Teaching Indigenous Students

‘At the core of this detailed account of teaching Indigenous students are the
important practices of understanding the cultural background of the Indigenous

learner and having high expectations. Further, the discussion on the charac-
teristics of culturally valid assessment tasks is impressive and timely. This is a
quality piece of work that will contribute to a more informed Australian teaching
workforce and more happier and successful Indigenous learners.’
—Professor Peter Buckskin PSM FACE, Dean, Indigenous Scholarship,

Engagement and Research, University of South Australia
‘Hayward and Perso provide the knowledge, wisdom and insights that guarantee
success to any teacher who is prepared to embrace their messages, and work
hard to make Indigenous students stronger and smarter.’
—Dr Chris Sarra, Chairman, Stronger Smarter Institute
‘If I were to be teaching Indigenous students in Australia, be they located in

urban or rural areas, I would want to have this book in my right hand. Thelma
Perso and Colleen Hayward inspire the teacher to make significant differences
for Indigenous student learning and they provide the means to do so in a clear,
informative and comprehensive manner.’
—Russell Bishop PhD, Emeritus Professor of Maori Education, University of Waikato
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THELMA PERSO & COLLEEN HAYWARD
TEACHING
INDIGENOUS
STUDENTS
Cultural awareness and classroom strategies
for improving learning outcomes
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First published 2015 by Allen & Unwin
Published 2020 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Copyright © Thelma Perso, Colleen Hayward 2015
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Cataloguing-in-Publication details are available
from the National Library of Australia
www.trove.nla.gov.au
Copyright in Figures 0.1 and 4.1 is owned by or licensed to the State of Queensland,
acting through the Department of Education, Training and Employment (DETE),
PO Box 15033 City East Qld 4002 Australia and is reproduced with its permission.
All tables and figures are the work of the authors, unless stated otherwise.
Internal design by Bookhouse, Sydney
Index by Puddingburn Publishing Services
Set in 11.75/14.5 pt Minion Pro by Bookhouse, Sydney
ISBN-13: 9781743316061 (pbk)
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Contents
About the authors ix

Preface xi
Acknowledgements xii
List of figures and tables xiii
Introduction Curriculum alignment and professional standards for teachers xv
Chapter 1 Cultural competence and cultural responsiveness in schools 1
Knowledge, attitudes and skills for teaching in culturally responsive ways 2

Schools as places of power 3
Understanding identity 4
Identifying personal values 6
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and identity 7
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives and epistemologies 8
Responding from the heart 14
Reacting to people who are different 15
Recognising differences among your students 18
Racist behaviours 19
Deficit and agentic thinking 20
National Professional Standards for Teachers 21
Chapter 2 Understanding who your students are 27
Finding out about your students 27

Stereotyping 28
Differences between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 29
Cultural protocols and social language 35
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Child-rearing practices 37
Language differences 38
Code-switching in language, culture and behaviour 39
Language and culture 40
Language of schooling 41
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in Western schools 42
Discovering what students know and can do, and how they learn best 45
Learning theory 46
Situating learning to be meaningful and relevant 47
Using metaphors in learning 48
Learning styles 48
Chapter 3 Managing and setting expectations for relationships

and behaviour 57
Teacher–student relationships 57
Managing student behaviour and discipline 65
Having high expectations 71
Relationships between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 74
School relationships with the community 75
Chapter 4 Intended curriculum, standards, literacy and numeracy 82
Curriculum 83
The Australian Curriculum and what the nation expects all children to learn 84
Curriculum resources and bias 87
SAE and the language of instruction 89
Literacy as a learning tool 93
Learning to read 97
Numeracy as a learning tool 102
Learning design 110
Conclusion 111
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Chapter 5 Culturally responsive teaching and learning strategies 115
Teaching and learning 116

Characteristics of culturally responsive teachers 117
Aboriginal culture, learning and ways of learning 118
Aboriginal pedagogy 126
Learning design 127
Bridging learning using scaffolding 128
Higher-order skills and collaborative learning 133
Situating learning in students’ lived realities 135
Differentiating curriculum 135
Scaffolding mathematics learning in practice 136
Explicit teaching and direct instruction 144
Implications of high expectations for pedagogy 146
Using metaphors in learning 147
Pedagogies for ESL students 152
Asking questions and getting the timing right 154
Teaching styles 155
Learning and engagement through ICTs 156
Effective planning and presentation 158
Conclusion 161
Chapter 6 Assessment, feedback and reporting 166
Characteristics of quality assessment 167

Cultural validity 173
Types of assessment task 178
Portfolios 182
Teaching students how to do assessment tasks and tests 183
Standardised tests and NAPLAN 184
Negotiating assessment with students 187
Showing learning progress 188
Providing feedback 189
Learning quality and the use of rubrics 191
Making consistent judgements 195
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Reporting on learning to students and families 196
Conclusion 198
Chapter 7 Challenges of teaching students in remote contexts 201
Context 202
Privilege 203
What works in schools 204
What works in classrooms 205
Ongoing induction 208
Attendance 208
Literacy and numeracy 210
Oral language development, hearing loss and EALD learners 214
Phonological skills 229
Trauma and nutrition 233
Genuine care 238
Maintenance of standards and high expectations 239
Celebration of success 241
Transitions 245
Home way/school way 247
Working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander teacher assistants and
support workers 248
Working in partnership with parents 249
Isolation 250
Conclusion 251
Chapter 8 Conclusion: Learning to teach in a culturally responsive way 253
One message stands out 258
Bibliography 261
Index 271
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About the authors
Dr Thelma Perso
I was a classroom teacher of mathematics for 18 years, eight
of which as Head of Department in large secondary schools
in Western Australia. During this time I completed Masters
and PhD degrees in mathematics education. Following my
teaching I became a Senior Curriculum consultant with the
Department of Education and became interested in Indigenous
education, being awarded a Churchill Fellowship to travel
overseas to enhance my study of Indigenous Numeracy in
Australia. On my return I held a series of senior positions,
including Manager of Curriculum and Curriculum Renewal with the
ACT Department of Education, executive directorships in Curriculum
with Education Queensland, and Literacy and Numeracy, and Schools,
with the Northern Territory Department of Education and Training.
I have extensive background in curriculum, teaching and learning,
assessment, school improvement and cultural competence. I also have
significant experience in numeracy and mathematics, having been
President of the Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers
(2005–07) and a member of the COAG National Numeracy Review
panel in 2008.
Professor Colleen Hayward AM

I am currently head of Kurongkurl Katitjin Centre for
Indigenous Education and Research, Edith Cowan University
(ECU) a position I hold concurrently with that of Pro-Vice
Chancellor (Equity and Indigenous). My work enables me to
lead the University’s teaching and research programs in the
Indigenous space as well as ensuring our inclusive practices
across a range of diversity areas. I am a senior Noongar woman
with extensive family links throughout the south-west of
ix
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x TEACHING INDIGENOUS STUDENTS
Western Australia. I come from a teaching family; my father was ECU’s

first Indigenous Australian graduate and the first Aboriginal teacher
and Principal in Western Australia.
My teaching career spans more than 20 years, eleven of which
were spent in the classroom. I currently assist in the training program
for undergraduate teachers, specifically in their development towards
teaching Indigenous students in schools. For more than 30 years, I
have advised the Western Australian Department of Education on their
Aboriginal Education policies and practice, providing significant input
on a wide range of issues, reflecting the needs of minority groups at
community, state and national levels. I have an extensive background
in a range of areas including education, health, training, employment,
housing, child protection, and law and justice, as well as significant
experience in policy and management.
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Preface
Although we, the authors, come from different cultural backgrounds, we

share the same philosophical perspective on teaching and learning. The
pedagogies included in this book are effective to promote quality learning
experiences for all students, regardless of their cultural backgrounds or
the site or setting in which students are being taught. The focus, however,
is on the provision of quality learning experiences for Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander children and young people.
All children are on a continuum of learning. It is essential that
teachers find out where each of their students is on this continuum by
developing knowledge of individual students’ learning levels and needs.
Universities produce educators that fill positions in the various supply
chains of the nation’s education systems. These educators over the last four
decades have emerged from their universities with very little exposure to
Indigenous insights and then they inadvertently replicate either [no] or at
worse illegitimate or ill-informed Indigenous content in their disciplinary
field. The cycle of ignorance then contributes, sustains and then replicates
itself to the detriment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders in
nearly every field of professional service delivery, as recognised in the
contemporary social indicators of the nation. This ignorance is the ‘silent
apartheid’ and in view of the forty year celebration of the landmark 1967
Referendum needs to be firstly recognised and then addressed particularly
in the specific field of education as a matter of urgency.
The silent apartheid as a detrimental phenomenon is bolstered not by
the vacuum that it creates through the sustenance of ignorance, but by the
raft of inappropriate by products it produces in order to fill the void. These
by-products are themselves often covert and present not as racism but as
an ‘ignorance’ that elicits professional practise that is derisive and harmful
to both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders and the general population.
Dr Mark Rose, The Great Silent Apartheid
As experienced educators, we want to help address some of the ignorance

referred to by Dr Rose in the statement above and bring a balanced,
bi-cultural perspective to the education of children in Australian schools.
xi
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Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Dr Kevin Gillan for insight provided to inform inclu-

sions in Chapter 3, regarding discussion presented in his unpublished
PhD thesis Technologies of Power: Discipline of Aboriginal Students in
Primary School (2008, University of Western Australia).
Thank you to Margaret James of the Honey Ant Readers for her
expertise and assistance with the section on oral language development.
Big thanks to our families: Thelma’s husband, Ross Prout, for patience,
support, encouragement, and suggestions and editorial comments, and
Colleen’s sister, Gail Barrow, and mother Grace Hayward, both of whom
have given so generously of their love, support, inspiration and insight.
Thanks to the parents and carers who gave permission for photos of
their children to be included in this book, namely Crystal Maybourne,
Tammy Smith, Kellie Farmer, Katrina Pickett, Sue Jones, Killarney
Munday, Petrina Oremek, Daphne Bennell and Patricia Bennell. Special
thanks to Ms Kellie Farmer (Aboriginal and Islander Education Officer)
from Waroona District High School for gathering permissions from
parents and coordinating the photos of the children, and to Principal
Mr Mark Charlesworth for facilitating and enabling the process.
xii
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List of figures and tables
Figures
0.1 Curriculum alignment xvii
1.1 Relationship between cultural competence and cultural responsiveness 2
3.1 Possible causal pathway to cultural differences responsible for the
‘discipline gap’ in schools 68
3.2 Relationship between school and classroom environment, and
student results 73
4.1 Relationships between aspects of the curriculum 83
5.1 Pedagogy enables the intended curriculum to become the
learned curriculum 115
5.2 The role of the teacher in engagement and learning 116
5.3 The eight ways of learning, as symbols 120
5.4 ‘Bridging’ prior learning 127
5.5 Scaffolding and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) 129
5.6 Thirds 141
6.1 Process to ensure assessment of intended learning 170
6.2 Question 25, 2010 NAPLAN Year 3 Numeracy Test 186
Tables
0.1 National Professional Standards for Teachers and focus areas xxiii
0.2 Alignment between the National Professional Standards for Teachers and
the chapters of this book xxiv
1.1 Differences between Aboriginal and ‘Western’ worldviews 9
1.2 Understanding cultural differences in student behaviour 11
1.3 National Professional Standards for Teachers, Standards 1.4 and 2.4 23
2.1 Australian Aboriginal peoples, location of regional groups 30
2.2 Aboriginal community group differences 31
2.3 Differences in child-rearing practices 38
2.4 Aboriginal perspectives on teacher behaviours 44
2.5 Information processing modes of print and oral cultures 49
2.6 Learning styles compared: Aboriginal and mainstream 51
xiii
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2.7 Overview of research into learning styles of Australian Aboriginal students 51
2.8 Educational cognitive styles of American Indians 54
2.9 Culturally Responsive Behaviours, Standard 1 54
2.10 National Professional Standards for Teachers, focusing on Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander people 55
3.1 Possible teacher perceptions of student behaviours 66
3.3 National Professional Standards addressed in Chapter 3 80
4.1 Culturally Responsive Behaviours, Standards 2 and 3 112
5.1 Fractions and decimals content descriptors: Years 1 to 4 136
5.2 Representations of unit fractions 140
5.3 Representations of multiples of unit fractions 142
5.4 Patterns observed in American Indian and non-American Indian
teacher pedagogy 156
6.1 Individualism versus collectivism 175
6.2 Most commonly used genres encountered in different subject areas 179
6.3 Peculiarities of text types and genres in reading and writing 180
6.4 Bloom’s Taxonomy: Thinking and affective skills, activities that require
them, and learning quality 192
6.5 Example of a rubric to assess learning qualities for a learning goal: addi-
tional subtraction 193
7.1 Conditions for language learning in home and school environments 224
8.1 Alignment between National Professional Standards for Teachers and
cultural responsiveness 254
xiv
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Curriculum alignment and
professional standards for teachers
Introduction
What is this book about?
This book is about good teaching and learning. Teachers who don’t
have Indigenous students in their classes, as well as those who do, will
benefit greatly from its messages.
While we aim to provide advice and support for teachers about good
teaching and learning for Indigenous students, we do not present this
as an ‘add on’, something else to do. The additional messages are more
about awareness of differences and being alert to them than anything
else. This awareness drives teachers to adopt culturally responsive
teaching and pedagogical practices, including:
• wanting to know more about their students
• respecting students more
• nurturing caring relationships for them and wanting the best for them
• designing lessons that maximise their learning, and
• designing quality assessment tasks that give students opportunities
to demonstrate the full extent of their learning.
Terminology
In the Indigenous space, the use of terminology is complex. For instance,
and very generally, the term ‘Indigenous’ is often taken to include all
people who are Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander, whereas the
words ‘Aboriginal’ and ‘Torres Strait Islander’ are each more discerning.
xv
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xvi TEACHING INDIGENOUS STUDENTS
If you work in or visit a particular area, then reference to the particular

‘nation area’ is even more so, and this is seen to be more respectful
because you have taken the time and trouble to find out that greater
level of detail, especially if you have deliberately sought that knowledge
and gained permission to use it.
We prefer to use the term ‘Indigenous’ when referring to trends,
developments, policies and/or programs that are national, and the term
‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander’ in a bid to show our respect and
to acknowledge that many Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander
people do not themselves like the term ‘Indigenous’. However, in the
interests of readability and to avoid unnecessary repetition we often use
both terms interchangeably in the text. Some of our examples will be
more specific again to denote the area from which a group have come.
In the American context, the preferred terms are ‘American Indian’,
‘First Nation’ people or ‘First Peoples’.
Curriculum alignment
Teachers need to consider a number of issues, and take a number of
‘steps’, in designing learning goals, activities and assessments. These
steps must be aligned to each other to ensure that the final product of
the curriculum—the student report—focuses on the student and what
he or she has learned of the required learning outcomes.
The process of designing learning is shown in Figure 0.1. Curriculum
alignment focuses on students and so the design must place them at the
centre and consider them at every step in the process. This may change
every year or every term, depending on who your students are and what
they already know. It is always dynamic, never static.
Teachers start with the questions ‘Who are the students?’, ‘What
do they already know?’ and ‘How do they learn?’ In order to answer
them, teachers need to do their own homework. They need to gather
information on their students from reliable sources. In particular, they
should make no assumptions about students based on their own personal
experiences; for example, how they were raised, how they were taught,
how they were disciplined and their parents’ aspirations for them. Such
assumptions can result in incorrect stereotyping and judgement-making
of students, which disadvantage students at school. This is particularly
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CURRICULUM ALIGNMENT AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS xvii
Curriculum alignment FIGURE 0.1
Curriculum intent
What do we want students
to learn?
Reporting Students Pedagogy

How do we communicate Who are the students? How will we teach it so all
what they have learned and What do they already know? students will learn it?
how well they have learned it? How do they learn?
Assessment
How will they show what they
know? How will we fnd out if
they’ve learned what we
wanted them to learn?
Source: Developed by T. Perso for Education Queensland (2008)
true for students who have different backgrounds from their teachers,
whether in terms of culture, language, social and/or economic factors.
Chapter 1 will support you to explore your own values, beliefs,
worldviews and identity so that you have something to which to refer
as a point of comparison when considering differences in your students.
Teachers need to be aware of these differences. While it may not
be possible to develop an in-depth knowledge of the differences of all
students from different backgrounds than their own, teachers need
to be aware of the nature of the differences; that children are raised
differently, taught differently, learn differently, see the world differently
and so on. This awareness will give them a greater sense of respect and
appreciation for students who have to ‘match up’ with the particular
type of schooling presented in Western schools.
While students from non-Australian cultural minorities have to some
extent—at least through their parents—had some choice in whether or
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xviii TEACHING INDIGENOUS STUDENTS
not they learn through Western schooling models, Australian Aboriginal

and Torres Strait Islander students are in a unique position that separates
them from this grouping. They are Australia’s First Peoples, but unless
they have access to an independent Aboriginal school many have no
choice but to attend schools of the dominant culture.
Our Indigenous students attend most Australian schools. In most
urban and rural schools they are a minority and in remote schools they
often make up the majority of the student cohort. Their backgrounds
differ generally depending on their location and the extent to which
they have embraced Western culture. However, non-Indigenous teachers
should make no assumptions based on appearance, dialect or students’
actions. We owe it to all students to find out as much as we can from
them, their families, Indigenous support staff and teachers in our schools,
Indigenous Elders and others who may hold helpful knowledge.
Chapter 2 provides support and some information that will help you
to ‘find out’ about your students, which will be an ongoing process.
However, to start designing lessons and units of work you should also
attempt to find out what your students know already. Remember that
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students—indeed all students
from different cultures than your own—are likely to know a lot more
than you about some things, particularly those to do with their culture.
Chapter 3 provides information about how you need to create a ‘tone’
in your classroom that is conducive to learning, and in particular about
how to manage student behaviour. Your ability to do so will depend
largely on how well you can build strong relationships with students,
which we know is critical when teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander students, due to the high premium placed on relationships in
their cultures.
Chapter 4 describes the intended learning; that is, what the students
need to learn. While the intended learning is provided (and expected)
through the Australian Curriculum (Australian Curriculum, Assessment
and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2011), it needs to be ‘bridged’ and
scaffolded to the learning that your students bring with them to the
classroom and to the ways in which they are used to learning. This
‘bridging’ requires you to know more about characteristics and qualities
of the tools for learning: language, literacy and numeracy.
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CURRICULUM ALIGNMENT AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS xix
There is also an expectation that you consider the contexts and

challenges that might affect your ability to successfully bridge the
‘gap’ for some students, such as conductive hearing loss (CHL) and the
challenges of teaching students to learn in English, a foreign language
for many Indigenous students in remote communities.
Chapter 5 is about pedagogy, asking the question ‘How will I teach it
so that students learn it?’ This chapter describes strategies for successful
teaching. In particular it draws on the research about Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander learning styles and the consideration of successful
practices shown to have worked for Indigenous students, such as the
use of metaphors and information communication technologies (ICTs).
Chapter 6 describes the nature and use of assessment in the learning
process; how it can impact on pedagogy, and its connection to the
intended learning in planning and design. We present characteristics
of quality assessment tasks and describe the importance of cultural
validity in assessment design and what this means for Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander students. We describe how assessment can
improve learning and empower students through the provision of
quality feedback.
In addition, this chapter considers how teachers can learn from
assessment. Their examination of students’ learning demonstrations
and results can greatly enhance teachers’ capacity for self-reflection
and enable them to consider how they themselves need to improve, or
what they need to do better or differently in the future.
Reporting student learning and progress is an important part of the
curriculum alignment process. It ‘closes the circle’ by documenting and
describing what students have learned and how well they have learned
it. In this way, reporting and assessment are closely aligned and should
be seen as interconnected, not two separate processes. Information
provided supports teachers to improve the quality of their assessment
tasks and enhances their decisions and judgements, which increases
their confidence in managing the process of providing students with
an A–E grade.
Chapter 7 examines the additional challenges for teachers of students
in remote Australian locations. While training institutions focus on the
needs of Indigenous Australian students in all schools, they are rarely
in a position to prepare their student teachers for remote schools, since
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xx TEACHING INDIGENOUS STUDENTS
relatively few graduate teachers are posted to these schools. However, a

broad general preparation cannot prepare graduate teachers, or indeed
any teachers, for the challenges of these locations. This chapter attempts
to raise awareness of the particular issues and challenges confronted by
teachers who are sent to these schools or who choose to teach in these
schools, so that they can do so with their ‘eyes wide open’; they will
have a sense of what to expect.
Some critics have urged us to define the differences between
Indigenous people in urban, regional and remote locations. We have
deliberately avoided this. While it is possible to distinguish between the
locations and schools within them, differences between the people in
them are not so easy to define. We do not wish to try to describe the
extent to which an environment can influence identity or behaviour,
recognising that this will be different for each individual.
It is sometimes easy, in the context of media coverage and government
policy, to assume that most Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people
live in remote parts of Australia. This is incorrect. For instance, in the
Western Australian context, there are more Aboriginal people living
in the Perth metropolitan local government area of Swan than there
are across the whole of the Kimberley. As teachers, we are therefore
mistaken if we think that it is only if we teach in a remotely located
school that we will need to draw on the skills of cultural competence
and cultural responsiveness outlined in this book.
It is likely that every teacher will at some time teach Indigenous
students—some of whom may well be in geographically remote or
isolated situations. However, others will be in situations that are remote
and isolated because they are the only Aboriginal student in a class,
and the remoteness and isolation that these children experience are
about the loneliness and separation they may feel in being different,
especially if teachers do not take all possible and necessary steps to
make school meaningful and relevant to them. Whether we think of
isolation and remoteness in geographic or social/demographic terms, it
is the task—indeed, the responsibility—of all of us to ensure that quality
education is accessible to all the children we teach.
When a teacher teaches, some students learn and others do not. The
pedagogies teachers use make learning possible, but learning cannot be
guaranteed for all students. Good teachers need to deeply understand
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CURRICULUM ALIGNMENT AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS xxi
the desired learning and present it in ways that maximise learning for
every student. The focus of this book is the nexus between the desired
learning and the pedagogies we use to teach it. Clearly we cannot
describe pedagogy without taking into account:
• the teachers’ understanding of their students (including the students’
understanding of schools, teachers and their ways of working, and
the purpose and types of assessments used)
• the teachers’ understanding of the desired learning
• the teachers’ assessment processes that will inform them of their
success, and
• the teachers’ consideration and subsequent refinement of each of
these, based on what their students learn.
When teachers understand their students, this influences their decision-
making about the design of appropriate and effective learning experiences
and assessment tasks. The pedagogies they adopt will be effective to the
extent that they want to increase the successful leaning of their students.
Culturally responsive teachers are those who, in seeking to understand
their Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, learn more about
themselves in the process. This understanding of ‘self’ and personal
identity promotes a greater awareness of the similarities and differences
between people, including people from different culture groups. With this
awareness comes a greater respect and a desire to learn more. Teachers
who become learners of their students and their cultures approach their
role differently; respect develops into genuine ‘caring’; students and their
parents can feel and sense the care, trust and relationships developing;
and learning increases for both teachers and their students.
Moreover, culturally responsive teachers know that diversity exists
within cultural groups. They know, for example, that although they
might have learned a lot about the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
students at their last school in, say, rural New South Wales, they cannot
rely on this knowledge to help them build relationships with similar
students in urban Adelaide or remote Arnhem Land. They might assume
that similarities exist, but at the same time they know that they cannot
risk stereotyping their new students by using those assumptions—they
need to find out what their new students are actually like, which entails
being prepared to learn.
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xxii TEACHING INDIGENOUS STUDENTS
For this reason, cultural competence does not rely on a teacher’s

prior experience. Culturally responsive teachers of whatever level of
experience, novice or graduate, are keen to learn more. This personal
characteristic can be seen in the quality dimension of the National
Professional Standards for Teachers, developed by the Australian Institute
for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) in 2011, which describe
the levels of accomplishment of teachers.
The Standards were developed in an attempt to describe quality
teaching and learning and to instil a sense of continuous improvement,
learning and growth in the Australian teaching profession. The chapters
of this book align closely to the Standards, because good teaching and
learning rely on an understanding of who students are and how this
impacts on every aspect of the learning design process.
National Professional Standards for Teachers

In 2011, AITSL released the National Professional Standards for Teachers
(referred to as ‘the Standards’). The Standards recognise the crucial
role of the teacher in student learning. They facilitate the development
of teachers by providing standards that articulate what teachers are
expected to know and be able to do at the Graduate, Proficient, Highly
accomplished and Lead stages of their careers. In effect, they describe
the qualities that the nation expects of teachers in Australian schools.
There are seven Standards in three domains: Professional Knowledge,
Professional Practice and Professional Engagement. Each of the Standards
has a number of focus areas, as shown in Table 0.1.
The Standards are not written as a checklist; that is, although
standards 1.4 and 2.4 specifically mention Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander students, teachers should not think that it’s possible
to meet these students’ needs merely by ‘ticking off’ the Standards.
The requirement to support Indigenous learners by attending to their
specific needs—that is, adopting a culturally responsive approach
(described in Chapter 1)—is embedded in each of the Standards. Cultural
responsiveness cannot be turned on and off. Cultural responsiveness
in teaching is something you engage in all the time as you respond to
students and staff of different cultures, rather than something you are
capable of, as we explain in Chapter 1. It is a capability that underpins
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CURRICULUM ALIGNMENT AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS xxiii
National Professional Standards for Teachers and focus areas TABLE 0.1
Standard Focus areas
Professional Knowledge
1. Know students and how 1.1 Physical, social and intellectual development and characteristics
they learn of students
1.2 Understand how students learn
1.3 Students with diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and
socioeconomic backgrounds
1.4 Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
students
1.5 Differentiate teaching to meet the specific learning needs of
students across the full range of abilities
1.6 Strategies to support full participation of students with disability
2. Know the content and 2.1 Content and teaching strategies of the teaching area
how to teach it 2.2 Content selection and organisation
2.3 Curriculum, assessment and reporting
2.4 Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
people to promote reconciliation between Indigenous and
non-Indigenous Australians
2.5 Literacy and numeracy strategies
2.6 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
Professional Practice
3. Plan for and implement 3.1 Establish challenging learning goals

effective teaching and 3.2 Plan, structure and sequence learning programs
learning 3.3 Use teaching strategies
3.4 Select and use resources
3.5 Use effective classroom communication
3.6 Evaluate and improve teaching programs
3.7 Engage parents/carers in the educative process
4. Create and maintain 4.1 Support student participation

supportive and safe 4.2 Manage classroom activities
learning environments 4.3 Manage challenging behaviour
4.4 Maintain student safety
4.5 Use ICT safely, responsibly and ethically
5. Assess, provide feedback 5.1 Assess student learning

and report on student 5.2 Provide feedback to students on their learning
learning 5.3 Make consistent and comparable judgements
5.4 Interpret student data
5.5 Report on student achievement
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xxiv TEACHING INDIGENOUS STUDENTS
Standard Focus areas
Professional Engagement
6. Engage in professional 6.1 Identify and plan professional learning needs

learning 6.2 engage in professional learning and improve practice
6.3 Engage with colleagues and improve practice
6.4 Apply professional learning and improve student learning
7. Engage professionally 7.1 Meet professional ethics and responsibilities

with colleagues, parents/ 7.2 Comply with legislative, administrative and organisational
carers and the community requirements
7.3 Engage with the parents/carers
7.4 Engage with professional teaching networks and broader
communities
Source: AITSL (2011)
who you are, and therefore it is embedded in your daily practice, in all
your actions or responses, all the time.
The alignment between the Standards and the chapters of this book
can be seen in Table 0.2.
While we do not set out to address explicitly every focus area within
the Standards, we will clearly signpost them where they are relevant.
Indicators demonstrated by culturally responsive teachers against
the Standards are derived from ensuing chapters and tabled where
appropriate.
TABLE 0.2 Alignment between the National Professional Standards for Teachers
and the chapters of this book
Teacher standard Addressed in chapter(s)
1. Know students and how they learn 1–5

2. Know the content and how to teach it 1, 4, 5, 7
3. Plan for and implement effective teaching and learning 2–6
4. Create and maintain supportive and safe learning environments 1–5
5. Assess, provide feedback and report on student learning 6
6. Engage in professional learning 1–7
7. Engage professionally with colleagues, parents/carers and the community 1–7
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CURRICULUM ALIGNMENT AND PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS xxv
Each focus area of the Standards can be demonstrated at a different

level of competency: Graduate, Proficient, Highly Accomplished and
Lead. While graduate teachers are expected to demonstrate knowledge
and understanding in the focus areas, proficient teachers are able to
develop and design strategies and activities in each of the focus areas
and implement them. Highly accomplished teachers work collaboratively
with colleagues, providing advice, innovation and support based on their
experience, including by modelling high-level practice. Lead teachers,
as the name suggests, lead school-based initiatives by virtue of their
exemplary practice and understanding of school and system policy, and
demonstrate excellence in all aspects of their teaching practice.
Discussion in this book will focus primarily on the proficient level of
practice, because graduate teachers, who may have the knowledge and
capability to implement appropriate strategies, need to implement the
strategies derived from their knowledge and reflect on their success,
modifying the strategies as necessary, in order to improve student
learning (Standard 5.4, AITSL 2011, p. 17).
If you are a pre-service or graduate teacher, we recommend you read
this book with an aspiration to become proficient. The information
you will find here, together with what you learn through your own
professional development and work you do with teachers who have
achieved Proficient, Highly accomplished or Lead status, will help you
to develop and become increasingly proficient.
If you are a more experienced teacher, you should read the chapters
with a view to seeing yourself progress even further along the proficiency
scale. Your behaviours are expected to demonstrate competence beyond
the proficient level, but your responses to the information in this
book will depend largely on the depth of knowledge you gain from
self-reflection on successful or unsuccessful practice, through personal
engagement, and through application in classrooms, implemented
interventions and modification.
If you are an experienced teacher, you will be able to use your
knowledge and experience to design, model and lead effective programs
targeted at the needs of all students, including Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander students. This progression is not possible without
self-reflection and evaluation on the effectiveness of your responses,
particularly with respect to the increased achievement of your students.
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xxvi TEACHING INDIGENOUS STUDENTS
Of course, the ultimate test of success is whether or not your

students—all of them—are learning what is required. However, this
does not mean that inexperienced teachers are not capable of being
culturally responsive. Cultural responsiveness, as a personal capability,
is grounded in respect for cultural differences, empathy in being able to
see the world from the other’s perspective, and perception of yourself
as a humble learner rather than an all-knowing teacher. These are
baseline characteristics that have little to do with experience in teaching.
Rather, graduate teachers can position themselves to develop cultural
responses through teaching experience, while aspiring to be culturally
responsive teachers.
A novice teacher, for example, might gain students’ trust merely by
showing interest in each student individually and by showing genuine
care, consideration and respect. These behaviours, which emanate from
genuine care for all people, will ensure that a beginning teacher will
want to learn more about his or her students and to use the information
gathered to help students learn. This motivation and the ensuing actions
provide a sound starting point on the journey towards developing as a
culturally responsive teacher.
The Standards are relatively new, and many teachers are still devel-
oping confidence in implementing and ultimately demonstrating them
for the benefit of their students. This book will help you in developing
that confidence. In doing so, we build on the work of others over time
but recognise the relative paucity of material specifically addressing the
Standards. In turn, we invite others to progress the work we have done
here, as we all strive to improve our effectiveness as teachers and our
students’ effectiveness as learners.
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Cultural competence and cultural
responsiveness in schools
CHAPTER 1
Increasingly, there are more and more people from different cultural
backgrounds in Australian schools. In a school, teachers and school
leaders need to deal effectively, fairly and equitably with each student. It
is difficult to do this unless we truly believe that all people are equal and
that all students have the right to achieve the same learning outcomes
no matter what their background.
A person is culturally competent if they have the capacity or
ability to understand, interact and communicate effectively, and
with sensitivity, with people from different cultural backgrounds.
Having this ability doesn’t mean they actually do these things, and
the mere possession of cultural competence is not enough. Someone
once said that ‘actions speak louder than words’. Hence, if we are
culturally competent and put that competence into practice, we will
demonstrate our cultural responsiveness. In other words, it is how we
respond to people from other cultures that counts, not merely what
we believe and have the capacity to do. Cultural responsiveness is
enacted cultural competence.
This distinction is important. We draw a parallel with the distinction
between someone who has the ability to be literate; that is, they know a
lot about the language in which they are fluent and when and how to
use it) and someone who is literate; that is, they successfully apply their
language knowledge to a range of contexts and for a range of audiences).
We show this relationship between cultural competence and cultural
responsiveness in Figure 1.1.
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2 TEACHING INDIGENOUS STUDENTS
FIGURE 1.1 Relationship between cultural competence and cultural responsiveness
Cultural
competence
Capacity to act
Attitudes
and values
Cultural
responsiveness
Understanding Planned and delivered action

Knowledge
and skills
You can see that an individual’s cultural competence is made up

of their knowledge, understanding, and attitudes and values. All are
essential and interact or combine when someone demonstrates culturally
responsive behaviours. This means that on their own, these aspects
are insufficient to support cultural responsiveness; knowledge of other
cultures, for example, is not enough to enable cultural responsiveness.
It needs to be demonstrated.
Knowledge, attitudes and skills for teaching in culturally

responsive ways
Research indicates that teachers need to know their students and know
about their students (Sowers-Hoag & Sandau-Becker, 1996; Manoleas,
1994; Nicholls et al., 1998). They also need to know about:
• the various cultural groups that make up their class in any one year
• the differences and similarities between students (or other individuals)
within cultural groups
• the historical and current relationships that may have caused, or are
causing, distrust between minority groups and the dominant society,
and

CULTUR AL COMPETENCE AND CULTUR AL RESPONSIVENESS IN SCHOOLS 3
• the power relationships that can and do occur between teachers and
students/cultural groups.
Schools as places of power

Every classroom is a microcosm of society, or a ‘mini-version of society’
(Friere, 1972, 1976). The relationships that occur in a classroom generally
mirror those in the world outside schools and classrooms. Teachers
have a powerful role in either supporting or challenging this status quo.
This means that teachers can either continue to mirror the social
inequities that occur in our society, or deliberately choose to challenge
them. A teacher can make a challenge directly, through their language,
relationships, pedagogies (teaching styles) or behaviour management,
or indirectly, through inclusive practices such as the way they set up
their classroom, materials they display on their walls, and the ‘mood’ or
‘tone’ they create by providing genuine warmth, care and affirmations.
If prejudice and racism exist in a society, we can either continue the
prejudice and racism (including by failing to recognise it) or we can
deliberately act to eliminate it. This means that, as teachers, we are in
a position of being very powerful change agents. We can model and
nurture equity or we can model and nurture the inequitable status quo
(Freire, 1972; Villegas & Lucas, 2002).
‘Whiteness’ is a social construction made by society The knowledge, ideologies, norms,
to describe the cultural, historical and sociological and practices of whiteness affect
how we think about race, what
aspects of people who are defined as being ‘white’. It we see when we look at certain
is an ideology linked to social status and power and physical features, how we build
is not based on skin colour. our own racial identities, how we
operate in the world, and what
McLaren (2002, p. 133) maintains that ‘whiteness [is] we ‘know’ about our place in it.
a cultural marker against which Otherness is defined’. HEFLAND (N.D.)
Other researchers have suggested that ‘whiteness’ is

about political domination, since those who are ‘white’ use their ‘white-
ness’ to perpetuate systems of privilege and consolidate their property
and status (see, for example, Gillan, 2008, p. 54; Marable, 1996, p. 6).
To understand these ideas, we need to examine our own identity and
how we operate in the world, asking ourselves how much is a result of
the ways in which we are seen by others and the ways that they expect us
to operate. As teachers, we need to consider the expectations (or power)

that we and our practices place on (or give to) our students, together
with the impact of policies (for example, discipline and behaviour)
within the schooling system of which we are part.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What do you know about the social inequities in the society in which you
for sharing live and/or work?
In order to understand prejudice and racism, we need to understand

ourselves. How would you respond if somebody asked ‘Who are you?’ Do
you know who you are, so that you would be able to answer this question?
Understanding identity
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
How would you answer the question ‘Who are you?’
for sharing
Indigenous people are likely to answer the question ‘Who are you?’ by
describing who their people (cultural group) are, what their country
(the land that their people belong to) is, what their traditional language
is, and something about their cultural tradition or family history. They
may provide information about their lineage; that is, their genealogy or
family line. They might even talk about their values, beliefs and attitudes.
It has only been relatively recently that Australian educators have
spoken explicitly about Australian identity in terms of values, beliefs
and attitudes. In 2005, Australian schools were provided with a set of
national Australian values that they were required to display. This list
was created in national dialogue, and groups of people from all cultural
groups and walks of life were convened to discuss what they believed
were the values of Australians (DEST, 2005). Nine Australian values
resulted from this work:
1. care and compassion
2. doing your best
3. a fair go, freedom
4. honesty and trustworthiness
5. integrity

6. respect
7. responsibility
8. understanding
9. tolerance and inclusion.
Many mainstream Australians know very little about their cultural
background and what it means to identify as Australian, including how
their cultural background ‘fits’ with being Australian. One of the reasons
for this is that, relatively speaking, Australia has only a short national
history, and because we are physically and to some extent socially isolated
from the rest of the world, we are rarely asked about it (unless we are
travelling abroad) and hence have little need to consider it.
This is not always the case. In the Japanese occupation of Singapore
from 1942 to 1945:
[t]o remove Western influence the Japanese promoted the Japanese
spirit (Nippon Seishin). Every school, government building and Japanese
company began with a morning assembly. Those present at such gatherings
had to stand facing the direction of Japan and sing the Japanese national
anthem (Kimigayo). Taisho or mass drills were made compulsory for
students, teachers, staff of companies and government servants. Teachers
had to learn Japanese several times a week. The students received their
daily Japanese lessons on the schools’ broadcasting service. (Er, 2013)
A range of sources inform us that when the Japanese invaded Singapore

in 1942, they made it compulsory for all school children to learn the
Japanese language, Nippon, and children and teachers had to speak
Nippon in school. In addition, people were expected to learn about
Japanese culture and to conduct business in ways approved by the
Japanese. The Indigenous Malays were not permitted to actively continue
practices aimed at maintaining their culture and heritage, although
their practices had existed for thousands of years.
If the Japanese had successfully invaded Australia, then it is possible
that Australians might have been forced to make the same sorts of
changes; Australian children could have been made to learn Nippon
instead of the English language; Australians might not have been able
to celebrate Australia Day; the Japanese might have made it illegal for
Australians to teach their children openly about Australian culture or
history, or to instruct them in speaking the English language.

