explored the relationships among

UC, EFs, and insight problem-solving and proposed a
new conjecture. However, direct evidence of the internal
mechanism is somewhat insufficient, and future research
can further verify the fuzzy zone. Second, this study uses
SIPs as the insight problem, which can only show that the
EFs and UC collaboration mode are such in solving the
SIPs. The conclusion should be cautiously generalized,
and future research can use other insight paradigms for
more exploration.
Although our findings suggest that kindergarteners rely on
specific unidimensional heuristics to reason about ratios,
we acknowledge that we cannot address the question of
whether they engage in true ratio reasoning. As
mentioned above, only perfect accuracy or finding that
children can inhibit unidimensional approaches to ratio
reasoning would support the possibility that young
children engage in true ratio reasoning. Other
methodological approaches such as sequential
presentation of ratio sets and evidence from eye-tracking
may provide clearer insight into that question. More
research is also needed to fully understand how non-
symbolic ratio reasoning abilities in children contribute to
fractions’ understanding later in development. For
instance, it has been suggested that a non-symbolic ratio
magnitude system might provide support for an
understanding of symbolic fractions (Matthews et al.,
2016). Nevertheless, that thesis remains barely explored.
Similarly, more research is needed to determine how ratio
reasoning abilities in young children can be supported
and whether specific pedagogies are needed to provide
these children with an understanding of proportions and
probabilities. Although many studies have investigated
this core aspect of the child’s math abilities since the early
60s, few studies have specifically focused on how to
support children’s ratio reasoning skills and whether these
skills may be incorporated into the suite of diagnostic
Future research could also use the RAMPS framework to
investigate other open questions in math cognition, such
as why women often report greater levels of MA (Devine
et al. 2012) and lower levels of confidence (Rivers et al.
2020) than do men, despite having equal math abilities. It
is possible that research methodologies inspired by the
RAMPS framework might lead to a deeper understanding
of this issue. Gender differences are just one example of
a long-discussed topic in math cognition that could
potentially benefit from research derived from the RAMPS
framework.
 First, the results are consistent with studies suggesting
that strategies facilitate problem solving for children with
MD. However, those strategies that are most beneficial
must be adapted to the WM level of the child. A second
application relates to interventions to designed to improve
WM. No studies we are aware of have shown that WM
training directly influences academic outcomes. The
alternative we took to enhance transfer, was to embed
WM demands within the curriculum and to provide
children with strategies to handle these increased WM
demands. Although the mechanism that underlies this
transfer is unclear, we did find transfer in two groups of
children: (1) those with high WMC, but low achievement,
and (2) those with low WMC but high achievement. Thus,
further studies that place WM demands within the
curriculum would potentially clarify those mechanisms.
 Our findings suggest that the cognition-emotion
relationship can change over a short period of time, and
that levels of cognition and emotion predict
change/stability. Large WM capacity with low worry was
associated with stability. Conversely, students with lower
WM and/or higher worry are more likely to show declines
in WM over time, and possible further increases in worry,
indicating their disadvantage is likely to increase over a
short period of time. Examination of WM-worry statuses
revealed interactions between cognition, emotion, and
problem solving abilities. Our findings highlight the impact
of changes to the cognition-emotion relationship on
problem solving abilities. Specifically, we demonstrate
that cognition-emotion relationships show that students’
problem solving abilities are fluid over a short time period,
even when context (e.g., domain) remains constant.
Developing a model of the interactive nature of cognition-
emotion relationships may help to better understand the
implications of both cognition and emotion on problem
solving abilities.
In summary, the results suggested that solution accuracy
for children with MD relative to children without MD
improved substantially as a function of visual strategy
training. The results also suggested that WMC interacted
with treatment outcomes. Children with MD and relatively
higher WMC were more likely to benefit from strategy
training than those with low WMC when compared to the
control condition.
 Future research could also examine how students plan
their solution track, how they execute these plans, and
how they monitor their solutions for accuracy. Relevant
and irrelevant information could be analyzed in both
solution planning and solution execution to determine
whether the information identified in the translation and
integration phases is carried through to the later phases.
Finally, instructional practices that incorporate the
processes identified as important (i.e., identifying all
relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information,
creating a schematic representation that shows the
relationships among problem parts) should be developed
and tested. Research that validates effective,
parsimonious instruction is needed.
 Statement of the Author in Toto