If this had happened, it is possible that Australian culture might

actually have been strengthened. People would, more than likely, have
been in a position to define and describe Australian culture precisely
because they would know what it wasn’t, through comparison with
Japanese culture. So, it could be argued that non-Indigenous Australians
don’t always have a strong position about Australian culture because
they don’t have anything with which to compare it (unless, of course,
they have recently come from or had a rich experience of a different
cultural background, as some Australians have).
Our history helps define us. Many Australian values, as listed above,
come from our history. The concept of the ‘fair go’, for example, may
have developed in part from the culture that emerged following the
convict period of Australian history when class values brought here from
English society during colonisation didn’t seem to have a place anymore
and people were more willing to take others at face value than judge
them by their social standing in the ‘old country’. Similarly, the value of
‘mateship’ may have been strengthened during the two World Wars when
Australian soldiers fought side by side against the enemy.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What is Australian culture? What is Australian identity? How important
for sharing is the history of a cultural group in understanding their worldview and
perspective?
Identifying personal values

Values can differ from person to person. Answering and reflecting
on the following questions might help in understanding your own
personal values.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What values influenced your upbringing? How did your parents and
for sharing family talk about people from different cultural backgrounds? Did they
use derogatory words to group these people, or use terms that showed
respect? Did they judge people who were different? Did they treat them
differently to those of their own cultural background and teach you (and

model for you) to do the same? Did they fear people who were different,
or treat them as equals?
To what extent did you learn about others by watching and listening to PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
your parents? Do you hold onto their values regarding different cultures for sharing
or have you determined your own? Do you fear people who are different
as a result of your parent’s modelling? To what extent are your values
different to those of your parents? How do you act towards and react to
people who are different from yourself?
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures and identity

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identity is about ancestry and
‘country’ of origin; about seeing oneself as Aboriginal. It is not about
skin colour, DNA or bloodlines. It is about relationships with people and
obligations to them. It is also about place (country) and kinship. When
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people introduce themselves to
others, they say where they are from (‘country’) and the people-group
to which they belong (‘people’). This ‘locates’ them on a mental kinship
‘map’, in the same way that Western people locate places using geographic
grid references.
Huggins (2007) explains that Aboriginality is a feeling of one’s own
spirituality, which forms the core basis of identity, expressed every day
through art, language, humour, beliefs and familial and community
ties. Aboriginal identity is not a matter of where an Aboriginal person
lives. An Aboriginal person will identify with aspects of Aboriginal
culture whether they live in a remote community or in the centre of an
urban environment (Guider, 1991). Identity is very
personal, and it evolves for each person as they learn Culture . . . is the foundation upon
more about their own cultural background and as they which individual identity is built.
TRIPCONY (2007)
respond to different places and circumstances (Groome,
1995; Heiss, 2010).
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander kinship systems are identity
structures that determine the behaviour and responsibility of each
individual to each other within the Indigenous society. Similarly,
connection to ‘country’ (the traditional lands of a particular cultural

group) is fundamental to Aboriginal identity. This is why there is great

depth of feeling and intensity in the struggle for land rights.
How Aboriginal people see themselves, their conditions and their
own sense of identity affects their perspectives and perceptions of the
world around them.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives and

epistemologies
Perspectives are about seeing things differently, whether they are
physical, emotional or cultural. The points of view that individuals
hold depend on their life experiences and their learning, cultural beliefs
and values.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives are the points of
view that are held by Australia’s Indigenous people. For example, most
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have a different perspective
on Australia Day than do people who are non-Indigenous. For non-
Indigenous people, this is a day of celebrating the arrival of British
settlers in 1788. However, for many of Australia’s Indigenous people, it
is a sad day: the day when the ‘invasion and colonisation’ of their country
began and the day when their language, traditions and cultural way of
being began to be eroded.
Aboriginal and ‘Western’ worldviews can be seen
in theory (perhaps simplistically) as two ends of a
Being Aboriginal has nothing to
do with the colour of your skin continuum on which worldviews are placed. The
or the shape of your nose. It is worldviews of most people, including Aboriginal and
a spiritual feeling, an identity
Western, fall somewhere in between these two extremes.
you know in your heart. It is
a unique feeling that may be It is helpful to use a continuum to understand differ-
difficult for non-Aboriginal ences in worldviews, but in doing so it is important
people to understand.
to avoid promoting stereotypes. Thinking that all
BURNEY (1994)
Westerners have the worldviews that sit at one end
of the continuum, and all Aboriginal people have the
worldviews at the other, is not helpful; nor is thinking that all Westerners
think alike or that all Aboriginal people have the same views. An
individual’s position on the continuum will depend on the amount of
contact they have had with individuals of Western or Aboriginal cultures.
So, tables describing the extremes of the continuum, such as Table 1.1,

are helpful in making us aware of differences, but should not be used to

label individuals or groups. There are individuals and families in each
group who would disagree at any point in the continuum!
Differences between Aboriginal and ‘Western’ worldviews TABLE 1.1
Aboriginal Western/European
Spiritually oriented society Scientific, requiring proof, spirituality is hard to
discuss and define
Identity is found in relationships to people and Identity found in roles, titles, possessions
country
Aboriginal people live in the present while having Westerners live and work for the future;
strong connections to the ‘dreaming’ and past progress is important
practices
Aboriginal people co-exist with the environment Westerners use and master the environment for
and care for it—nurturing the environment as capital gain
nurturing a relationship
Authority is based on age, cultural knowledge, Authority is given through position; people
wisdom and relationship with people (depending on know how to behave towards the position,
location) rather than the person
Success and ‘feeling good’ are measured by the Success and ‘feeling good’ are measured in
quality of relationships with others; people are terms of achievement of personal (and profes-
person-oriented sional) goals; people are task-oriented
Living and working are intertwined; participation Work is related to earning money in order to
is the focus live; completion is important
Source: Adapted from Ash, Giacon & Lissarranguem (2003); Hanlen (2010); Jones, Kershaw & Sparrow (1995);
Yunkaporta & McGinty (2009)
It is important to note, then, that there will always be variations

within families and individuals within a culture; the dichotomies
presented in Table 1.1 are just that, not a reflection of individuals.
Non-Indigenous people should not assume that people from other
cultures see the world in the same way that they do. An Aboriginal staff
member in a remote school expressed a perspective on this:
I think that when they first come to our community they have to respect
our lore/law, respect our behaviours. Like if you want to come and teach
you . . . have to remember that you are here for teaching only not to
become bossy or to take over everything. You are here to be working
with indigenous [sic] staff. (quoted in Hall, 2010)

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives are an important

component of Australia’s history and cultural heritage. Whether they
live in urban, rural or remote locations, all Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander people maintain aspects of their cultural identity and engage
in cultural practices to some extent.
Curriculum documents are subject to change as governments change.
However, the Australian Curriculum published in 2011 made some recom-
mendations that have specific relevance for the teaching of Indigenous
students, so it seems important to examine its content and aims more
closely. In that document, the teaching of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander histories and cultures was made one of the cross-curriculum
priorities in the Australian Curriculum. This was in national recognition
that all Australian learners need to deepen their knowledge of Australia
by engaging with the world’s oldest continuous living cultures:
Students will understand that contemporary Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander communities are strong, resilient, rich and diverse. The
knowledge and understanding gained through this priority will enhance
the ability of all young people to participate positively in the ongoing
development of Australia. (ACARA, 2011)
In the Australian Curriculum it was argued that Aboriginal and Torres

Strait Islander perspectives should be incorporated into three key
concepts: Country/Place, Peoples and Cultures, and that these should
be embedded in each of the curriculum learning areas according to
the relevance of its content. By incorporating these into the curriculum
and, indeed, into all school practices, schools and teachers can ensure
that their school:
• is culturally inclusive and values all people regardless of their cultures
and backgrounds
• recognises that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander societies are
fundamental to our heritage
• is helping to develop the knowledge and understanding needed by
all Australian children
• is relevant to the learning needs of all Australian students (including
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, long-term residents
and new arrivals), and

• is promoting equitable outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait

Islander students.
Some aspects of culture are more important for classroom teachers to
know and understand because they impact directly on teaching and
learning. These might include cultural values, traditions, histories,
learning styles and relationship patterns. Some of these also relate to
Indigenous epistemologies; that is, Indigenous knowledge systems, or
the nature of knowledge and how it is used. Examples of these might
include whether community problem-solving is done collaboratively
or individually; whether protocols exist in the cultural community
regarding the ways children interact with adults (and how these play out
between students and teachers); and how questioning is used in cultural
communication (and how this might differ from classroom questioning).
Alberta Education (2007) provides advice for teachers to inform their
perceptions concerning the behaviours of their Aboriginal students.
Table 1.2 indicates some of the areas of difference.
Understanding cultural differences in student behaviour TABLE 1.2
Perceived behaviour Possible cultural source

Student avoids eye contact Casting the eyes down may be a demonstration of
respect
Student smiles at seemingly inappropriate A smile may be a gesture of respect, meant to avoid
times offence in difficult situations
Student seems reluctant to engage in debate, In some cultures, it is considered inappropriate to
speculation, argument or other classroom openly challenge another’s point of view, especially
processes the teacher’s
Source: Alberta Education, 2007
A great deal of research has resulted in descriptions of many of

these aspects for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students in parts
of Australia. The following extract is taken from Perso (2008), who
infers many of these in the compilation of her Reflective Framework
for Cultural Competence:
Information about students’ worlds is important information that teachers
need when creating a learning environment. In particular, they need to
find out:

How students are taught in the home/how have they learned best at
school so far? Do they learn by watching? By doing? By listening?
Which ones learn holistically (watch the whole behaviour repeatedly
until they feel confident to ‘have a go’) or incrementally (learn each
little step one at a time and then put them together), or both?
How questioning is used in the home and community: A dominant
question–answer pattern plays a major part in teaching and learning
in most Western classrooms since teachers ask questions to find out
what their students know. A response of silence (used frequently and
in a positive way in Aboriginal conversation) is often interpreted that
students are ignorant, shy or don’t want to engage. The Aboriginal
response to a question will often start with silence because this
is the Aboriginal way of communicating [Eades, 1993]. Similarly,
Aboriginal children from communities are likely to ask ‘who’ and
‘where’ questions rather than ‘why’ and ‘how’ questions, reflecting
their worldview and focus on relationships and country.
Classroom behaviours: Are the students independent learners? Do
they take on a lot of responsibility at home? Are they familiar with
following instructions from adults—especially those they don’t have a
relationship with? Are they used to collaborating with peers, offering
to help, taking help or requesting help from each other?
Language, semantics and tone: What do you know about the language/s
the students speak? Are they written or oral languages? Are they
creoles? Are they dialects? Do they speak Aboriginal English? Do
they know any Standard Australian English [SAE]? What phonemes
(sounds) do these languages have in common with SAE? Do you know
anything about the way language is used in the homes of children;
in some Indigenous cultures it may be considered offensive to speak
forthrightly, silence in questioning might be used differently, power
relations may influence communications, gestures and body language
may be as important as oral language. Are there any SAE words you
might use that may be interpreted in different ways (for example, use
‘think carefully’ rather than ‘try again’)?
Expectations and consequences: Do you believe that your students can
learn and achieve at high levels and that some are likely to be gifted?
Do your students know the expectations and goals you have for them?
Do you know what social and cultural languages your students use

in their homes? Are your students used to rules—what are they and
what are the consequences that are applied if they break them? Do you
know what expectations exist in the homes of the students concerning
the concept of ‘time’? Would they know what ‘five minutes to go’ or
‘stop work now’ mean? Do you know about the level of responsibility
and decision-making they have at home? Will they respond to
you making decisions just because you are their teacher? Do your
students understand physical and verbal restraints you might use in
the classroom? Will they respond to ‘don’t touch’ or ‘stay away’? Do
the families of your students understand that continuity of learning
is essential to ensure progress and achievement? How do you know?
Classroom relationships: Do you know that you might need to establish
closer/different relationships with your Indigenous students than
with non-Indigenous students in order to build the trust needed for
engagement and respect, more than just your name but in a deeper
sense? Do you know that the parents of your students might need to
know and trust you, the principal and the school, and the government
in order to maximise the attendance of the students? Are you willing to
meet with them outside the school grounds to build a relationship with
them? Do the parents of your students feel welcome in your classroom?
Do your students know your personal classroom management style
and what to expect? Did you know that publicly drawing attention to
errors of your students is offensive in some cultures? Is this the case
for your students? Have you asked parents how they correct errors and
mistakes of their children in order not to ‘shame’ them? Do you know
not to embarrass your students by drawing attention to their successes
in front of other Indigenous students, families and teacher aides?
Context and relevance: It is likely that your students will deeply engage
with tasks that are immediately relevant and meaningful; have you
found out whether this is so? Do you know which of your students
show persistence with problem-solving? Have you asked their families
about this? Have you thought how you might harness this for peer
tutoring in your classroom? Do you know about the cultural know-
ledge and skills of the local community and have you considered how
you might plan lessons and units of work to harness these settings?
Knowledge about learning: Do you know whether your students are
holistic or incremental learners, or both? Do you know whether they

take risks in their learning or wait until they know they are confident
before trying something new? Do you know whether your students
know how to provide feedback to you? Do they know that it’s OK
to ask for help and how to do that? Do they prefer to ask peers for
help rather than a teacher or teacher aide? Do you know how ritual
is used in homes and community? Is it possible your students are
ritualising tasks as a substitute for learning? How would you know?
Can ritualising be used to scaffold the learning? (Perso, 2008)
An Indigenous perspective on literacy is offered by Dr Kaye Price, an

Aboriginal education consultant, who perceives ‘traditional’ Aboriginal
literacy as ‘the enshrining of history, heritage and cultures in paintings
on bark, on bodies, on cave walls and in sand, as well as in dance and
song: a literacy that was privileged information
If our actions result in people depending on one’s wisdom and maturity’ (quoted in
from other cultures feeling Tripcony, 2007, p. 6). Tripcony adds that this comment
inferior, discriminated
against, ‘put down’, ‘demonstrates the different ways of being in the world,
ignored, ignorant, invisible, and helps us to see that for each of us, our literacy
subservient, or insignificant, abilities depend very much upon how we have been
then we are probably not
culturally competent. socialised at home, our experiences outside the home,
ROSE (N.D.) and the context in which we are expected to use our
skills of reading, viewing, listening, comprehending,
analysing, verbalising, writing, etc.’ (2007, p. 6). Another form of literacy
to note is that of ‘reading’ non-verbal language, which is still used by
many Indigenous Australians (Enemburu, 1989).
Responding from the heart

Cultural responsiveness contains an element of ‘heart response’ (Sims,
2011). Although a ‘head response’ is essential (that is, there must be an
element of compliance and ‘doing the right thing’ from a humanitarian
perspective), cultural responsiveness results from cultural competence,
which respects and values the unique identity of each child. A cultural
lens helps us to see each child from the perspective of their own family
and community rather than our own. This perspective will ensure that
all teachers care for students of different cultures from their own, and
will often result in an unbiased response.

It is also essential that teachers work from a ‘strengths base’. This

means acknowledging and valuing the individual strengths (knowledges,
abilities, values) of each child. In all contexts, and especially in remote
communities, it is essential that Indigenous teachers, workers and students
are valued for who they are, what they know and the skills they bring with
them into the learning environment. This approach will help teachers to
build strong relationships with their students and help them to validate
Indigenous cultures. It is also essential for teachers to build on what
students already know and the way it is embedded in their identities. Gay
(2000) believes that culturally responsive teachers appreciate the existing
strengths and accomplishments of all students, develop them further in
instruction, and use them as a resource for teaching and learning.
Indigenous perspectives add another dimension, a richness, to the
curriculum. They also build capacity for non-Indigenous students to
appreciate difference, and provide opportunities for teachers to validate
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures. If every teacher doesn’t do
this, intentionally and deliberately, regardless of how many Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander students are in the classroom, there is a risk
that students will have access to a biased program, delivered from a
white, middle-class perspective, using pedagogies and delivery styles
that do not take the needs of all students into account.
Reacting to people who are different

People tend to be more sensitive to those in their own social circle.
When they observe people from outside their social group, they may
connect with them by adopting their behaviours, motivational states and
emotions (Turner et al., 1979). According to scientists, these practices
have evolved to protect culture and identity.
Brain cell research at the University of California in Los Angeles
(Science Daily, 2007) revealed the existence of a neural mechanism
in the brain that enables empathic contact between individuals and
those they are observing. In particular, when an individual performs
an act, ‘mirror’ neurons in the brain ‘fire’. They also fire when a
person watches another person perform the same act, enabling the
observer to better understand the actions, intentions and feelings of
the person performing the act. Neuroscientists believe that ‘mirroring’

is the mechanism that enables us to read the minds of others and

empathise with them. Scientists also found (Science Daily, 2010) that
mirror neurons behave differently when we watch someone from
a different culture than our own perform the same activity. As a
result, they surmised that neural systems supporting empathy encode
information differently, depending on who is giving the information,
and concluded that culture has a measurable influence on our brain
and, as a result, our behaviour.
Further research (Gutsell & Inzlicht, 2010) found that when white
men watched video footage of non-white men performing the same
activities as those they had previously seen white men engage in, their
brains registered as little activity as when they watched a blank screen.
The researchers found that this trend was even more pronounced for
those participants who scored high on a test that measured racism.
Similar experiments in China (Xiaojing et al., 2009) revealed that the
brains of Chinese volunteers registered more firing at the sight of another
Chinese person in pain that at the sight of a Caucasian person in pain.
This research linked empathy to racism. Activity occurs in the
brain as we mentally watch another person do something. When the
person is from another racial group, this activity is less pronounced,
and less pronounced again if the observer is prejudiced against that
racial group.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS How do you react when you see something hurtful happening to someone
for sharing who is
a) from the same cultural group as your own?
b) from a different cultural group than yours?
How do you feel when recognition or another form of accolade is given
to either group?
Some teachers demonstrate racist behaviours without knowing it.

This does not mean that they are necessarily racist, but neither does it
mean that their behaviours can be excused, since they can have harmful
effects on students. Teachers demonstrate racist behaviours when they,
for example:

• have different (often lower) expectations of students from different

cultures
• use resources that stereotype Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
people, without realising the hurt they can cause, such as history
books that include statements such as ‘the explorers were attacked
by savages’ (DETWA, 2002), or
• don’t include Indigenous perspectives in lessons, such as teaching
the history of Australia Day as a celebration, without being aware
that for many Indigenous students this day is remembered as a day
of invasion; or implying that Anglo behaviours, such as eating cereal
for breakfast or brushing your teeth after every meal, are ‘normal’.
It is only possible to know that such behaviours are racist by learning
about the culture and identity of our students, and by empathising with,
or feeling the hurt likely to be caused to, our students if we behave in
these ways. As Bishop et al. (2007, p. 6) states:
When teachers listen to and learn from students, they can begin to see
the world from the perspective of those students. This in turn can help
teachers make what they teach more accessible to students . . . Further,
students can feel empowered when they are taken seriously and attended
to as knowledgeable participants in learning conversations and they can
feel motivated to participate constructively in their education.
We can use alternative approaches and methodologies if we can

learn to ‘empathise in advance’, but this is only possible when we
know enough about the culture and cultural identity of our students,
including knowledge of their experiences and histories. When we do,
we can deliberately avoid the potentially hurtful approach.
Sometimes it is possible to learn how to empathise by mentally (and
sometimes physically) placing ourselves in the position of our students
and describing our feelings. For example, a recent television show, Go
Back to Where you Came From (SBS), asked participants to take on
the role of Middle Eastern refugees buying a ticket to Australia on a
boat and experiencing the ‘acted out role’ of being in the boat when
it started to sink. Similarly, an earlier television show, Outback House
(ABC), required participants to take on the roles of early Australians

and live in homes with no services, such as water, electricity or shops,

for a number of months, to experience how the early settlers actually
lived. At the conclusion of these social simulations, the participants
were in a better place to understand what these people endured. More
recently, the television series First Contact (SBS) forced a small group
of white Australians to confront the largely negative stereotypes they
held about Indigenous Australians by placing them in situations where
their ignorance of these matters was exposed, forcing them to reassess
their opinions. This resulted in them significantly overturning many
of those stereotypes.
In each of these cases, the participants had different responses to the
predicaments of the people they were emulating, and their perspectives
often changed as a result. With first-hand experience, they were in a
better position to empathise, and with greater understanding, they held
fewer critical or judgemental attitudes.
Recognising differences among your students

It is important to recognise differences between students’ cultures,
languages, existing knowledge, ways of learning, relationships and
worldviews, rather than treating all students as though they are
from white, middle-class families, or making assumptions about
what they already know and have been taught in their upbringing.
In recognising differences, teachers can then seek to learn more
about these differences in order to better understand the students
and their individual needs. Teachers may find it easier to assume
that all students know the same things, have been taught the same
things, have been taught in the same ways, see the world from the
same worldview, and relate to each other in the same ways that they
themselves do. But is it really easier?
If assumptions about these things are made, then more often than
not, students don’t learn what they have been taught. This is because
teachers’ assumptions about the same learning base (that is, what
individual students bring with them into the classroom) mean that new
learning is built on that base. If the base is different for each student, and
teachers teach to the same base, then some students are likely to learn

while others are unlikely to learn. Teachers need to make a deliberate

point of listening to students and their families, and finding out the
starting point for each individual student.
Racist behaviours
Most teachers would not say they are racist. Indeed, most teachers
would say they are not racist. They do not deliberately set out to treat
people from different cultures in different ways. It is important to note,
however, that sometimes teacher behaviours make Indigenous people
feel that they are being treated differently, and treated differently on the
basis of the colour of their skin. Such behaviours may include:
• having lower expectations or standards for Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander children, whether believed, stated explicitly or
implied through statements such as ‘these results are really good
for these kids’
• talking to white students while they are waiting in the line to go
into a classroom, but not engaging with Aboriginal or Torres Strait
Islander students
• making Indigenous parents and families feel inferior or unwelcome
through the way they are looked at or treated
• not including higher-order thinking in lessons because ‘these kids
won’t be able to do it’
• giving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students lots of ‘busy
work’ to do (for example, worksheets and copying)
• having posters around the room that don’t include Aboriginal or
Torres Strait Islander children, young people and adults
• making fun of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students’
speech, language, behaviours or body language
• not listening seriously to students or being prepared to learn from
them because ‘they won’t have anything worthwhile to contribute’
• making the teacher’s own reality the only legitimate one in the
classroom
• behaving in ways that make Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander
children feel they are inferior or need ‘fixing up’, and

• employing ‘deficit thinking’ about Aboriginal and Torres Strait

Islander students (Bishop et al., 2007; Hickling-Hudson & Ahlquist,
2003; Racism. No way!, n.d.; Sarra, 2003a, 2007; Williams, 1999).
Deficit and agentic thinking

Research by Hattie (2009, 2003) and Rowe (2003) reveals that teachers
make the biggest single difference to whether students in schools learn.
Many teachers believe that because of who their students are, they are
not able to learn what is expected; this is known as ‘deficit thinking’.
Major studies by Timperley and colleagues (2007),
Deficit thinking limits student Bishop and colleagues (2007) and Hattie (2009) have
progress; agentic thinking revealed that teachers, in the main, identify factors
promotes students’ learning.
from within the child’s background and their home as
BISHOP ET AL. (2007)
having the greatest influence on students’ educational
achievement. Some of these factors include perceived
If students with whom we are
deficits, such as low-level aspirations, lack of motivation,
interacting as teachers are
led to believe that we think poor behaviour, poor access to resources, inadequate
they are deficient, they will nutrition, absenteeism that is condoned by families,
respond to this negatively. drug use, alcohol use, antisocial behaviours in their
BISHOP ET AL. (2007) community, inadequate parental support or care and
lack of positive role models.
A child who misses school Teachers’ deficit perceptions can be prophetic; that is,
because he/she must care
for younger siblings could be
teachers who believe the reasons students won’t achieve
misinterpreted as [having parents are outside of their control will generally put less effort
who show] a lack of concern into their teaching preparation, have low expectations
for education, but would fail to
recognize that rather than being
of students, and focus on keeping students occupied
unconcerned with education, his/ and under control rather than on their learning of
her parents were more concerned age-appropriate standards.
with keeping their family intact.
Students pick up on their teachers’ low expectations
COOPER (N.D.)
for them; they know when they are not being challenged
and when they are being given ‘busy work’. This in
turn lowers their motivation to succeed and often leads to absenteeism.
Moreover, the perception by teachers that parents ‘don’t care’ about
their children can lead to parents feeling unwelcome as partners in
their children’s education or even on the school grounds.
Unless ‘deficit thinking’ shifts to ‘agentic thinking’—when teachers

really believe that they can make a difference for students—the progress
of students will be limited. For teachers to be able to practise agentic
thinking, they need first to realise that all students have gained strengths
because of ‘who they are’, as they have been shaped by the lives they
have lived before going to school. Second, teachers need think about how
they can best relate to students, drawing on those students’ strengths.
Teachers who see themselves as having a role in ‘fixing’ or ‘rescuing’
students from their current circumstances and ‘horrible life’ may
alienate the students from their families, friends and community. Such
approaches undervalue the child’s identity. Agentic thinking must value
the whole child and what they bring to the learning environment. In
order to be ‘agentic thinkers’, teachers need to take the time to learn
about their students and the families and communities from which they
come. This will be discussed further in Chapter 2.
Do you think that ‘treating all children the same’ is fair? PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
Might it be unfair if ‘the same’ means ‘the same as you’d want to be for sharing
treated’, when children from other cultures might not want to be treated
that way?

We have already introduced the National Professional Standards for
Teachers (‘the Standards’). The reason for positioning Know your students
and how they learn as the first Standard in the list, is that who students
are and how they learn have significant ramifications for the other six
Standards. This is particularly true if the students are from Aboriginal
or Torres Strait Islander cultures. The word ‘know’, as used in the
Standards, has more than an intellectual meaning, as this chapter has
indicated. In order to impact on the teaching practices used for these
students, more than intellectual knowledge about them (that is, their
cultures, cultural identity and language background) is needed.
This chapter has provided a comprehensive discussion about knowing
ourselves; which of our values, attitudes, behaviours and expectations
impact on how we will know and treat our students. Although ‘know

yourself’ is not one of the Standards, it is almost a prerequisite for the

first Standard of knowing your students and how they learn.
Perso (2012, p. 83) in her review and synthesis of the literature
concerning cultural responsiveness and school education, concludes
by stating:
there seems little doubt that in order to provide successful learning and
schooling experiences for Indigenous students educators must become
more bi-cultural, that is we must better understand the
The more the student belief systems and values of the primary culture of each
becomes the teacher and the of our students. This does not mean that non-Indigenous
more the teacher becomes
the learner, then the more
teachers will be given a ‘skin-name’ or gain membership
successful are the outcomes. to Indigenous cultures. Rather it implies that teachers are
HATTIE (2009) willing to learn to understand their students and to meet
their needs. The learning needed to generate this type of
response will only occur if teachers are willing to become students of
their students and their cultures.
In order to really know people from another cultural group, we need

to know ourselves. This is because knowing ourselves is necessary in
order to make comparisons and to understand and accept differences.
Accepting difference is an essential value that underpins fairness.
Fairness and consistency are essential qualities for a teacher. They
ensure that the authority and power conferred on us by our employers
and society are not abused and misdirected, and that our students are
treated differently in order to achieve the same outcomes that we expect
from students of our own cultures.
Two focus areas in the Standards are relevant here: 1.4 and 2.4. In
Standard 1 (Know students and how they learn), focus area 4 covers
Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students,
and in Standard 2 (Know the content and how to teach it), focus area
4 covers Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
people to promote reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indi-
genous Australians. Both focus areas refer directly to knowledge about
Indigenous Australians. The expectations of both these focus areas
require that graduate teachers ‘demonstrate broad knowledge’, as shown
in Table 1.3.

National Professional Standards for Teachers, standards 1.4 and 2.4 TABLE 1.3
Graduate Proficient Highly accom-

Focus area standard standard plished standard Lead standard
Standard 1—Know students and how they learn

1.4 Demonstrate Design and Provide advice Develop teaching
Strategies broad knowledge implement and support programs that
for teaching and under- effective teaching colleagues in the support equitable
Aboriginal and standing of the strategies that are implementation of and ongoing
Torres Strait impact of culture, responsive to the effective teaching participation of
Islander students cultural identity local community strategies for Aboriginal and
and linguistic and cultural Aboriginal and Torres Strait
background on setting, linguistic Torres Strait Islander students
the education background Islander students by engaging in
of students and histories of using knowledge collaborative
from Aboriginal Aboriginal and of and support relationships
and Torres Torres Strait from community with community
Strait Islander Islander students representatives representatives
backgrounds and parents/carers
Standard 2—Know the content and how to teach it

2.4 Demonstrate Provide opportun- Support Lead initiatives to
Understand and broad knowledge ities for students colleagues assist colleagues
respect Aboriginal of, understanding to develop with providing with opportunities
and Torres Strait of and respect understanding opportunities for students
Islander people to for Aboriginal of and respect for students to develop
promote recon- and Torres Strait for Aboriginal to develop understanding
ciliation between Islander histories, and Torres Strait understanding of and respect
Indigenous and cultures and Islander histories, of and respect for Aboriginal
non-Indigenous languages cultures and for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Australians languages and Torres Strait Islander histories,
Islander histories, cultures and
cultures and languages
languages
Source: AITSL, 2011
In order to ‘gain’ this ‘broad knowledge’, graduate teachers need to,

at a minimum, understand and engage fully with the material presented
in this chapter. This will enable them to start to develop the knowledge
they need to be culturally competent. They should also seek to talk
about issues raised with Indigenous people and perhaps read some of
the references provided.

As indicated previously, however, simply having knowledge is

not enough to be culturally responsive, even if you demonstrate this
knowledge. As a graduate teacher, you should aspire to proficiency by
deliberately acting on knowledge, putting into practice what you have
learned, and being guided by highly accomplished and lead teachers.
Appropriate actions are also included in this chapter, in summary:
• having high expectations of all students all the time
• not discriminating between students through your behaviours and
omissions
• becoming informed and finding out, rather than making assumptions
about what students know and don’t know based on your own
experience
• providing all children (including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
children) with challenging work to do—not ‘dumbing it down’ but
setting the standard at the same level as for all children in Australia
in the same age cohort
• finding out, validating, valuing and celebrating the strengths that
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children bring to class, even
though they might be different from other students’ and the teacher’s—
for example, if they speak Aboriginal English and traditional languages,
you might say, ‘Wow! You guys speak lots of languages and I can only
speak one! How excellent is that!’ or, when they demonstrate ability
to ‘read’ body language, draw attention to that as a skill, and
• putting yourself in their shoes, and reflecting on how it would feel
to have your country forcibly taken; and have all students do the
same, sharing your feelings.
These actions are those of proficient teachers. Highly accomplished and
lead entries for both these standards describe leadership behaviours
based on the responses that proficient teachers would demonstrate;
that is, sharing knowledge and skills with colleagues, and supporting
colleagues to implement them.

Are you prepared to become a student of your Aboriginal and Torres PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
Strait Islander students, learning about their culture, their knowledge for sharing
and their histories?
How might you do this?
While standards 1.4 and 2.4 explicitly mention Aboriginal and

Torres Strait Islander students with respect to knowing these students
and knowing content about them, it will become clear, as we explore
culturally responsive pedagogies in the following chapters, that cultural
responsiveness should be embedded in all seven of the Standards.

Understanding who your
students are
CHAPTER 2
Because relationships are so critical in Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander cultures, it is essential that teachers build good relationships
with students and their families. Teachers need to
personally understand where their students are coming Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander students don’t care
from. They should not make assumptions or stereotype what a teacher knows until
their students based on what they have heard or seen they know a teacher cares.
in the media, or from friends, families or colleagues. ADAGE
Finding out about your students

Let’s start with some strategies for finding out about what the students
know and what they bring to school in their ‘virtual schoolbag’:
• Get to know the students by talking to them individually, and make
sure you listen to their answers with your mind and your heart, as well
as with your ears —ask yourself, ‘What are they really saying?’ If they
don’t respond, it’s probably because they don’t trust you yet, in which
case, persevere to show them you’re really serious and interested.
• Invite families and caregivers to meet with you as a group. Make
sure you include extended family members. When you meet with
families, provide food to share; these are social occasions as well
as information-gathering (learning) opportunities. Your efforts to
put people at ease and to make them comfortable will help break
down barriers.
27

• Listen for connections when family members introduce themselves;

it is important to learn how students and caregivers are related to
each other.
• Demonstrate your openness to students by talking about yourself and
your wider family—don’t expect them to be open about themselves
if you aren’t prepared to do the same.
• Go out into the community and meet with families and community
members—the word will get around, even if you’re in a city! Ask
questions about your students, and take an interest in what they do
in their spare time.
• As soon as you can after you learn something new, make notes
about what you found out—if you have to ask again, they might
think you weren’t interested enough to listen or remember the first
time. Be careful that your notes are worded so that they cannot be
misinterpreted if someone else reads them.
• Involve students and Indigenous teacher aides or helpers when
grouping students for activities—there may be cultural reasons why
students are not able to communicate with each other.
Indigenous adults in the learning environment (for example, teachers,
teacher aides, assistant teachers) can be an invaluable resource for
teachers of Indigenous students. Even if these adults do not belong to the
same cultural groups or clan groups as your students, they can support
you to find out about the backgrounds of your students. You need to
build strong and trusting ‘equal’ relationships with these people; they
have so much to teach non-Indigenous teachers and will do so if they
are treated as equals. Avoid stereotyping them, and don’t assume that
they know everything there is to know about the Indigenous students
in your class; remember that, although there may be more similarities
within Indigenous cultures than differences, the cultures are very diverse.
Stereotyping
Although categorising practices are a form of stereotyping, they can
nevertheless be useful in helping us to understand differences. In doing
so, however, it is important to remember that the categories (especially
‘either/or’ comparisons) are generally at either end of a continuum, as

UNDERSTANDING WHO YOUR STUDENTS ARE 29
indicated in the previous chapter, and that most people are somewhere
in between those extremes. The ends of the continuum can help us
understand difference, but they are not ‘boxes’ in which to place people,
and nor should you use them as a basis for what to expect from people
or how you treat them.
It should also be remembered that just as Westerners
have difficulties understanding how Indigenous people
[I]t is important that learning
think and behave, so Indigenous people find it hard to relationships allow for the many
make sense of how Westerners think and behave. This realities within which (Indigenous)
is the case worldwide and is certainly true in Australia. children might live and grow up;
urban/rural, tribal/non-tribal,
Westerners from different cultural backgrounds would rich/poor, single-parented/
not like to think they were being stereotyped, any dual-parented/extended families.
more than Indigenous people from different cultural DURIE (1998)
backgrounds do.
Differences between Aboriginal and Torres Strait

Islander students
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian
continent, and Torres Strait Islanders of the Torres Strait Islands, at
the most northern part of Queensland. The term ‘Aboriginal people’ is
generally only used for the Indigenous inhabitants of mainland Australia.
Indigenous Australians can be either Australian Aboriginal people or
Torres Strait Islander people. Since there are Indigenous people and
Aboriginal people in all continents of the world, the Indigenous people
of mainland Australia are called ‘Aboriginal Australians’ or ‘Aboriginal
people’. It is considered incorrect and disrespectful to call Australia’s
First Peoples Aborigines. As Australia’s first people, it is important that
they are given due respect as the original inhabitants of the country
that we share. They should not be grouped or classified (as is common
Western practice) with immigrants or with English as a Second Language
(ESL) learners (referred to as English as a Second Language or Dialect,
or EALD) learners in the Australian Curriculum) nor with groups from
other ethnic backgrounds.
There are many regional groups of Australian Aboriginal people, which
identify under names of languages. Some of these are shown in Table 2.1.

TABLE 2.1 Australian Aboriginal peoples, location of regional groups

Regional group name Location
Koori New South Wales and Victoria

Murri Northern New South Wales and Queensland
Ngunnawal ACT and closely surrounding parts of New South Wales
Bama North Queensland
Murrdi Central West Queensland
Noongar South-west Western Australia
Yamatji Central Western Australia
Wongi Western Australian Goldfields
Anangu Central Australia (Northern South Australia, southern
Northern Territory and central Western Australia)
Nunga Southern South Australia
Yolngu East Arnhem Land
Tiwi Tiwi Islands
Palawa Tasmania
These broad language groups are sometimes referred to as ‘nations’.

It is important to remember that within nation-groups there are also
clans. Some Indigenous people refer to themselves by their nation name,
some by their clan name and some by both, so it might be easy for you
to become confused. The best way to deal with this question and be
able to refer to people correctly is to ask people how they prefer to be
addressed, and to seek their permission to do so.
The Torres Strait Islander people have a cultural history and heritage
that is quite distinct from that of Australian Aboriginal people. In
particular, eastern Torres Strait Islander people are related to the Papuan
peoples of New Guinea. Some even speak a Papuan language. The 2011
Australian Census found that approximately 2.5 per cent (just over 510
000) of the Australian population identified as Indigenous Australians.
Approximately 50 000 of these (one-tenth) identify as Torres Strait
Islanders. Most of these people live in Queensland or New South Wales
(ABS, 2011).

Cultural differences
There are a large variety of tribal groups and languages in Aboriginal
Australia and hence a wide diversity in cultural practices. Many practices
evolved as a means of survival. For example, the close affinity with
‘country’ has meant treating the environment as ‘living’ rather than a
resource to be manipulated and exploited. These differences reinforce
the need to be wary of making assumptions about the ‘sameness’ of
Aboriginal people or groups and not acknowledging the diversity that
exists between them.
Table 2.2 shows an attempt to synthesise information provided by
Australian Aboriginal groups at an induction provided for new teachers
in Northern Territory Catholic Education schools, held at the Vibe Hotel,
Darwin in January 2013. Participants were addressed by four Aboriginal
community groups from Santa Teresa (Central Australia), Daly River
(West Central Northern Territory), Wadeye (Central Northern Territory
Coast), and the Tiwi Islands. Two islands, called Melville and Bathurst
islands by Westerners, make up the Tiwi Islands. The local culture group
refer to themselves as Tiwi Islanders and their country as the Tiwi Islands.
Aboriginal community group differences TABLE 2.2

Community
Topic group Information provided by Aboriginal people present
Sorry business Santa Teresa Families of the deceased leave everything and go to a ‘sorry camp’
Sacred ceremony away from the home. Children and Indigenous teachers join in so
when somebody there are no kids at school. Families take things to the camp, such as
dies (NB the clothes, food and bedding, to help the family as a mark of respect.
deceased Sorry business could last for 2–3 months as preparations need to be
person’s name made and people need to travel to be there for the funeral.
cannot be
Wadeye The body of the deceased is kept for a month and families
spoken; initials,
prepare songs, and a message from the father’s side and one
ritual names or
from the mother’s side. Family members burn the clothes of the
nick-names are
deceased after one year. Twenty-five clans prepare ‘dreaming’
used); no loud
songs and write a song for the deceased. Initially people who are
music should
working take one week off work as a mark of respect.
be played in the
community Tiwi Islands Clan groups on the deceased’s father’s side and totem groups on
the mother’s side write a song (guided by the Elders) to include
clan and totem groups. The clothes of the deceased are buried
with the coffin or thrown into the sea.

Community
Community Santa Teresa These include horse races, line dancing, ‘dress up’ competitions
events and discos. The community will decide whether to cancel school
Communities for these events, especially after a late night.
from the region Wadeye Creating the ceremony is the art; it must especially reflect the
are invited to participants and the place and the time. This takes a lot of
attend; teachers planning and discussion by knowledgeable people.
should attend
Tiwi Islands Football is huge in the community with eighteen local teams. Also
Christmas and New Year events, Milimika festivals and community
events all attract large crowds.
Working with Santa Teresa Don’t expect all children to behave like yours. They need time
children to get to know you and trust you. They might appear standoffish
while they get to know more about you. They will be more open
and responsive when they trust and respect you. You must learn;
look, listen and wait. Indigenous staff are your mentors; they have
the knowledge of the culture and you need to rely on them and
teachers need to be open to learning from their mentors in school
and the community. Many kids are looking for love from their
teachers; they are very loving; they will lean against you and touch
your hair, and ask lots of questions. Behaviour issues should be
dealt with by Indigenous people at the school—assistant teachers,
support workers and so on—not by white people.
Wadeye Avoidance relationships; some kids are not allowed to sit next to
each other due to family connections. They are not allowed to talk
facing each other. It’s a matter of respect; e.g. a brother and sister
at puberty. They might want their own cup. They might tease with
their eyes, and hand signs, nose and mouth, and this might only
take one second. Ask the Indigenous Assistant Teacher to show
you how to deal with it.
Tiwi Islands Avoidance relationships are similar on the Tiwi Islands.
Building relation- Santa Teresa Assemblies are arranged for the community to meet the teachers.
ships with families This can also happen at the end of year concert.
Daly River The kids will tell you how. In some communities inside the house
is a restricted area so you need to talk and meet in the street;
Indigenous Assistant Teachers will help set this up.
Wadeye (No information was provided on this occasion.)
Tiwi Islands If you are travelling to the Tiwi Islands you need a permission form
from the Tiwi Land Council to be on the island.