Numerous researches from abroad had been

investigating the mathematical problem solving process
among students, but little is done with regards to the
mathematical problem solving heuristics among high
school students in the Philippines. This paper is a portion
of a grounded theory research conducted by the
researcher. This article presents the portion in which case
study design was utilized to find out the mathematical
problem solving heuristics among Filipino high school
students.
Teachers should illustrate the importance of heuristics or
strategies to students in problemsolving activities. By
doing so, heuristics will exist as a stock of tools which
students can readily call into play at any time when rules
and algorithms fail to tackle a problem.
In the K-12 curriculum, problem solving and critical
thinking skills have been the center of the framework for
Mathematics curriculum in order to develop lifelong
learners. With this, problem solving in Mathematics is
highly valued. This descriptive comparative study
determined the level of problem solving heuristics on non-
routine problems of college freshmen at Mindoro State
College of Agriculture and Technology. Employing a self-
structured problem solving test composed of five non-
routine problems, result showed that most of the students
were classified as apprentice in heuristics knowledge
which means that the skills and strategies used in general
have focus but with limited clarity. In procedural
knowledge, most of the students were also classified as
apprentice which means that generally, most of the
students made partial use of appropriate procedures and
were not precise in using mathematical terms, principles
and procedures.
The study has been undertaken under several
constraints. First, there were only two sessions conducted
with the pupils for actual lesson teaching. Second, there
were only 18 male pupils as participants. Third, the
activities in each of the LAPS stations were not focused
on a single topic but considered problem solving as a
unifying concept. Since the results of the study cannot be
generalized, the study may be replicated with more
samples of pupils coming from various levels. The study
can also be done with different heuristics. It can be done
with both boys and girls as subjects of the study.
We believe that our study provides one of the possible
answers: heuristic training of students may be an
effective tool in combination with heuristic training of their
teachers, induced either by personal problem solving
experience or by learning through teaching of regular
curriculum with deliberate emphasis on heuristic
approach in problem solving.

There are extensive concerns pertaining to the idea that

students do not develop suffi-cient mathematical
competence. This problem is at least partially related to
the teachingof procedure-based learning. Although better
teaching methods are proposed, there arevery limited
research insights as to why some methods work better
than others, and theconditions under which these
methods are applied. The present paper evaluates a
modelbased on students’ own creation of knowledge,
denoted creative mathematically foundedreasoning
(CMR), and compare this to a procedure-based model of
teaching that is similarto what is commonly found in
schools, denoted algorithmic reasoning (AR). In the
presentstudy, CMR was found to outperform AR. It was
also found cognitive proficiency was sig-nificantly
associated to test task performance. However the
analysis also showed that theeffect was more
pronounced for the AR group.
The problem-solving heuristics approach used in the
study was successful because the experiences created in
the learning process exposes students to stimulating
problem situations, propagates the generation of
fundamental mathematical ideas and using the learnt
heuristics in trying to solve the assigned problems. These
problems also measure critical thinking, problem solving,
and logic based on fundamental conceptions of
mathematics and not just mere math skills. In other
words, this mathematical thinking test used in the study is
somewhat an aptitude test on cognitive assessment of
mathematics. We are of the view that this heuristics
application be considered as a course for both tertiary
and school students in enhancing students’ knowledge in
general and STEM Students in particular, for the
development of mathematical thinking. This heuristics
application will not be competing with the mathematics
courses currently being taught but rather, will be
completing it as a holistic package towards students
mathematical thinking development.
According to Montague and Applegate (2000), students
with disabilities often report problems as more difficult
than do their averageachieving peers. In addition to this,
as that difficulty level increases they have a tendency to
take less time than their peers, indicating their belief that
they are unable to complete the word problems. This was
attributed to the fact that they demonstrated evidence of
rushing through the problems and giving up instead of
persisting through the computation (Montague &
Applegate, 2000). It is an educator’s responsibility to help
each student achieve their highest potential, despite
these challenges. Word problem-solving strategies are
one way in which educators can support mathematic
potential. Several studies have proposed visual-spatial
and heuristic concepts that would support the word
problem-solving success of students with learning
disabilities in the classroom (Koichu et al., 2007;
Montague & Applegate, 2000; Sharpe, Krawec, & Fults,
2014; van Garderen & Montague, 2003; van Garderen et
al, 2012).
Considering the factors suggested as being involved in
the selection of a heuristic (Hutchinson and Gigerenzer
2005), it is possible to theorise the rationales
underpinning the students decision making and problem
solving processes. Perhaps the most interesting
behaviour exhibited during the initial modelling task was
the selection of strategies adopted by the students. For
both groups, a significant portion of problems were solved
by the student requesting assistance and in many cases
this was the initial approach to the problem. With
evolutionary training being cited as a factor in students
determining such an approach, this may be suggestive of
a pre-existing didactic contract the students were
operating under. A didactic contract describes ‘‘the
interplay of mutual expectations between teacher and
students’’ (Verscheure and Amade-Escot 2007, p. 248). It
may be the case that previous educational experiences
created a problem solving culture defined by an
understanding that people in the role of an educator will
aid students in negotiating a problem through the
provision of a solution.
It was supported by the findings of Sasit (2002) found that
the students being taught by focusing on Heuristics
Reasoning, had reasoning ability passing criterion 50%. It
was also supported by Barak (2011) found that the
students experiencing Heuristics Learning Management
not only could increase the number of solutions but also
suggest additional questions. It could be concluded that
the instructional management could enhance the
students to understand how to solve the problem better
than to complete the answer only.