Community
Moving around Santa Teresa If teachers want to drive around the ‘lands’ the Indigenous
the community Assistant Teachers will help get permissions needed.
Wadeye Respect demands that you take an individual from the clan with
you when going out into the lands. Ask Indigenous people at
the school.
Tiwi Islands The Tiwi Land Council must provide written permission and you
need to take a local person from that particular ‘country’ with you
when travelling to the lands. Ask Indigenous people at the school.
Appropriate Santa Teresa (No information was provided on this occasion.)
dress Daly River (No information was provided on this occasion.)
Don’t hang your
underclothes on Wadeye If a man can see your (female) legs they say you’re ‘available’.
the line (or hang Tiwi Islands Bathers and bikinis are inappropriate—wear board shorts instead.
something over Females should wear long skirts (to shin) and long pants (no
them) shorts), no see-through.
Photos Santa Teresa Always ask before taking photos of Indigenous people. Do not
Daly River load them on Facebook.
Wadeye Do not take any photos during funeral time.
Tiwi Islands Do not take photos during funeral or ceremony time. Always ask
community members if you want to take photos.
Alcohol Santa Teresa Some communities are ‘dry’ (no alcohol permitted) so check
Daly River before taking alcohol in. Large fines apply in some communities.
Wadeye
Tiwi Islands
Source: Indigenous Elders
Dadirri: Deep inner listening and quiet, still awareness

Dadirri recognises the deep spring that is inside us. We call on it and
it calls to us. This is the gift Australia is thirsting for. It is something like
what you call contemplation. When I experience dadirri, I am made
whole again. I can sit on the river bank or walk through the trees;
even if someone close to me has passed away, I can find my peace in

this silent awareness. There is no need of words. A big part of dadirri

is listening. Through the years we have listened to our stories. They
are told and sung over and over, as the seasons go by. Today we
still gather around the campfires and together we hear the sacred
stories. As we grow older, we ourselves become the storytellers.
We pass on to the young ones all they must know. The stories and
songs sink quietly into our minds and we hold them deep inside. In
the ceremonies we celebrate the awareness of our lives as sacred.
The contemplative way of dadirri spreads over our whole life.
It renews us and brings us peace. It makes us feel whole again
. . . Quiet listening and stillness—dadirri—renews us and makes us
whole. There is no need to reflect too much and do a lot of thinking.
It is just being aware.
My people are not threatened by silence. They are completely
at home in it. They have lived for thousands of years with Nature’s
quietness.
The other part of dadirri . . . is the quiet stillness and the waiting.
Our Aboriginal culture has taught us to be still and to wait.
We do not try to hurry things up. We let them follow their natural
course—like the seasons. We watch the moon in each of its phases.
We wait for the rain to fill our rivers and water the thirsty earth.
When twilight comes, we prepare for the night. At dawn we rise
with the sun.
We watch the bush foods and wait for them to ripen before we
gather them. We wait for our young people as they grow stage by
stage, through the initiation ceremonies. When a relation dies, we
wait a long time with the sorrow. We own our grief and allow it to
heal slowly.
We wait for the right time for our ceremonies and our meetings.
The right people must be present. Everything must be done in the
proper way.
Careful preparations must be made. We don’t mind waiting,
because we want things to be done with care. Sometimes many
hours will be spent on painting the body before an important
ceremony.

We don’t like to hurry. There is nothing more important that what

we are attending to. There is nothing more urgent that we must
hurry away for.
We wait for God too. His time is the right time. We wait for him
to make his Word clear to us. We don’t worry. We know that in time
and in the spirit of dadirri (that deep listening and quiet stillness) his
way will be clear. (Ungunmerr, 1998)
Cultural protocols and social language

Cultural differences in how language is used are mostly about respect
and politeness. They may determine:
• who has the right to talk
• the types of topics which can be discussed
• the types of questions which will be asked and answered
• the purposes for which language is used
• the type and structure of language texts (both oral and written) that
the child has experienced
• the time taken to respond
• the type of response given, and
• the use of body language (DETWA, 1998).
These cultural differences have implications that are important for
teaching. Teachers need to find out as much as possible from their
colleagues, students and Indigenous staff and families about these
cultural differences in the communities in which they are working.
Most teachers will be aware of how unwritten ‘rules’ concerning oral
language work in their society, but they may not be aware that these can
differ between societies. It is important not to make assumptions that
the protocols that exist in our own society also exist in other societies.
What protocols exist in your culture or society for talking to people, PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
touching them, and personal space? How did you learn these protocols, for sharing
and how well do you practise them today?

If you want to use the protocols of your own culture—the one with
which you are familiar—in your classroom, you may need to explicitly
teach them to your students. Don’t assume that they already know these
protocols, or indeed that they want to use them.
Let’s examine how different cultural groups have different ways of
showing respect and being polite.
• In some Torres Strait Islander cultures, it is impolite to ask too many
questions. A Western teacher might interpret students not asking
questions as being an indication of their lack of interest.
• In many Aboriginal cultures, the main focus of talk is social or
aimed at maintaining harmony and group solidarity. In Western
cultures, the main focus of talk might be to pass on information
and to teach or instruct.
• Long silences during conversations with Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander people may result from them thinking before making
decisions. Some teachers might interpret this silence in their students
as meaning they don’t know the answer, or they can’t think fast
enough. It is important to really listen and to wait for as long as
needed until a student speaks.
• In Western cultures, greetings can sometimes be loud and physical.
In many other cultures, greetings may be restrained, which Westerners
may interpret as ‘ignoring’ someone.
In some Aboriginal cultures, these social communication
I allowed my daughter to touch
the heated stove through rules can exist to prohibit the occurrence of inappro-
curiosity; she soon learned that priate communication. For example, a man might not
it was not a good thing to do. be permitted to speak directly with his sister-in-law or
ABORIGINAL MOTHER IN MELBOURNE
a woman with her father-in-law. You should find out
about these cultural communication rules, so that you
don’t inadvertently place your students in positions that expect them
to ‘break the rules’, such as requiring them to work with partners or in
groups which contain students with whom they are not supposed to talk.
In addition, you should not place students in positions where they
are ‘shamed’. This phenomenon can occur by directly requiring them to
answer a question they may not know the answer to, for example. You
should do everything you can to avoid this. If it does occur, however,
act quickly to provide a way for the student to ‘save face’ or diffuse

any embarrassment experienced, so that the student can regain their

composure quickly.
Child-rearing practices
In the previous chapter, we learned that children (and people in general)
are a product of their upbringing. We take on the values and orientations
of our parents or the people who raise us, from the moment we are
born. The ways in which we are raised are extremely important in
shaping who we are and our identity. We need to remember, however,
that there are differences even within the same family—not everyone
thinks and behaves the same, even when they have the same parents
and same upbringing.
How were you raised? Where did your parents put you when you slept PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
and ate? How did they teach you? Did they show you first and then get for sharing
you to try? How did they punish you? Discuss the individual similarities
and differences between each of you in answering these questions.
Are there cultural differences?
Cultural differences in child-rearing practices can be classified

between Indigenous and Western cultures; but remember that, as we
have noted before, these extremes should only make us aware of differ-
ences and the likelihood of cultural variations in
child-rearing practices, not provide a basis for stereo- I taught my daughter to make a
cake; one week she measured
typing. Western practices tend to be the same whether
out the flour herself and the
people live in the city, in a rural environment or in a next week she was ready to
remote location. It is the same for Indigenous people; break an egg into the bowl.
the way they rear their children does not totally depend ANGLO MOTHER IN PERTH
on where they live.

As long ago as 1984, Kearins found that the child-rearing practices
of Aboriginal families in remote and urban locations have more in
common than those of urban-based families, whether Aboriginal or non-
Aboriginal. There has been a lack of research in the intervening period to
suggest different findings. Table 2.3 outlines the main differences, which
are not dependent on location but, rather, arise from cultural identity.

TABLE 2.3 Differences in child-rearing practices

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Westerner
Competition between siblings not encouraged. Competition between siblings encouraged.
Babies share the life of those around them—not Babies put away in quiet place to sleep and eat at
separated for sleeping or eating. different times from family.
Modelling shapes behaviours; teasing used to Punishments shape behaviours; children told how
‘shame’ children who get it wrong. Children to do things. Learning is incremental—a little bit at
watch until they feel confident to ‘have a go’. a time.
Learning is ‘holistic’.
Children develop life skills by experience and Children protected from perceived harm.
experimenting, without verbal and physical
restraints.
Babies allowed to learn by actions as long as Babies treated as helpless creatures, parents
not endangering themselves; parents attend to making all decisions for them, using ‘no’ to
needs on demand. train them.
Children expected to help themselves as soon as Children must seek permission when they want to
they are able. do something.
Children treated as equals by adults. Children treated as inferior and subservient
by adults.
Source: Adapted from Kearins (1984)
Language differences
Before the invasion of Australia by the British at the end of the eighteenth
century, approximately 250 Aboriginal languages and 600 dialects were
spoken in Australia. Relatively few of these are still practised today.
A dialect is a form of a language that has developed from the parent
language as a result of the people speaking the language being separated
from the main group over time. For example, the type of English
language spoken by Australians who descended from British convicts
is known as ‘Standard Australian English’ (SAE), is a dialect of British
English, as are the dialects of English spoken by Jamaicans, Scots and
sub-continental Indians. Similarly, across Australia, the English language
is used in dialectically different ways from state to state—think of how
people use bathers, cozzie, swimmers and togs, for example.
At the start of the 21st century, fewer than 150 Indigenous languages
remain in daily use, of which all but about 20 are at risk of falling out
of use and so becoming extinct. Of those that have survived, about

10 per cent are being learned by children, mostly in very remote areas.

Others are being regenerated through language maintenance programs,
but it will be some time before there are enough language speakers to
teach generations of children.
It was left up to the Indigenous people in Australia to make them-
selves understood by the British, who generally wouldn’t learn to speak
Aboriginal languages. Indigenous people learned a ‘pidgin’ or a broken
form of English for this purpose; ‘pidgin’ being a language of contact that
develops between people who don’t share the first language of speakers.
Many Aboriginal people in Australia now speak a ‘creole’, which is a type
of language that develops when a pidgin language expands its structures
and functions to become the first language of speakers. In Northern
Australia, the creole spoken has been termed ‘Kriol’ to distinguish it
from other creoles used around the world (Eades, 1993).
There are also very many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people
who speak AE. AE is technically a dialect of English and has a lot in
common with SAE. Teachers need to know that AE is a full language
in its own right—not just ‘English spoken badly’ as some teachers
mistakenly believe. Aboriginal people from across Australia often ‘slip
into’ using AE when they meet each other, regardless of context; it is a
common language that they often use in order to understand each other.
See Chapter 4 for more discussion of creole, Aboriginal English
(AE) and SAE.
Code-switching in language, culture and behaviour

Code-switching is about being able to switch the linguistic, cultural or
behavioural code depending on the context in which one is operating.
Many people, including Westerners, use code-switching frequently in
their daily lives. For example, you might speak in a different genre
(style) to friends, your partner, a child, a work colleague or someone
you have just met. So being able to switch codes is more than just being
able to use the codes, it’s about first judging which code is appropriate
in which context—a strong literacy tool. Teachers, too, need to switch
communication codes when meeting with parents, community and
students in their schools.

Everybody switches codes frequently in different contexts, not only

with language but also with behaviours and, of course, cultures.
Sometimes we choose the wrong code. This might result in us
offending someone or being personally humiliated. The more contexts
in which we operate, generally the more challenging it is to switch codes
efficiently and correctly. For Indigenous people who move between
cultures (‘cross cultures’) at least once a day, switching from one cultural,
behavioural and linguistic code to another can be very demanding.
If we try to understand the ‘home way’ of our students and empathise
with the demand of making the daily transition into ‘school way’, we
are likely to more fully understand and appreciate the difficulties faced
by our students. We will then be more likely to increase respect for our
students and ignore, or join in, the embarrassed laughter of our students
who ‘get it wrong’, including laughing at ourselves when we do! Moreover,
when we appreciate the role that ‘shame’ plays in
Aboriginal cultures, we will quickly provide a way of
[Language is] inseparable from
‘saving face’ or diffusing any embarrassment felt by
culture, land and family and
is the foundation upon which our students, so that they can regain composure quickly.
the capacity to learn, interact We will also be less inclined to ‘back students into a
and to shape identity is built. corner’ or place them in these situations through our
AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT (2012)
words or actions.
Language and culture

Language develops as we need to invent new words to explain new
activities or ways of seeing the world. New words to do with technology, for
example, have been invented in the last 20 years or so in order to describe
and explain the place of technology in our society. Hence our language
‘carries’ a sense of who we are and the activities in which we engage. If
we were to enter a household or community in which digital technologies
were not used, we would likely code-switch and not use words such as
hardware, bytes or Google in order to better ‘fit in’ with those around us.
For teachers working in remote schools it is likely that many of your
students speak traditional languages. It is even possible that the only
place in the community in which SAE is spoken is the local school.
Students, as well as code-switching their language genre, might need
to code-switch their language, words and culture as they move in and

out of the school on a daily basis. There are many words in traditional
Indigenous languages that have no corresponding words in SAE. For
example, many Indigenous languages do not include words of position
such as behind, below, under, next to and around, since words of position
have not been needed in these cultures (Shinkfield, 1996). There are also
words in SAE that do not exist in traditional Indigenous languages, so
care must be taken in our use of words even if they are based in SAE.
Language of schooling
In Australian schools the primary language used for instruction is SAE.
Many Indigenous Australian parents have an expectation that their
children will learn and use SAE at school, but not at the expense of their
home language, especially if their home language is an oral language
only and preservation relies on it being spoken. Many parents in remote
communities may not want their children to speak SAE at the expense of
their traditional languages; they are happy for their children to learn SAE
at school but don’t want them using SAE at home or in their communities.
Teachers need to provide their students with an SAE language-rich
environment in recognition that their students may not be able to
practise their English-speaking skills once they have left the school
grounds. Teachers may need to teach students who only speak Indigenous
languages both the concepts for words that do not exist in home languages
and the SAE words for these concepts. If the words for ‘next to’ are not
known, for example, and you wish to teach this to your students in the
context of mathematics or the Arts, you will need to teach the concept
of ‘next to’ as well as the words used for the concept ‘next to’.
You will need to find out whether any Indigenous children that you
teach speak only an Indigenous language at home, and whether their
parents want this practice to continue. If so, these students should be
encouraged to code-switch between their home language and SAE. This
means teaching them to first distinguish between the two languages
(SAE and AE), and then to learn to use the one that is appropriate for
the context, purpose and people to whom they are speaking (Haig,
Konigsburg & Collard, 2005), in this case, either at home or school.
Students need to value their home languages and it is part of the
teacher’s role to also value and validate those languages. Note than many

Indigenous students—especially in remote parts of Australia—speak up

to five or more Indigenous languages, some of which have very little
in common! This is no mean feat, especially when we consider the
difficulties of learning even a second language.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS Can you speak more than one language, or have you tried to learn a
for sharing second language? How difficult do you find it to switch language codes?
In what ways can you empathise with students who speak a different
language at home?
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in

Western schools
It is important for teachers to recognise that the schooling system is set
up on Western values. Western children who move into formal schooling
generally experience a smooth transition; they know how to behave and
what is expected from them because, usually:
• teachers are ‘one of them’
• they have been to preschool or child care (which are often both run
by Westerners and emulate practices they are used to at home to
some degree), and
• teachers ‘know’ how they have been raised and can minimise ‘jarring’
through the constraints they provide, which are similar to those of
their parents (for example, shaping, incremental learning, use of
verbal restraints, and physical boundaries).
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS How might Indigenous children feel on entering a formal school, preschool
for sharing or child-care facility run and/or operated by Westerners?
For Indigenous students coming into a Western schooling system

and schools established and operated by Westerners, the process might
be terrifying and alienating. The following paragraphs are taken from
a reflection by an Aboriginal woman, Terry Ngarritjan-Kessaris (1995),
who went to a school in urban Darwin:

Not once during my twelve years of formal schooling did any of my

teachers or anyone else in the school system, affirm my Aboriginality.
Instead I grew up feeling ashamed of my Aboriginal heritage and I felt
pressured to stress that I was only ‘part Aboriginal’. (p. 1)
Through resources, interactions, discussion, behaviours and the envir-

onment, Terry learned that what was different was wrong. It was
wrong to have a messy house, wrong to be raised by her mother and
grandmother, wrong for her aunties and uncles to have responsibilities in
her upbringing, wrong for older children to care for younger ones instead
of mother, wrong not to rely on adults for everything, wrong not to wake
up to an alarm clock, wrong not to have Weet-Bix for breakfast and so on.
Although Terry was never explicitly told these things, she learned them
through her environment and the people around her. For her, this was part
of the hidden curriculum, where the processes and attitudes of teachers and
students presented Western, middle-class values as ‘right’ in all contexts,
resulting in Aboriginal people being explicitly and implicitly disparaged.
Terry viewed the problem as belonging to herself and her ‘inadequate’
family, rather than to the schooling that was being provided to her.
Terry continues:
I felt uneasy . . . as if . . . someone would discover the discontinuity
between the school Terry and the home Terry . . . I now know that the
home ways are more important. There are thousands of other Aboriginal
families that do things the same way we do and live their lives like we do
and it is right for them and it is right for us. It is wrong for us to feel that
home ways are second best and that we must learn to do things ‘properly’
in order to succeed. School ways are important for school and career
purposes but our home ways are absolutely essential for giving us our
sense of who we are and we should be proud of them. Moreover, school
should encourage us to be proud of home ways because the more secure
we feel about ourselves, the more likely we are to achieve at school. (p. 5)
It is interesting to consider the behaviours of teachers in Western schools

and how they might be perceived by Indigenous children. Table 2.4
attempts to do this, drawing on research (cited throughout this book,
and see also Perso, 2012).

TABLE 2.4 Aboriginal perspectives on teacher behaviours

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children’s
Teacher behaviour possible perspective of the behaviour
Teacher tells children what to do and when. Teacher is bossy.
Teacher asks questions about the ‘answers’. Why is the teaching asking us the answer; surely they
must know since they are the teacher?
Teacher becomes angry because Indigenous We have other ways through kinship of showing grat-
student doesn’t use words like ‘thank you’ and itude and respect; the teacher expects me to be like
‘please’. a ‘Balanda’ [NB term used in north-eastern Northern
Territory for Westerners].
Teacher asks Indigenous children if they have done I said ‘yes’ even though I hadn’t done my homework;
their homework. I wanted to avoid confrontation.
Teacher asks a question and then asks again more Our culture is comfortable with long periods of silence;
loudly when Indigenous student doesn’t respond. it’s not considered rude not to answer.
Teacher talks a lot about how to do something, I’m used to learning through trial and error; not sure
expects students to listen, and then demonstrates what all the talk is for or why I should listen to it.
how to do it; doesn’t tell students what the goals
of the task are.
Teacher demonstrates a sequence of skills. I’m used to watching the whole task and then having a
go; I can’t see what all the little bits are for.
Teacher tells Indigenous student off for making a The teacher is not family or kin; it’s not his or her place
mistake or getting something wrong. to tell me I am wrong and to ‘shame’ me publicly.
To hide my shame I will get angry or swear at the
teacher. Sometimes all of my kin will react as a way of
protecting me from embarrassment because I’m not
yet succeeding at the task. They are all responsible for
my not being able to succeed yet.
Teacher is angry with Indigenous student for not I was taught to follow the example of others and
doing what he or she was told to do. respect those I like and admire—why should I do what
this stranger is telling me to do?
Teacher is unpleasant, speaks harshly to students I don’t go to school, or if I do I become ‘difficult’
who, in his or her opinion, do the wrong thing. in class.
Teacher says ‘You’re here to learn! Stop fooling I like school because of the social interaction with
around’. other students; if I learn something it’s almost
incidental.
Teacher says ‘I told you to pack up. It’s time to do In my culture, if we are interested in an activity we
something different’. engage with it until we’re ready to stop, we don’t stop
when someone tells us to.
Teacher says ‘I told you to work on your own. In my culture, we work together, which builds strong
Don’t talk’. relationships and strengthens our identity and culture.
Teachers says: ‘Ask me if you need help. Don’t ask In my culture, we seek help from each other, not
your mates’. from adults.
Source: Adapted from Perso, 2003, 2012, based on multiple sources

Teachers need to be aware that these cultural differences do not mean

that Indigenous students cannot learn the Western ways of schooling.
They merely need to be explicitly taught how. You should not assume
that they know how; such assumptions are arrogant and are often viewed
as expressions of power by the dominant culture. They can result in
Indigenous children withdrawing or absenting themselves from school.
What might a school run by Indigenous parents and teachers be like? PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
How might non-Indigenous children feel on entering such a school? for sharing
How might non-Indigenous children learn to adapt to these different
ways of doing?
As a result of these differences, children are more or less ‘ready’ to

learn. Resulting from differences in location, environment, trauma,
language and culture children have unequal starting points when they
enter school. Both the Melbourne Declaration (MCEETYA, 2008) and
the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Action Plan (MCEEDYA, 2010)
recognise that, for all children to attain equitable learning outcomes,
there needs to be inequitable (different) provision in education resources,
including teaching and delivery. Add to this the complexities experienced
by teachers in their varying abilities to differentiate this provision and
we go a long way to explaining the ‘gap’ that currently exists between
the learning outcomes of Indigenous and non-Indigenous students.
Discovering what students know and can do, and how

they learn best
We have discussed who students are, and the likely reasons for differences
between them, both in this chapter and Chapter 1. This information is
important for teachers so that they know how to treat their students,
how to find out who they are and how to accept them for who they are,
so that they won’t make any assumptions about them. This information
will guide the way teachers respond to their students and the ways they
need to behave to make students feel safe, secure, cared for and respected.
Culturally competent teachers will also want to learn from their
Indigenous students who can greatly enrich the learning environment

by providing different perspectives. Teachers will provide these students

with opportunities to share their perspectives with themselves and other
students in the class, and will value what is shared by providing these
opportunities and by listening to what their students have to say. Culturally
competent teachers are learners; they learn about the cultures of their
students and they welcome being taught these differences by their students.
This behaviour will validate the identities of Indigenous students,
support them to feel ‘strong’ in their culture and in who they are, and
hence empower them. It will also help students to value their Indigeneity
and not allow them to feel as if there is something wrong with them
because they are not the same as non-Indigenous people. Indigenous
children need to come to the learning environment and to learning
experiences as equals with others in the school and class. They need to
feel safe to express their Indigeneity and to ‘be who they are’ without
feeling that they need to conform to the dominant culture or dominant
ways of behaving.
Similarly, validating the culture and identity of Indigenous support
workers, teacher aides and assistants is important if you wish to find
out what your students know and can do. They should be treated as
equal partners in the role of supporting students to learn. Modelling
this equal power structure will also build student respect for you.
Teachers need to find out what their students know and what they
can do in order to plan meaningful and relevant learning experiences
for their students. They should work from a ‘strengths
The closer the classroom base’: start out from the base that your students know
experiences and the home
experiences are for students, the a lot; realise that what they know is valuable and
more likely it will be that students important; and seek to find out what that knowledge
will be able to participate in is. They can find out from the students themselves, from
the educational experiences
designed by the school. parents, community members, former teachers and
BISHOP ET AL. (2007) support workers, and from data collected on the students.
Learning theory
The theory of constructivism is a theory about how people learn. It is
based in the theory that people construct their own understanding and
knowledge based on what they already know and understand (Piaget,
1952, 1978). ‘Humans . . . come to formal education with a range of prior

knowledge, skills, beliefs, and concepts that significantly influence what

they notice about the environment and how they organise and interpret
it. This, in turn, affects their abilities to remember, reason, solve prob-
lems, and acquire new knowledge’ (Bransford, Brown, Cocking, 2000).
When new information is heard or experienced, people reflect on it
and reconcile it to their existing ideas and experience. This can result
in them changing what they currently believe and know, or discarding
the new information as being irrelevant. Vygotsky (1978) argued that
the most effective learning is that which occurs within the zone of
proximal development (ZPD); that is, when the challenge presented by
a task is just ahead of the learner’s actual or current development. It is
only when support is required that new learning will take place, since
the learner is then likely to be working within their ZPD.
In order to determine what learning experience to offer students,
a culturally responsive teacher needs to have not only knowledge of
students’ cultural and linguistic backgrounds, but also knowledge of
their interests and home life or environment. An authentic and trusting
relationship with students is also necessary, so that students will engage
with the task. This is true for students from all backgrounds, not just
those from different cultural contexts.
Situating learning to be meaningful and relevant

It is essential not only to recognise cultural diversity when planning
lessons and units of work, but also to situate the intended learning in
meaningful and relevant tasks. This means that teachers need to find
out about the cultures and interests of students in their class, and also
to understand the community in which they live, in order to make
lessons relevant. This knowledge can help teachers connect what they
want their students to learn to what they already know and what is
relevant to them.
Gay (2000) maintains that teachers can use this information to make
lessons more interesting and stimulating for students from different
cultural backgrounds. If a teacher presents content by situating it in
the culture of their students, or positioning it in a way that values that
culture, students will feel valued and validated and hence be more
motivated to learn. Similarly, Ladson-Billings (1994) studied instruction

in classrooms and observed that culturally responsive teachers built

lessons around ‘cultural referents’ in order to engage students and
also to validate and value their cultures. This makes students feel
proud of their culture and strong in their identity. Olneck (1995) also
found that teaching that responds to the backgrounds of students,
particularly norms of behaviour and communication, will prompt
student engagement and involvement.
This indicates that the more a teacher knows about their students,
individually and culturally, the easier it will be to design lessons and
plan learning in ways that engage and validate students.
Using metaphors in learning

Research has revealed that cultures with oral traditions organise their
knowledge around visual metaphors that are concrete and explicit.
This may be to support learning by imaging and making abstract ideas
transparent. In print-based cultures, ‘words have replaced pictures
and visual space has been reduced to the linear organisation of the
printed word’ (St Clair, 2000, p. 4); knowledge is organised around
verbal metaphors (for example, beginning, middle and end). In the
Western intellectual tradition, which produces the formal schooling
system, the focus is on analysis, whereas oral cultures tend to focus on
relatedness, or how things relate to one another. Many oral cultures
are grounded in the land and in stories and are related to country,
family, culture and community (for example, elements that describe
relatedness, such as the roots, trunk and branches). According to St
Clair, ‘The analytical mode is sequential and highlights rationalism
and the use of logic, whereas the relational mode is concerned with
the emotive and affective aspects of a simultaneous presentation of
imagery’ (2000, p. 5).
Learning styles
Everybody learns through their senses—by seeing, hearing, smelling,
tasting and touching—and teachers need to use all these senses in
their instruction methods. Ways of learning occur primarily through
child-rearing practices; they are not simply genetically determined.

Although all people learn through all senses, everyone generally has
one or two preferred learning styles; one or two ways in which they
prefer to learn. For example, some people prefer to learn visually—they
draw a diagram whenever they can to help them make sense of what
they hear or are told.
Cultural preferences (that is, the preferred learning styles of different
cultural groups) can sometimes be traced back through communication
styles and the development of print. St Clair (2000), for example,
compares the print culture of Western traditions with the oral cultures
of American Indians in explaining differences in information processing
modes of the two to highlight the dictates of the formal school system
that American Indian children need to accommodate. These differences
are shown in Table 2.5.
Information processing modes of print and oral cultures TABLE 2.5
Print culture Oral cultures

Cognition Analytical mode: Look for the details Synthesizing mode: Look for the overall
and not the whole. meaning and how the details fit together.
Processing Sequential: Go from left to right. Simultaneous: View everything at once
just as one would view a painting.
Thought Relational, logical: Reason logically Affective, emotive: Feelings are
and use syllogisms; put people into important; use emotions to understand
categories; do not rely on emotions. others.
Predilections Mathematics, science Art, music, dance
Legitimization Verbal metaphor: Use metaphors Visual metaphor: Use metaphors based
based on language. on the reorganisation of visual space.
Literacy Print, technology Orality, the arts
Source: St Clair (2000), p. 5
Although some differences in preferred learning styles can arise as

a result of cultural practices, they should not be assumed for children
belonging to these different cultures. Extensive studies with Indigenous
learners around the world (Gardner, 1986; Vernon, Jackson & Messick,
1988; Vyas, 1988; Yu & Bain, 1985) indicate that there is considerable
within-group variation. If over-generalisations are made about the
preferred styles of Indigenous and other minority children, there is a

risk of stereotyping. This can result in the needs of some children not
being addressed by the instruction methods used. Just as there are many
Indigenous cultures, so there are many preferred Indigenous learning
styles. Statements about ‘likelihood’ are helpful, however, in raising
awareness and alerting teachers to what they might be on the lookout
for from their students.
Teachers need to consider the learning styles of their students
when they are designing learning tasks. For example, you should
consider whether they learn best by doing, listening, watching, working
independently and so on. A great deal has been written on the preferred
learning styles of Indigenous children. This includes discussions about
how they inform classroom instruction (Christie, 1985; Harris, 1980;
Hughes et al., 2004).
However, it should be remembered that all children learn through a
range of styles despite preferring one or two styles over others. It is the
role of teachers to ensure that a balance of learning styles is addressed
through their delivery modes. They should not favour any particular
learning style but rather they should deliberately attend to all learning
styles to some extent.
For example, teaching that focuses on direct instruction and oral
presentation may not be effective for many students. Indigenous students
who are taught primarily through watching adults and older siblings,
and encouraged to ‘have a go’ when they feel confident to do so (not
directly being told they are wrong, but chided through teasing and
so on), will clearly be disadvantaged if teachers don’t use pedagogies
that match these ‘home expectations’. Teachers need to find out about
teaching and learning in the homes and cultures of their students so
that they can build a ‘bridge’ for students to make the transition from
students’ homes to Western schools as smooth as possible.
Teachers, with help from families, should try to determine each
child’s preferred learning styles so that they can be supported in ways
that maximise their learning, especially if they need extra support in
some areas (Hughes et al., 2004).
Tables 2.6 and 2.7 compare Aboriginal and mainstream learning
styles and are sourced from Perso (2012), who summarised the work of
Hughes and More (1997) and others as indicated in Table 2.6.

These findings concerning Australian Aboriginal learning styles

are validated and extended by a broad range of research, as shown in
Table 2.7.
Learning styles compared: Aboriginal and mainstream TABLE 2.6
Learning styles preferred by students from

traditional Indigenous backgrounds Mainstream learning styles
Observation and imitation Verbal and oral instruction
Personal trial and error/feedback Verbal instruction accompanied by demonstration
Real-life performance/learning from life Practice in contrived/artificial settings
experiences
Mastering context-specific skills Abstract, context-free principles that can be
applied in previously inexperienced situations
Person-oriented (focus on people and Information-oriented
relationships)
Spontaneous learning Structured learning
Holistic learning (need to know what the goal Sequential and linear learning
is first)
Source: Perso (2012), after Hughes and More (1997) and others
Overview of research into learning styles of Australian TABLE 2.7

Aboriginal students
Learning styles preferred by students from traditional
Indigenous backgrounds Research
Observation and imitation: This is preferred over verbal instruction Harris, 1980; Harris & Malin,
and written approaches. 1994; Hughes, 1992;
Balance between teacher direction and student autonomy: Yunkaporta, 2009a–c
Students are supported to work autonomously and creatively.
Personal trial and feedback: Students prefer to try things privately Harris, 1980, 1990; More, 1989
and decide when they are ready to demonstrate acquired skills,
feedback refines the learning (e.g. riding a bike).
Real-life performance: Learning occurs in specific contexts; in non- Harris, 1980, 1984; Kearins,
Aboriginal settings, particularly school, it is de-contextualised. 1984
Mastering context-specific skills Harris, 1980; Kearins, 1984
Non-linear methods: Teacher returns to concepts and repetition to Taylor, 2003; Yunkaporta, 2007,
deepen learning; uses of ‘learning maps’ to map out the direction of 2009a–c
learning in a display so students can see ‘where it leads’;
Blends common elements of different cultures.

Learning styles preferred by students from traditional

Indigenous backgrounds Research
Person-oriented: The group is more important than the individual; Andrews & Hughes, 1988;
the purpose of learning is to benefit the group, and learning as a Harris, 1980, 1984; Harrison,
group is apparently more important than learning as an individual. 2008
Watson (1991) found that Aboriginal students in urban locations
learn best in small groups based on gender or Aboriginality.
Informal and non-verbal: Schooling is mostly based on two-way Frigo, 1999
interaction.
Cultural protocols: Students feel ‘shamed’ when publicly and Groome, 1995; Malin, 1990
individually asked to answer questions.
Holistic learning: Teacher uses global teaching strategies (looking at Harris, 1980, 1984; Harrison,
the big picture before looking at the details). 2008; Yunkaporta, 2009a–c
Scaffolding: Breaking down the learning and building it up again Harrison, 2008
from something known.
Visual–spatial skills: Not just about ‘seeing’ but about processing Hughes, 1992;
and coding information; using symbols and images to make visual Yunkaporta, 2009a–c
metaphors.
Situating learning in what is meaningful and relevant: Learning is Craven, 1999; Yunkaporta,
situated in community (local Indigenous knowledge enables higher- 2009a–c
order thinking and problem-solving).
Using narratives and storytelling Craven, 1999; Yunkaporta, 2009
Abstract imagery: Aboriginal students use mind-images to locate; Bindarryi et al.,1991
this style also used to learn the Aboriginal Dreaming.
Spontaneous learning: Preferred to structured learning. Andrews & Hughes, 1988
Focus on skills for specific tasks: Preferred to using general Harris, 1980
principles.
Secondary cultural differences Ogbu, 1988
Differences that arise from student’s experiences with school, or with
the majority society.
Apparent passive participation: Likely to result from not wanting to Bindarryi et al., 1991; Christie,
be seen as pushy, not learning at home to initiate and manipulate, 1982; Hughes, 1992; Kearins,
differences in language usage. 1982; Sarra, 2005
Concrete learning style: Likely to result from lack of relevance of Craven, 1999; Hughes &
how and what is taught. More, 1997; Harrison, 2008;
Yunkaporta, 2009a–c
Reflective and random learning styles: Likely to result from Malin, 1990
unfamiliar environment of school, feelings of being ostracised and
fear of being shamed and ridiculed.
Source: Perso (2012) after Hughes & More (1997) and as indicated in table

Sometimes students tend to learn through a learning style that the

teacher uses, even though it might not be the students’ strongest way of
learning (learning style). For example, Hughes and More (1997) found
that students from a cultural minority (including Aboriginal students)
usually use a way of learning which is not their strongest learning style,
especially when the teaching style delivered by the school is different
from their own preferred learning style (p. 24).
Some of the research presented above is from a long time ago. Does its PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
age determine its relevance? for sharing
Do you think research about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children
undertaken by non-Indigenous people should be taken should be taken
seriously? Is it relevant?
Some research (see above) indicates that many Indigenous children

prefer to learn through visual senses. This means that they prefer to
learn by watching. For their learning to make sense they need to be
able to see or visualise knowledge skills and concepts. They may wish
to draw or illustrate what they are hearing, in some
way. They may also wish to develop or use a metaphor [We] make sense out of
to help them understand (this is quite common in reality and construct reality,
some locations). They may even want to write down (and) people’s lives, their
thoughts, actions, and
instructions or see them demonstrated in order to experiences are generated
understand them. by metaphorical images, the
St Clair (2000) uses the distinction between Western very vehicle for shaping the
content of consciousness.
print cultures and the oral cultures of American Indians HELSHUSIUS (1996)
to explain the different cognitive styles of the two
cultures. These differences are shown in Table 2.8.
This table provides valuable insight into the impact that print has
had on learning in Western cultures and, in particular, the preference
of many Indigenous students for visual learning.
What is your preferred learning style? How do you know? PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
Have you ever focused on using a different learning style? for sharing
How effective was it for your learning? Why do you think that is?

TABLE 2.8 Educational cognitive styles of American Indians

Relations Print culture Oral culture
Relations of child The child prefers to work alone, likes The child prefers to work with
to peers competition and is task-oriented. others, likes cooperation and is
person-oriented.
Relations of child The child prefers formal instruction, The child seeks personal instruction,
to teachers avoids ‘stroking’ and seeks cognitive ‘stroking’, and affective feedback.
feedback.
Relations of child Curriculum is made to incorporate The curriculum incorporates the gestalt
to curriculum details and structures. It uses approach. It uses a humanised format.
impersonal content and structures Its focus is on wisdom, and group atti-
subroutines. It stresses facts and formal tudes are emphasised. The experience
knowledge. The discovery approach approach works best.
works best.
Source: St Clair (2000), p. 6

The discussion in this chapter has focused on Standard 1, Know students
and how they learn. The information presented in this chapter concerning
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students raises awareness for
teachers about these particular students. In particular, it presents the
various aspects of ‘knowing’ with respect to these students and what
this means for culturally responsive teachers. These aspects are shown
in Table 2.9.
TABLE 2.9 Culturally Responsive Behaviours, Standard 1

Standard Culturally Responsive Behaviours
1. Know students • Knowing the learning strengths and preferred learning styles of each student
and how they • Knowing what the students already know and bring with them into the learning
learn environment
• Knowing students’ interests and home lives in order to ensure the learning is
relevant and interesting
• Knowing the cultural identity and linguistic background of each student
• Knowing what teaching strategies and activities will support the full participa-
tion and learning of all students
• Knowing cultural differences and behaviours that influence the children and
how they interact with each other and yourself
• Knowing the histories of the local people; these might impact on their family
interactions and the time taken to build levels of trust

While Standard 1.4 (Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and Torres

Strait Islander students) explicitly mentions Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander students as a sub-set of Standard 1, the information provided
in this chapter demonstrates that culturally responsive teachers need
more than a knowledge of what strategies they can use for teaching these
students. Before considering strategies, a knowledge of the students and
their backgrounds (including the ways they have been raised and taught)
is essential. Hence this information provides a foundation or a basis
on which to make decisions about what strategies might be needed. It
focuses primarily on standards 1.2 (with respect to how Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander students learn) and 1.3 (with respect to Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander students being students with diverse linguistic
and cultural backgrounds), as shown in Table 2.10.
National Professional Standards for Teachers, focusing on Aboriginal TABLE 2.10

and Torres Strait Islander people
Standard Focus area Proficient standard
1.2 Understand how Structure teaching programs using research and
students learn collegial advice about how students learn
1.3 Students with diverse Design and implement teaching strategies that are
linguistic, cultural, responsive to the learning strengths and needs of
religious and socio- students form diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and
economic backgrounds socio-economic backgrounds
AITSL (2011)
In the next chapters, we describe more fully the teaching strategies

and activities that support the full participation and learning of all
students, particularly Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students.

Managing and setting
expectations for relationships
and behaviour
CHAPTER 3
The importance of relationships for Indigenous people as part of identity
and ‘ways of knowing’ has been highlighted in the previous two chapters.
When this is considered in the context of the import-
ance of relationships between teachers and their students Effective relationship and trust
it becomes clear that poor relationships with teachers is pivotal in facilitating learning.
can directly or indirectly result in Indigenous students ROGERS (1983)
absenting themselves from school. In particular, we

have seen that many Indigenous children are raised to think and make
decisions for themselves. It follows that if these children find themselves
in a situation in which they don’t want to be—where they don’t like or
respect their teacher, and perhaps don’t feel culturally ‘safe’—it may not
be surprising that they should choose to avoid or leave that situation if
they can.
Teacher–student relationships
Biesta (2004) states that ‘education takes place in the interaction between
the teacher and the learner’. Sidorkin (2002) suggests that ‘relations
ontologically precede all else in education’; in other words, relationships
need to be attended to first. He says that there are two possible courses
of actions in schools: forcing students to learn using a range of forms of
discipline and ‘violence’ invented by educators for centuries, or building
a community where students love their teachers and hence will ‘do the
school stuff too’ (p. 128).
57

Clearly, the first of these suggestions may be at odds with creating

successful conditions in which Indigenous students will learn. There
are cultural reasons associated with child-rearing practices for this.
These reasons include that:
• many Indigenous children are unlikely to be forced to do anything
they don’t want to do
• many Indigenous children may not listen to adults whom they don’t
know or with whom they don’t have a relationship
• if Indigenous children don’t see the relevance of what they are being
taught many are unlikely to seriously engage with it, and
• if Indigenous children are forced to demonstrate something that
they are not ready to try, many are likely to run off or use other
distractive behaviours, in order to avoid embarrassment
It is not always the quality of the and shame.
teaching that prevents Indigenous Most students in Bishop and colleagues’ (2007) study
students learning – often it’s
the quality of the relationship of educational achievement of Maori in New Zealand
between teacher and student, not secondary schools ‘identified that the relationships they
to mention the school community. have with their teachers was the most influential factor
HERBERT (2006)
in their ability to achieve in the classroom’ (p. 18).
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS Who were your favourite teachers? Why were they your favourites?
for sharing Did you work harder for them than for other teachers and was your
behaviour any different? Why?
Hattie (2003), in a study of reading results of students in New

Zealand, found that the achievement gap between Maori and Pakeha
(people of European descent) students was not a result of socioeconomic
differences but rather of the cultural relationships
Building relations with students between Maori students and their teachers.
implies agency, efficacy, respect The distinction between knowing about the students
by the teacher for what the child and knowing the students is important. Knowing about
brings to the class (from home,
culture, peers), and allowing the someone results from an intellectual task of gathering
experiences of the child to be information. Really knowing someone requires a rela-
recognised in the classroom. tionship based on mutual respect. The importance
HATTIE (2009)
of teacher–student relationships between Aboriginal

MANAGING AND SETTING EXPECTATIONS 59
and Torres Strait Islander children and their teachers has been widely
documented (Burney, 1982; Christie, 1984; Christie & Harris, 1985;
Harris, 1990; Partington, 1998; Watson & Chambers, 1989; Sarra, 2005),
and cannot be over-emphasised, as the following quotes and summaries
from research reveal:
• ‘Aboriginal students respond best when there are positive personal
relationships with teachers.’ (Matthews et al., 2003)
• ‘It is often more important who does the teaching than what is
actually taught.’ (Collins, 1993)
• ‘The relationships established by teachers with their Aboriginal
students are critical if students are to succeed.’ (Gribble, 2002)
• ‘It is not always the quality of the teaching that prevents Indigenous
students learning—often it’s the quality of the relationship between
teacher and student, not to mention the school community.’
(Herbert, 2006)
Did you ever have a teacher whom you felt really knew you? PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
Did that have an effect on your willingness to learn? Why? How did you for sharing
demonstrate this?
Let’s examine some strategies for teachers to really get to know

their students:
• Show genuine interest in students and ‘what makes them tick’; their
interests, passions, spare time pursuits, idols or role models.
• Demonstrate warmth to a student through smiling, making eye
contact and affirming body language. Be careful to ensure that all
physical contact is appropriate—particularly for males with female
students. This can be quite challenging with younger students who
are often very physical and want to touch hair, skin and hands. If
you aren’t sure, talk to parents and your principal about relevant
policies and your particular circumstances.
• Affirm and demonstrate joy in student accomplishments—but be
discreet if there is a possibility of causing the student shame.
• Demonstrate trust by giving students a trusted job to do (for example,
cleaning the board or taking a note to another teacher). Make sure

you give other students the same treatment so shame isn’t caused
by perceived favouritism.
• Spend time with students in the school yard, in class lines and so
on; make sure you are fair with this treatment so students won’t feel
‘singled out’.
In Chapter 1, we presented the notion of ‘whiteness’ as a social construct

of power. This ‘power’ relationship is played out in schools as a result
of cultural differences and student identity, and is often most evident
in the behaviour management strategies teachers used.
Indigenous students come to Western schools with different perspect-
ives as a result of their different life experiences outside the school.
Patterns of behaviour that result due to these experiences are often seen
by teachers as misbehaviours. However, for many
Indigenous students these patterns of behaviour are
Teachers and other school
staff [are often] oblivious to ‘normal’. ‘Patterns of non-compliance and defiance by
the pressures that [Aboriginal] the (Indigenous) students are common behaviours in
students consistently face
response to perceived teacher ignorance of Aboriginal
in code-switching between
home life and school life in the culture and social relationships’ (Gillan, 2008).
negotiation of the problematic The behaviours of non-Indigenous teachers can
binary of power relations.
sometimes influence and even aggravate the disruptive
GILLAN (2008)
behaviours of Indigenous students. For example,
some adolescent boys often mimic behaviours such
as shouting and aggressive body language of non-Indigenous teachers.
This can inflame situations further if teachers feel that they have lost
power or are being made to look stupid in front of the rest of the class.
Similarly, the timetabling of white female teachers to teach classes
containing adolescent males can create cultural tensions; many adoles-
cent males have been through tribal ‘law’ and, as a result, are considered
by themselves and their families as men. Many of these males take
on adult responsibilities at home, particularly in the absence of their
fathers. When a young female teacher attempts to assert her authority
over the ‘man’, she is seen to be challenging his authority, and this can
result in further confrontation as the male is seen to be ‘shamed’ in a
culturally inappropriate way in front of his peers (Gillan, 2008, p. 269).
Many young female teachers have not been prepared to deal with these
situations or the fallout that may result.

Cultural competence training provided by the school should prepare

young teachers for this type of confrontation. In particular, young
teachers should avoid placing students in any situation that might cause
them to be ‘shamed’ in front of their peers. Never ‘take them on’, raise
your voice, stand up to them (particularly young adolescent males, if
you are female), or try to force them to do anything they don’t want
to do; give them a choice. This is just good practice—particularly in
the middle years of schooling (DEST, 2005). In other words, don’t back
students into a corner where there is no way out without them losing
face or being ‘shamed’ in front of peers.
This requires teachers to recognise that race is a factor and that
‘treating all students the same’ is in fact discriminatory. School leaders
also need to be aware of this particular issue when managing their
timetabling and should not place young teachers in these positions if
they can possibly avoid it. Older, more experienced teachers are more
suited to teaching these students, as are Indigenous male teachers.
For Indigenous students who breach discipline codes in Western
schools, a more culturally appropriate method—one that would not
involve the teacher using different methods for different students but
that would still enable them to meet the school discipline policy—might
be to invite the student to leave the classroom with them and to talk to
them outside, away from their peers. This might not always be possible
unless there is a teacher assistant in the classroom.
As Gillan (2008) notes:
The daily tension for many Aboriginal students is the maintenance of
their Aboriginality in the face of school policy that disregards many of
their regular cultural and behavioural practices that are socially acceptable
at home and in their community, but threaten the ‘good order’ of the
institution when brought to school. (p. 291)
Generally, because teachers and schools have the power of authority,

Indigenous students struggle to maintain their cultural identity in
Western-centric schools. These students might believe that in order
to survive in these Western school settings they have to sacrifice or
compromise their Indigenous culture (Zubrick et al., 2005).
Schools, through their policies, rules and behaviour codes—often
totally different from those that exist in Indigenous homes—work to

socialise Indigenous students into Western norms. As a result, Indigenous

students and those from other non-Western cultural backgrounds
become oppressed and humiliated by behaviour policies that privilege
the values of white society. For example, the child-rearing practices of
some Aboriginal groups develop qualities of independence, assertiveness
and responsibility for decision-making and self-regulation of behaviour
from an early age. These are qualities that white families do not generally
instil in young children.
In schools, white teachers set limits on what students can say and
do; these may be unfamiliar behavioural codes for many Indigenous
children. The environment created by the constant tension and stress
of having to code-switch between cultural values can be difficult,
particularly for young children, and can result in Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander children becoming resistant to the white authority. If
students don’t have the strength to continue to resist they might, over
time, lose some aspects of their Indigeneity. This is often a fear for
Indigenous parents, who as a result will not force their children to stay
at school under these conditions.
Students struggling to switch between these codes develop patterns
of resistance (including truancy, putting up a ‘wall of silence’ when
confronted, and causing disruption) in an attempt to restore their
collective Indigenous capacity, weakened by the process of Western
schooling. For schools with a large number of Indigenous students,
school failure might in reality be the result of Indigenous students’
resistance to their teachers, administration and school authority.
There are some Indigenous students who may even believe that
success in a white school and compliance with Western behaviour codes
threatens their collective capacity. These students feel they have to choose
between conforming to the non-Indigenous practices of schooling and
being estranged from their peer and family group, or building their
Indigenous capacity by engaging in resistance-type behaviours (Gillan,
2008, p. 60).
Aboriginality as persistence (belief about their cultural make-up)
and Aboriginality as resistance (living cultural practices that inform
active interaction with white society) appear to be largely misinterpreted
by both teachers and administrators in schools (Keefe, 1992). Students
overwhelmingly practise Aboriginality as resistance in response to school

discipline regimes. Gillan (2008) found in a study that the Aboriginal

students in a school (the ‘Black team’) used behaviours of persistence
and resistance to develop their collective sense of order and control.
They perceived that these collectively reinforced their Aboriginality.
Teachers, on the other hand, apply the school discipline policy and
procedures to maintain their authority and control. Gillan (2008) also
found that Aboriginal students constantly practise resistance behaviours
in response to school discipline regimes. When Aboriginal students
feel that they are being discriminated against in relation to their lives
at home or their behaviour, they believe they are culturally justified in
resisting the teacher’s white authority. Gillan states, ‘These relations of
power between the two competing groups will ebb and flow through
the course of the school day according to who is threatened with a
loss of control or order’ (p. 253). Aboriginal students who are seen as
betraying their cultural identity by conforming to white/school-expected
behaviours can be actively excluded by the ‘Black team’.
Conflict may arise for Indigenous students when they are misun-
derstood by their teachers. Areas that create conflict can be grouped
as follows (West, 1994):
• Equality: Conflict may arise due to the equality of adults and children
in Indigenous cultures compared with the power of the teacher
as adult in the classroom. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
children do not defer to teachers merely because they hold the title
and position of ‘teacher’.
• Practical competencies and independence: Conflict may arise when
students’ practical competences and independence fostered in
Indigenous child-rearing are not recognised in classrooms. Students
are extremely independent, having had responsibility for themselves
and often younger siblings before they reach school age.
• Communication: Conflict can result from a number of culturally
different behaviours including the need for silence by Indigenous
students in order to process what has been said; students putting
up a ‘wall of silence’ due to embarrassment or shame; and students
being reprimanded for not using Western social courtesies, misun-
derstanding directions or inappropriate questioning.
• Affiliation: In Indigenous cultures the needs of the group are more
important than the needs of the individual. Students might assist

family members to deflect ‘shame’ caused by loss of security and

anonymity provided by the group when they are singled out.
• Personal attributes: In particular, the students’ resilience, fostered by
the family during child-rearing to prepare children for social encoun-
ters of life, may result in conflict. Children use their resilience to cope
with being shouted at, isolated and so on, and their perceived attitude
of not caring or being indifferent can annoy those in authority.
It is clear that to reduce the occurrence and hence minimise the risks
of conflict with Indigenous students, teachers need to better understand
the values and practices of Indigenous people. This doesn’t necessarily
mean developing a range of ‘behaviour management’
Trusting, personal relation- strategies. It begins with acknowledging cultural
ships are the ‘bedrock of
academic success’. differences, respecting there are differences even though
ERICKSON (1987) you may not know what they are, and being prepared to
learn about the differences and respond accordingly.
Respectful relationships with Indigenous students have to be built and
based on respect. The following indicators of respectful relationships,
drawn from research, provide clues as to how these relationships are
built and maintained:
• There is tangible evidence of warmth, caring and trust.

• The teacher directs positive attention to the student (for example,
provides encouragement and positive support).
• The teacher shows genuine interest in the student’s life outside school
and their social and emotional needs.
• The teacher truly listens to the student.
• The teacher shows sensitivity to the student and recognises cultural
expectations (for example, not placing students in positions where
they might be embarrassed, lose face or be ‘shamed’; always provide
Indigenous students with options and choices so that they can
maintain control).
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS To what extent should school policies reflect Western values? Why?
for sharing What alternatives can you think of?

Managing student behaviour and discipline

Teachers use classroom management strategies in order to create a
positive and safe environment that maximises the learning for every
student. If behaviour is managed well, an environment is created that
enables learning to flourish. There is a great deal of research that shows
that positive relationships between students and teachers are associated
with fewer behaviour problems (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; McNeely et
al., 2002; Murray & Greenburg, 2001). This means that unacceptable
behaviours can result from poor relationships so it makes sense to invest
in strong relationships first.
The more behaviour problems with which a teacher has to deal,
the less time for learning for all students—not just the ones who are
misbehaving. Managing behaviour is a necessary skill of every good
teacher. There exists evidence in Australia that more Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander students are disciplined in schools than non-
Indigenous students (Gillan, 2008, p. 233).
Why do you think there are more discipline issues with Aboriginal and PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
Torres Strait Islander students in Australian schools? for sharing
To what extent could the ‘discipline gap’ be the result of a ‘cultural gap’
between teachers and students?
Sometimes in classrooms, non-Indigenous teachers discipline their

Indigenous students because they don’t understand their behaviours or
the reasons that underpin them. This might be because the students
behave ‘differently’ from what teachers expect. This is one of the most
important reasons why teachers need to do everything they can in
order to understand their students’ cultures and identities. We have
learned that it is these that shape student behaviours. If students behave
differently from how you would want them to behave, you need to try
and understand why from their perspective, and by understanding how
they have been brought up.
If you want them to behave in ways that match your expecta-
tions, you will need to consider, from their perspective, how hard it

might be for them to learn the behaviours you expect, and whether
your expectations are unreasonable. If the behaviour you expect
is markedly different from what they have been taught, you will
need to explicitly teach them how to do things your way. You will
also need to develop in them an understanding of why you want a
particular behaviour.
Whatever you do, don’t automatically assume there is something
wrong with the students if they don’t or can’t do things in ways that
you expect. Many teachers make this mistake and call for specialist
teacher support, insisting that their Indigenous students have disabil-
ities or special needs. This transfers the problem from the teacher to
the student.
Table 3.1 shows some behaviours, the way they might be perceived
from a Western/teacher viewpoint, and their possible cultural source.
TABLE 3.1 Possible teacher perceptions of student behaviours

Behaviour Possible teacher perception Possible cultural source
Student avoids eye contact Student is guilty of something Casting the eyes down may be a
or disrespectful demonstration of respect
Student smiles at seemingly Student seems ‘weird’ or could A smile may be a gesture of
inappropriate times have a drug problem or foetal respect, meant to avoid offence
alcohol syndrome in difficult situations
Student seems reluctant to Student might have learning It is considered inappropriate to
engage in debate, speculation, difficulties or be unable to use openly challenge another’s point
argument or other classroom higher-order thinking of view, especially that of the
processes teacher
Student ignores question asked Student doesn’t know the It is socially acceptable to ignore
by the teacher answer questions when it is clear the
asker knows the answer; or is
deeply considering a response
that will avoid ‘shame’
Teacher asks student whether The student deliberately lied Telling a person what they want
homework has been completed and so is dishonest and can’t be to hear is an acceptable way of
and student says ‘yes’ even trusted avoiding confrontation
though it clearly hasn’t
Student swears at teacher and Student is rude and Student finds it easier to be sent
becomes violent when asked to disrespectful and is ordered to outside or to the office than be
read out aloud ‘go to the office!’ ‘shamed’ in front of peers

Behaviour Possible teacher perception Possible cultural source

Student does not say ‘thank Student is bad mannered Some Aboriginal cultures have
you’ when offered something by different ways of expressing cour-
the teacher tesy; in some cases, they may even
expect the teacher to say ‘thank
you’ for the privilege of giving
Student ignores teacher when Student is rude and In some cultures children are
politely asked to stop what he disrespectful encouraged to engage with a task
or she is doing until they feel like stopping or the
task is complete
Student gets angry and swears Student is rude and In some cultures it is offensive for
at teacher when told publicly he disrespectful an unrelated adult to point out
or she is wrong errors to children
Student ignores teacher when Student is rude and In some cultures listening to
he or she is speaking or giving disrespectful and doesn’t listen adults is not expected; adult is
instructions; doesn’t know what to instructions or commands seen as being ‘pushy’ or ‘bossy’
to do and viewed as offensive if they
speak forthrightly and strongly
Student continually stays home Student is ‘wagging’ and should Teacher is unpleasant or doesn’t
from school be punished fulfil student’s expectations so
student avoids this situation
Student continues to seek help Student doesn’t listen, is rude Indigenous students cooperate
from peers despite being told to and disrespectful with peers rather than seeking
ask the teacher for help help from an adult; this minimises
‘shame’
Students disengage because it’s Student is rude and Indigenous children learn on a
boring or irrelevant; they ‘muck disrespectful ‘need to know’ basis; why learn
around’ something that is irrelevant?
Students are constantly asking Students are rude; they don’t Students may have a middle
teachers or peers to repeat listen ear infection, or they may have
instructions and information difficulty responding to aural
instructions
Students miss school because Students don’t care; parents Parents may be more concerned
they stay home to care for don’t care with keeping their families intact
young siblings than sending children to school
Source: Adapted from Perso (2003), pp. 25–7
There are clear cultural differences here that might explain the
behavioural differences responsible for the ‘discipline gap’. In other
words it is most likely that the discipline gap can be explained by cultural
differences that lead to behavioural differences, as shown in Figure 3.1.

FIGURE 3.1 Possible causal pathway to cultural differences responsible for the
‘discipline gap’ in schools
Cultural Behavioural Discipline gap

differences differences in schools
What teachers can do

If teachers were more aware of cultural differences, they would be more
likely to understand the differences in behaviours between Indigenous and
non-Indigenous students and hence be less likely to react negatively. They
could also avoid placing students in situations likely to be inflammatory.
Often when a confrontation escalates between a teacher and students,
the resulting attempt at discipline exacerbates the situation and breaks
the relationship between teacher and students down even further.
However, there are several methods to help teachers manage student
behaviours in classrooms:
• Explicitly teach all students to use the words ‘please’ and ‘thank
you’ and in what contexts they should be used, if you expect them
to use them.
• Make sure you teach all students the ‘obedience expectations’ that
you have of them (for example, ‘listen to me when I speak’ and ‘stop
work when I tell you to’).
• Explicitly teach expectations regarding time and what they mean
(for example, ‘hurry up’ and ‘five minutes to go’).
• Teach students what it means to make a commitment to do something
and what is expected as a result (for example, when agreeing to
complete their homework).
• Explicitly teach the verbal and physical constraints used to ensure
safety in a classroom, including why they are necessary (for example,
‘pay attention’, ‘listen when someone else is speaking’, ‘one at a time’,
‘remain seated’).
• Try to make all learning immediately relevant and meaningful and
‘hands-on’; teach terms and instructions at the time they are needed.

• When asking Indigenous students questions, do it in an indirect,

non-threatening manner, allowing them time to consider whether
they can answer without shame, or remain silent if they wish.
• Explicitly teach students externally imposed consequences that may
be used to shape behaviours, compared with the use of ‘shame’ in
their own culture.
• Model to students that it is okay to make mistakes—you don’t have
to get it right, let alone perfect, the first time—and laugh at yourself
when you get it wrong.
• If you feel you must reprimand students, do it in a way that students
know it is being done because you care for them, or through gently
appealing to their responsibility to the group or the possibility of
bringing shame to their family.
• Deeply consider students’ behaviours and what was responsible for
generating them—are students responding to what they perceive as
injustice or unfair treatment?
• Find out about each individual student’s background (for example,
poverty, health and community expectations) and, in doing so,
consider how it might be affecting their behaviours.
• Engage in critical thinking exercises that focus on cultural differences,
such as punctuality and child-rearing. This approach is better than
delivering a set of norms or rules; students need to know ‘why’.
• Be aware that many Indigenous students especially, for reasons
linked to access to medical diagnosis and treatment, in remote
locations have a condition known as ‘middle ear infection’,
‘conductive hearing loss’ (CHL) or more technically otitis media,
which affects their hearing. This might result in them being
required to constantly clarify instructions with teachers and peers
(see Chapter 7).
• Be fair and consistent in dealing with student misbehaviours; ensure
there is no opportunity for students to say ‘This wouldn’t have
happened if I were white’.
She knows how to treat us right
Note that it is important to find out what Indigenous and stuff, and then we do the
students already do; don’t make assumptions that same thing and respect her back.
they behave differently from yourself because they MAORI SECONDARY STUDENT,
QUOTED IN BISHOP ET AL. (2007)
are Indigenous.

What schools can do

Schools can work to support teachers’ behaviour management in
classrooms and to manage behaviours in and around the school
in several ways:
• Recruit and employ Indigenous para-professionals as assistant
teachers or support workers, who can provide advice to teachers in
understanding the behaviours of students, and provide guidance for
students who are bridging two cultures.
• Ensure that teachers work with these para-professionals, learning
from them to develop their own understanding and capability.
• Have Indigenous para-professionals present in classrooms supporting
teachers to both understand students’ behaviours and to learn how
to avoid conflict resulting from cultural misunderstandings.
• Work through Indigenous teachers and support teachers to build
partnerships with parents and links with the Indigenous community
to assist both parents and students with the home–school transition.
• Ensure that all teachers have cultural competence and are aware
of both cultural differences and implications for teachers (this is
relevant for school leaders).
• Diffuse situations through school leaders’ knowledge of Indigenous
cultures and behaviours and provide ways to safeguard public
humiliation for students (and teachers), using restorative, conciliation
practices whenever possible (for example, when school leaders are
dealing with Indigenous students ‘sent to the office’).
• Publicly demonstrate that Indigenous students are welcome in the
school by providing a welcoming and culturally safe environment.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS Why do you think teachers of cultural minority students and students from
for sharing ‘poor’ backgrounds have low learning expectations of these students?
What about you—where do you ‘sit’ on this issue?
How would you feel if teachers from different backgrounds from
your own thought you couldn’t be a good teacher based on that
difference?

Having high expectations

Having ‘high expectations’ of students may be considered a pedagogy.
However, it refers more to the way students are ‘positioned’ by their
teachers and hence is part of the environment created by the relationships
between teachers and students. Having high expectations of students
sets the tone for learning in the school environment. Rosenthal and
Jacobson’s 1968 book Pygmalion in the Classroom infuriated people by
describing how teachers’ expectations influence the success (or not) of
students’ learning. More recent research by Weinstein (2002) showed
that students know when teachers have lower expectations of them in
classrooms and can tell by the degree to which they are favoured.
More specifically, researchers (Dent & Hatton, 1996; Haberman, 1991;
Sarra, 2005) have found that many teachers of students from cultural
minority and low socioeconomic status backgrounds
lower their learning expectations for these students. As I was never any good at maths,
a result, they ‘dumb down’ the curriculum they provide, but I had a teacher in Year 7
who really believed I could learn
using pedagogy that does not demand from students
the stuff. He kept pushing me
any higher-order or critical thinking or learning contexts and I worked really hard for
that require students to make decisions or think for him and eventually got it.
themselves. This might result from reasoning by teachers INDIGENOUS STUDENT,
URBAN SCHOOL, SYDNEY
that only people who are not smart are poor or if they
are dumb there’s no point giving them problem-solving
since they won’t be able to do it. Indeed, many teachers make decisions
about a student’s ability to learn based on, for example, the student’s
clothes, skin colour or prior schooling, or on the suburb where they live.
Unfortunately, this type of thinking often results in students being
given ‘busy work’ that teachers assume will give these students success.
This might include activities such as worksheets, colouring in, copying
from the board, watching DVDs and other activities that present little
or no challenge to students and seem mainly designed to keep them
out of trouble. This lack of access to intellectual rigour can result in
students being ‘locked in’ to their current circumstances and provides
another demonstration of the power that teachers can have to mirror
the social inequities that occur in our society.

PERSONAL REFLECTIONS Do you think that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students can achieve
for sharing at levels equally as high—if not higher—than non-Indigenous students?
If yes, how do you demonstrate this in your teaching?
If no, how are you working to overcome this bias?
[T]eachers must stop emphasising

Chris Sarra, an eminent Australian educator and
ability and start emphasising leader of the Stronger Smarter Institute in Australia,
progress (steep learning curves believes that the main reason for underachievement
are the right of all students
regardless of where they start),
patterns by Indigenous students in Australian schools
stop seeking evidence to confirm is the culture of low expectations by teachers
prior expectations but seek (Sarra, 2007).
evidence to surprise themselves.
Schools and teachers generally don’t explicitly give
HATTIE (2009)
out a message of low expectations, but students may
still perceive it through school design, organisational
We are dealing, it would seem, structure, and the provision of work that provides
not so much with culturally little challenge. A school that looks and operates like
deprived children as with it ‘doesn’t care’ implies that students and their learning
culturally deprived schools . . .
only by changing the nature aren’t valued. In contrast, schools and teachers who
of the educational experience, create secure, well-managed learning environments
can we change the product. (including through behaviour management policies
RYAN (1976)
and strategies) show that they care for their students
and their profession.
Low discipline rates and high attendance rates are indicators of good
relationships. Data generated from these areas indicate that the quality of
care for students combined with high expectations for student learning
is evident in the quality of student performance, as shown in Figure 3.2.
Discipline is behaviour that is meted out in order to maintain order
and build conformity. Discipline provided by schools to ensure students
‘behave’ and conform to school rules is aimed at reducing resistant
behaviours. One study in Australia (Gillan, 2008) found that Aboriginal
students were three times more likely to be suspended from school than
were non-Aboriginal students. Students and parents involved in the
study complained about the ‘double standards’ applied by the school
with respect to non-Indigenous students, who were either not suspended
when they committed the same offence as suspended Indigenous students

Relationship between school and classroom environment, FIGURE 3.2

and student results
Quality of care
for students,
including cultural
safety
Quality student
performance
High
expectations
or who were suspended for shorter periods of time. Some families and
students were also concerned that their behaviours were pathologised
(when the behaviours are believed to be an inherent sickness or disease)
by white teachers and administrators and that they were not given the
same opportunities to participate in restorative justice approaches
provided to white students in the school. This inequity in treatment of
students from different cultural groups can further develop resistance
and recidivist behaviours, resulting in the discipline having the opposite
effect on students to that intended. While suspended students did not
enjoy suspension, as they were isolated from their peers, the study found
that when students returned to school they were more likely to engage
in recidivist behaviour in an effort to try and re-establish their cultural
reputation among peers (Gillan, 2008, p. 234).
Schools must be equipped to
Students in this same study preferred in-school ensure that they have adequate
suspension (where they were placed in isolation for cultural security or that the
up to a week and supervised by a teacher or school Aboriginal identity of the
Aboriginal student population
administrator) over suspension from school because, (including their families, kin and
although they were still separated from their peers, local community) is developed,
they remained in close proximity to them on the same maintained and promoted.
KICKETT-TUCKER & COFFIN (2011)
site, and hence their strong cultural bonds remained

intact. By still being visible to their peers at break times, their peers
might view them as ‘heroes’ for their cause, thus increasing their status
among peers.
Relationships between Aboriginal and Torres Strait

Islander students
If teachers are to truly ‘know’ their students, particularly their cultural
identity and ‘ways of knowing’, then they need to know about the
relationships that their student have with other students of the same
cultural background. This is particularly important for teachers with
more than one Indigenous student in their class, and for schools with
multiple Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander enrolments.
Teasing, bullying and group behaviours

In the previous chapter we learned that part of the ‘worldview’ or ‘ways
of knowing’ of Indigenous people is that the group is more important
than the individual (Harris, 1980, 1984; Harrison, 2008). In Indigenous
cultures, the purpose of learning is to benefit the group; the learning
of the group is more important than the learning of each individual in
the group. As a result, individualism is ‘reined in’ by kinship groups
who discipline those who promote their individualism, through teasing
(Malin, 1990).
When ‘shame’ results from Indigenous students being placed in
positions of embarrassment by non-Indigenous people, such as being
made by their teacher to do something and getting it wrong (for example,
being asked to read aloud when they don’t feel confident to do so), others
in the groups can diffuse the ‘shame’ by teasing. Teasing by others in the
group can also cause further ‘shame’ and hence is a form of discipline.
Teasing by adults is used as a way of controlling children and is a part
of the process of socialisation.
Teasing is also used to strengthen kinship bonds
Kinship teasing or teasing that and affiliation ties (Geyer, 2010; Gillan, 2008). It can
occurs as a deliberate part
of cultural norms, appears to
also be used to promote strict avoidance relationships,
play an important part in the particularly between in-laws, and in some communities
survival of the cultural group. it is not only acceptable but also expected for that
PERSO (2013)
reason. If teachers discipline Indigenous students for

teasing, believing it to be disruptive or potentially harmful, students

can be torn between what is expected at home and what is expected at
school. This can place them in a difficult situation of anxiety, increasing
their dislike for the teacher and the school.
Words used in teasing can range from playful to hurtful. As a
result, teasing can become bullying. Students can begin by delivering
teasing as a warning, tease again differently if the warning isn’t
heeded, and then resort to physical and even violent action if the
behaviour continues. Gillan’s study (2008) found that teasing was used
by boys as ‘a form of serious social control amongst themselves but
would swiftly resort to physical means if they were unable to reach a
satisfactory outcome’.
Teachers need to avoid situations that might result in teasing or bullying
between Indigenous students. This means not ‘singling out’ students or
placing them in situations that might cause them to be ‘shamed’.
School relationships with the community

Some local Indigenous people and communities offer a wealth of
information about cultural and spiritual knowledge, protocols and
community processes, traditional learning, special events and contem-
porary responses to colonisation and current society. Parents and
families can also provide information about their students, if contacted
for that purpose.
Families and communities focus on maintaining cultural identity
and educating their children in ways that ensure they know who they
are and where they are from. This does not stop or change when children
start school. ‘School readiness’ is not just about children being ready
or ‘prepared’ for school, but also about schools being ready (culturally
safe) for children. If there is a cultural mismatch between
the culture of the home and the culture of the school, To achieve self-determination,
there need to be Aboriginal
there needs to be an emphasis in schools on building people in control and making
a cultural match to ease the student’s transition between decisions. It cannot happen
home and school. School–parent partnerships are when there is always a
non-Aboriginal person with
necessary to bring this about. the power to say ‘yes’ or ‘no’
Gillan’s study (2008), cited earlier, found that in as to what can happen.
situations where most communications between parents MATTHEWS ET AL. (2003)

and the school result from discipline of their children, there are many
parents who prefer to ‘opt out’ of communications with the school
principal and/or deputy. This is often due to their sense of ‘powerlessness
and hopelessness in the face of relentless (white) institutional power
reinforced through policy’ (p. 242). Schools attempting to communicate
with parents of Aboriginal students often make assumptions, including:
• that the Aboriginal family will have a phone (in some localities—
urban and rural—where poverty is a factor, this is often not the case)
• that the parents are raising the children (this can often be the role
of other extended family members such as grandparents)
• that the student in question is currently residing at the address listed
for the student on enrolment (some students may reside at several
locations over the course of a week or month)
• that parents are available to respond immediately (commitments with
siblings or other family members may make it difficult or impossible
to contact or visit the school), or
• that Aboriginal parents have the literacy skills needed to either read
or interpret letters from the school (a big assumption compounded
by the frequent lack of ability to respond to letters even when they
are understood).
The power relationships between the school and Aboriginal families as
a result of expected behaviours to communications from the school in
dealing with incidents of discipline can result in parents and other family
members being alienated and marginalised from their child’s schooling.
Schools can successfully and effectively engage with parents by:
• offering programs that develop home conditions to support students’
learning—best done in partnership with community organisations
• offering programs that focus on improving parenting skills—being
careful not to assume that parents’ skills are in need of improvement;
this is best done in partnership with community organisations
• improving communications between the school and home, especially
regarding school programs and the progress of students
• involving Indigenous parents and volunteers in the school, classroom
and excursions, and
• including and involving parents in decision-making.

Consider the following quotes: PERSONAL REFLECTIONS

For many Aboriginal people, as a result of their histories, ‘schools are the for sharing
cause of all their problems. When they were kids, it was the school that took
away their culture and their language. By the time the school had finished
with them, they had nothing left.’ Herbert (2006)
Aboriginal people are oppressed and disempowered . . . invaded and to
varying degrees ruled by a dominant and self-centred Anglo-Australian
society and culture. The results of this invasion are evident in the weakening
of Aboriginal law and culture and in the disintegration in many locations of
Aboriginal social structure accompanied by loss of language. One of the tools
in this sometimes deliberate destruction is schooling. Cooke (2002), p. 62
In what sort of publication do you think these two people may have been
writing? Would these quotes reflect views of all Indigenous people? How
might you find out? If parents of any of your students felt this way, how
might that impact on the way you build relationships with them?
Some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people believe that they
have no contribution to make in the operations of their schools or that
they are not welcome. This might result in them rarely being invited
to do so, except for informal, social gatherings and events. Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander people need to be involved in a range of
meaningful ways, including being invited (and encouraged if necessary)
to be on decision-making groups. This is particularly needed in the
context of behaviour management and discipline; Indigenous parents
and community members need to be given the opportunity to express
their opinions regarding the school discipline policy and the related
behavioural codes. They need to have a voice concerning how they want
their children disciplined.
We need to be reminded that there are many Indigenous parents
and families who have very unfavourable or unsuccessful experiences
with schools and schooling for many of the reasons outlined. Teachers
need to connect with parents so that they understand historical
and current contexts and conditions, as well as to understand the
aspirations that parents have for their children. Most Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander parents just want their children to have
the same educational opportunities as white children, but not at the
expense of their culture.

It is essential that schools and teachers go out of their way to

build trusting relationships with parents and communities. Parents of
Indigenous children, especially in remote communities, need to trust
that the schools won’t assimilate their children in white, Western culture.
Collaborative action between the school and the communities
needs to be responsive to local needs and aspirations. The Flamboyan
Foundation (2011), in its work on quality family engagement with
schools, indicates that trusting relationships and communications need
to be two way so that families have a major role in their child’s learning
through strong partnership and collaboration with the school.
With respect to disciplinary incidents, schools and teachers need to
develop processes that allow time for students to defend their actions
(Gillan, 2008, p. 243). This defence should include a full explanation
and description of the events leading up to particular incidents. This
will provide a fuller understanding of incidents so that teachers do not
react only to what they know about, or see of, a situation. This is not
always easy, especially if a situation has occurred in which the teacher
only sees the final outcome, which might include violence. In addition,
teachers often wish to deal with a situation immediately as a means of
re-establishing their power and authority, not only to the student or
students involved but also to the rest of the class. Both teachers and
students need time to ‘cool down’ and to look at the situation objectively.
It is also important that, in allowing this time to students and
teachers, non-Indigenous students do not perceive special treatment
for Indigenous students; double standards should not exist or be seen
to exist in any classroom or school. This strategy needs to be available
to, and in the best interests of, all students and teachers.
Schools need to do whatever they can to involve parents in the
decision-making processes regarding the discipline of their children.
Often schools and teachers falsely believe that Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander parents ‘don’t care’ about their children, based on their
own failed communication strategies, as described above. In these
situations, the role of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander education
worker is essential in liaising between parents and the school to facilitate
effective participation and communication on both sides.


The discussion above has focused on what teachers can do to manage
behaviour and hence make the learning environment ‘safe’, supportive
and positive. The relevant section of the Standards is Standard 4, as
shown in Table 3.2.
Culturally Responsive Behaviours, Standard 4 TABLE 3.2

4. Create and main- • Support student participation by establishing and implementing inclusive
tain supportive and positive interactions that engage all students
and safe learning • Establish and maintain orderly and workable routines so all students know
environments what to expect and ‘know the rules’
• Manage challenging behaviour by establishing and negotiating clear
expectations with students and parents
• Ensure expected behaviours are culturally inclusive, shared, and made
explicit
• Ensure students feel physically, emotionally and culturally safe and
welcomed into the learning environment
Source: Perso (2012)
In the context of creating a supportive and safe learning environment

for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, other more specific
standards have been addressed and integrated in teachers’ professional
practice, as shown in Table 3.3.
In particular, creating a supportive and safe learning environment for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students is largely about cultural
safety. To ensure that students feel safe in an environment that may be
so different as to feel unsafe—which is the case for many Indigenous
students—it is essential that teachers understand the transitions that
many of these children make, sometimes daily, to attend school. These
can best be understood in the context of knowing the students (Standard
1), the relationships with teachers and other students that they need to
feel ‘safe’, and the processes and procedures put in place by the teacher
to ensure their safety in learning.

TABLE 3.3 National Professional Standards addressed in Chapter 3

3.5 Use effective Use effective verbal and non-verbal communication strategies
classroom to support student understanding, participation, engagement
communication and achievement
3.7 Engage parents/ Plan for appropriate and contextually relevant opportunities
carers in the for parents/carers to be involved in their children’s learning
educative process
4.1 Support student Establish and implement inclusive and positive interactions to
participation engage and support all students in classroom activities
4.2 Manage classroom Establish and maintain orderly and workable routines to
activities create an environment where student time is spent on
learning tasks
4.3 Manage challen- Manage challenging behaviour by establishing and negoti-
ging behaviour ating clear expectations with students and address discipline
issues promptly, fairly and respectfully
4.4 Manage student Ensure students’ wellbeing and safety within school by imple-
safety menting school and/or system, curriculum and legislative
requirements
7.3 Engage with the Establish and maintain respectful collaborative relationships
parents/carers with parents/carers regarding their children’s learning and
wellbeing

Intended curriculum, standards, literacy
and numeracy
CHAPTER 4
Australian Indigenous people generally want what all people want for
their children; access to a high-quality education. However, it is clear
that they also want their children to have a strong sense
of their own identity and their uniqueness as Australia’s
I want these students, when
they leave here, to be able First Peoples. In other words, they don’t want their
to stand tall in both worlds, children to be educated in Western ways at the expense
and to know who they are. of their own culture. Education in Australian schools
INDIGENOUS PRINCIPAL,
should not be an assimilation process. It needs to allow
INDIGENOUS SCHOOL
children to be who they are and to maintain their
cultural identity.
This means that Australia’s teachers must pass on Western learning,
including the tools for learning (such as literacy, numeracy and ICT
fluency), in ways that do not inculcate students in Western values.
In remote and very remote locations, teachers need to connect with
Indigenous communities and find out what their aspirations for their
children are—don’t make assumptions about this.
The Australian Curriculum operates as a framework in that it allows
for some flexibility in what is taught. It also allows for flexibility and
some local negotiation of content that is suited and relevant to the needs
of students. Tools for learning are essential, so that students can make
choices about what to learn and can access the learning. It is essential
that every teacher takes on the role of teacher of literacy, numeracy
and ICT. All subject area content provides a context for capability with
these tools.
82

INTENDED CURRICULUM, STANDARDS, LITER ACY AND NUMER ACY 83
Curriculum
Curriculum is a very broad concept that many institutions (including
schools) find difficult to define. It includes knowledge, skills and content,
delivery and teaching, assessment and reporting to parents. Many writers
use the term as a synonym for what is taught in a classroom. In this
book, we use ‘curriculum’ to refer to the formal, documented intended
student learning. For this purpose, it is defined as the intended and
planned learning proposed and expected by the government, school and
classroom teacher.
Relationships between elements of curriculum, including the intended
learning, are shown in Figure 4.1.
Relationships between aspects of the curriculum FIGURE 4.1
Enacted Curriculum
Use of pedagogy that
engages the student with the
intended curriculum
Experienced Curriculum
Intended Curriculum
How students experience
What we want students
the curriculum differs from
to learn
student to student
Achieved Curriculum
Assessed Curriculum
What students have
Our assessment of what we
learned as a result of what
want students to learn
we’ve taught
Reporting
How well students have
learned it
Source: T. Perso for Education Queensland (2008).