YL provided ideas for the argumentation and wrote the

submitted manuscript. LT contributed to the conception
and design of the study and wrote the first draft of the
manuscript. LZ reviewed and edited the manuscript. GC
contributed to study design and to manuscript drafting
and reviewing. All authors contributed to the article and
approved the submitted version.
The current paper has offered a novel framework for
future research at the nexus of math cognition, WM, and
metacognition. Many open questions remain in the
RAMPS framework, and many empirical studies must be
conducted to test the claims we have made herein. It is
our hope that the current conceptualization of relations
between WM, MA, and metacognitive experiences during
mathematical problem solving will be provocative and
facilitate future interdisciplinary work. Morsanyi et
al. (2019) recently proposed that research on
metacognitive processes, MA, and WM has the potential
to “significantly expand the scope of metacognitive
investigations and provide novel insights into individual
differences in the metacognitive regulation of learning
and problem solving” (Morsanyi et al. 2019, p. 147). We
thoroughly endorse this view, and hope that interested
readers will join us in seeking empirical answers to the
open questions.
Math anxiety is a problem that can negatively affect
children’s academic achievement and future employment
prospects. Here we found that for children who are higher
in WM, greater math anxiety is negatively related to their
use of advanced problem solving strategies, which could
have implications for their long-term math achievement. A
delay in developing a diverse repertoire of strategies may
not only limit children’s math performance but also affect
their flexible mathematical thinking
 the purpose of this intervention study is to determine
whether WMC plays an important role in strategy
intervention outcomes related to problem solving
accuracy in children with MD. Also of interest, is whether
strategy instruction that focuses on helping children with
MD solve problems, in the context of increasing
inference, influences WM performance. In contrast to
previous studies that focused on verbal WM (Swanson,
2014), both verbal and visual-spatial WM measures were
administered. A randomized control trial was used where
children with MD and without MD were assigned to one of
three treatment groups: (1) verbal strategies, (2) visual-
spatial strategies, or (3) a combination of both verbal and
visual-spatial strategies. Embedded within each of the
treatment conditions were lesson plans that gradually
increased inferring information (the number of irrelevant
propositions) within word problems across training
sessions. This type of strategy training directed children
to attend to relevant propositions while simultaneously
increasing irrelevant propositions within the context of the
word problem. This training was motivated by several
studies showing that learning to differentiate between
relevant and irrelevant information is significantly
correlated with solution accuracy and students at risk for
MD (e.g., Passolunghi and Siegel, 2001; Passolunghi et
al., 2001).
We assessed problem solving abilities at the end of the
day. Our findings revealed large variation in both problem
solving accuracy RTs and accuracy between individuals.
Given that WM and worry differences between individuals
increase over time, variations in problem solving accuracy
and RTs may also increase over time. The problem
solving subgroups may be characterized differently if
problem solving was assessed at the beginning of the
study, rather than the end. Future research should
explore how problem solving abilities change across time,
their relation with changing WM-worry relationships, and
possible implications for learning ability.
Overall, our research matches some of the predictions
found in cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988, 2005). The
central tenet of cognitive load theory is that, to be
effective, instruction should be designed in alignment with
the learners’ cognitive architecture. Human cognitive
architecture is held to consist of a limited-capacity WM.
Because information has to pass through WM before it
can be consolidated in long-term memory, the limited
capacity of WM can be considered the bottleneck for
learning. It is not surprising that, given the central tenet of
cognitive load theory, a practical application of our
findings would be to engineer the instructional control of
cognitive load, thus providing the means to optimize
problem solving accuracy.
Paraphrase