It is important to unpack the curriculum in this way because what

students ultimately end up learning in school is not necessarily what
is planned and expected that they learn. There are a number of factors
that can cause the actual learning to differ from the intended learning;
for example:
• teachers not fully understanding the intended (documented) learning
well enough to teach it or to teach it in ways that students will learn it
• teachers having ‘low expectations’ of their students and hence not
delivering the content in ways that engage or challenge their students
(see previous chapter) well enough to learn it deeply
• students experiencing a different curriculum than that which is
delivered; this is often a result of teachers having different cultural
values than those of their students
• assessment tasks used to determine learning not in fact assessing
the intended learning but, rather, assessing what the teacher has
taught (sometimes the ‘intended curriculum’ and the ‘delivered’ and
‘experienced’ curriculum are different, for reasons given above)
• the ‘achieved curriculum’ not being used by teachers to inform what
students need to learn next, and
• reporting ultimately recording what teachers have taught and assessed
rather than of what students learned of the intended curriculum.
If the school and teachers work hard to ensure that all aspects of the
curriculum line up (that is, none of these things go wrong and the actual
learning, assessment and reporting are based on the intended learning)
we say that the curriculum is aligned, as described in the introduction
of this book. We would also say that the curriculum is equitable in that
as a result, all students have access to a curriculum that promotes
equitable outcomes for each and every student.
The Australian Curriculum and what the

If teachers aren’t sure of
instructional goals, their
nation expects all children to learn
instructional activities will not
be focused, and unfocused
As indicated earlier, the Australian curriculum is
instructional activities do not broader than the documents containing the intended
engender student learning. learning that have been released by ACARA in recent
MARZANO (2009)
years. There has been an attempt through these

documents to ensure that all students across Australia have access to

the same intended learning and that, nationally, this intended learning
is assessed through the National Assessment Program and results of
some of this program (Literacy and Numeracy) are reported on the
MySchool website. There has also been an attempt to ensure that there
is consistency in the way the intended curriculum is delivered with the
development and release of the National Professional Standards for
Teachers (AITSL, 2011). However, if the curriculum is to be equitable
there is an expectation that the individual classroom teacher aligns each
of the aspects of the curriculum.
ACARA has tried to ensure both equity in student access and equity
in learning outcomes for Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian
students, in two main ways. The first is by deliberately including content
knowledge about Indigenous Australians in the subject of History,
and the second is by deliberately embedding Indigenous perspectives
across the entire Australian Curriculum. Explicitly, there was national
agreement (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island people were included in
this decision-making) that the curriculum would include:
• a focus in the History curriculum on the importance that Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander people played in Australia’s history and
the influence that they had and have on present-day society, and
• an attempt to embed Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspect-
ives in the Australian Curriculum by including Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures as a ‘cross-curriculum
priority’ which ‘provides opportunities for all learners to deepen
their knowledge of Australia by engaging with the world’s oldest
continuous living cultures. Students will understand that contem-
porary Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities are strong,
resilient, rich and diverse. The knowledge and understanding gained
through this priority will enhance the ability of all young people to
participate positively in the ongoing development
of Australia’ (ACARA 2011). The silent apartheid gains
sustenance from the relegation
The first of these occurs in the curriculum for years of Indigenous knowledge, culture
and tradition to the fringe of the
3–5 as History content. If you are teaching this content, curriculum in most streams of
you should ensure that you use the supporting docu- the educational supply chain.
mentation provided, and also engage in conversations ROSE (N.D.)

with Indigenous people in your local area when planning and delivering
this intended learning. This will maximise understanding of the intended
learning so that it is not overlayed by the values (often middle-class,
white) of classroom teachers. If it is possible, you should invite Indigenous
people into your classroom to tell the stories of the histories of their
people, passed down through and across generations.
There should be no attempt to ‘sanitise’ this story
or to leave out the parts that are repugnant or that
It is not sufficient to be
non-biased (and also highly ‘make white people look bad’. Topics such as the stolen
unlikely), nor is it sufficient to generation and the invasion (as opposed to colonisation)
be an observer. It is necessary of Australia should be included and debated so that
for each individual to actively
intervene, to challenge and Australian children grow up with a fuller understanding
counter the personal and and appreciation of the nation’s First People and the
institutional behaviours that traditional owners of the land. Children should learn
perpetuate oppression.
DERMAN-SPARKS (1989)
about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander protocols
and how they can play their part in attending to them.
The second of the approaches is ‘embedded’ in all
All children have the right to learning areas, through a structural tool focusing on
know Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander history. Aboriginal and
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ unique
Torres Strait Islander people sense of identity, approached through interconnected
have the right for the true aspects of country or place, people and culture. These
history of Australia to be told.
ideas are embedded in the content descriptors and
MUNDINE & GIUGNE (2006)
elaborations of each of the learning areas.
Including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
perspectives is more than just presenting an alternative view. The way
in which it is presented is often more important than what is presented.
As explained in previous chapters, you should not present cultural
differences as being ‘exotic’ or ‘novel’. Rather, cultural differences need
to be presented in ways that ensure students see them as plausible,
having arisen from people’s reality and belief systems. Teachers need
to examine their own attitude to these perspectives so that they don’t
present them from a biased viewpoint.
For example, if a teacher personally believes that Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander people should not have ‘stolen and killed the sheep
of the early settlers because it was wrong’ then it is unlikely that lessons
about this content can be taught objectively by the teacher; these values

will undoubtedly be transmitted directly or indirectly during the lesson

or sequence of lessons.
To ensure that these Western (and often personal) values are not
unintentionally passed on to students, it’s important to:
• examine your own perspectives on the lesson before you teach it. If
you have biases (these can be difficult to identify without guidance)
then you must engage in personal reflection to see where these might
come from and whether you truly believe them or just learned them
in your own schooling or upbringing
• find out what you can about Indigenous perspectives on the events
or topics from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander support staff
or Indigenous parents
• engage students in empathy tasks by providing both Indigenous and
non-Indigenous perspectives and ways of knowing prior to presenting
the historical facts (for example, explain and describe Indigenous
values concerning ownership, sharing and survival, and then explain
those of the white settlers. Raise the intellectual quality of the lesson
by having students try to empathise by considering what they might
do if a sheep was seen grazing on their land and they were hungry.)
• ensure that the language used during lessons does not include
derogatory or judgemental words, such as stole, took and pinched, and
• not use resources that include bias or stereotyping.
Curriculum resources and bias

Research indicates that negative stereotypes in curriculum materials
presented to students can damage self-concept. This can result in
negative behaviours by students (Swisher & Tipperconnic, 1999). When
teachers present curriculum materials that are biased or not culturally
relevant, they ‘rob’ Indigenous students of their cultural pride and
personal identities (Skinner, 1999).
There are different types of bias in school curriculum. Common
biases include:
• giving credit to one’s own group
• calling attention to another group’s faults

• denying the contribution of a group

• constantly creating an impression that only one group is responsible
for positive development
• failing to ensure that information presented is accurate
• ignoring specific information about Indigenous history, and
• failing to represent all facts in a balanced way (Grant & Gillespie,
1993; Cochran-Smith, 1997).
These sorts of experiences can leave Aboriginal and
This [textbook] is talking about
the battle of Pinjarra and from
Torres Strait Islander children feeling alienated in
a European point of view it’s classrooms. If teachers detect bias in curriculum mater-
being presented as the battle ials it is essential that students and communities work
of Pinjarra whereas from an together to create alternatives that support students
Aboriginal point of view, to learn the intended curriculum through different
Ngungar, from around the area
materials and pathways. Engaging students in this
would present it as a massacre.
RON BRADFORD, DETWA (2002)
work can support them to more critically engage with
texts, knowing that they generally provide only one
perspective, that of the particular author.
According to the Standards, good teachers know their students and
how they learn. They also know the content to be taught and how best
to teach it and recognise that this involves knowing the students’
interests, home backgrounds, languages and cultures. It is surprising
that all teachers and schools do not engage more in this activity.
In addition, Powers and colleagues (2003) and
To expect Aboriginal students Reyhner (1992a, 1992b) found in their work with
to learn from textbooks and a American First Nations people, that mainstream
school curriculum that comes curriculum generally trivialises and stereotypes tribal
solely from the dominant cultures, that teachers rely heavily on textbooks that
Anglo culture is to ask them to do not include experiences of Indigenous peoples, and
accept their own irrelevance.
the curriculum materials used with Native American
MICHELLE WHITE, DETWA (2002)
students are often remedial.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS Have you experienced stereotyping of Indigenous cultures in your own
for sharing study materials?
If so, how did you deal with them?
See if you can find some examples and bring them to share and discuss.

SAE and the language of instruction

The language of instruction in most Australian schools is Standard
Australian English (SAE). Some specialist schools—usually not public
schools—deliver the curriculum in a different language such as French
or Arabic, having gained permission from government to do so. This
means that the curriculum is taught in SAE; even Languages Other Than
English (LOTE) are taught (and assessed) to at least some extent in SAE.
Teachers of Indigenous students in some parts of Australia, partic-
ularly remote locations, will find that many Indigenous students speak
traditional Indigenous languages, a creole or Aboriginal English (AE) as
well as, or rather than, SAE. This is more likely to be the case in central
and northern parts of Australia; however, some Indigenous students in
urban areas may also speak traditional languages.
Sometimes teachers find themselves in a class of Indigenous students
who don’t speak English. This can be a daunting experience, especially
if you have had no training in teaching English as a foreign language.
Whatever you do, don’t imagine that the students have low intelli-
gence levels because they can’t understand you; many speak up to five
languages, so that’s far from true!
If possible, it’s a good idea to ask your employer about accessing
training or learning (including online learning) about teaching English
as an additional or foreign language.
Most Indigenous students speak AE, wherever they are in Australia.
It is important that you recognise this as a full language and do not try
to ‘correct’ these students, believing them to be speaking English badly.
You can certainly use AE words to scaffold their learning of SAE, but
do not ‘dumb down’ SAE by trying to speak AE with your students.
You must model SAE, particularly by using prepositions such as ‘the’,
and not dropping your ‘h’s.
Some Aboriginal students who speak AE at home do not realise that
they are not speaking SAE. These students need to learn this distinction
from the outset. Once they know this fact they are then able to learn
through explicit teaching when it is appropriate to use AE and when
it is appropriate to use SAE. You will need to explicitly teach them to
‘code-switch’ (see Chapter 2). You might teach them, in consultation
with families and Indigenous teacher aides, that AE is okay for home

(home way), the school playground and in town or community, but at

school they need to speak SAE (school way).
In teaching students to code-switch their use of language, they need
to first learn that their home language is different from SAE. This is
usually easier to teach if the students are speaking a totally different
language and not a creole or AE (see Chapter 2 for more discussion of
creole). If students are not explicitly taught that a creole or AE is not
SAE (and this may be exacerbated if teachers attempt to speak in either
of these codes) they may go through schooling being totally unaware
that they are not speaking SAE (see the Education Queensland Language
Interview Project at <www.nla.gov.au/openpublish/index.php/aral/article/
viewFile/3224/3781>).
There are two steps in teaching students to code-switch or control
their language: awareness and separation.
Awareness
Language learners who have unacknowledged creoles or non-standard
dialects as their first language often find school difficult because
non-standard varieties of languages are viewed by teachers as poor
versions of the ‘standard’ language. These speakers need explicit teaching
to make them aware that they are speaking another language, rather
than correction of what they say. EALD learners with this language
background benefit from teaching which builds language awareness into
their learning experiences. If the awareness process is skipped, teaching
SAE can result in students feeling that they are ‘wrong’ or ‘deficient’ in
some way or that their language needs to be ‘fixed’.
The following activities will help students to first become aware of
their own language strengths:
• Brainstorm languages spoken by students in the class; name them
and write them down so that students learn the words (for example,
SAE, Warlpiri, French, Kriol, Sudanese, AE and Japanese).
• Invite adults in the class (teacher aides, support teachers and/or
parents) to add to the list any languages that they use (verbally
and/or in print). This enables students to know that it is okay and
acceptable to speak other languages.
• Invite students to find out what languages their families speak,
placing the languages on a family tree (Berry & Hudson, 1997).

• Draw a ‘language map’ to help students learn that people speak

different languages, and talk about how languages across Australia
(and in the class) came to be used where they are, through migration
and so on.
• Use this as an opportunity to ‘talk up’ and value the fact that some
students are multilingual. Draw attention to the fact that many
Australians (and possibly yourself) speak only one language. Talk
about how hard it is to learn foreign languages and how clever
speakers of more than one language are. This will be an opportunity
to enhance students’ self-esteem and pride in their identity. (Note
that most societies consider multilingualism a scholarly achievement.)
• Look at maps of countries around the world and identify the languages
predominantly spoken in these.
Separation
When students are aware of the fact that there are different languages
and that their home language may be different from the language used
at school, they need to understand the differences between them.
Cultural competence is essential when teaching English language,
especially for EALD students or those learning English as a foreign
language. A deep empathy with these students is needed. You need
to think about how you might feel sitting in a classroom learning a
language foreign to you from a teacher using only that language, such
as French with your teacher only able to speak French; you are being
taught French in French, not French in English. You also need to know
that English is one of the most difficult languages to learn. Empathy
means you can put yourself in the shoes of your students and feel how
they feel. The students do not have a choice in this learning process.
They can only choose to stay home or not engage.
At the separation stage you must pay particular attention to helping
your students to hear the differences between their home language and
SAE and to explicitly teach the grammar rules and semantics of SAE.
(Some activities for teaching separation for AE speakers and traditional
language speakers can be found in Berry and Hudson, 1997, pp. 33–6.)
This might be particularly challenging for students who are unable to
hear properly. As many as 80 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander children in some Northern Territory schools may experience

conductive hearing loss (CHL), while in Queensland this figure is as

high as 91 per cent (Kirkham et al., 2010). These children can’t hear
language sounds consistently (we will return to this in Chapter 7).
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS Have you ever travelled overseas and had to make yourself understood
for sharing in a foreign language without an interpreter? How did you manage and
what made that easier?
Can you image how students learning English as a foreign language must
feel on entering their classroom/school every day? What experience can
you apply to make this learning easier?
Once students are aware of the language differences and have learned
what they are they will be in a position to learn to code-switch their
language and, in particular, choose to use home languages at home and
SAE increasingly at school; and it is very much a personal choice. Some
might merely choose to do this ‘to please their teacher’ if they have a
strong relationship with them. This might be the case particularly if
there are no opportunities to practise and use SAE outside of school,
which is often the case for Indigenous students in very remote locations.
These children are learning English as a foreign language rather than
as an additional language.
Teachers need to do as much as they can to value the languages
spoken by their students. They should never teach English as if it were the
‘most important language’ or the ‘language of the civilised world’. They
need to bear in mind that it is the language of instruction for schools
in Australia but that this does not make it better or more important
than languages other than English. They should never make students
speaking languages other than English feel inferior; rather, they should
value the language and learning skills of these students. Some ways they
might do this include:
• ‘talking up’ the language skill and expertise of these students
• making an effort to learn some language words of their students
and using them whenever possible
• making an effort to add to their new language vocabulary every day,
modelling this for their students as well as learning for themselves
how challenging this can be

• showing the parents of your English-language learning students that

you value them and hence their children by attempting to learn their
language, and
• modelling cultural competence to your English language–speaking
students.
Literacy as a learning tool

Why is there a gap between the literacy results of Teaching children to read
Indigenous and non-Indigenous children? Many is a priority for all teachers;
reasons are proposed for this: Indigenous children don’t it can’t be left to someone
else—it is too urgent. Teach
attend school enough, don’t have exposure to written reading in every subject.
text, don’t see reading modelled by their families, and SENIOR EDUCATION OFFICIAL,
so on. While all of these reasons might be valid and WESTERN AUSTRALIA
contribute to this challenge to a greater or lesser extent

depending on whether the students live in urban or remote areas, by far
the greatest contributor is the fact that they are not read to by parents
and families, either prior to commencing school or during their early
schooling. Since this is also the case for children from families of low
socioeconomic backgrounds, we know that ‘Indigeneity’ is not the cause.
In remote communities, Indigenous children are often not consistently
exposed to written text and communication is predominantly oral—
especially if their own traditional language is not written down. These
students often don’t see the need for reading in English and can come to
school more than two years behind their same-age peers with respect to
early reading skills, such as sound–letter relationship understanding.
Teachers of these remote Indigenous students need to make teaching
them to read English a priority. This will give them the literacy ‘tools’
they need for learning.
The greatest challenge exists for teachers of Indigenous [O]ur literacy abilities depend
very much upon how we have
students in remote locations. Despite well-intentioned been socialised at home, our
efforts of educators in remote locations across Australia, experiences outside the home,
Indigenous children are not learning to read at the same and the context in which we
are expected to use our skills
standard as non-Indigenous children. The ‘achievement of reading, viewing, listening,
gap’ between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students comprehending, analysing,
is 20–30 per cent on every measure. These gaps remain verbalising, writing, etc.
TRIPCONY (2007)
almost constant throughout schooling with Indigenous

students learning at the same rate as their non-Indigenous peers but with
Indigenous students from remote backgrounds in particular, not ‘catching
up’. This indicates that intervention needs to be early and intensive.
The path to reading comprehension begins with oral language
skills as the foundation; there is a strong causal relationship between
phonological awareness (distinguishing sounds in speech) in preschool
and reading in the early years of schooling for first language learners
of English. A plethora of research links phonological skill development
and phonemic skill development (distinguishing sounds and syllables
in writing) to reading (Adams, 1990; Snow et al., 1998).
Children who have difficulty detecting or manipulating sounds in
speech will struggle with phonological development and hence with
learning to read. A large proportion of Indigenous children in remote
parts of Australia struggle with learning to read for a number of reasons,
including:
• hearing impairment or loss
• ‘language-poor’ environment
• learning to read in English, and
• psychological factors (for example, trauma).
While these will be discussed in general here, Chapter 7 provides a
deeper explanation with teaching strategies for teachers working in
these environments. This chapter is comprehensive due to the links
between oral language development and reading, development of social
skills, friendships, problem-solving, self-esteem and conflict resolution
(Snow & Powell, 2012).
Hearing loss
Hayward (2013) stated that:
Children who grow up in poverty, who live in crowded housing, and
who experience poor nutrition and inadequate health care, are prone to
repeated severe episodes of middle ear disease—otitis media being the
term with which you’ll all be familiar. These episodes can often cause
conductive hearing loss.
Such hearing loss is significantly worse in Aboriginal communities than

in the wider Australian population. When it occurs in the first few years

of life—a critical period of child development—it has major implications

for speech and language development and learning, this in turn impacting
on developmental, educational, and vocational consequences. For instance,
a child who lives on the doorstep of the resources boom but who has
conductive hearing loss is highly unlikely to ever set foot on a mining
site, much less be employed there in the future. What ought to be local,
available and accessible in terms of employment opportunities could be
denied that child before they’re even six!
In northern Australia, hearing loss is the major factor impacting on oral

language development of children. In particular, there is an unusually
high prevalence of CHL, with up to 50 per cent of the Indigenous
population experiencing this condition due to otitis media (Parliament
of Australia, 2009). It should not be assumed that CHL only occurs in
remote locations or only in a single jurisdiction.
It should be noted that otitis media—a chronic middle ear infection—
can greatly reduce the hearing of children for long periods of time and
if resulting in sustained damage can make hearing loss permanent. As
well as having difficulty hearing sounds of different frequency levels
they might also have difficulty hearing sounds of different intensities
and this can be exacerbated by classroom noise. Children who only
hear some sounds will find learning problematic. Their hearing loss
can result in behaviour problems, such as ‘playing up’ and disrupting
the learning of others (see Howard, 2004b).
If children are to learn language they need repeated exposure to
good language modelling. So the more children hear language spoken,
the more they learn. When they have hearing loss that may vary from
day to day due to CHL; the messages they hear can also vary on a
daily basis. This impacts on the words they learn (therefore, the size
of their vocabulary) and their ability to discriminate sounds in words
(phonemic awareness), both important elements in learning to read,
write and spell (DETWA, 1998).
Language for learning

Many Indigenous children experience significant challenges in moving
from an oral language style (used in homes and community) to the
literate style required for literacy in SAE (Berry & Hudson, 1997;

Kaldor & Malcolm, 1991). Those with chronic CHL may also have
experienced weak language development in their home language. These
students need strong oral language programs, including support, to
orally compare and contrast their home language with SAE. One way
to do this might be to learn to use ‘self-talk’ (speak out aloud their
thinking) to build language; this needs to be modelled by both teachers
and families.
English language sounds

The English language contains 44 different sounds (phonemes), a large
proportion of which do not exist in traditional home languages of
Indigenous students across Australia. For example Warlpiri language,
spoken by families in the Warlpiri Triangle in Central Australia, has
only eighteen phonemes. Children from homes and communities
where traditional languages are spoken need to be explicitly taught and
physically shown how to identify and make the sounds of English in
order to hear them and speak them, let alone identify them in print.
Although phonological skills are consistently taught in many
preschool and early childhood settings, there is a need to ensure they
are taught systematically and in enjoyable ways, using skills of teaching
English as a foreign language.
Just as some parents teach their children explicitly to make speech
sounds (for example, ‘put your tongue between your teeth and blow and
you will make a th sound’) and teach a range of nursery rhymes that
covers the 44 phonemes, so teachers need to orally teach the phonemes
of the English language to traditional language learners.
Opportunities for practice and relevance

When we consider that many children living in communities only hear
spoken English at school as it is not used elsewhere in their community,
and that they do not have opportunities to practise speaking English
outside of school, or see the relevance of learning it, it is not surprising
that many Indigenous children find learning English a chore—going to
a white man’s school is challenging enough without having to learn stuff
in a foreign language. Teachers need to do all they can to make the
learning fun. Some ideas to do that include:

• showing cartoons on DVDs

• using Sesame Street equivalents (Australian Children’s Television
Foundation)
• using foreign-language-learning DVDs, such as Muzzy in Gondoland
(BBC)
• playing games in English, and
• competitions to extend students’ vocabulary.
All of these activities have been shown to successfully increase the
learning of English for students who might otherwise not have enough
practice opportunities.
Trauma
The abuse of some Indigenous children in homes and communities has
been well-documented (Northern Territory Government, 2007), and this
abuse generally persists in many communities despite the best efforts of
government and non-government agencies. Detailing the nature of this
abuse is not the purpose of this chapter, other than to highlight that if
children experience this trauma it will probably impact on their learning.
Children can also be traumatised through being expected to learn in
a foreign language and being taught by teachers who do not recognise or
value their language, let alone their linguistic prowess. Some teachers, for
example, believe that their Indigenous students require the services of
a speech therapist when they are physically unable to make the sounds
of English. Ignorance of the specific need to explicitly teach them—as
they would to their own children learning to speak—is the fundamental
reason for this and needs greater attention in pre-service and in-service
professional learning for teachers in these communities.
Learning to read
Research over many years has revealed the most important elements
that are considered essential/critical for the development of reading.
These include, in order:
Phonological awareness is
• language development the best single predictor of
• phonological skills reading performance.
GILLON (2004)

• concepts about print

• sound–letter knowledge
• sight word knowledge and vocabulary development
• fluency, and
• comprehension (Konza, 2006).
Konza (2006) states that ‘although an infant’s brain can perceive the
full range of about 150 phonemes (sounds) that comprise all the world’s
languages, and early babbling will produce all of those, only the phon-
emes that the young child hears repeatedly will persist’. She continues,
‘Spoken language does not have to be taught—it is the effortless response
to being immersed in a language environment’.
Some researchers believe that a child’s phonological awareness (ability
to identify, reflect on, discriminate and manipulate sounds/words in
spoken and written language) is the most powerful predictor of reading
success. Gillon (2004) states that phonological awareness is ‘the best
single predictor of reading performance. Phonological awareness does
have to be taught since it helps early readers understand the links
between letters and sounds (Love & Reilly, 2002).
Konza (2006) refers to phonological awareness as being the ‘general
appreciation of the sounds of speech as distinct from their meaning:
the realisation that a continuous stream of speech can be broken up
into separate words, that words can also be broken up into one or
more syllables and that syllables are made up of a sequence of separate
single sounds (called phonemes)’. She continues ‘If
children are unable to hear the separate sounds in
Linguists (e.g. Cummins, 1999;
Krashen, 1996) warn that words, they cannot relate these sounds to the letters
classifications of English language of the alphabet and so cannot use decoding skills to
learners based on programs (e.g. attack unknown words.’
full-immersion, bilingual) may be
flawed because programs vary Students need to first understand what print is for:
considerably in type and fidelity that the squiggles on the page represent the sounds that
of information and because they and others make with their mouths, making sure
their effectiveness is shaped by
multiple contextual factors. students understand the purpose being to eventually
SOLANO-FLORES & LI (2006) read. This is called the ‘sound–letter relationship’.
Many students, especially those in remote
communities, may not be familiar with the purpose
of print. They come from oral traditions and their language may

never have been written down in word form, although they may have
encountered the meaning represented in artwork. To teach the purpose
of print and the relationship between print and oral language, teachers
need to scaffold where their students are at in this understanding to
where they need to be.
On determining that students don’t know what print is and what it is
for, teachers would begin with themselves learning some of the language
words that their students use regularly in day-to-day speech, and write
these down phonetically with the help of assistant teachers or families.
Alternatively, they might use some AE words that are common to both
traditional language speakers and SAE speakers. People cannot learn to
read in a language they do not speak. Once a person can read in one
language they can transfer that skill to another language.
From traditional languages and Aboriginal English to literacy in

Standard Australian English
The path to reading comprehension (the ultimate goal in reading) begins
with oral language skills as the foundation, leading to phonological
awareness, phonemic awareness, ability to decode and spell, and finally
comprehension (Konza, 2006). Visually this can be displayed as:
Oral language (in home language) → Phonological awareness

→ Phonemic awareness → Decoding and spelling → Reading
comprehension (in SAE)
If students’ home language exists in a written form, it would make

sense to first learn to comprehend in their own language and then
transfer this learning to the learning of SAE. It is this methodology
that is used when people who are literate in reading and writing wish
to learn another (foreign) language.
However, teachers instructing students who do not have a written
form of their home language who are learning SAE might use a variety
of pathways to bridge the gap. A wide range of research has been
undertaken in recent decades to determine the most effective and
efficient pathway to use when teaching students who are fluent listeners
and speakers in their home languages to become fluent readers and
writers of SAE (see Hinkel, n.d.)

Bilingual education for Indigenous children is complex and

controversial, particularly in Australia. Groups advocating different
approaches may be highly active and political. We suggest that when
you are appointed to teach in a school that has students with traditional
language spoken at home you find out the position and/or policy of
your employer or employing authority to this issue. This should be done
before embarking on a course of action to teach your students SAE if
they do not speak English.
The Australian Curriculum definition for SAE is ‘the variety of spoken
and written English language in Australia used in more formal settings
such as for official or public purposes, and recorded in dictionaries, style
guides and grammars. While it is always dynamic and evolving, it is
recognised as the “common language” of Australians’ (ACARA 2011).
Aboriginal English (AE) is the name given to dialects of English that
are widely spoken by Aboriginal people and which differ from other
SAE in systematic ways (Eades, 1993). It differs in phonology (accent
and pronunciation), vocabulary, grammatical patterns, idiom and in
ways in which it is used (Malcolm, n.d.).
As we indicated in Chapter 2, AE dialects are dialects of English,
as are SAE, Irish English, Black American English, and so on. These
dialects are spoken by social or regional groups in specific countries.
The dialects also have their own regional differences, so that the AE
spoken in Western Australia, for example, may have different words
as well as different intonations from those of Victoria, and parts of
Western Australia also have differences depending on locality. As
we’ve noted, there are many different words for ‘swimming costume’
around Australia, for example. These differences arise historically as a
result of geographical features (for example, the Nullarbor Plain, Great
Dividing Range and Great Sandy Desert) and migration and movement
(for example, the influx of refugees from one part of the world into a
part of Australia).
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What differences can you identify between the English language you
for sharing speak and that spoken by those in other states or regions? How might
these differences have arisen?

There is a continuum of AE dialects. These range from close to

SAE at one end of the continuum (sometimes referred to as ‘light’) to
close to Kriol (‘heavy’) at the other. Heavy AE is spoken mainly in the
remote areas of Australia, while light varieties are spoken mainly in
metropolitan, urban and rural areas (Eades, 1993).
SAE has no linguistic status or characteristic that elevates it above other
dialects of English; it is simply the dialect of English which is spoken by
the more powerful, dominant groups in Australian society (Eades, 1993).
Aboriginal English, since it is (and has been for a long time) used in
Aboriginal communities, has embedded within it both the communicative
practices with which Aboriginal people are comfortable (including less
wordiness than SAE, greater situation-embeddedness, familiar vocabulary,
terms of address, etc.) and the conceptualisations which unite it to
Indigenous languages and culture. It is therefore a comfortable staging post
for students who are making the journey towards SAE (Malcolm, 2011).
Professor Ian Malcolm, an Australian authority on this subject, goes

on to describe this ‘staging’ as the graduated process by which students
move from their home dialect to SAE. He states that students need:
• affirmation of the English they already use, which they identify with
their own culture and their prior learning
• a graduated introduction to dialectal alternatives at the level of
phonology, vocabulary, morphology (grammar), syntax and schematic
structuring, and
• good, clear scaffolding of SAE when they are ready to use it.
Malcolm claims that ‘if scaffolding is introduced too early and without
a clear rationale; that is, why we need things like subject agreement,
plural marking on nouns, gender marking on pronouns, explicit rather
than implicit grammatical structures, expository genres, etc., it will
alienate students’.
One of the key differences between SAE and AE is that English has
more than 75 prepositions (for example, in, under and between), while
AE is believed to have as few as seven. An AE-speaking student might
say, for example, ‘he go shop’ or ‘hang the clothes’, whereas in SAE a
student would say ‘he went to the shop’ or ‘hang up the clothes’.

As a result, when a teacher hears AE spoken by their students, they

might believe their students are speaking English badly. However, as
we noted earlier, AE is a full language and you need to recognise it as
such, so that it can be used as a powerful scaffold for SAE in classrooms.
It makes sense to use AE words—which can be written down using
English—to teach students the relationships between speaking and print
(known technically as ‘sound–letter relationship’).
While it is helpful to use AE words to scaffold SAE in teaching, it
should be strongly reiterated that you should not ‘dumb down’ SAE
by attempting to speak AE with your students. Malcolm (2011) goes
so far as to say that Aboriginal people may see this as phoney and
even offensive.
While it is not inappropriate to use AE words and phrases to scaffold
the learning of reading and SAE, if students are not explicitly taught
the difference between SAE and AE some AE speakers will make no
or little attempt to learn SAE, believing they are already speaking SAE.
Lessons that focus on students physically placing and/or orally including
prepositions in sentences can explicitly concentrate on this difference
and build language appreciation for both teacher and students.
Literacy is an individual capability. It is essentially about code-
switching; making decisions about which language tools and skills to use
in different contexts, for different purposes and audiences. Indigenous
students who don’t speak SAE may already be orally literate in their
home language. They clearly come from behind when acquiring literacy
in SAE; not only do they have to learn speaking and listening in another
language (SAE) but they also need to learn the skills of reading and
writing that go with it.
Numeracy as a learning tool
Numeracy is the capacity, Numeracy and mathematics are often used interchange-
confidence and disposition ably. However, they are not the same. Mathematics is
to use mathematics to meet learned as a body of knowledge. ‘Being able to apply
the demands of learning,
school, home, work, it independently, by first assessing a context and
community and civic life. determining that “some mathematics will help here”,
ACARA (2011) then making some choices about what mathematics will

help, the degree of accuracy needed for the context, and then applying
that mathematics confidently, is what makes someone numerate’ (Perso,
2013, p. 3).
So, numeracy is not a body of knowledge, it is a capability. Students
are either numerate or not and this depends on whether they can
choose the appropriate mathematics to use in particular contexts and
successfully apply the mathematics they know to this range of contexts.
This has implications for the teaching of mathematics in schools if the
goal is to ensure that all students know a body of mathematics and
also have favourable attitudes towards independently applying it and
being able to make strategic choices about what mathematics to apply
in which contexts.
For many students, mathematics may as well be a foreign language.
It is often taught as a range of de-contextualised facts, abstractions and
procedures. This is not appropriate for most students, especially those
from other cultures who learn best when learning is situated in their
lived experiences and realities and scaffolded to what they need to learn.
This ‘situating and scaffolding’ approach is best differentiated with
individuals or small groups. It is important that Indigenous students
not feel that they are ‘getting something different’ from everyone else
in the class.
Numbers in numeracy
The most important mathematics that students need is an understanding
of numbers and how they work. Many students are fluent with processes
and computation but their lack of deep knowledge about numbers
inhibits their ability to choose appropriate computations and to estimate
the results of these computations before they start. Estimation is a very
important numeracy skill since exact calculations are rarely needed in
life contexts outside of school—except if needed for your work—whereas
estimation is often used. Hence it is possible to be good at calculation
but not necessarily numerate.
Numbers can be used in three ways:
1. as labels, such as on football jumpers and car number plates (nominal)
2. for counting and to answer questions about quantity such as ‘How
many cards do you have?’ (ordinal), and

3. to describe position in a series, such as the Dewey numbering system

in a library, sections in a book or whose turn it is (e.g. first, second
or third) (ordinal).
Teaching students the differences between the three uses of numbers
can support them in understanding how numbers work. In some remote
communities, students are often only exposed to nominal numbers but
not cardinal ones. They may have little use for quantification, since ‘how
many’ may not have been a big part of their culture in the past. Be sure
to situate learning about quantification in their lived experiences. Most
students—even in remote locations—will have experience with a shop
and with games (such as football) and ideas that require comparison. Be
aware that in many traditional languages ideas of ‘more than’ and ‘less
than’ do not exist; they might continue to use terms such as ‘big mobs’
and ‘lots n’ lots’ to describe a large number rather than attempting to
count or quantify. In their home communities, this might be sufficient,
but will not give them access to Western education or jobs in the future.
Contexts for needing to know exact amounts should be used, and such
contexts can be rare in remote communities.
It might be expedient to create a game with prizes or rewards for
those with more (numbered amounts, such as 50 and 100 and 1000) so
that children learn the need for large cardinal numbers. Non-Indigenous
children also have difficulty with this concept and so this strategy is
useful for all children.
Be aware, however, that most children in Western societies are
immersed in a world of quantification from the day they are born. They
learn to count through deliberate instruction from parents who count
buttons, Weet-Bix, stairs, number of steps and so on with children
when they are exposed to them during daily activities. This is generally
because counting and quantifying is valued by Western parents. It may
not, however, be valued by parents from other cultures and so some
children with traditional backgrounds are unable to say the number
names in order, let alone with one-to-one correspondence, by the time
they get to school. Teachers should not assume that all children are
raised as they themselves were or as they are raising their own children.
They need to find out what the children know and can do, and build
on that, as explained in earlier chapters.

Measurement and geometry in numeracy

Measurement is largely about quantification. We measure things for a
purpose; measurements don’t mean anything if they are not in a context.
We measure lengths, volumes, capacities and areas, for example, so that
we can know, respectively:
• how far we have to travel or what length of fencing we need
• how much of an item (such as flour, water, paint or salt) is needed
for a task
• how much an object (such as a box or fridge or room) can hold, or
• how much surface is taken up by something (such as vegetation,
water, buildings or crops).
We also measure for comparison so that we know, for example, who has
more land, water or wheat. So, measuring depends on counting and is
a special way of quantifying.
Again, unless exact amounts are needed, estimation is sufficient for
numeracy in measurement. It is impossible to estimate measurements
unless you can visualise unit sizes in your mind. Many students are good
at exactly calculating measurement amounts but are unable to mentally
picture a square kilometre, or look at a container and estimate how
many litres it might hold, or look at a trailer and estimate how much
dirt it will carry. This means that they don’t really understand what
measurement is, and they are certainly not numerate when it comes
to measurement and understanding why they might need to measure.
Teachers need to engage their students in the visualisation process
and to estimate measurement units by using their visualised units as
a standard. For example, if a student knows what a litre of milk ‘looks
like’ (regardless of the shape of the container), they may easily be able
to estimate how much a bucket or a bottle will hold, and they can look
at a container and decide whether it will hold more or less than a litre
or the amount they might have in another container ready to pour.
Many Indigenous students are reasonably good at the type of meas-
urement estimation used in their cultures, particularly those from
traditional, remote cultures. They compare lengths saying ‘loooong
way’ or ‘not far’ and know exactly how much they mean because they
have a mental picture of it.

Students need to learn that the reason for exact units is for consist-
ency; it’s not sufficient in most contexts to use ‘personal units’ as people
did in earlier historical times, where a ‘pinch’ was used in cooking and
a ‘span’ was used in gardening. Exact measurements are used to assist
communication because we no longer do everything ourselves, such as
building and farming, but use others and purchase resources to help.
Providing realistic contexts where exact measurements are needed is
necessary to teach students that:
• exact measurement is needed sometimes (but sometimes estimation
is all that’s needed) and this depends on purpose and context
• exact measurement is often needed for comparison of lengths, areas,
volumes and capacities
• some units work better than others for measuring (for example, you
wouldn’t use a stick to measure area; a piece of paper is better)
• standard units (such as centimetres and litres) are not always more
correct for measuring than non-standard units such as hand-spans
and smidgens, and
• standard units are more helpful when communicating—orally and
in print—and when comparing.
You should not make assumptions about the measurement language
words that students know, especially the language of comparison. Many
Indigenous children who don’t speak SAE may not know words (or
concepts) such as bigger, smaller, lighter or further (or biggest, smallest,
lightest or furthest) and these then need to be explicitly taught.
In Western mathematics, measurement of time occurs using tools
when interacting and operating within Western timetables and rules.
In traditional Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander cultures, significant
times were labelled with the events that occurred at these times. For
example, daily times might be ‘when the sun comes up’ or ‘when the tide
comes in’, weekly times might include ‘when we get our social security
cheque’ or ‘when the mail plane comes in’, and yearly times might be
‘when the rains come’ or ‘when the butterflies appear’.
These differences demonstrate the importance of worldview, described
in Chapter 1. Harris (1984) states ‘when people live close to nature as
[Aboriginal people] have traditionally done, the dominant experience of
time is in the rhythms and cycles of nature as observed in the changing

seasons bringing different supplies of food, the waxing and waning of

the moon, the changing patterns of the stars, the rise and fall of the
tides, and the never-ending alternation of day and night’ (p. 10).
Some teachers of Indigenous students get grumpy when their students
fail to arrive to class on time; the concept of ‘on time’ is a Western
concept and may have little meaning for Indigenous people who have
not embraced Western time commitments. In remote communities,
for example, it is common for children to arrive at school just after
sun-up, regardless of whether it is winter or summer. It is essential that
teachers find out the understandings of their students regarding time
and the ways in which it is used and measured by their Indigenous
students and families. Don’t assume that all families are familiar with
(or even possess) clocks or that they share your impressions of priority
around time.
Many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children have special
skills relating to direction. This might be a result of their being taught
at a very young age about their ‘country’; many can find their way
home independently using landmarks and personal orientations. Spatial
awareness might be keenly developed as part of being very independent
at a young age; they may notice things in the environment more carefully
but not necessarily have control of the Western words that are used,
particularly in mathematics, to describe location. These words and the
concepts they describe need to be specifically taught to all students.
In addition, very few Indigenous languages contain words of position
such as behind, under, on and near. This indicates that the words may
not have been needed in traditional cultures. In some Indigenous
groups, Aboriginal women might ‘point’ with their chin to show their
child where something is rather than describe its position using words.
It is important for teachers to specifically teach all words and phrases
needed for learning geometry; don’t make any assumptions that either
the words or concepts are known by any student.
In many Aboriginal maps a sense of scale is missing. This might
indicate that arrangement or cultural significance is more important
than exact placement i.e. knowing that a road is next to a tree and the
tree is sacred is more important than knowing how far apart they are.
If you are teaching in a remote location it is important to find out
these things from your students; let them teach you. You should also

value this knowledge that students bring with them rather than disregard
it or treat it as wrong. You can find ways to build on it (using scaffolding).
You can also learn from Indigenous art when it comes to teaching
geometry and location. Many Aboriginal paintings show a ‘bird’s-eye
view’ which can explain how many Indigenous peoples see (or saw) the
environment. A ‘c’ can represent a person sitting at a campfire, and a line
can represent a river or rise. Ask Aboriginal children if they know what
these representations in Aboriginal art mean and get them to describe
these for you and the class. This knowledge should also be valued; very
few Western children understand or can represent a ‘bird’s-eye view’
until they are much older.
Statistics and probability in numeracy

In traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, information
is handled and managed principally through tradition and ceremony and
passed on through a variety of expressive and artistic forms, including
dance, songs, stories, paintings and drawings. These practices are a very
valuable part of Indigenous culture and identity.
Western cultures generally handle and preserve information through
the written word, but this should not be presented as the ‘right’ or ‘proper’
way of doing so. Rather, it is one way only and all students should learn
that data handling occurs using a range of different methods.
Many cultures include an element of chance and this is reflected
in their languages. Western mathematics includes ways and means
of measuring or determining risk in many fields, including weather
prediction, financial planning, insurance premiums and in courts of
law when the jury has to make decisions based on ‘beyond reasonable
doubt’. Numbers can be assigned to measures of risk or what is ‘probable’.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures have basically survived
for many thousands of years as a result of being able to determine risks
about weather and environmental changes, and you can situate learning
about ‘chance’ in suitable events and realities from their cultures. Games
of chance, however, might not be the favourable contexts to use since
some Aboriginal students may not be too keen to ‘win’; cooperation
might be a stronger value in their culture than competition.
When teaching data handling, you should try to situate the learning
in real contexts for your students to increase the meaning. For example,

sorting cars by type may not be realistic in remote communities where

nearly all vehicles are four-wheel drives and ‘troopies’. Teach children to
collect, organise and display data that is about them and their families.
Involve the students in deciding categories that interest them, such
as occupations, mobile phone colours and apps. They should work
collaboratively to make decisions about data and use ICTs to decide
what displays will serve them best for purpose and audience.
Working with data that has been given to them (secondary data) and
has been summarised (that is, means, ranges and standard deviations),
is probably more closely related to numerate behaviour. Students need
to work collaboratively to discuss these measures working back from
summary statistics to consider the data sources that generated them.
Students from all cultures should be encouraged to interpret data from
their own perspectives.
Application and problem-solving in numeracy

Because numeracy is about applying mathematics, students need to be
given lots of opportunities to make choices about its application. You
should build on the strengths that children have in problem-solving,
cooperation, collaboration and holistic learning; provide situations that
require students to make choices and use these as classroom activities.
Many of the questions used in the National Assessment Program for
Literacy and Numeracy numeracy tests do just that. There are no hints
or clues about what mathematics to use and children have to make their
own decisions based on context. For example:
• ‘There were 36 people at a barbeque. They had 3 sausages each. How
many sausages were there altogether?’
• ‘How many oranges are shown in this picture?’
• ‘Fred had $5 and spent $1 and 50 cents. How much did he have left?’
• ‘Sally had eight pictures. Lisa had fifteen more pictures than Sally.
How many pictures did Lisa have?’
• ‘At the shop buns cost $1 each or ten for $8. What is the lowest cost
for nine buns?’
Note the importance of language in these questions; in order to make
sense of the context and then make choices about what mathematics
to use, students have to understand the words. It is important the

teachers have students working together in pairs and groups so that

they can learn the language used in these types of problems, by sharing,
using a dictionary and asking their teacher. Numeracy is often called
‘mathematical literacy’ for this reason.
By practising the application of mathematics in short problem-solving
contexts such as these, students will improve not only their numeracy,
but also their literacy skills and their vocabulary. They will think deeply
and learn about mathematics, learn higher-order thinking skills, and
greatly enhance their collaborative and cooperative skills.
This strategy will also increase their confidence, support them to see
the power of mathematics and help them answer the question ‘Why do
we have to learn this?’ It will help them see its relevance in their lives
and help them learn other subject areas. For example, learning words
and concepts of time (such as ‘before’, ‘later’, ‘after’, ‘at the beginning’,
‘first’ and ‘finally’) will help their literacy and comprehension. Also,
learning words such as ‘long’/’short’, ‘heavy’/’light’ and ‘wide’/’narrow’
will help them make scientific comparisons and help them develop
greater appreciation of the natural world.
Learning design
As described in the above teaching examples for literacy, numeracy and
ICT, learning largely depends on the skill of the teacher in ‘designing’
the learning experiences. They must ensure that they:
• connect to what students already know and their learning strengths
• deeply understand what they are teaching and what they want
students to learn
• expect students to learn what is presented; have high expectations
• manage student behaviour in ways that provide a suitable environ-
ment for learning
• address all learning styles to maximise student access to what they
present
• present the intended learning in ways that value and validate the
different cultural perspectives that students might have
• situate the learning in contexts that are relevant and meaningful, and

• scaffold, or build a bridge, from what students already know to what

they need to learn.
More advice for teachers in ways of designing and delivering their
learning program is provided in Chapter 5.
Conclusion
It needs to be reiterated here that the elements of curriculum outlined
above are the essential tools for learning that all Australian children
need in order to access learning in the curriculum. The extent to
which they are prioritised in schools is a judgement made by school
leaders and teachers and will largely depend on the backgrounds
and child-rearing practices experienced by the children. If schools
assume that all children come to school with the same experience of
these tools and they are not prioritised depending on backgrounds
it will generally be the poor and marginalised that are adversely
affected; these are the children who need the most targeted instruction
with these tools for learning. Teachers need to deeply understand why
these learning tools are not subjects so that they will attend to them
in every subject and not believe they have ‘taught them’ in English
and mathematics lessons.
Of course, you should not assume that all Indigenous children are
in this category, even though a number of examples pertain to remote
communities. But given that national testing of literacy and numeracy
indicate the results of Indigenous students (as a group) are well behind
those of non-Indigenous students (as a group), it can be assumed that
they need greater support in learning these ‘vital tools for learning’.
Teachers need to determine this for each individual student.

This chapter has focused on the intended curriculum and, in particular,
literacy and numeracy. While discussion has provided specific advice
about teaching reading and teaching some aspects of mathematics, there
are clear links to standards 2 and 3, as shown in Table 4.1.

TABLE 4.1 Culturally Responsive Behaviours, Standards 2 and 3

2. Know the • ‘Situating’ the intended learning content in students’ lives

content and • Knowing what the students already know and bring with them into the learning
how to teach it environment
• ‘Bridging’ the intended learning content from what students know and indi-
vidual starting points, using an organised teaching sequence
• Knowing the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspective/s on the content
to be taught
3. Plan for and • Setting learning goals that are achievable challenges and have high expecta-
implement tions for their achievement
effective • Planning teaching sequences by ‘breaking down the content ‘and ‘building it
teaching and back up’ in achievable steps through realistic scaffolding
learning • Knowing and understanding the communication styles of students and use
them to support student learning
• Using feedback from students and parents, and student achievement data to
inform planning
• Engaging parents/families/carers/Elders in the educative process
Source: Peiso (2012)
TABLE 4.2 National Professional Standards addressed in Chapter 4

1.3 Students with diverse Design and implement teaching strategies that are
linguistic, cultural, responsive to the learning strengths and needs of
religious and socio- students from diverse linguistic, cultural, religious and
economic backgrounds socioeconomic backgrounds
1.6 Strategies to support Design and implement teaching activities that support
full participation of the participation and learning of students with disability
students with disability [including CHL] and address relevant policy and legis-
lative requirements
2.5 Literacy and numeracy Apply knowledge and understanding of effective
strategies teaching strategies to support students' literacy and
numeracy achievement
3.4 Select and use Select and/or create and use a range of resources,
resources including ICT, to engage students in their learning
4.1 Support student Establish and implement inclusive and positive interac-
participation tions to engage and support all students in classroom
activities
7.3 Engage with the Establish and maintain respectful collaborative rela-
parents/carers tionships with parents/carers regarding their children’s
learning and wellbeing

In understanding the intended learning goals of their students,

including the literacy and numeracy capabilities needed to access and
achieve them, teachers need to think deeply about what their students
bring to this intended learning. Teachers need knowledge of the students
(Standard 1) and other capabilities, as indicated in Table 4.2.
We have discussed the links between intended learning and tools
or enablers for learning. In particular capabilities that enable learning
are literacy in SAE and numeracy. For a large proportion of Australia’s
Indigenous students, these capabilities are not sufficiently developed to
enable full engagement with the Australian Curriculum. The reasons
for this are complex. As we indicated in this and earlier chapters, they
may be the result of a range of factors, including attendance, engagement
and participation, appropriate resources and strategies.
Teachers need to reflect on what they can do to address this situation,
in particular understand what literacy and numeracy are and their roles
in learning. In addition, they need to realise the importance of the role
they themselves play in whether or not their students become literate
and numerate; and how they can influence attendance, engagement,
participation and learning through relationships, strategies, engagement
with parents and carers, choice of resources and so on. The choice of
pedagogies in particular is fundamentally important, and we discuss
this in the next chapter.

Culturally responsive teaching
and learning strategies
CHAPTER 5
Engaging students is critical, though not sufficient, for learning. In
Chapter 4, we described how teachers who have low expectations of
students and their learning often use ‘busy work’ strategies—such as
worksheets, colouring and computer-based work—to keep students
occupied and busy. If meaningful learning is not occurring, these
‘engaging’ strategies can be responsible for the lowering
of standards, or a ‘dumbing down’ of the curriculum. Regardless of the intended
It is the enactment or delivery of the intended curriculum, policy positions,
notions of social justice and
curriculum that makes it powerful; on its own the tensions between personal
intended curriculum is merely a document that describes freedom and cultural
the learning to which every student must have access. maintenance, in the end
curriculum provision ‘will always
The professional word for the ‘enacted curriculum’ is come down to a set of formative
pedagogy; that is, the decisions and behaviours of a pedagogical moments where a
teacher that connect the intended curriculum to the student either learns or does not.’
FOGARTY (2010)
student in ways that enable and promote learning.
Pedagogy enables the intended curriculum to become the FIGURE 5.1

learned curriculum
Intended
Pedagogy Learning
curriculum
115

Teaching and learning

It is important that we distinguish between ‘teaching’
The best teachers are those
who can take ‘raw content’ and and ‘learning’. Students in a variety of contexts can
transform it into meaningful be taught the same material, but some will learn and
knowledge to the learner.
others won’t. Why is this? There are a range of reasons
KILLEN (2007)
but principally it is because of the different techniques
and strategies (pedagogies) that teachers use.
As we saw in Chapter 2, all children have preferred learning styles,
so the best way to engage a class is to use a range of different teaching
styles or pedagogical strategies. Teachers who use a ‘lecture’ style of
teaching, for example, often do not engage their students and hence
learning does not necessarily occur for students who are only lectured.
However, as lectures are the preferred learning style of a small proportion
of students, it doesn’t hurt to include a small amount of lecture-style
teaching in the mix. If you’re a good teacher, your students will more
than likely be learning what you’re teaching them.
Strategies for building relationships and managing behaviours are a
part of a teacher’s repertoire of pedagogical strategies. Some pedagogies
are more engaging than others. The more engaging they are, the more
likely it is that learning will occur. If students are not engaged with
learning, they may be being taught by their teacher, but not learning
anything. However, even the use of engaging pedagogies is not sufficient
to ensure that students learn what is intended. The teacher must ensure
that the pedagogies they use align with the learning they want their
students to achieve, as discussed in Chapter 4.
FIGURE 5.2 The role of the teacher in engagement and learning
Students
Teacher Teacher
engaged with
using focusing on
and learning
engaging intended
the intended
pedagogies learning
learning

CULTUR ALLY RESPONSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING STR ATEGIES 117
Research reveals that teachers make a significant difference to

whether their students learn or not (Hattie, 2003, 2009). Teachers must
accept professional responsibility for the learning of their students. It
is this characteristic that makes teaching a profession. ‘Teaching the
course’ does not make a person a teacher; to truly be a good teacher,
your students have to learn. It is for this reason that good teachers are
constantly determining whether their students are learning or not, and
thinking about about alternative approaches if learning is not happening.
Their focus is on student learning rather than on ‘getting through
the course’.
Have you ever thought you’d done a good job teaching a lesson or unit PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
of work only to find through assessment that students didn’t learn what for sharing
you’d intended?
If so, why do you think this happened? Did you change your pedagogy
next time and, if so, in what ways?
Characteristics of culturally responsive Fred: I taught the cat to count.

teachers Sam: That’s wonderful! Will he
count if I ask him to?
There has been a great deal of quality research under- Fred: I didn’t say he learned how
taken in recent years concerning the characteristics and to count, just that I taught him.
AUTHORS’ NOTES
qualities of good teachers of students from culturally
diverse backgrounds.
Some researchers (Bishop et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2007; Villegas &
Lucas, 2002) have noted the importance of teachers seeing themselves
as responsible for, and capable of supporting their students to learn
through, the quality of learning design.
Lee, Cosby and deBaca (2007) undertook a comprehensive review
of the literature which resulted in them identifying seven Common
Characteristics of Culturally Responsive Practices of teachers, as follows:
1. A climate of caring, respect and valuing of students’ cultures is
fostered in the school and classroom.
2. Bridges are built between academic learning and students’ prior
understanding, knowledge, native language and values.

3. Educators all learn from and about their students’ culture, language
and learning styles to make instruction more meaningful and relevant
to their students’ lives.
4. Local knowledge, language and culture are fully integrated into the
curriculum, not added on to it.
5. Staff members have high expectations for all students and hold
students to these high expectations (see also Yunkaporta, 2009a).
6. Effective classroom practices are challenging, cooperative and
hands-on, with less emphasis on rote memorisation and lecture
formats (see also Yunkaporta, 2009a).
7. School staff build trust and partnerships with families, especially
with families marginalised by schools in the past.
While many of these characteristics are not explicitly about pedagogy,
they are all directly linked to good teachers’ pedagogical repertoires
since they play an important role in whether or not students choose to
engage with the learning that is being presented by the teacher.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What characteristics describe your teaching; are there any from the list
for sharing above?
Why do you consider that these characteristics describe your practice?
Would an observer see evidence of these when watching you teach?
Some of the above characteristics (numbers 2 to 6) are about the way

lessons are designed and others (numbers 1, and 5 to 7) are about how
they are presented, including the environment and tone. In previous
chapters, we have looked at creating the right environment and setting
the right tone for learning. We looked at the importance of really
knowing the students (including backgrounds, preferred learning
styles and what they already know), caring for them and having high
expectations of them. When you are designing learning, all of these
aspects need further consideration.
Aboriginal culture, learning and ways of learning

There are strong links between culture and how people learn. These
links are cultural rather than genetic or biological and so teachers can

learn about appropriate pedagogies by learning about the cultures of

their students. For Aboriginal people there is not only a deep knowledge
in their languages but also, according to Yunkaporta (2009a), a ‘spirit
of learning in our words’. He clarifies this by adding that this is ‘more
than just knowledge of what to learn, but knowledge of how we learn it’.
This is our pedagogy, our way of learning. We find it in language words
about thinking and communicating. We find it in language structure,
in the way things are repeated and come around in a circle, showing
us how we think and use information. The patterns in stories, phrases,
songs, kinship and even in the land can show us the spirit of learning
that lives in our cultures (Yunkaporta, 2009a).
Tyson Yunkaporta’s work (2009a–c) provides valuable insight for teachers

into the ways of learning of Aboriginal people in western New South
Wales, much of which can be generalised as similar in some ways,
to other parts of Australia. Yunkaporta developed a framework that
describes ‘eight ways of learning’, which comes from Indigenous research,
undertaken by and for Aboriginal people in Aboriginal communities.
Although the research occurred in western New South Wales, the
researcher has kinship ties in the far north of Australia and ancestral
ties in the far south, and therefore ‘had to work in the middle ground
between Aboriginal nations’ and ‘between Aboriginal knowledge systems
and western learning systems’ (Yunkaporta, 2009a, p. 1).
Yunkaporta’s thesis is premised on the knowledge that in Indigenous
languages a spirit of learning is embedded that provides insight of both
what to learn and how Indigenous people learn it. He states ‘the patterns
in stories, phrases, songs, kinship and even in the land can show us the
spirit of learning that lives in our cultures’ (2009a, p. 1).
The following paragraph from Yunkaporta’s work (2009a) provides
deep insight into how ways of learning and ways of
teaching might be embedded and implied, respectively, Sitting as equals in circle,
in language: a traditional practice, and
embarking into storytelling
If your language has just one word for speak, tell, say within a climate of respect
through turn taking and being
and talk, then it is telling you something about the role
listened to are central tenets
of speech in learning—particularly if that same word of an Aboriginal approach
carries the negative meaning of forcing somebody to to teaching and learning.
JULIEN ET AL. (2010)
do something against their will. You will go softly

with the way you instruct, keeping in mind that the word for thinking
and knowing in that language is also the word for loving. The language
itself is giving you a picture of how to approach language education in
your place. It might be telling you to give students a healthy balance of
supportive discipline and independence. (2009a, p. 1)
FIGURE 5.3 The eight ways of learning, as symbols
Source: Yunkaporta (2009a)
Yunkaporta’s Eight Aboriginal Ways of Learning Framework (2009c)

describes eight practical considerations for pedagogies to support
teachers of Indigenous students.
First way: Story sharing
Metaphors carry a great deal
of abstract and intangible In story sharing, teacher and students share their
information in a concise and own personal stories, including inviting community
memorable package. members to be part of this, to share knowledge about
ORTONY (1993)
a topic or related information that might spring from

the history, the land, relationships, culture and so on. Story sharing can
involve both teachers and students repeating and returning to concepts
they have previously learned.
Second way: Learning maps
Learning maps are a form of visual display for students, setting out
the sequence of the learning, and showing short-term targets and
longer-term goals. This might be a term’s work, a year’s work or a week’s
work. Students need this so they can see where they are heading and
revisit places they have been, assisting them to understand the purpose
and direction. Teachers might show the pathway on a local piece of the
landscape (such as a river, road or track) and might even use a totemic
animal and its tracks to show the map as a journey of the animal.
Similarly, to indicate times they might use seasonal changes (rather than
dates) on the map, such as the start of the wet. These maps should be
co-constructed by the teacher and students.
Third way: Non-verbal learning
Body language is a powerful form of communication in Indigenous
culture, hence hands-on (kinaesthetic) learning is a characteristic
element of Aboriginal pedagogy, and concrete materials are an important
way to test learning. Knowledge can be understood without words,
through gestures, expressions, silence, eye movement, images, and
revealed knowledge (such as dreams, insight and reflection). Parents use
facial expressions, body positions, mime, gestures, tone and expression
to communicate meaning to their children, and children learn to watch
people to determine the real meaning behind their words. Teachers can
employ these techniques, especially in consultation with Indigenous
support staff and parents, both in teaching new knowledge and in
managing student behaviour.
Fourth way: Symbols and images
The use of metaphor is a powerful learning method in Aboriginal
cultures. Similarly, much has been written in research about the
preference for Indigenous students for visual-spatial learning (Hughes,
1992). Symbols and images can be drawn on to make visual and spatial
metaphors to support written content and instruction. For example,
in Yunkaporta’s study, the class developed a communal approach to

knowledge ownership and production—they used a circle surrounded

with ‘C’ shapes facing the centre; they compared this with a ‘©’ symbol,
which they interpreted to be a greedy person sitting alone, keeping
knowledge for himself (2009a, p. 97). Symbols and pictures can be
used to represent words or processes; for example, the learning maps
described above.
Fifth way: Land links
The use of local examples of the land and environment is part of
making learning meaningful and relevant. Animals, plants and
geographic forms (such as hills and creeks) contain deep knowledge
and can provide metaphors for concepts. Yunkaporta explains that
‘knowledge of local land and place is central to Indigenous ways of
knowing’ (2009a, p. 6). Linking to the land and country ensures cultural
integrity. Taking the learning out of the classroom and connecting to
the land can increase engagement and hence meaning. Be aware that
different cultural groups have different interpretations and meanings
for country; having them tell their stories (first way) can bring a
richness to the learning.
Sixth way: Non-linear processes
As indicated in the first way, Indigenous learning involves repetition
and returning to concepts learned previously in order to increase
understanding. This non-linear approach allows for students to come
to the learning from different directions and create new learning by
considering different views and knowledge that might even seem to
be off the topic. For example, jokes and humour and songs or rhymes
can be used to teach new concepts, and these may increase the level
of the learning because students will retain it better.
Seventh way: Deconstruct–reconstruct
Research has shown that Aboriginal students tend to be more holistic
learners rather than incremental (Harris, 1980, 1984; Hughes et al.,
2004), and this seems to imply that global teaching strategies are
more likely to be effective: seeing the big picture or completed task
before breaking it down into achievable ‘bits’. Yunkaporta provides
an example referring to modelling a text in teaching reading; starting
with the whole text (such as a welcome to country) rather than the

punctuation, spelling etc., and looking at how it is used and the culture
seen in it, and then working backward through to ‘the basics’. He
explains that by going ‘back to the basics’ teachers can then rely on
the independent learning skills of the students to put the text back
together, with teacher support, and hence create their own meaningful
texts and yarns (2009a, p. 7).
Eighth way: Community links
Yunkaporta (2009a) and others (Harris, 1980, 1984) have found that
Aboriginal students are more likely to take risks in learning new content
if they are able to work collaboratively to explore it. This enables them
to bring their own cultural perspective on new knowledge as they
try to make sense of what this means for ‘their mob’. Enabling them
to then pass on this knowledge to their mob should occur through
displays and presentations. Making sense collaboratively also shows
students that the teacher respects the group identities of all students
in the class.
These eight ways come from an ancestral framework of knowledge
that Yunkaporta explains is still strong (2009a, p. 1). The ways have
been identified through his research exploring knowledge systems in
land, language, people and the relationships between them.
Can you visualise and paraphrase the ‘eight ways of learning’? PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
Do you feel comfortable with them? for sharing
Would you be able to use them in your teaching?
Do you already use some or all of them and, if so, in what ways?
Yunkaporta goes on to summarise his eight ways of learning as

general cultural values, as follows:
1. We connect through the stories we share (Story sharing).
2. We picture our pathways as knowledge (Learning maps).
3. We see, think, act, make and share without words (Non-verbal
learning).
4. We keep and share knowledge with art and objects (Symbols and
images).

5. We work with lessons from land and nature (Land links).

6. We put different ideas together and create new knowledge (Non-linear
processes).
7. We work from whole to parts, watching and then doing
(Deconstruction–reconstruct).
8. We bring new knowledge home to help our mob (2009c, p. 13)
(Community links).
He describes how, when he learned how to make boomerangs, he was
first told stories about how they were used, by whom and where; locally
and non-locally. He had to know everything about the places that the
wood used to make the boomerangs came from; the land, plants and
landforms of those places, including their seasonal signs and changes;
and the cultural meanings of all of this. He continues:
Ideas were shared with gestures, silences, implied meanings and meta-
phors. I had to reflect on these things on my own and I had to find the
ancestral knowledge that resided in my body already for this activity, the
skills and orientations I was born with that I could bring to this table.
Images of the procedures I needed to learn were mapped out for me,
drawn in the air, drawn in the dirt, and drawn in my mind. Completed
boomerangs were shown to me, with explanations of the stages the carver
had to go through to make them. Community protocols were reinforced
to determine how, where and when I would be allowed to approach
this activity. The purpose of the boomerangs was made clear to me as
part of family business and the local economy. Shapes and designs were
examined. There was no particular sequence to this learning activity, and
often seemingly unrelated conversations and activities would be suddenly
related back to the business of carving to highlight an important point
(Yunkaporta, 2009a, p. 14).
What Yunkaporta is describing is a pedagogy based on immersion;

seemingly unconnected activities, discussions and demonstrations
that don’t necessarily make sense at the time but that build an
awareness of purpose, meaning and relevance. These events suddenly
connect and make sense for him. This type of learning is similar to
learning a foreign language through immersion rather than through
grammatical structure. All of a sudden learners find that they can

speak the language and string words together. As a result there is a

depth of learning and a joy at the realisation that they have learned
without necessarily trying.
Yunkaporta sums this up by saying that ‘I also know that when I
have applied the same orientation of learning to my western tertiary
education, I have enjoyed a level of academic success higher than ever
before’ (Yunkaporta, 2009b, p. 14).
Note that the eight ways of learning in Yunkaporta’s work are cultural,
and they are not just for remote Indigenous people. They should be
considered for inclusion when teaching any Aboriginal or Torres Strait
Islander student, regardless of where you are working or the cultural
backgrounds of your students.
Some general pedagogical principles for educators of students in
any location can be drawn from these ways of learning described by
Yunkaporta (2009a) and connected to cultural values, as previously
described. These principles are as follows:
• Share existing knowledge about new learning. Students and teachers
each share their existing knowledge about a new concept or topic.
It can be right or wrong, real or interpreted in different contexts.
Information shared will provide insight for teachers and students
about how the new knowledge is known and perceived, revealing any
misconceptions that might limit future learning. Many Aboriginal
people use a ‘yarning circle’ for this sharing; symbolically it allows
for all students and the teacher to be on an equal footing, no one is
right or wrong and everyone’s knowledge is valued.
• Collaborate to develop learning maps and metaphors that will help
teachers and students involved in the learning process to ‘see’ the
learning journey and to connect it to Western timeframes. All
students should know what they are expected to learn and by when.
This is part of good teaching and assessment practice (described
in the next chapter) since students need to know what they will be
assessed on.
• Collaborate to visualise what the completed learning will ‘look like’;
what will everyone be doing, saying or thinking when they have
learned it? This helps everyone to understand the learning expectations
and helps teachers and students to plan the steps to get there.

PERSONAL REFLECTIONS How do you feel about collaborating with your students and learning
for sharing from them?
Are you comfortable with this or would you prefer to be ‘in control’?
Aboriginal pedagogy
While many would argue that there is no such thing as an Aboriginal
pedagogy (that is, an Aboriginal way of teaching), there is no doubt that
Aboriginal ways of learning and preferred learning styles (as described
in Chapter 3) need to be considered in the design of learning.
Christie (1984) and Harris (1984) defined Aboriginal learning styles
as observation, imitation, trial and error, real-life performance, learning
wholes rather than parts, problem-solving and repetition. While much
of their research was undertaken in Arnhem Land in the Northern
Territory, subsequent research by Hughes and More (1997) recognised the
similarities in learning styles of Aboriginal people from different cultural
groups. Robinson and Nichol (1998) defined ‘Aboriginal pedagogy’
as being holistic, imaginal, kinaesthetic, cooperative, contextual and
person-oriented, and described these as the opposite of Western pedago-
gies. Hughes, More and Williams (2004) described these opposites as
‘bipolar objectives’: global–analytic, verbal–imaginal, concrete–abstract
and trial/feedback–reflective.
Although these descriptions are helpful in understanding that differ-
ences occur, there is always the concern that they can lead to stereotyping
since they fail to recognise that all people are on a continuum in terms
of their learning, regardless of cultural background. By drawing attention
to the fact that Aboriginal students favour holistic or imaginal teaching,
a teacher might be tempted to use only pedagogies that address these
needs. In fact, there is considerable overlap between Aboriginal and
Western ways of learning. Also, as Yunkaporta points out (2009a) there
are gaps in these polarised distinctions; the connection between land
and pedagogy was not discussed, nor was the place of storytelling (the
narrative voice) of Indigenous people.
While attempting to address learning styles through pedagogy
is essential, and using similarities in Aboriginal pedagogies may be

sufficient in some contexts, you should always attempt to find out the
pedagogies used in the families and communities of your students by
talking to Indigenous support workers and families.
Learning design
The design of learning always begins with a deep knowledge of what a
student needs to ultimately learn. This is determined from the formal
curriculum document: the Australian Curriculum. The teacher will
look at the intended curriculum for the particular age-cohort of their
students to get a sense of what the expected learning is for them.
It is important to remember that the Australian Curriculum is
written as a year-by-year document and describes what students in
years F and 1–10 are entitled to learn and should learn. It is the teacher’s
responsibility to give students access to this curriculum in a way that
has meaning and relevance to them.
Once the intended learning is determined, teachers need to find
out what their students already know about this particular topic or
knowledge; don’t assume they know nothing but instead assume they
know a lot and use some research (talk to teacher aides, parents and
students—depending on their age) to find out what that is. Once you
have found out what they know you need to ‘bridge’ prior learning to
intended learning, known to the unknown, and reality to abstraction,
as shown in Figure 5.4.
‘Bridging’ prior learning FIGURE 5.4
FROM TO
Known Unknown
Prior learning Intended learning
Reality Abstraction

Bridging learning using scaffolding

The metaphor of the ‘bridge’ is important. You can’t suddenly start
teaching what you want students to know if they can’t access it; they
will be left standing on one side of the river with you on the other side.
The length of the bridge too is important; some students might need
to take 30 steps to scaffold what they know to what they need to learn
while others may only need two steps.
For example, if you want your students to learn about the four
(Western) seasons—summer, winter, spring and autumn—your non-Indi-
genous students might already know these terms, while some Indigenous
students won’t. You need to find out from them how many ‘seasons’ there
are in their culture. If their response is ‘six to eight seasons’, involve them
in teaching the class about what they are and how and when they occur
over the course of the year. This will have the added benefit of valuing
the cultural knowledge of these students and hence valuing their identity,
making them ‘proud and strong’ in their identity. It will also increase
and enrich the learning and cultural competence of both yourself and
the rest of the class. You might then do a ‘compare and contrast’ table to
determine which of the Indigenous seasons map onto the Western seasons
(or vice versa), having students compare the weather, light or timing of the
seasons to enhance and deepen their understanding of the concept. Note
that this scaffolding benefits all students, not only Indigenous students.
Scaffolding learning
The term ‘scaffolding’ is a metaphor taken from the building industry;
that is, it defines a temporary support that is removed when the building
can stand on its own. The teacher first determines what the students
are capable of doing independently and designs learning experiences in
small steps (called scaffolds) so that the students achieve success with
support, eventually being able to do everything on their own. In order
to guide students through the small steps, teachers need to understand
how the new learning connects to what the learners already know in
their own familiar, everyday contexts.
Scaffolding and the zone of proximal development

As seen in Chapter 2, Vygotsky (1978) stated that the most effective
learning occurs when the challenge presented by a task is just ahead of

the learner’s actual or current development. New learning, when the

learner is working within their zone of proximal development (ZPD) will
only take place when support is required. This support is task-specific
scaffolding designed by the teacher to help the learner independently
complete the same or similar tasks in new contexts (Hammond &
Gibbons, 2005).
The ZPD is the gap between what a learner already knows and can
do and what they can do with support, as shown in Figure 5.5.
Scaffolding and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) FIGURE 5.5
What the learner ZPD What the

already knows learner needs
and can do to know
and do
Scaffolds
A skilled teacher will determine exactly what the learner knows, and
design a learning experience that would be too difficult for the student
to perform on their own but which with teacher support they will be
successful; that is, the teacher situates the learning opportunity in the
student’s ZPD. If the teacher provides enough support in this zone, the
student will eventually be successful, and then the teacher creates another
experience in the next ZPD, and so on. By creating small, successive
steps, the teacher can provide the scaffolding that students need from
what they already know to what they need to know.
It is important to provide just enough support and just enough
challenge. If the learning experience is not challenging enough, students
become bored, but if it is too challenging they will not be able to engage
with it; they will assume they will fail and hence experience embar-
rassment and shame. Some students might therefore only need a few
scaffolding steps while others might need a lot. It is important to note

that the overall learning goals for the students should be the same; it
is the routes or pathways taken to achieve them (and hence the scaf-
folding) that need to be varied.
Teachers must not only believe that their students can learn what
they need to learn if they are to consider the ZPD in their planning,
they must also have an expectation that they will learn it, and this
belief must be shared with the student. The focus must
[F]or classroom learning to be on each student’s learning potential not just on
be most effective, teaching their current abilities. This is particularly important
and learning tasks should be
ahead of student’s abilities to for learners who have English as an Additional
complete independently, but Language or Dialect (EALD) or where their concep-
within their ability to complete tual understanding is beyond their English language
when scaffolding is provided.
HAMMOND & GIBBONS (2005)
development.
Yunkaporta (2009a), examining effective pedagogies
for Indigenous students, suggested that teachers:
• connect with students’ families and communities to determine what
is known, and a way to situate or link the learning to the land and
to culture (this may not be appropriate in urban settings due to
dislocation, dispossession and other reasons)
• begin with a holistic perspective by showing students what the
completed learning or task will look like and then go back to the
small steps and work forward from there, relying on the independent
learning skills of the Indigenous students to move forward again
with teacher support, creating their own meaningful products and
knowledge, and
• use land links and the metaphor of scaffolding to create a learning
map.
Two types of scaffolding are relevant for all students but particularly
relevant for EALD learners (Hammond & Gibbons, 2005):
• Macro-scaffolding: Scaffolding that is deliberately planned into the
teaching and learning program.
• Micro-scaffolding: Scaffolding that is not planned but rather ‘inter-
actional’, making the most of ‘teachable moments’ that occur during
lessons. Some of the ‘teachable moments’ rise out of the planned
context occurring in a classroom.

Macro-scaffolding
Macro-scaffolding includes several deliberate strategies. First, teachers

must determine (a) the extent of students’ prior knowledge of specific
curriculum content described earlier as general principles derived from
Yunkaporta’s work (2009a) and their English language abilities; and
(b) their knowledge of English language relevant to that curriculum
content. This background enables teachers to not only consider the
relevant curriculum content knowledge that is needed to build on
but also whether students have the language needed to engage with
the curriculum content. For example, in teaching a Science lesson on
weathering, teachers need to ascertain both whether students understand
the scientific concepts of rock formation, and whether they know the
scientific language to engage with weathering (words and phrases such
as erosion, deposition and forces).
Next, you should sequence the learning tasks so that the learning
outcome for each task becomes the building block for the next (we
described this earlier in general terms derived from Yunkaporta, 2009a).
Teachers must ensure that students always have an eye on the final
learning goal even though learning occurs for each task.
It is important to choose participant structures (that is, whether to
use individual, pair/group or whole class structures) and the choice will
depend on the task itself. This will ensure a balance of individual and
group work is included in the learning program, as well as enabling
the right amount of challenge in the ZPD, as described above. Students
should be paired and grouped with those who have different starting
points. (Be careful to ensure that Indigenous students are not grouped
or paired with Indigenous students from culturally unacceptable
families—check with Indigenous teacher aides.)
Providing access to similar information from a variety of different
meaning sources (known as message abundancy)—including spoken
and visual language, actions, wall charts, maps, photos, diagrams, oral
reflection, student-written notes, watching a video, semantic webs,
symbols and whiteboard writing—help students construct meaning
as well as supporting student’s comprehension of the language. For
example, in highlighting words relating to time in a text, students are
better able to understand the sequence and hence make predictions

about the information that follows. Visual scaffolding is essential for

EALD learners as oral scaffolding by the teacher is not enough.
Seeing an image of what is being described, or seeing key words being
explained by the teacher, not only makes what is being described easier
to understand but also increases student engagement. Whiteboards and
electronic whiteboards (and accompanying software) are great tools for
increasing comprehension and engagement. If all students in a class or
school are EALD learners, they should be immersed in English language
phrases and vocabulary.
You should source text and objects or artefacts that can be used from
one lesson to the next, providing a link or point of reference, such as
an animal theme in Science. These links often result in or provide the
basis for lots of talk, placing a learning focus on something outside the
students themselves. For example, a framework such as ‘Think, Pair,
Share’ can facilitate paired and group discussion that results in learning.
It is important to develop meta-linguistic and meta-cognitive aware-
ness so that you can recognise the importance of language in learning.
You should deliberately and explicitly teach the language needed for and
in the learning as part of the teaching of curriculum content. If you are
a History teacher, for example, you must not only teach History content
but also teach the language that relates to that content. Learning the
words is not sufficient; students need to learn words to talk about words.
[Scaffolding] is the specific help Micro-scaffolding

that provides the intellectual
‘push’ to enable students to work Micro-scaffolding can be implemented using several
at the outer limits of the ZPD. strategies. You should link back to prior experiences
HAMMOND & GIBBONS (2005) and use these to point forward to the broader purposes
of the lesson. For example, you might talk about what
students did in the previous lesson or what they do at home or out of
school, and link these to future learning. This might also help at the
end of a lesson when ‘summing up’ what the purpose of the lesson was,
what the students did, results obtained and what they have learned.
Teachers can appropriate and recast contributions from students,
for example, using something that a student has said (such as words,
ideas or information) and building it into future discussion. Students
can do this by recasting or ‘reshaping’ what they have said, connecting

with the direction they want the lesson to move to. This values students’
contributions and makes them co-participants in the teaching and
learning process.
The process of ‘Initiation, response and feedback’ is used to elicit
participation and to increase meta-cognition. This is usually used to
increase the participation of all students, usually by asking a question
of a student who might not be listening or engaging, or who might
lack confidence to participate. Teachers might then ask for further
clarification, probe the student’s response or ask the student to explain.
This prolongs and promotes further learning, thus leading to greater
understanding and meaning.
Micro-scaffolding relies heavily on both developing and maintaining
strong relationships with students. It therefore serves to build and
support these continually in the classroom.
Hammond and Gibbons (2005) argue that if the macro features are
present in a lesson, teachers draw on one or more of the micro features
to provide the challenge and support that enables students to work in the
ZPD. Their description of the features supports their view that scaffolding
is a complex process; it ‘is the specific help that provides the intellectual
‘push’ to enable students to work at the outer limits of the ZPD’ (p. 25).
Higher-order skills and collaborative learning

The pedagogies and strategies suggested here will support the learning
of all students. While we have warned teachers against ‘dumbing down’
the curriculum, this ‘phenomenon’ is primarily about merely teaching
students basic knowledge without any higher-order thinking skills.
Teachers may often assume that since their students can’t comprehend
in Standard Australian English (SAE) that they have low-level meta-
cognitive skills. This is far from the case.
Much of this chapter has focused on bridging learning for students
who come from a long way behind (largely as a result of their language
backgrounds and the need to learn SAE in order to comprehend the
learning). You should be aware, however, that many Indigenous students
(as with students from all cultures) are gifted; for example, requires no,
or only a few, steps of scaffolded support.