Problem solving, in the opinion of Krulik and Rudnick (1996),

is the process through which an individual draws upon
previously acquired information, skills, and understanding. It
starts with the first conflict and concludes once a solution has
been found. After analysis, the procedure can be described as a
Heuristic plans, or just heuristics, are a set of actions.
Heuristics offer a "route map" a "map," a road map that
outlines the way to a resolution of a challenging issue.
Although heuristics for addressing mathematical problems
have been discovered, this work was done elsewhere.
Heuristics, according to Pólya, can be taught. He puts a lot of
work into demonstrating how
Heuristic techniques can be used to teach heuristic reasoning.
Wilson suggests in 1967 that It's important to make a
distinction between the heuristic approach of instruction and
the application of as an aim of heuristic reasoning. The former
is intended to assist students in solving the current issue,
whereas the latter aims to improve students' abilities to solve
problems when faced with difficult, nonstandard issues.
Mathematical problem-solving is explained as mathematically
"thinking and functioning" [1]. This complex situation method
that requires an active problem solver. To arrange and handle
particular data in a mathematical task as well as general
information. proficiency at solving problems is highly regarded
and regarded as one of the key abilities a learner ought to
possess [2]. The K–12 curriculum includes Critical thinking
and problem-solving abilities have been the heart of the
mathematics curriculum's organizational system to foster
lifelong learning.
Each of the LAPS stations' activities attempted to clarify a
mathematical idea through the various heuristics that students
should understand after completing the exercises. The way
that the students reacted to the questions demonstrates their
issues are presented in the worksheet. As students
thoughtfully answered each question and with it may be
argued that the exercises carried out in each session provided
a variety of possible replies that were important in fostering
students' problem-solving ingenuity.
The results of instruction lead to learning (Leikin, Berman, and
Zaslavsky, 2000). a more nuanced comprehension of how
kids think when tackling problems. The "Using analogy to
reason - Finding what is simple to find - Planning... - For all
student categories, "another technique" was deemed
acceptable (see Appendix). The instructors discovered
variations in problem solvers' usage of certain approaches.
This progressively expanding comprehension was expressed
in Instructions for the classroom that are heuristic-oriented,
partly created by instructors without our assistance. It's
noteworthy to notice that even though the professors had
expressed appreciation for the majority of heuristic training's
benefits going to "weak" or "ordinary" students ones enjoyed
the biggest advantages. experimental