Higher-order questioning should occur in all classes. Since many

Indigenous students learn in collaborative situations, group work is an
effective way to teach students higher-order skills
[T]he person who is filled by through problem-solving. Students can be given tasks
another with ‘contents’ whose to undertake and solve, using a problem-solving frame-
meaning s/he is not aware work, such as clarify, choose, use, interpret and
of, which contradicts his or
her own way of being in the communicate. Not only will this improve their SAE
world cannot learn because skills it will also support them to learn from each other.
s/he is not challenged. The framework (Perso, 2013, p. 24) should first be
FRIERE (1976)
modelled by the teacher—then shared, with students
doing some of the work and teachers doing some of the
work. Eventually students will be able to work independently in groups
without support. Students need to be taught each of the steps shown in
the following ‘Problem-solving model’.
Clarify → Choose → Use → Interpret → Communicate
Clarify: Teach students to read the problem and ask questions in order to
comprehend and understand the context. Each student in the group
should paraphrase and tell other students what they already know about
the context, from their individual perspective. Any words or phrases
they don’t know or understand should be researched online or using
dictionaries. Clarifying is particularly important for EALD learners.
Choose: On the basis of their clarification students make decisions
about how they might solve the problem and what methods, tools
and approaches they will use. Students should be taught to justify
their choices in the context.
Use: Students will carry out the actions they have chosen, sharing the
workload.
Interpret: Students will collectively return to the initial problem and
discuss the question ‘Does this solution make sense?’ On the basis of
their discussion they may decide that they chose the wrong methods
or misunderstood the problem and that they need to start again.
Their decision should be justifiable; arguments are welcome!
Communicate: Students should be able to explain how the group arrived
at the solution/answer. They should share how they understood the
problem, how they made choices, what they did, how they made
sense of and interpreted their solution and what they changed or did

again. Each decision should be explained and justified. You should

use the problem-solving model for simple and complex problems.
It can be used in any subject area.
Situating learning in students’ lived realities

Scaffolding learning should always begin by situating the learning in
the lived realities of the students. If you can’t find anything that is real
and known to students in which to situate the learning you might have
to create and share an experience that you can use for this purpose.
For example, when teaching the students about data collection and
representation you might have a game with them or take them to
the football in order to generate some statistics. You will then be in a
position to say, ‘Remember when we went to the football and Team A
scored 3 goals and 16 points and Team B scored 5 goals and 21 points?
How can we show that in a table and on a graph?’
Klug and Whitfield (2003) explain this process in the following quote:
Teaching in a way that relates to students’ lives does not mean that we
no longer worry about what students need to pass state assessment tests.
What it means is that we teach for understanding by incorporating
culture and language into our planning for students . . . we do not
have to completely re-write the curricula; rather we have to extend
the curricula to embrace the lives of Native [sic] students and their
communities (p. 152).
It is important to know that new learning should always be relevant and

meaningful. Any scaffolding that is provided will support the whole
class to understand more deeply, it won’t ‘waste time’ for those who
already know. Nor will it ‘waste time’ for you, as the teacher; anything
that deepens students’ understandings provides a firmer base of what
is ‘known’ for future learning, for all students.
Differentiating curriculum
Differentiating the curriculum is really about ensuring that all students’
starting points are attended to and then scaffolding their learning to
what they need to learn. Sometimes students have the same starting

points and these can be grouped together. At other times each student
might have a different starting point. You shouldn’t try to have more
than three groups operating in the class at any one time since this will
more than likely be unmanageable unless you have help. Even for two
or three groups, you should try to find support; either someone on the
school staff, a teacher aide or support worker, or a parent.
Scaffolding mathematics learning in practice

Differentiating and scaffolding curriculum are closely linked. Previously
we highlighted the fact that some students might need about 30 scaf-
folded steps from what they know to what they need to know, and
others might need only three or four. Differentiating the curriculum is
about providing the different steps needed for individual students or
for small groups of students.
Table 5.1 shows an example of the scaffolded steps that a teacher
might use to teach Indigenous students in a remote location, none of
whom are fluent with SAE, about concepts of representing unit fractions.
This example Table 5.1 could equally apply and be used in an urban
area with non-Indigenous students, depending on students’ starting
points; you can adapt it by adding or removing steps depending on
your students’ needs.
TABLE 5.1 Fractions and decimals content descriptors: Years 1 to 4

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Recognise and describe Recognise and interpret Model and represent Investigate equivalent
one-half as one of two common uses of halves, unit fractions including fractions used in contexts
equal parts of a whole quarters and eighths of ½, ¼, 1⁄3, 1⁄5 and their Count by quarters, halves
shapes and collections multiples to a complete and thirds, including with
whole mixed numerals. Locate
and represent these frac-
tions on a number line
Source: ACARA (2011)
Teachers might initially use all the steps with all the class. Students
who have difficulties with learning the steps might then need to focus
on particular steps; this can be done with or by the teacher (and support
staff if available) working with small groups and/or individuals. What

is important is that the teacher understands the concept and how to

break it into small steps.
Consider the Year 3 outcome regarding ‘Fractions’ in the Australian
Mathematics Curriculum: Model and represent unit fractions including
½, ¼, ⅓ and 1⁄5 and their multiples to a complete whole. The role of
the teacher in scaffolding this learning is to break down the expected
learning and build it back up from what the students already know.
In the box below we demonstrate the thinking processes that might
be used by a classroom teacher planning for this learning.
Scaffolding the teaching of fractions:

in-the-head thinking
As a teacher planning lessons focused on students being able to
meet this outcome I need to frame my planning around the following:
1. What do my students already know?

2. What do they need to know?
3. How will I scaffold from the first to the second; that is, break it
down and build it up?
In order to frame my planning, I start by having a brainstorm with

myself (or another teacher if one is available), asking the question,
‘What do you need to know in order to do this?’ My answers might
look something like:
• I need to know what fractions are.

• I need to know what unit fractions, their multiples and ‘complete
wholes’ are.
• I need to know why unit fractions and their multiples are useful.
Then I might argue with myself:
• I don’t remember anyone telling me these things.

• Do I know what these things are myself?
If the answer to this personal brainstorm is ‘no’, then I will need to

learn about it myself. Note that the Year 1 and Year 2 entries in this
continuum are building blocks (scaffolds) for this outcome.

I determine that the concept of fractions is part of understanding

quantification and of breaking down whole objects, whole quantities
and whole numbers (1, 2, 3 . . . ) into smaller amounts.
I then consider what language, knowledge and skills are needed
to ‘model and represent unit fractions . . . and their multiples to a
complete whole’.
There are clearly some language needs embedded in this
outcome:
• What does ‘fraction’ mean?

• What does ‘whole’ mean?
• What does ‘unit fraction’ mean?
• What does ‘multiple’ mean?
All this thinking has helped me to ‘break it down’ in my understanding.

Next, I need to find out what my students already know about
fractions and in particular, the two entries for Year 1 and Year 2. I
know that I can’t make any assumptions about this particularly since
most of my students are Indigenous. I know that students have a bit
of a sense of what ‘half’ is since I’ve heard them use it in sentences.
• Since there are Indigenous children in my class, I will talk to

Indigenous teacher aides, families and community.
• I’ll do a search on the web for material on ‘Indigenous’ and
‘fraction’.
• I’ll talk to the former teacher (if possible) to find out what my
students have been taught.
In doing this I find that many remote Indigenous people don’t

share the same concept of ‘half’ or quarter’ that exists in Western
cultures (Perso, 2003); ‘half’ is often used as a common term to
mean ‘part of’ something or ‘one of two’ amounts but not necessarily
equal shares, and ‘quarter’ is used to mean four amounts but not
necessarily equal shares. In some Aboriginal cultures, relationships
are so important that the notion of ‘fairness’ is not so pronounced as
in some Western cultures since harmony can be rated more highly
as a way of maintaining stability and peace in communities.

This ‘common’ understanding of fractions also exists in

Western cultures in some contexts; for example, ‘I’ll have half’
might not mean equal shares for a husband and wife, but it might
for siblings or if you are buying ‘half’ a cake. Students need to be
explicitly taught that, in the context of mathematics, ‘half’ means
exactly the same amount or quantity each in two equal shares,
and ‘quarter’ means exactly the same amount or quantity in four
equal shares.
Students should not be taught this in abstraction but rather
in concrete, using materials, shapes and objects. Symbolic
representation (such as ½ and ¼) should not be used in years 1 and
2 until students have understood what the words and terms ‘half’
and ‘quarter’ mean. It is also helpful to use the words ‘one out of
two equal parts’ and ‘one out of four equal parts’ so that students
learn understanding through language. When I do start teaching
symbolic representation they ‘read’ these symbols using the words
they’ve learned so that ‘½’ reads as ‘one half’ or ‘one out of two
equal parts’, reinforcing the meaning of the fractions. Time spent on
developing this language and deep conceptual understanding is a
good investment for all future learning about fractions.
For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children, it is helpful to
situate this learning in their families and relationships. For example,
I could build lessons around data contributed by my students:
• Family groups: ‘One half of the family are boys and one half are
girls; for every boy there is a girl.’
• People working in jobs: ‘One out of every four men has a job.’
• Women who are mothers: ‘One out of every four women is a
mother, one-quarter of the women are mothers.’
• Number of vehicles in a community: ‘One out of every two
families has a car; one-half of the families have cars.’
• Children in the school: ‘One out of every four children has a cap;
one-quarter of the children has a cap.’
Students should be taught to represent these ‘stories’ in different

ways (see Table 5.2).

TABLE 5.2 Representations of unit fractions

Using
‘quarter’ Using Using
Using words or ‘half’ numbers symbols Using pictures
One out of One-half of 1 out of ½ have cars
every two the families every
families has has a car 2 families
a car has a car
One out of One-quarter 1 out of ¼ have caps
every four of children every
children has has a cap 4 children
a cap has a cap
These different representations should also be ‘read’ from the

board or page, wherever students do them; they need lots of
practice with these different representations. I could even add a
column for a pictorial representation and have children draw what
the words mean.
If I find that my students can already do this then they are
well-placed to learn and achieve the Year 3 outcome: Model and
represent unit fractions including ½, ¼, 1⁄3, and 1⁄5 and their multiples
to a complete whole.
Having broken down both the concept and likely knowledge
base of my students, I next need to ‘build it up’ to what they need
to know in some sort of ‘progressive development’ (Hattie, 2009).
This will provide a sequence of scaffolding that I can use in my
planning. I need to remember that I have a whole year to develop
this understanding so it is important that all students have the
knowledge base on which to build it. For each of these possible
steps, I might need one or two weeks before learning occurs.
1. I’ll draw a story map of the learning journey we will go through

to learn this outcome, based on the scaffolding steps I come up
with—I’ll use words and symbols on the map and put it up on
the wall. I’ll invite the students to contribute and tell me what it
means to them.

2. I’ll see if children can go to the next step and ‘shade’ one-half
and one quarter of a shape; I’ll be careful not to use all symmetric
shapes as they might learn the misconception that you can only
find half and quarter of a shape with symmetry. I’ll use butterflies,
caterpillars and other shapes from their environment before I use
abstract shapes like rectangles. We’ll go on a walk through the
community and see what we can find that has two distinct halves,
such as leaves, rocks and shrubs.
3. I’ll talk about ‘one-third and one-fifth’ and see if children can now
tell me what they might be. They should be able to generate
their own ‘stories’ from their community to create examples in the
same way that they’ve done with me; I’ll have them do a table
like the one above and pin it on the wall. I’ll ask them to use the
words ‘one fifth’ and ‘one-third’ in sentences.
4. I’ll ask children what they have if there is one-third and another
third of the same whole. I’ll draw them using a rectangle. I’ll
make sure I use the words ‘of the same whole’ when working
with shapes since I know that it is possible for one half to be the
same as one quarter if you use different wholes!
5. I’ll shade diagrams showing one-third, two-thirds and three-thirds
(one whole) and help children to ‘count’ these fractional amounts
saying ‘One-third, two-thirds, and three-thirds or one whole’. This
will provide a solid base for the Year 4 outcome (see Figure 5.6).
Thirds FIGURE 5.6
6. I’ll teach students to now show different representations of the

multiples of unit fractions using their own stories (see Table 5.3).
I know that students need lots and lots of practice at showing

the different representations of fractions.

TABLE 5.3 Representations of multiples of unit fractions

Fraction Using
In words words numbers Symbolic Pictorial
Three out of Three- 3 out of ¾ have a car
every four quarters of every
families has families has 4 families
a car a car has a car
Two out of Two-fifths of 2 out of 2∕5 have a cap
every five children have every
children a cap 5 children
have a cap has a cap
7. I’ll use a computer to increase their engagement, cutting and

pasting into tables as shown here, and then get them to do it
working in pairs on a computer. I’ll also get them to use lots of
models and be ‘hands-on’ using objects such as bottle caps, cans,
rocks and other objects in their environment to make it relevant.
8. I’ll move between real-life examples (such as families and trees)
and more abstract contexts (such as shapes).
9. I might spend two or three weeks building up each column in
the table, getting them to draw tables in the sand and write in
them and put objects into the last column. I’ll get them to talk
about what they are doing, work in pairs and groups, and even
have ‘races’ to see who can finish first.
This just describes what I’m going to teach; I will also use lots of
EALD strategies to deliver this content. My planning document
should also have columns headed ‘Technical language words
needed’, and ‘Vocabulary to be explicitly taught’.
It can be seen that this ‘breaking down and building up’ scaffolding
process is challenging but essential for all students, not only Indigenous
students, if deep and long-term learning is to occur. Some of the steps
indicated above can be further broken down if needed, so that, for
example, six steps could become more than 20, depending on the
needs of the students. The description indicates how important it is

not to make any assumptions about students’ prior learning. This is

particularly important when children in the class are Indigenous and/or
from different cultural backgrounds, and increasingly so as Australian
schools take on a more multicultural profile. It is also essential for
students from low socioeconomic backgrounds.
It is critical that students’ current and existing knowledge is determ-
ined so that it can become the ‘starting point’ for the planning; the
desired learning is broken down again and again (including using the
sequence shown in the Year entries in the Australian Curriculum) and
then even further following consultation with families and research as
needed to determine that the starting point of the students connects
with the starting point of the learning concept.
This ‘situating and scaffolding’ approach is an example of good
teaching and can be used for all students in the class; you wouldn’t do
it for Indigenous students alone. Individuals might need it to a lesser
or greater extent and hence the approach would be differentiated with
individuals or small groups. Indigenous students should not be given
‘something different’ from everyone else in the class.
Note that if this is the expected outcome of the Australian Curriculum
for Year 3 students and your students are in Year 3 you must believe
that they will be able to learn it by the end of the year, even though
you might need to go back to the Year 1 outcome to start. You would
not start at the Year 1 outcome and expect that students would only
learn the Year 1 outcomes by the end of the year. A sense of urgency
exists with this recognition, which you need to instil in your students
along with the high expectation that they need to and can learn three
years of fractional outcomes in one year given that they attend school
regularly and that you teach them well.
As described in the above teaching examples for ‘fractions’, learning
largely depends on the skill of the teacher in ‘designing’ the learning
experiences. They must ensure that they:
• connect to what students already know and their learning strengths
• deeply understand what they are teaching and what they want
students to learn
• expect students to learn what is presented; have high expectations
for them and share these with the students regularly

• manage student behaviour in ways that provide a suitable environ-

ment for learning
• address all learning styles to maximise student access to what they
present; here we have used visual, aural, verbal, physical and logical
learning styles in both solitary and social contexts
• present the intended learning in ways that value and validate the
different cultural perspectives that students might have
• situate the learning in contexts that are relevant and meaningful,
and
• scaffold, or build a bridge, from what students already know to what
they need to learn.
Explicit teaching and direct instruction

In the previous section, we indicated the need for teaching to be ‘explicit’.
Explicit teaching is about leaving nothing to chance and making no
assumptions about what students know or don’t know. The term ‘direct
instruction’ is sometimes used to describe the explicit teaching of a
concept or task using face-to-face lectures, demonstrations or a script
rather than independent exploration to enable students to construct their
own knowledge. While some believe this constructivist approach to be
more meaningful, others believe that we can’t leave to chance that this
construction has occurred and we must teach new concepts directly.
Either way, explicit teaching and direct instruction leave nothing to
chance. The pedagogy needed to demonstrate explicit teaching is that
teachers generally ‘speak out aloud’ all of their thinking and decision-
making to model what is needed for understanding.
Explicit teaching is needed for both words and concepts (and phrases
for colloquialisms). Words can be particularly problematic for EALD
learners. Earlier we explained, for example, the need to explicitly teach
the meaning of the word and concept ‘bigger’ in mathematics contexts
so that students learn that the word is referring to value rather than
physical size (for example, by asking ‘What number is bigger: 0.4 or
0.35?’); many students believe that 0.35 is bigger since it is longer and
this creates problems with their subsequent mathematics learning.
Teachers might talk out aloud and deliberately include these misun-
derstandings, saying, for example:

• ‘Surely 0.35 is bigger than 0.4; it has an extra digit.’

• ‘But it’s not 35 and 4, is it?’
• ‘The 3 and the 4 are both tenths so four-tenths must be bigger than
three-tenths.’
• ‘So it’s really 35 and 40.’
Explicitness is also needed when teaching students new concepts, since
some of these concepts do not exist in certain cultures. For example,
in the previous section we stated that ‘Students need to be explicitly
taught that in the context of mathematics, “half” means exactly the
same amount or quantity each in two equal shares.’
In order to explicitly teach this concept, you should not assume that
students know what ‘half’ means mathematically merely because they use
it in a sentence, nor that they know what ‘half’ means mathematically
because they can draw a line of symmetry across shapes that are
symmetrical, such as squares, circles and rectangles. It’s important
to deliberately engage students in understanding that ‘one-half’ is an
amount rather than a shape. Using a 500-gram block of butter, for
example, you might cut an amount from the centre of the block and
weigh both the cut amount and then the remaining pieces, to show
students that the amounts can both be ‘one half’ of the block, even
though they might not look the same. As you undertake this task, the
teacher might say things like:
• ‘Don’t they have to look the same to be halves?’
• ‘I will cut an amount from the inside of the block and put it on the
scale. I expect it to weigh 250 grams if it is a half.’
• ‘It is less than 250 grams so I will need some more.’
• ‘Does it matter where I take the extra bit from?’
This process of speaking out aloud your assumptions and decision-
making is very powerful in teaching. It unlocks the learning process for
students. For EALD students, particularly those from different cultures,
they see that everything is learnable; it does not depend on their cultural
background. Some of these students believe that they are unable to
learn much of the curriculum they are exposed to in school; they don’t
understand and then blame themselves for not having the skills that
they think are needed. They consequently have low expectations of

themselves as learners. This often results from their teachers not teaching
explicitly but making assumptions about what their students know and
don’t know based on their own experiences as learners.
Implications of high expectations for pedagogy

Although having high expectations of students is largely about how a
teacher ‘positions’ their students (see Chapter 3) it is also a pedagogy.
Having high expectations is more than a belief. Its power lies in how
you demonstrate the belief to students so that they have no doubt that
you know that they can do something. This is important for all students,
but particularly so for students who have low expectations of themselves
for a variety of reasons. For Indigenous students, who sometimes see
themselves at school as ‘the underdog’ and ‘not as good as everyone
else’ as a result of how they are positioned as a people in history (and
sometimes in their current context), it is vital.
If you say you believe that the students can learn what is being
presented but your actions don’t support it, your students will not believe
you or trust you. Some examples of how you might demonstrate high
expectations are:
• telling students regularly that they can learn what you are teaching
and that you expect them to, with your help
• encouraging them in their learning; remember the encouragement
given to you by your parents, family or friends when you were
learning to ride a bike or do something equally challenging—this
means praising small gains, pushing students to go just that little
bit further and all the time rewarding them with each improvement
• being careful not to ‘shame’ students in front of their peers; sometimes
you need to encourage and reward privately if you’re encouraging
individuals
• embedding this in your everyday teaching; don’t make a big thing of
it out of context but attach it to something specific that’s being taught
• showing high expectations in the materials and examples you give
to students; don’t give them colouring and ‘busy work’ but make
sure the work is challenging

• not providing students with all directions and information; allow

for some problem-solving to encourage students to think laterally
and to stretch them as much as possible
• being careful not to move onto something new before students have
had sufficient time to learn what you’re teaching; ‘getting through
the course’ can sometimes indicate to students that you have to move
on because ‘they’ll never get it so there’s no point wasting time’
• using humour and laughing at yourself when you make a mistake;
demonstrating ‘trial and error’ and showing students that it’s okay
to fail and push yourself to do better next time
• showing through your own self-talk that you also struggle with
aspects of learning; modelling this will demonstrate that it’s okay
to struggle and to ‘try again’, and
• not giving praise unless it’s due; most students know when they are
being patronised.
Do you believe that all students can learn what they need to learn? PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
Did you have teachers at school who believed in your ability and pushed for sharing
you to achieve?
Using metaphors in learning

Metaphors convey people’s beliefs and values. They contain familiar
words and phrases to help clarify the meaning of something that
might be abstract or unfamiliar, such as ‘she is the apple of my eye’
to refer to someone whom you hold dear, or ‘my mother is my rock’
to indicate a parent’s strength and support. They can also be used
to understand cultural differences (St Clair, 2000). A good example
comes from Willis (2013):
In one Aboriginal community the teacher, who developed shared meta-
phors for learning styles and strategies with parents and students, told
the class they were now going to be creative. This teacher shared that
you could visually see the students change their posture to look/feel like
brolgas, since this was the animal that they had decided was creative.

All cultures use metaphors for learning. Western cultures, for example,
use terms like ‘discovery learning’ and ‘unpacking the content’ to evoke
mental images that describe learning as uncovering something that
exists but is hidden to the learner.
Many Indigenous cultures used (and still use) metaphors in teaching.
Discussion about traditional practices responsible for this compared
with the focus on analytic form based in print culture was presented
through the work of St Clair (2000) in Chapter 2.
To teach non-Aboriginal verbal forms of metaphor to Aboriginal
students in order to assist learning you need to make visual the hidden,
abstract metaphors based in Western ways of knowing, preferably using
a metaphor from land or story, or both. By doing this you are honouring
both the oral and print-based ways of knowing, and so bringing an
Indigenous perspective to any mainstream, formal learning context.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What metaphor do you have for teaching and learning; for example, do
for sharing you see your classroom as a battlefield, a garden or a nursery?
Share your metaphor with others and have them interpret it for or with
you. It will explain something of your values and your teaching style,
and help you understand whether or not you expect your students to be
active participants in their learning, and whether or not you are willing
to learn from your students.
The symbols that Yunkaporta uses in his Eight Aboriginal Ways of

Learning Framework (2009c), described earlier, contain metaphors for
pedagogies used to induct teachers into Aboriginal knowledge systems.
For example, the metaphor of journey is used to show the sequence of
learning that includes the milestones and expectations along the way,
depicted as markers along the track.
Yunkaporta (2009a) believes that ‘working with metaphors is a point
of interface between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal knowledge systems’
(p. 15). He adds a word of warning that ‘the use of metaphors for . . .
creating frameworks for education should be taken very seriously and
approached with cultural and intellectual integrity. If token symbols of
culture are applied as metaphors without intellectual rigour, then they
may do more harm than good.’ (p. 16) He stresses the need for teachers

to negotiate their own metaphors with students and even parents and
Elders, when teaching large numbers of Indigenous students, particularly
in Aboriginal communities.
Oral cultures make common use of visual meta- Land and place can be a source
of innovative cross-cultural
phors as their way of organising knowledge. Whereas, knowledge not just for content,
in Western cultures, verbal information is rationally but for pedagogy as well.
processed in sequence and using logic, the relational MARKER (2006)
mode of cognition prevails in oral cultures (Ramirez &

Castañeda, 1974). For many Indigenous cultures, including Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander peoples, relationships are essential for keeping
culture alive and for identity, as we explained in Chapter 2. Relationships
are not only important for the social structure, but also form part of the
‘ways of knowing’ of these cultural groups. This means that relationships
are used in learning and organising. People ‘see’ in visual relationships.
Perso (2003), for example, in her book about Aboriginal numeracy,
describes how a sense of analytical ‘scale’ is missing in maps drawn by
Aboriginal people with the concentration being on the arrangement
between features and landmarks on the maps, particularly if there is
some sacred or emotional significance attached to certain places.
To support Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children with their
learning it can be helpful to work with them to draw visual metaphors
of the ways in which they can learn. The key characteristics of effective
learners, as identified by the Effective Lifelong Learning Inventory (ELLI)
research (Deakin Crick et al., 2002), are:
• an orientation towards growth adaptation and change
• the capacity to make personal meaning from information
• a critical curiosity
• creativity
• imagination and playfulness
• strategic awareness
• resilience, and
• learning relationships.
In addition, an effective learner is someone who can learn with and from
other people. This is especially important for people in their personal
lives and their community. As a way of capitalising on the power of
symbols and images in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander learning,

children can successfully develop symbols and metaphors for each of

these eight characteristics, which can then be used by the teacher to
get students to work in particular ways.
For example, ask students to think of an animal that has critical
curiosity. They might tell you that a cat is curious. When you ask them
why they think this they will then share attributes such as:
• ‘They look into everything.’
• ‘They want to know what is going on.’
• ‘They sniff everything.’
• ‘They wake up when you walk past and watch you.’
From there you would have all students agree on which animal they
want to be when they are being curious and maybe draw a picture of it
in their books and write ‘critical curiosity’ underneath it. Then, when
you want them to investigate something and be curious about it you
would ask them to ‘be a cat’.
These metaphors have proven to be very helpful when teaching all
children meta-cognitive skills, such as those identified by the ELLI research.
For children from Aboriginal cultures they are particularly helpful due to
the links discussed earlier (Hughes, 1992; Yunkaporta, 2009a).
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What metaphors do you have for the eight characteristics of effective
for sharing learners? How might you use the idea of metaphors for teaching meta-
cognitive skills? What metaphor would you use to describe yourself as
a learner? Why?
In Indigenous communities where parents, teachers and students

might all have different ideas about what learning is, working together to
develop shared metaphors for learning can be very productive. Learning
is a very abstract and Western concept. Yunkaporta, in his description
about how he was ‘taught’ to make a boomerang, had no sense that he
was learning something or that he was being deliberately ‘taught’. There
was more of a sense that something was being shown to him because
‘the time is right’. In many traditional Aboriginal cultures learning
certain things is connected to rites of passage; I’m learning what I’m
allowed to learn at a certain time.

Because of the propensity that many Aboriginal people have to ‘think

in pictures’, it is always helpful to start with pictures and symbols. Ask
parents and respected Elders what picture they have for teaching and
learning. Is it a child sitting on a mat and watching or is it a child doing
and exploring? What animal does this represent to them?
Metaphors for learning

The following extract, describing some Yolngu metaphors for
learning, is reproduced from Marika-Mununggiritj and Christie (1995).
We have examined examples of Yolngu metaphors for learning that

were given to us by Yirrkala community Elders during discussions
about curriculum. These were metaphors chosen by our Elders to
show how schooling for Yolngu children must be consistent with
traditional Yolngu ways of education.
First, dhin’thun. This word is often used to mean identifying the
tracks of animals and following the tracks to find the animal. As we
learn, we learn to recognise what we see in the environment, and how
it can help us. We need the skills of dhin’thun in order to understand
the clouds and the tides, the animal tracks and the flowers, the clan
totems and the sacred designs, and the signs that have come from
the creation. Dhin’thun, in this sense, speaks of research. We use it
to describe the way we find out about history, and about the way
we follow up decisions that have been agreed upon.
Next, Lundu-nhäma. Nhäma means ‘to see’. Lundu . . . is (often)
used to mean a journey, usually referring to the journey made
through the land by the creating ancestors . . . it also refers to the
footsteps and manner of walking, of these people. Lundu is lso the
word for friend, or companion, someone who thinks and feels so
close to you, they are almost your reflection.
The part of a Yolngu education described as Lundu-nhäma
means identifying the pattern and the style of the past . . . First we
must recognise what has gone before and know exactly how it fits in
with the whole web of meaning which makes Yolngu life—dhin’thun.

Then we must identify the pattern and style of how it was performed
in the past (Lundu-nhäma). Literally, we must ‘see the journey’
taken by our ancestors, and this involves identifying the land,
and the people they have interacted with through the years, their
motivations, their loyalties, their ideas, and everything else which
has made them great . . . even if we can’t see the creators and the
ancestors, we can still see their Lundu—exactly where they have
been, what they have left behind, their signs and reflections, their
images, and their way of life. We can see all those things because
we can read them in the land, and they have been passed down
to us through their songs.
Something special happens if we are able to dhin’thun and
Lundu-nhäma accurately . . . we begin to reproduce dhudakthun, the
lives of our ancestors, in the same way that allowed them to preserve
our knowledge and our culture for thousands of years and bring it
right up to the modern world. This is more than just copying what
the ancestors have done. Dhudakthun has the effect of bringing our
spiritual past to life again through our modern behaviours. It also
has an effect on ourselves—putting us ‘in tune with’ our spiritual
past, shaping us like our ancestors. This is something quite natural
for us, but very difficult for Balanda (white peoples) to understand.
Yolngu education is not about young Aboriginal people following
their ancestors like robots. And Yolngu education is not about young
people learning to do just what they feel like. Yolngu education is
learning to love and understand our homeland and the ancestors
who have provided it for us, so as to create a life for ourselves
reworking the truths we have learned from the land and from the
Elders, into a celebration of who we are and where we are in the
modern world.
Pedagogies for ESL students

The use of technical terms can be confusing for students from diverse
cultural backgrounds whose first language is not English. For these
students who are learning in classrooms where English is the language

of instruction, these words need to be explicitly taught along with their

contextual meaning.
Some words can mean one thing in one subject area and another in
another subject area. For example, as described earlier bigger can refer
to physical size in the Arts or in Geography, whereas in the number
strand of mathematics it often refers to value. This is often the same for
technical words in some subjects that have more general meanings. For
example, function can generally define a purpose of an object, whereas
in mathematics it is an algebraic relationship between variables.
Let’s examine some useful pedagogical strategies that teachers
might find useful when teaching students who are English as a Second
Language (ESL) learners:
• Teach new vocabulary each and every day, support new words with
visual drawings and pictures hung around the room and school.
Develop a graph for the wall, indicating the number of new words
and phrases learned each day or week by each student. This can also
show students their own progress and hence raise self-esteem and
confidence.
• ‘Talk up’ the unique ability of the students to speak more than
one—and sometimes many—languages. Show how impressed you
are by this capability.
• Include repetition of phrases and words so that students can become
familiar with them. Use verb phrases like ‘I am . . .’, ‘I have . . .’, ‘I’m
going to . . .’ and ‘I will . . .’ so that students can insert different new
words to change the meaning. (This is how foreign languages are
taught).
• Use relevant, meaningful and interesting contexts that include the
students themselves and/or people they know, whenever possible;
‘situate’ the learning in student’s realities.
• Learn some of the students’ home language words so that sound-letter
(phonic) knowledge can be scaffolded from students’ home language
(especially if they come from an oral tradition). Aboriginal English
(AE) words can also be used for this purpose. This will also show
students that you value their home language.
• Use the same teaching texts repetitively (including big books and
DVDs) so that students can learn new words, repeat phrases with

confidence, know what to expect and ‘read’ body language, illustra-

tions and behaviours that may go with the new language.
• Use repetition in your daily programs and routines so that students
know what to expect in the school environment each day. Knowing
what to expect will help them feel safe and secure both in school
and in their relationships with you.
• Have students speak and repeat SAE words, rhymes and other text
forms collectively—this increases group solidarity and avoids shame
caused by singling students out in front of you, teacher aides and
their peers. It also builds confidence in the accent as legitimate.
Questioning individual Indigenous students can be problematic in
classrooms. If they are singled out in front of peers and likely to be
‘shamed’ in front of them for not knowing the answer they might even
become violent towards their teacher in order to avoid that shame.
Asking questions and getting the timing right

Asking questions is an important part of teaching and learning. Teachers
use questions as a form of assessing what their students already know
about a topic or skill and hence to inform the direction and nature of the
instruction. It is part of assessing for learning, which will be described
in the next chapter. Asking questions can also be part of a pedagogical
strategy when it is used to scaffold or provide a basis for new learning.
Some researchers (Gilliland, 1995; Rhodes, 1994) suggest that teachers
of Indigenous students use a longer ‘wait time’ (that is, they wait for
longer periods of time than for non-Indigenous students) when asking
questions of Indigenous students, since studies have shown that many
Indigenous students are taught to wait until they feel confident enough
to respond. Perso (2003) suggests that explicit statements of time, such
as ‘10 minutes to go’, may seem foreign to students who are taught to
engage at their own pace.
Most Western children learn by asking questions about what they
see and what they hear. In contrast, Indigenous students, as previously
explained, are more likely to learn by watching until they are ready to
‘have a go’.
Indigenous students might find questions that begin with ‘Where . . .’,
‘How . . .’, ‘When . . .’, ‘Does . . .’ or ‘Is . . .’ very confronting and hence

might instead form questions as statements followed by the tag ‘eh’. For
example, they might say (in AE) ‘E’s fat, eh’ compared with a question,
‘Do you think he’s fat?’
If a teacher asks a student, ‘You play basketball on the weekend,
right?’ the student may answer ‘Yes’ even if they don’t. In saying this,
the student may not mean, ‘I agree with you’, but instead, ‘Yes, see how
I am being obliging, friendly and cooperative?’ This is not a lie, but
might rather be a cultural protocol.
Teaching styles
All people have preferred learning styles, as indicated previously.
Teachers, too, have preferred teaching styles but, in order to ensure that
the full range of learning styles are addressed to maximise students
learning, teachers have to ensure they use many teaching styles.
We can learn a lot by examining the natural, intuitive teaching
styles and pedagogical strategies used by Indigenous teachers who are
teaching classes of Indigenous students. These, of course, connect closely
to child-rearing practices used in the culture.
Table 5.4 demonstrates the patterns of pedagogy observed by
American Indian and non-American Indian teachers.
Many of these patterns reflect discussions presented in this and
earlier chapters.
Which of the patterns shown in Table 5.4 sits best with you? PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
If the above classification were a continuum with the two classifications for sharing
at either end, where would you place yourself?
Is this the same for all your teaching or does it change, and if so, on
what basis?
Analysing these observations can cause us to reflect on our own

teaching styles and how ‘foreign’ they might seem for Indigenous
students in our classes. The American Indian teachers seem to be less
direct and less confronting than the non-American Indian teachers. They
also seem to place less emphasis on the speed of curriculum delivery.
They provide more time for the students to reflect on their learning.

TABLE 5.4 Patterns observed in American Indian and non-American Indian

teacher pedagogy
American Indian teachers Non-American Indian teachers
Slow pace Fast pace
Economy of words Many words used
Asks questions directed to all Calls on students directly
Wait time for responses ≈ 3 minutes Wait time for responses ≈ 0.5 seconds
Moves on if answers are correct Tells students if answers are right or wrong
Responds to students’ nonverbal requests for Responds to students’ verbal requests for
assistance assistance
Uses few directives Uses many directives
Does not use names with directives Uses names of individuals with directives
Works quietly; more private time with Works ‘publicly’; not as much private time with
individuals individuals
Commands are indirect Commands are direct
Shared control of social interactions Teacher controls social interactions
Source: Erikson & Mohatt (1982) in Klug & Whitfield (2003)
Western teachers seem to be constantly under pressure to ‘get through

the course’, often at the expense of student learning. This reflects the
Western value that ‘time is money’, which may become part of the
classroom experience and even the pedagogy used as reflected in terms
used by teachers such as ‘5 minutes to go’ (Perso, 2003, p. 98).
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What is your preferred teaching style?

for sharing Are there students in your class who prefer this style? How do you know?
Is it hard for you to use other styles and, if so, why?
Learning and engagement through ICTs

ICTs are a powerful tool to engage and enhance learning for all students,
but especially Indigenous students. These digital tools (including iPads,
iPods, computers and even mobile phones) have shown to be powerful
pedagogical supports for Indigenous people (Boyle & Wallace, 2011;
Reedy, 2011; Wallace, 2009).

ICTs support learning for Indigenous students in many ways. First,

they promote engagement by supporting visual learning strategies, which
many Indigenous students prefer. Second, they enable
cooperation and collaboration, which again support ICTs pedagogies provided
ways for Indigenous students
Indigenous ways of learning. And, third, they can be to manage and record their
used independently and thus enable privacy which knowledge and skills in
helps students avoid ‘shame’. accordance with the relevant
Indigenous and personal
Older students, in particular, can use ICTs to track governance structures
and keep a record of their own progress, helping them while also meeting formal
to manage and take an active role in their learning and education standards.
BOYLE & WALLACE (2008)
assessment. They can customise their learning content,
embellishing it with metaphors, stories and pictures to
Digital technologies are ‘partners
create their own learning stories. in cognition’ and help scaffold
All students can use ICTs to: and stimulate thinking and
knowledge creation across a
• quickly share their learning with each other range of school-based contexts.
• experiment privately PEA (1987)
• customise content with their own local flavor

• develop confidence in accessing, using, innovating and creating
• share their skills and learning broadly, and
• share the expertise of all learners, including their teachers.
In addition, ICTs support student development of self- [D]igital technologies provide
regulation, literacy skills and problem-solving. powerful platforms to engage
Teachers need to ensure that they use ICTs in ways students particularly those
who find traditional classroom
that build these skills, deliberately seeking opportunities learning difficult, disempowering,
in their curriculum planning delivery to embed ICTs alienating and disengaging.
in the learning experiences. They must give students ELLIOT & SHADDOCK (2008)
opportunities to:
• work collaboratively and cooperatively
• have students demonstrate their learning through creating PowerPoint
slides and visual metaphors
• safeguard student privacy by having them send their work to the
teacher
• begin the lessons with problems that need to be solved, and
• use digital brainstorming software so that students can build their
own explosion charts and then find the answers online.

Effective planning and presentation

In designing a learning program or unit of work, it is necessary to
attempt to pay attention to all the styles and pedagogies described and
promoted above. This can be challenging but successful, and it will
give all students in the class, not just the Indigenous students, access
to deep learning. You will learn, as a teacher, from your students, and
your non-Indigenous students will have a greater appreciation of the
richness of Indigenous cultures and of the Indigenous students in the
class. Here are some possible steps.
• Explain or describe the topic and the intended learning; make it
clear that you expect that all students will learn the topic and that
you will work with them to help them. Describe to them how they
might share their learning with family and community.
• Tell personal stories that you have about the topic, and say what
it means to you. You may even try to draw a visual image of its
meaning for you and how you imagine it.
• Have individual students tell their own stories and understandings
about the topic; give them time to share in pairs or small groups before
asking them to share with the wider group (be careful of singling
them out if they are resistant to that—they may feel more comfortable
presenting in pairs or simply drawing rather than verbalising).
• Focus on separating the cultural knowledges that may be included
in the topic (include Western, Indigenous, Asian and other cultures
represented by students) and have them attempt to identify these
cultural knowledges, and share these with each other and the
whole class.
• Talk about how this new learning will be meaningful and relevant
for them and for the community. Ask students how it connects to
their own lives and personal realities and futures.
• Show students what they will know and be able to do and understand
as a result of learning the topic. Make sure they know you expect
them to and that you believe they can. Provide a list of the new
vocabulary they will learn, including new concepts. If they are
expected to produce an artefact or model, show them one you have
made or a previous group has made. You may wish to use a learning
metaphor, which the students might develop with you at this stage,

to show the ways of working and the milestones that you will reach
and achieve along the way.
• Explicitly teach the knowledge and concepts needed as you go; allow
students to talk to each other about this new knowledge and to try
to make sense of it through their discussions. The discussions will
provide support for each other in knowing that they are all struggling
to some extent with making sense of the new knowledge. This will
help them to think deeply and connect the learning with what they
already know and can make sense of.
• Develop a model (use all the senses, moving from concrete to abstract)
with students and ‘talk out aloud’ to show your thinking and meta-
cognition; this will also support students to know that learning this
isn’t easy, it needs to be grappled with in your head and it isn’t innate.
Watch closely the student’s body language and provide support and
scaffolding when you judge it is needed (without drawing attention
to individuals). Have students identify and talk about any problems.
• Deconstruct the model and support students to help you put it back
together again. Allow them to choose their own sequence of doing
this and discuss why or why not different steps may occur (or not
occur) next.
• Ask students to develop their own models or artefacts to show what
they have learned. Make sure they know to include any challenges and
problems they faced and describe how their learning can be applied.
• Brainstorm how they might show and demonstrate their learning;
agree on two or three ways, such as through PowerPoint, scrapbook
or (filmed) drama. Ensure that they know this will be public, to be
shared with family, community and peers. If you want this to be
independent then they need to know this earlier, or you may choose
to allow them to work in pairs and small groups, depending on the
topic and level of social support they might need.
Activity: ‘The universe’

Plan a unit of work to teach the topic of ‘the universe’ to a class of
Year 5 students.