N/A
Every student learning mathematics is encouraged to equip
themselves with logical thinking skills and making decisions
on difficult issues requires the ability to reason. the work they
put forth when preparing Mathematical knowledge is acquired
by repeated attempts, which are then referred to as mental
habits or thought patterns. Yet, failure to satisfy proficiency
standards is a problem so complicated that assigning blame is
impossible. on the students isn't entirely just. Students will
have a difficult time learning if these problems are not
addressed. pessimistic outlook on mathematics education,
particularly in the modern environment of STEM education
what is being regulating the issue at an early stage.
Many middle school kids still find it impossible to solve math
word problems. To aid pupils in visualizing these concepts,
teachers have used pictorial and schematic examples in the
classroom. Pictorial representations, however, can be more
detrimental than beneficial because they merely show people
or things, ignoring the spatial interactions between such
elements. In addition to these methods, teachers have
employed heuristics as a means to give a variety of word
puzzles order and routine. Presented in this literature review
observed that the application of several heuristics in today's
schools produced diverse results. On the other hand,
heuristics and visual-spatial diagrams have both shown value
in middle school special education classrooms. These results
provide evidence in favor of further investigation and
application of visual-spatial representations and problem-
solving strategies in the context of mathematical word
problems.
Student adoption strategies to reduce part of the cognitive
strain a learner experiences activity resulting in a bigger
learning potential. Throughout design projects, the use of
Heuristics can also produce an ideal answer within the
limitations of the issue. Yet, exposure to important information
may have unfavorable consequences. Therefore, it is crucial
that teachers are aware of the possibility for this to that they
ensure that the components of the learning activity they
decide to be occur and students are made aware of what is
crucial.
The globe has changed quickly and steadily in the modern
era, and human social and economic conditions have gotten
worse as well. When more advanced technology develops,
new patterns of issues emerge that are more complex than in
the past. Moreover, the historical information gathered could
no longer meet the needs for resolving the problems. As a
result, every nation agreed that having a populace with
mathematical aptitude was vital in order to handle new, more
difficult situations. However, there were significantly more
instances of issues resulting from rapid social development.
Kindergarteners already use an additive approach to ratio
reasoning and tend to pay attention to both the relative and
absolute magnitude of the ratio set as well as the magnitude
of the target dimension across ratio sets. We discovered that
this method does not significantly differ across various types
of representations, despite the fact that they naturally provide
various opportunities to estimate the absolute magnitude of
each dimension both within and across ratio sets. Our
research supports encouraging young children to develop
their ratio reasoning skills by highlighting the link between
ratio reasoning abilities and math aptitudes even before kids
start formal schooling. This is consistent with educational
recommendations that children should begin to develop the
core mathematical skills of probabilistic reasoning and data
analysis in Pre-K2.
It should be noted that "metacognitive experiences" include
both explicit and implicit metacognitive judgments and
feelings. Because solving math problems is frequently an
emotionally charged experience, metacognitive feelings
represent an essential part of the RAMPS framework
(Ashcraft 2002; Dowker et al. 2016). It is clear that feelings
and emotions coexist with the cognitive processing of
mathematical stimuli, even though problem solvers may not
frequently express their emotional state explicitly (e.g., "What
level of math anxiety am I experiencing at this moment?").
Numerous open questions in the area of mathematical
problem solving can be investigated thanks to the variety of
metacognitive experiences.
The issue of math anxiety can harm children's academic
performance and employment prospects in the future. Here,
we discovered that higher levels of math anxiety for kids are
negatively correlated with their use of sophisticated problem-
solving techniques, which may have an impact on their long-
term math achievement. Children's ability to think flexibly and
creatively in math may both be hampered by a delay in the
development of a diverse repertoire of strategies.
This study examined how word problem solving accuracy
among kids with MD was affected by strategy instruction.
There were three significant discoveries. First, evidence was
found to support the idea that strategy instruction improves
solution accuracy, but that this effect was tempered by
individual differences in WM span. Second, some strategies
produced higher post-test results than others, but it was
unclear from these results whether or not children were at risk
for MD. In order to facilitate a transfer to working memory
measures, support was finally found for strategy training on
problem solving measures. Given these broad conclusions,
the outcomes will now be categorized according to the three
research objectives.
How differing patterns of stability and/or change in the
relationships impact problem solving skills depends on
whether links between cognitive and emotional states remain
constant over time or change. However, cross-sectional
studies demonstrate that anxiety and concern may decrease
working memory (WM) resources, and those with stronger
WM capacities are better able to attenuate the impacts of
anxiety and worry. 126 14-year-olds' algebraic WM and
concern levels were evaluated twice in a single day before
taking an algebraic math problem solving exam in order to
study the patterns of stability and/or change in cognition-
emotion interactions through time and their implications for
problem solving. We identified stability/change in cognition-
emotion links using latent transition analysis, which resulted in
a six subgroup solution. WM capacity, concern, and
stability/change correlations varied among subgroups.
This study investigates how to distinguish between situations
in which retrieval and computation procedures are used to
solve mathematical issues. Verbal reports, solution latencies,
and brain imaging have all been found to be insufficient
indications of this differentiation in previous studies.
Participants in the current study worked through mathematical
problems that fell under the categories of "Pyramid" and
"Formula" difficulties. Participants received comprehensive
instruction on how to solve 3 specific Pyramid issues and 3
specific Formula problems. Untrained issues lacked this level
of practice, but trained problems did. The findings revealed a
contrast between untrained and trained difficulties. When
compared to taught issues, untrained problems required more
time to complete, often employed procedural methods, and
had higher HIPS activity.
This study looked into how WMC affected children with MD
who were learning strategies. To improve word problem
solving performance on norm-referenced measures, we
examined three cognitive therapies. Training included explicit
instructions for verbal strategies that instruct kids to circle or
underline important propositions in the problems, as well as
visual strategies that ask them to put numbers in diagrams.
There was also a condition that combined verbal and visual
strategies. Each strategy training session included explicit
practice and feedback linked to strategy usage and
performance, in line with evaluations that have identified
essential components associated to treatment efficacy
(Gersten et al., 2009; Xin & Jitendra, 1999).
This study sought to ascertain whether there were processing
variations between students with LD and LA classmates, as
well as whether the impacts of paraphrase accuracy and
visual representation accuracy varied across students based
on ability. Overall, the MANOVA findings indicated that there
were disparities in these two groups' capacity to paraphrase
word problems.
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