Using the structure outlined in the ‘Effective planning and

presentation’ section, break the unit down into lessons. Be sure to
include details of:
• the intended learning expectations

• the explicit teaching needs (for example, literacy and numeracy
demands, especially vocabulary)
• how you might include members of the Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander community and Elders
• how you might find out Indigenous perspectives on the topic
• how you will assess the learning, and
• what you are expecting to learn.
The most successful teachers

Gribble (2002) describes the ‘most successful teachers’ she
encountered in schools in the Kimberley region of Western Australia:
The most successful teachers in schools were those who believed

that being a teacher was central to their sense of self and was their
path in life. These teachers were exemplary in their preparation and
planning for teaching spending considerable time, even extensive
amounts of personal time, to plan and prepare for their teaching.
Teachers who were successful in their classrooms engendered a
positive classroom climate in their classrooms even though they
required extra time to manage and monitor those students who
had difficulty in completing their work, working independently, and
meeting classroom rules. Very high expectations were set for students
in meeting classroom rules, attendance, punctuality, cleanliness and
tidiness, and completing homework set. Lesson content taught in
classrooms was interesting, encouraged students to learn and use
‘white’ thinking skills, was based on students’ background knowledge
and cultural experiences, and was integrated and thematic across or
within subjects. The teaching of language was used to particularly

focus much of the students’ learning. When teachers relied on

Aboriginal students’ well-developed sense of autonomy, used a
discipline style that did not bring shame upon students, and allowed
students to exhibit their individualism and flamboyant sense of
personal style, then classrooms were harmonious places for learning.
Not only did teachers have to support students’ self-identity, they
needed to develop students’ self-efficacy about success at school.
When teachers focused on student-centred learning and they
constantly modelled and repeatedly demonstrated and consolidated,
over long periods of time, what needed to be learned, especially in a
range of language skills and competencies, the greater the progress
students made in their learning.
Teachers had to balance teaching and learning strategies
between students sitting, watching, listening, and copying with
making an effort, asking questions, and doing things even though
mistakes might be made. This indeed demanded that successful
teachers in the Kimberley schools were extraordinary adults.’ She
continued ‘One aspect was clear in the classrooms. Teachers could
not revert to survival teaching strategies using ‘busy work’ activities.
Students would simply not turn up to schools, even though videos
and computers as gap-fillers had some appeal for some of the time.
In the end, if school was not interesting students found more exciting
things to do at home or away from school. (p. 290)
Conclusion
You may well have questions about what you have read in this chapter,
and so we have included some frequently asked questions here, based
on the authors’ experience.
Can all these strategies be used anywhere in Australia—in urban,

rural and remote locations?
Yes, remember that there is overlap between Indigenous and non-
Indigenous learning styles so using these strategies will be inclusive
of all students no matter their location.

What difference does it make if there is only one Indigenous

student in your class, or five or 25?
The strategies and pedagogies described in this chapter are not only
evidence-based teaching strategies but are inclusive of all students. In
Australia today, there are very few classrooms that are not multicultural,
so all students will feel more included when you use these teaching
strategies.
Can all learning outcomes be broken down like the ones

described here?
Yes, because the learning expectations in the Australian Curriculum
describe big ideas and concepts; they are comprised of deep under-
standings, which may depend on small pieces of content knowledge.
What if your students don’t know anything about a concept you

want to teach?
It will help if you find something that is relevant or related from their
lives or community to connect it to by talking to community members
or families. Alternatively, ask the students themselves once you have
explained and described it to them.

This chapter has been fundamentally about pedagogy; that is, enacting
the intended learning in ways that maximise the achievement of every
student and that support students in reaching their full potential. The
Standard that this most strongly connects with is Standard 3: Plan for
and implement effective teaching and learning. However, effective teaching
and learning connects with other standards as well, because, when you
are planning, you must consider who the students are and how they
learn; what you want them to learn; and how best to teach it so that
they will learn what you intended. It’s about finding the best ways to
engage all students to ensure their full participation, which includes
parts of standards 1, 2 and 4, as shown in Table 5.5.
Specific considerations in cultural responsiveness for Standard 3 as
outlined in this chapter are shown in Table 5.6.

National Professional Standards addressed in Chapter 5 TABLE 5.5

1.2 Understand how Structure teaching programs using research and collegial
students learn advice about how students learn
1.3 Students with diverse Design and implement teaching strategies that are responsive
linguistic, cultural, to the learning strengths and needs of students from diverse
religious and socio- linguistic, cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds
economic backgrounds
1.4 Strategies for teaching Design and implement effective teaching strategies that
Aboriginal and Torres are responsive to the local community and cultural setting,
Strait Islander students linguistic background and histories of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander students
1.5 Differentiate teaching Develop teaching activities that incorporate differentiated
to meet the specific strategies to meet the specific learning needs of students
learning needs of across the full range of abilities
students across the full
range of abilities
2.1 Content and teaching Apply knowledge of the content and teaching strategies to the
strategies of the teaching area to develop engaging teaching activities
teaching area
2.2 Content, selection and Organise content into coherent, well-sequenced learning and
organisation teaching programs
2.3 Curriculum, assessment Design and implement learning and teaching programs
and reporting using knowledge of curriculum, assessment and reporting
requirements
2.6 Information and Use effective teaching strategies to integrate ICT into learning
Communication and teaching programs to make selected content relevant and
Technology (ICT) meaningful
3.1 Establish challenging Set explicit, challenging and achievable learning goals for all
learning goals students
3.2 Plan, structure and Plan and implement well-structured learning and teaching
sequence learning programs or lesson sequences that engage students and
programs promote learning
3.3 Use teaching strategies Select and use relevant teaching strategies to develop know-
ledge, skills, problem solving and critical thinking
3.4 Select and use Select and/or create and use a range of resources, including
resources ICT, to engage students in their learning
4.1 Support student Establish and implement inclusive and positive interactions to
participation engage and support all students in classroom activities
7.3 Engage with the Establish and maintain respectful collaborative relationships
parents/carers with parents/carers regarding their children’s learning and
wellbeing

TABLE 5.6 Culturally Responsive Behaviours, Standard 3

effective • Planning and designing teaching sequences by ‘breaking down the content
teaching and ‘and ‘building it back up’ in achievable steps through realistic scaffolding
learning • Knowing and understanding the communication styles of students and using
• Using feedback from students and parents, and student achievement data
(generated by quality assessment) to inform planning
Source: Person (2012)
Some of the cultural responses presented are clearly integrated

with all components of teaching and learning. Proficient teachers don’t
separate teaching, learning and assessment since they overlap and
influence each other. The use of quality assessment and the data that
it generates to inform planning cannot be underestimated. This will be
described in detail in the next chapter.

Assessment, feedback and
reporting
CHAPTER 6
Assessment is an ongoing process of gathering evidence to determine
what students know, understand and can do. It is used by all teachers
and educators for a number of reasons, primarily to inform:
• teachers about what students already know and therefore
The remarkable feature of
the evidence is that the give them ‘starting points’ for their planning
biggest effects on student • teachers about what and whether their students are
learning occur when teachers
learning what is being taught
become learners of their own
teaching, and when students • students about what they are learning, and
become their own teachers. • teachers about whether the strategies they are using in
HATTIE (2009)
their teaching are effective.
Many teachers are often not so eager to consider the fourth
In reality, we must help all
of these reasons, often believing that if students are not
students meet common
standards for excellence while learning then the fault lies with the student. However, as
recognizing that their paths to indicated in the previous chapter, we know from research
success may vary significantly,
that much of the reason for students not learning lies
especially for those students
whose language or culture with the teacher (Hattie, 2003, 2009). Examination of data
is different from our own. produced through assessment can tell us a lot about what
KUSIMO ET AL. (2000)
we might do differently to improve student results. In this
way quality assessment can raise learning standards in
classrooms (Black & Wiliam, 1998).
Essentially, an assessment task might be used to inform a teacher’s
planning and self-reflection, in order to promote student learning. If it
is used for these purposes it is called assessment for learning, or formative
166

ASSESSMENT, FEEDBACK AND REPORTING 167
assessment. If an assessment task is used to generate a score or result

only and does not result in any examination or scrutiny of what students
did or did not do in their responses, it is called assessment of learning,
or summative assessment.
In addition, assessment might be either formal or
Is there evidence that improving
informal. Formal assessments are generally under- formative assessment raises
taken by all students in the class and often in written standards? The answer
format; they generate quantitative information which is was an unequivocal yes, a
conclusion based on a review
frequently used to inform grades. Informal assessment of evidence published in over
is often spontaneous rather than planned. It provides 250 articles by researchers
teachers with qualitative information (that is, there is a from several countries.
BLACK ET AL. (2004)
quality dimension to it), which may or may not be used
to inform grades. Informal assessment occurs when a
teacher asks an individual student a question in class, for example, or
notes a question that a student asks the teacher and makes a judgement
about what the student knows or doesn’t know on that basis. You should
be careful of making these types of judgements, due to possible cultural
differences regarding questioning or forthright behaviours, for example,
as described in earlier chapters.
Characteristics of quality assessment

Teachers and schools place a lot of weight on the results
If we as teachers are to be
students generate on assessment tasks. It is therefore effective across the broad range
essential to ensure that the tasks used are of good of students we encounter, we
must know how to accurately and
quality. Quality tasks have the following characteristics.
effectively assess the learning
that goes on in our classrooms.
Quality assessment tasks are valid KUSIMO ET AL. (2000)
Good assessment tasks assess what they claim to assess;

they are valid. Validity will depend on whether the
teacher makes a deliberate attempt to ensure that their When they approach that task
tasks assess the intended learning from the formal with some understanding of a
curriculum documents. If teachers do not fully under- student’s culture—when they
have developed a degree of
stand the intended learning described in the documents, cultural competence—they
it is possible that their assessment tasks assess what are more likely to get more
they taught, instead of what the students were required informative results.
KUSIMO ET AL. (2000)
to learn. To avoid this, you should ask other teachers

or school leaders to help you understand the intended curriculum. For

example, if the intended curriculum requires that students ‘understand
addition’, then assessing this by giving students a quantity of ‘add-ups’
to complete will not give information about whether or not the student
‘understands addition’. Students who get all the add-ups correct can do
so without necessarily understanding addition. Hence, such a task is
not valid if it claims to assess whether students ‘understand addition’.
A valid task might give students a number sentence, such as ‘3 + 15 =
18; write or draw a situation that this might represent’. This task has
greater validity in assessing if a student ‘understands addition’.
For English as Additional Language or Dialect (EALD) learners,
the characteristic of validity is critical. Some tasks cannot be ‘accessed’
due to language challenges; they often predominantly
The starting point for all
effective instruction is
assess students’ reading or listening skills rather than
designing and communicating the learning that they claim to assess.
clear learning goals. Some ways to maximise content validity of assess-
MARZANO (2009)
ment for EALD learners include:
• explicitly teaching the language of subject areas
• considering social and cultural contexts of your students when
planning and writing assessment tasks, making sure you don’t include
contexts that hold little or no familiarity for the students who have,
for example, little knowledge about mainstream homes and pets
• explicitly teaching essential background cultural knowledge assumed
in assessment tasks (for example, in assessing the concept of ‘peri-
meter’ with a question about a fence, make sure students have been
taught what a fence is and the language associated with ‘fencing’)
• pre-teaching vocabulary and concepts used in assessment tasks,
especially instructional, abstract or formal language not necessarily
used in classroom talk. For example, in a mathematics problem about
building a fence, consider the possibility of ambiguity in vocabulary:
‘fence post’ (not referring to ‘mail’ in this case); in mathematics
questions there are many examples of key technical vocabulary,
such as ‘product’, ‘match’ and ‘how many are left’, which can be
easily misunderstood if students are not aware of the meaning of

these terms in the context of the discipline in which they are used;
being consistent in the use of vocabulary (e.g. in History using the
term ‘national’ in one learning activity, and the term ‘Federal’ in an
assessment task)
• explicitly teaching the ‘genre’ of tasks to make the requirements clear;
EALD learners may not be able to distinguish what is background
information and what are key instructional words, such as ‘compare’
and ‘contrast’
• working with colleagues to have them check for unhelpful layout,
‘hidden’ language, or cultural barriers and other assumed knowledge,
and
• re-evaluating assessment tasks after using them and adjusting and
refining where necessary for future use.
Note that these considerations are essential for all students, not just
EALD learners. Validity of assessment tasks is paramount if you want
to ensure they provide rigorous information about student learning
and achievement.
Clear understanding of intended learning
A major component of assessment validity however, is that it lines up
with the intended learning. If teachers deeply understand the intended
learning from their curriculum documents, then someone else—another
teacher who doesn’t know the class—should be able to write their assess-
ment task based on those documents. In other words, the assessment
tasks shouldn’t depend on the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the pedagogy used.
An effective means of ensuring this alignment is for teachers to
develop their assessment tasks as soon as they are sure that they under-
stand the intended learning—don’t wait until you have embarked on or
completed teaching the unit of work. The task can then be your daily
planning ‘reference point’; the focus question for teachers becomes ‘What
and how will I need to teach so that all my students can do this task
without my help?’ This design method is very powerful and supports
teachers to deeply understand the learning they want for their students.
This design method is shown in Figure 6.1.

FIGURE 6.1 Process to ensure assessment of intended learning
Design an Design pedagogy

Read and
assessment task that will ensure
understand the
that will assess students can do it
intended learning
the learning independently
Quality assessment tasks are explicit

Students should know what they are expected to learn from the outset.
You should inform students about what they will be assessed on at the
start of a unit of work. This can be done when planning a ‘learning
journey’, perhaps even using a metaphor as described in the previous
chapter. Students should also know about the achievement qualities they
need to demonstrate in order to obtain A–E grades. They should be given
rubrics to describe these learning qualities; these will be explained in
greater detail later in this chapter. There should be no surprises.
Quality assessment tasks are comprehensive

An assessment program designed to cover a reporting period (for
example, six months) should be based on multiple kinds of evidence. Just
as students have preferred learning styles, so they have preferred ways of
demonstrating their learning. They should all be given an opportunity
to demonstrate some of their learning through preferred means. A six-
month portfolio might include a test, a take-home assignment, a group
task, a PowerPoint presentation, a verbal presentation and a writing task.
For EALD students teachers might also consider assessing students’
clarification skills; the teacher sits and listens and takes notes on what
students say. Students might also be asked to ‘mark’ each other’s work
and provide comments in Standard Australian English (SAE), or to write
‘draft’ responses to ensure the focus is not always on format and layout.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What is your preferred way of demonstrating your learning? Can you
for sharing list your preferences in order? Which do you dislike the most, and why?
How were you ‘assessed’ or ‘judged’ at home as you were growing up?
In what ways do you think this impacted on your preferences and on the
way you teach and assess student learning?

Quality assessment tasks provide students with the opportunity

to demonstrate the extent and depth of their learning
Assessment tasks should enable all students, including those from
different cultural and language backgrounds, to demonstrate their
full learning. This includes opportunities to demonstrate higher-order
thinking, depth of understanding and an ability to apply their knowledge
and skills in a range of contexts.
Assessment tasks for EALD learners should be designed in ways that
specifically support them to demonstrate their learning. These might
include tasks that enable visual, kinaesthetic demonstrations rather
than verbal responses where students might be placed in situations
resulting in ‘shame’, and tasks that allow students to rehearse and
work in a group.
Tasks should be designed to relate to familiar contexts, and not be
culturally over-loaded with Anglo-Australian terms and phrases.
Have you ever been assessed with a task that you thought was unfair or PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
that didn’t allow you to show all that you had learned? for sharing
If so, how could that assessment have been designed to better allow you
to show all you had learned?
How might the teacher address this in broader contexts?
Quality assessment tasks are fair and equitable, and include

special support when required
Assessment should be fair both in task content and in access to all
students. It should not discriminate on the basis of race, language,
culture, gender or socioeconomic status. This means that contexts in
which tasks and questions are stated should not privilege one group over
another. This is difficult to do in each task. However, over a reporting
period the risks can be minimised by using a range of contexts familiar
to most students. For example, asking a question situated in an AFL
context can be balanced with another question in another task situated
in a rugby or soccer context.
Because EALD learners are learning about SAE, through SAE, and
in SAE, school-based assessment processes should reflect the same
level of support and scaffolding afforded them as they engage with

any learning. The intention of assessment is to allow all students to

show what they know and can do. It is very important that teachers
are assessing the required knowledge and not the EALD language
demands of the assessment task itself. When assessment becomes an
unintentional language test, meaningful data about what the student
has learned is lost.
For assessment practices to be equitable, special support may be
needed to provide EALD learners with the opportunity to demonstrate
the extent and depth of their learning. These supports or considerations
should enable students to have the opportunity to achieve success and
produce the best work of which they are capable. Special considerations
might include provision of:
• additional time to complete assignments
• additional time to read and formulate responses to test questions
• assessment instructions that have been adapted in all listening/
viewing assessment activities, including repetition of instructions,
opportunity to preview listening/viewing question forms, multiple
opportunities to hear/view the text
• bilingual dictionaries (if they are available) for use during an assess-
ment task
• special vocabulary lists
• reader and scribe using bilingual teachers/aides/volunteers
• a separate room in which the student can work, or
• laptop computers.
Implementation of these arrangements requires a whole-school assessment
policy for the identification of eligibility, registration, documentation,
staff/student/parent/caregiver awareness and recording of assistance
received. Check with your school leaders to see if any policies are in place.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS Do you think that providing special considerations for some students is
for sharing fair or unfair? Why or why not?
What alternatives can you think of to ensure that all students can show
what they have learned?

Cultural validity
Cultural validity in assessment is a special type of validity that encom-
passes all characteristics of quality assessment. As well as being about
validity it is also about fairness and explicitness. In particular, since a
task is valid if it assesses what it claims to assess, then what it claims to
assess must be the same for each individual no matter what his or her
cultural background or worldview. Cultural validity therefore is about
ensuring that assessment has the same meaning for each individual
attempting it. Solano-Flores and Nelson-Barber (2001) describe it thus:
Because culture and society shape mental functioning, individuals have
predisposed notions of how to respond to questions, solve problems and
so forth. It follows that these predispositions influence the ways in which
students interpret material presented in tests and the ways in which they
respond to these items. (p. 554)
We have seen in Chapter 1 that culture influences our behaviours,

beliefs, values and socialisation patterns and how we make sense of the
experiences we have. Lack of awareness of these cultural differences can
affect understanding between cultural groups. It follows that this lack
of awareness may affect the judgements we make about the academic
performance of students from different cultural backgrounds. This
is particularly so when a dominant culture develops an assessment
task (usually a test) to be undertaken by students from minority
cultural groups.
Children from Indigenous cultures, which have historically made
decisions collaboratively and worked collectively rather than individually,
may find assessment and/or application of learned knowledge and skills
that is individualised (that is, assessment required to be completed or
undertaken by individuals) difficult and perhaps even frightening.
Similarly, in some cultures, showing how much one knows individually
is considered inappropriate.
In Australian schools it is essential that this type of validity
is considered in assessment, particularly as schools become more
multicultural. In addition, with education systems using international
assessments, such as the Program for International Student Assessment

(PISA) and the Third International Mathematics and Science Study

(TIMSS), as the basis for policy decisions and school funding, cultural
validity is increasingly relevant.
For students from oral traditions, the wording, diagrams, layout
and contextual information in a written test or text used for assessment
purposes may be culturally biased by reflecting the thinking and
experiences of the dominant cultural group. This may have the effect
of privileging students from this dominant cultural group over those
from minority groups (Jorgensen & Perso, 2012).
Cultural validity in assessment makes assessment valid by attempting
to take into account socio-cultural influences throughout the design
and implementation of assessment. It addresses the fact that culture
influences the way individuals interpret and respond to assessment items.
For Indigenous people, cultural validity in assessment might include
selecting assessment styles that relate to Indigenous contexts. These
‘contexts’ might be environmental, cultural, social and behavioural.
For example it could include:
• group projects (which include group outputs as well as requiring
statements about what each member did)
• self-assessments which inform the learner but not the teacher unless
students wish to share, or
• oral assessments read by the teacher (who would also paraphrase for
the benefit of non-English language speakers, and sometimes even
allow students to draw a diagram rather than write).
Many Indigenous cultures are collectivist and oriented towards group
success. In contrast, Western cultures, such as Australian mainstream
culture, are individualistic cultures and oriented towards individualistic
success (Trumbull et al., 2001). The main features of individualism and
collectivism are shown in Table 6.1.
As with other similar tables, Table 6.1 presents the two categories
as dichotomous, although they are in fact at either end of a linear
continuum with most people being somewhere in between.
Western perspectives elevate and celebrate individual strivings and
achievements above those of the group (Ladson-Billings, 1994) and this
is generally reflected in school culture. Some students might struggle
with these different expectations; at home they are expected to put the

Individualism versus collectivism TABLE 6.1
Features of individualism Features of collectivism

Fostering independence and individual Fostering interdependence and group success
achievement
Emphasising an understanding of the physical Emphasising an understanding of the physical
world through direct exposure to objects—often world as it enhances human relationships
out of context
Promoting self-expression, individual thinking, Promoting adherence to norms, respect for
personal choice authority/Elders, group consensus
Associated with private property Associated with shared property
Associated with egalitarian relationships and Associated with stable, hierarchical roles
flexibility in roles (e.g. upward mobility) (dependent on gender, family background, age)
Source: Trumbull et al. (2001)
group first and not themselves whereas at school they are expected
to strive for individual development and achievement. Teachers can
help their students to ‘code-switch’ using a ‘home-way/school-way’
approach, particularly for assessment. However, this might not always
be successful since students who struggle might not be willing to work
individually.
In addition, much assessment in classrooms is informal, conducted
through teachers making general observations and asking questions.
The teacher will ask a student a question, the student responds, and the
teacher will often evaluate the student’s response. Indigenous students
often will not answer questions posed directly to them; they prefer to
remain silent due to risks of shame from other students. Because teachers
use questions to make judgements about what students know or don’t
know, this assessment method can be unfair as well as lacking validity.
Orientation differences such as these have implications for assessment
design and implementation. For example, requiring individuals to
demonstrate their learning publicly might cause embarrassment and
‘shame’ for Indigenous students. Students having to promote themselves
above the group might also be ‘shamed’ and placed at risk of bullying
from their peers. ‘Individual performance is generally valued only to
the degree it contributes to the group’s wellbeing, whether that group
is the family, the community, or their fellow students’ (Trumbull et al.,
2001, p. 22). This may depend on how (publicly) competitive they might

want to be academically. A culturally responsive teacher would do well

to avoid creating this situation in order to protect cultural relationships.
For students from cultures with collective orientations, individual
demonstrations of learning might not always be appropriate. The ability
to work together is a major strength that these students bring to schooling.
This is often being ignored or de-valued by the assessment regime used
in the class and in the school. As part of a comprehensive assessment
strategy you should ensure a balance between both approaches, giving
students the opportunity to demonstrate their learning collectively and
individually so that they use their preferred styles to show what they
know and can do. Both styles should challenge them to go beyond their
comfort zone and academically ‘stretch’ them.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What is your personal relative orientation: towards individualism or

for sharing collectivism?
How might this be a result of the way in which you were raised?
Are you aware that this will influence your expectations about students,
from their behaviours to their learning? What can you do to ensure
your personal preference/bias does not disadvantage students in the
assessment process?
While it is difficult for writers of large-scale standardised tests across

Australia or states and territories to develop tests that are culturally
valid for all cultures, teachers who develop tests and assessment tasks
for their own students should consider, attend to and incorporate, as
best as they can:
• Students’ cultures and values: Try to ensure in particular that Western
values are not given precedence over those of your students. Question
contexts should not give a subtle message that that they are ‘right’
merely because they are the dominant contexts used. Contexts such
as meal times, breakfast foods and designer clothes and shoes can
all give subtle messages about ‘the way things are done’. You should
try and get a balance in contexts that reflect the cultural make-up of
your students. Remember, contexts can become a blockage to students
accessing the real purpose of the question. For example, a fraction

question set in the context of a ‘garden centre’ and components of

‘potting mix’ privileges students from homes where students know
what garden centres are, and what ‘potting mix’ is. Students may not
be able to show you their fractional understandings if they can’t get
past the words of the context, which may block access to the question.
• Students’ worldviews and perspectives: Indigenous students may be
offended if Western perspectives underpin some tasks and questions.
As a result they may choose not to engage; provide short, sharp answers;
or even write or include something offensive in return. For example,
a question or task about the arrival of early settlers in Australia that
positions these people as being first Australians may be offensive for
Indigenous students and may elicit one of these responses rather than
finding out what students know about such historical events.
• Students’ language background and proficiency: Be careful to ensure
that all language words and terms included in assessment tasks have
been either taught explicitly or replace them with more generic
terms. For example, technical terms that are subject specific (such
as the use of the word ‘find’ in Algebra or ‘bigger’ in arithmetic)
are problematic if the specific meanings of them are not taught in
these contexts. A student who hasn’t been taught what ‘find’ means
in Algebra and thus who draws an arrow pointing to the variable
should not be marked incorrect since the question is actually assessing
whether the student knows the meaning of the algebraic term.
• Students’ communication and socialisation styles: Teachers need to be
aware of these differences between cultures and even the diversity
that exists within cultural groups. Asking questions that demand
long explanations from students who have been taught that short
responses are more respectful than answers which promote individual
importance will certainly not allow some students to demonstrate
the full extent of their learning.
• Students’ lived realities: Questions and tasks should be situated
in students’ lived realities as much as possible. This will serve to
engage students with the tasks. The ‘garden centre’ example above
demonstrates this. Similarly, setting a task about data in a rugby
or soccer context for students who are familiar only with the AFL
football code will neither engage them nor allow them to demonstrate
their statistical knowledge and skills.

Each of these considerations has been further addressed throughout

this volume in a general sense; teachers need to explore them in greater,
more specific detail for particular schools and postings where they
will be (or are currently are) teaching. This practice will enhance and
support your teaching but will also strengthen your relationships with
the community through you demonstrating to them that you value and
are interested in their cultural practices and beliefs.
These considerations will maximise student access to and participa-
tion in assessment tasks and hence provide students with opportunities
to demonstrate the extent and depth of their knowledge.
Types of assessment task

The types of assessment task used by teachers can vary widely between
subject areas. Generally the most common assessment types are tests
and performance tasks.
Tests
Tests are generally tasks that include the element of completing them in
a given timeframe. The test might be in a number of formats including
short answer, report, multi-choice, homework exercise, assignment or
investigation.
Tests are good for assessing student recall of knowledge. However,
it is often difficult to assess higher-order skills in situations where
students do not have sufficient time to reflect, draft and refine their
product. Tests can place a high language demand on EALD learners
or students with poor language control. High-stakes tests have been
criticised for this reason.
Performance tasks
Tasks that are not ‘racing against the clock’ are frequently called perform-
ance tasks and can include projects, debates and skill demonstrations.
Be careful about certain types of performance tasks that require public
performance; some Indigenous students might find this ‘shameful’ and
might refuse to take part or take part reluctantly, in which case you
might be unlikely to find out the full extent of their learning.

Students need to understand the structure, format and language

requirements of tests and performance tasks. Most written performance
tasks require students to understand written genres as part of the
assessment. The most commonly used genres vary from subject to
subject as shown in Table 6.2.
Most commonly used genres in different subject areas TABLE 6.2
Subject area Most commonly used genres

Health and Phys. Ed Explanation, persuasion, report, procedure, recount
The Arts Recount (procedural), explanation, instruction, personal response, review
Mathematics Description, explanation, procedure, inquiry, instruction
Society & Environment Report, recount (factual, biographical, historical), argument, persuasion
Science Explanation (causal, theoretical, sequential), report, procedure, argument
LOTE Narrative, recount, explanation, procedure, argument
Technology & Design Recount (procedural), explanation, instruction, personal response
Indigenous Languages Narrative, recount, explanation, procedure, argument, personal response
& Culture
English Narrative, personal recount, description, explanation, personal and critical
response
These types of text have structural and grammatical characteristics

that differ from each other, as shown in Table 6.3. It is important that
students learn about these differences as part of their literacy learning
since literacy (speaking, listening, reading, writing) is generally about
making choices between each of these genres based on purpose and
audience.
Generally, these are the genres that are used in written assessment
tasks and each genre might look different in each subject area. It is
important that teachers explicitly teach younger students the types of
genres that they will be assessed in (for example, persuasive text) and
teach older students (middle years and above) the characteristics of the
genres of their subject areas. It is inappropriate, for example, for a teacher
to ask students to write a report in the subject Science as an assessment
task if they have not previously taught students what structure to use
and what language forms to use when writing a report in Science.

TABLE 6.3 Peculiarities of text types and genres in reading and writing
Text types Overall Other language
and genres Content structure Cohesion Tense demands
Narrative Describes Context/ Connectives Probably past Emotive vocab
people and orientation that show time to elicit certain
events Sequence of sequence e.g. response;
events ‘then’, ‘later’, variety of verbs
Complication/ ‘after’ and for action and
problem ‘finally’ feeling
resolution
Recount/ Describes Context/ Connectives Past tense verbs Writer is usually
Retell people and orientation that show time described as ‘I’;
events, mostly Sequence of sequence e.g. emotive vocab
based on events ‘then’, ‘later’, to elicit certain
personal Ending/ ‘after’ and response,
experience Conclusion ‘lastly’ variety of verbs
for action and
feeling
Description/ Aims to Title Mainly through Factual Subject specific/
Report inform and Introduction backward Description: technical
provide factual Body (headings/ referencing e.g. Present language;
information sub-headings) snakes . . . they Past non-emotive,
about one thing (Drawings/ . . . they (i.e. Future report has
(description) or diagrams) classification report: past generalisations
things (report) Conclusions and ordered
(Glossary) description)
Instruction/ Provides a Goal Connectives Present Subject-specific
Procedure process, step by Materials that show vocab.;
step required order e.g. use of ‘you’
Steps in order ‘first’, ‘second’,
‘last’/’finally’
Explanation Describes why Title – Present Use of ordinal/
things are like Definition about time language
they are the title topic e.g. ‘first’,
Explanation in ‘then’, ‘after’,
logical steps ‘as a result’,
‘whenever’
Argument/ Aims to Statement/ Connectives Past for Consistent
Persuasion/ persuade and position to aid in evidence, use of precise
Exposition convince Reasons/ presentations present for facts words,
arguments (>3) of ideas e.g. generalisations,
(counter ‘first’, ‘second’, technical terms,
arguments) ‘however’, obligatory
Restatement ‘therefore’ and words: needs
conclusion ‘on the other to, must, should
hand’

Text types Overall Other language

and genres Content structure Cohesion Tense demands
Inquiry Elicits Title – Varies Varies
information (instructions)
(e.g. interview, Question(s)
survey)
Social Provides Varies – Varies Varies
personal/public
information
(e.g. in an invit-
ation, letter or
announcement)
Source: based on Teaching and Learning at Batchelor Institute, Perso (2013)
Teachers similarly need to explicitly teach students how to tackle

different tests; more will be said on this later.
Self-assessment
Tasks such as practice tests that are not marked can be used to prepare
and support students—particularly EALD learners—to identify gaps
in their learning and skills that need to be honed in order to ‘race the
clock’. Students can also learn from marking each other’s work and
providing feedback.
Group tasks
Group tasks are a good way of assessing Indigenous students, especially
those who are from EALD backgrounds. Many teachers feel uncomfort-
able about the reliability of the results produced through group tasks;
they cannot be sure that all students did the work rather than one or
two, or that parents, families and friends did not help. This should not
stop teachers using these tasks as there are ways of determining whether
all group members participated and, more importantly, whether they
all learned from undertaking the task.
Real-life projects and problem-solving require collaboration and
discussion during which learning occurs. One way of validating group
work is to have students submit, as part of the task, their online discus-
sions if all students have digital communication tools. If they don’t, the
best way to validate is to ask each group member what he or she did

to contribute, learned and would do differently next time. Although

this might seem time consuming, teachers are generally very good at
determining which students should be validated. In other words, you
might only have to do this for one or two students in the class who you
suspect did not produce the work they presented to be assessed. If such
singling out is a problem, the class can be set a small test or question
on the day the group task is submitted; results will validate (support)
individual student performance on the group task.
Portfolios
For assessment to be comprehensive over a reporting period it is essential
that students have an individual portfolio that contains samples of their
work over that period of time. This might include all assessment tasks
completed over the time period as well as samples of work completed
during class time; that is, non-assessment tasks.
Portfolios can also be used to assess and/or develop student self-
management; students can make decisions themselves about which
pieces of work to include. These decisions need to be made against the
program of work given to them by the teacher at the start of the reporting
period; that is, the intended curriculum or the things they know they
have been expected to learn. Students might decide to include an index
or numbering system and they might make comments about what
they learned or need to improve on. In addition, they could regularly
go through their portfolio to decide whether some work duplicates
or ‘supersedes’ other work, refining and consolidating as they make
decisions about what their work demonstrates.
In this way, the portfolio becomes a demonstration of progress for
themselves and families; more will be said on this later. For EALD
students, their portfolio might have an SAE focus and include lists of
vocabulary learned over time.
Use of e-portfolios
In recent years, researchers (Boyle & Wallace, 2008, 2011; JISC, 2008;
Wallace, 2009) have undertaken studies of the use of portfolios with older
Indigenous learners as a means of empowering them to take control over
their learning and, in particular, demonstrating their learning through

digital means. E-portfolios can be used in the same way as portfolios

described above, to collect evidence of learning over time, present an
overview of achievement, support learning processes through reflection
and discussion, and for personal development such as self-management.
The ePortfolio enables students to more efficiently manage their own
learning by making their own decisions about ‘what counts as evidence
of learning’ and collecting this evidence of their own learning.
All aspects of ePortfolios are controlled by the students, including
the appearance, construction and organisation and even the inclusion
of a range of multimedia, such as digital film-clips and stills.
The creation, maintenance and management of ePortfolio, allows
students to demonstrate higher-order thinking skills, such as analysis,
synthesis and evaluation. Another advantage is that its portability ensures
that contents can be moderated by the teacher, ensuring students are
assessed fairly and accurately. In addition the researchers found that
‘most learners gain confidence through developing ePortfolios, and many
acquire a greater sense of self-worth’ (JISC, 2008, p. 11).
Teaching students how to do assessment tasks and tests

Much has been written over the years about ‘teaching to the test’.
However, this should not be confused with teaching students the skills
and strategies of test-taking, let alone explicitly teaching students about
genres of particular types of test, particularly multi-choice tests.
Students can learn a great deal from each other if they practise doing
test questions collaboratively using the problem-solving framework
outlined in Chapter 5. Working in groups they can clarify, choose, use,
interpret and communicate. Having to justify their comprehension,
choices and interpretations will greatly enhance their language skills
and higher-order thinking. It will also strengthen cultural bonds if they
are Indigenous, by being encouraged to use their cultural collectivist
strengths. The teacher should also be careful to ensure students are
explicitly taught that for a formal test they need to work individually.
Perhaps they should also be given opportunities to practise this indi-
vidualist approach if it is unfamiliar.
By working together students can consider all of the possible choices
in a multi-choice test and discuss why they might or might not be correct.

The teacher should hold off giving the students the correct answer as it
is the cognitive conflict created through discussions and considerations
that causes learning to occur.
Standardised tests and NAPLAN

In order to facilitate efficiency and minimise costs in gaining wide-
spread information about student achievement, standardised testing
is often used by governments. However, this type of assessment can
privilege select groups of students while marginalising or segregating
others (Weinstein et al., 2004). This is largely due to
Assessment of Indigenous the lack of cultural validity and the literacy levels
children through tests based demanded of these tests. In particular, culture cannot
in non-Indigenous culture can be disassociated from language so even translations
reinforce ‘gaps’ in knowledge
and skills, rather than building of these tests may not assess the same things as the
positive images of Indigenous original tests.
children as learners. Rhodes (1994), working with Indigenous students
DOCKETT ET AL. (2010)
in the United States, found that the standardised tests
used to determine student achievement levels were
problematic. The language translation and decision-making processes
required by these students, together with the rules around what student
support teachers were allowed to offer, are cited as three possible factors
affecting their performance. In addition, he explains that the genre of
most standardised tests requires students to answer quickly, guess and
take risks, and that many students raised in traditional communities do
not have these skills, having been raised to make decisions slowly and
accurately, including sometimes with trial and error testing of their ideas.
He also notes that in tribal communities the norm is to help those in
need and work collectively rather than individually, as described earlier.
This is the same for Australian Indigenous students in all locations.
The National Assessment Program for Literacy and Numeracy
(NAPLAN) may cause a great deal of anxiety for Indigenous students.
As a group they continue to perform at lower standards than non-
Indigenous students in Australia for many of the reasons outlined
above. However, teachers can help their students to be prepared for
the tests using methods described in the previous section; no student

should attempt the tests without preparation. Despite many teachers

believing that the test is inappropriate for their students this is no
reason to expose students to a completely unknown and unfamiliar
format or process. Remember, one of the characteristics of assessment
is that it is explicit—this not only refers to questions in tasks but also
to assessment format and style.
By using each NAPLAN question from the previous year as a problem
to be solved and deconstructing each question—one a day perhaps for
the entire year—students will become familiar with the format, the
layout and a strategy with which to approach the questions. Students
should be taught how to use the multi-choice genre in particular. Initial
clarification of each question should be undertaken as a whole class
with the teacher asking ‘What does this say? What does it mean? Are
there any words that we don’t know the meaning of? Let’s look them up
in a dictionary or using our computers. Who can tell me in their own
words what the question is asking? Now, who would choose response ‘A’?
Tell me why you chose that response? Who would choose ‘B’? Tell me
why?’ and so on.
This strategy will take no more than 5 to 10 minutes a day but
has proven to be an excellent preparation for all students as well as
a teaching methodology of the knowledge, thinking processes and
standards expected of all Australian students. Moreover, it has shown
to be a powerful teaching and learning strategy since it encourages
cognitive conflict in students, a tool for learning through eliminating
misconceptions. Most importantly, it eliminates any fear that students
might have of NAPLAN tests and the anxiety that this fear can create.
In addition, one of the major benefits of this process is feedback
for classroom teachers; they hear and learn what their students are
thinking and can then refine their own teaching practices to eliminate
misconceptions from occurring and persisting.
Learning from the tests for students and teachers

It is important to understand the test construction and that writers of the
NAPLAN tests understand what the research says about how students
learn particular concepts and their possible misconceptions. Consider
the question from the Year 3 Numeracy Test (2010) shown in Figure 6.2.

FIGURE 6.2 Question 25, 2010 NAPLAN Year 3 Numeracy Test
How many quarters are there in two and a half oranges?
5 6 9 10
Source: Adapted from ACARA (2010)
What is being assessed here is student understanding of the concepts

half and quarter. The symbolic notation is not used so students are
expected to understand these concepts by understanding the words. The
literacy required is that they connect the diagram with the written text
and then make a choice from the four choices provided. The writers have
carefully selected the four choices for the following reasons—provided
from research—about student misunderstandings of early fraction:
1. ‘5’ will distract students who don’t understand (or can’t read) what
a ‘quarter’ is; they are likely choosing ‘5’ because they see five half
oranges (25 per cent of students nationally selected ‘5’).
2. ‘6’ will likely distract all students who mentally cut each of the
discrete ‘objects’ (whether they are whole oranges or not) in half (16
per cent of students nationally selected ‘6’).
3. ‘9’ will likely distract students who understand that the first two
oranges can be cut into 4 quarters each, leaving a remaining piece
which they are not sure what to do with (10 per cent of students
nationally selected ‘9’).
4. ‘10’, the correct answer, is given by students who deeply understand
the concept of ‘quarter’ and can read and understand its written
form (47 per cent of students nationally selected this response).
The distractors are not aimed at ‘tricking’ students—clearly if students
deeply understand the concept of ‘quarter’ and can access the question
by reading the words, they will not be tricked.
Students can also be taught to eliminate distractors if they wish. This
strategy is quite appropriate and is part of understanding the test genre.

If the distractors and correct answer were not there students would need
to start from scratch using the drawing only to help them visualise the
situation. If the drawing were not there they might wish to draw the
situation themselves, to help them. Clearly both the drawing and the
distractors and correct answer are provided to help students by easing
the cognitive load to support students during a difficult process. The
diagram is part of the literacy support.
Students who practise dealing with this genre are well prepared to
face questions in test circumstances. Teachers who are not aware of how
the NAPLAN tests are constructed (they take almost a year to write!)
are likely to shun the tests themselves because they don’t like the way
the results are used. Although neither the test questions nor the test
administration is perfect and there are issues of reliability with results
due to lack of cultural validity and the pressure and test anxiety placed on
students, the tests themselves are constructed in such a way as to provide
teachers with information about what students generally know and don’t
know about the intended learning. This is both helpful for teachers in
assessing their own understanding and performance, and helpful for
teachers in learning about the possible misconceptions their students
might have. These lessons help teachers to more deeply understand the
intended learning targets and hence they inform their pedagogy.
Negotiating assessment with students

Students in the middle years and above need to have a say in how they
want to demonstrate their learning. This doesn’t mean there should be
a ‘free for all’ with each student requiring a different assessment task.
The tasks given should be the same each time but students should always
be given a choice for a particular task. For example, at the start of the
unit of work you might tell them they have a choice about how they will
demonstrate their learning: through a test, written assignment or group
task. You might vary the format each time, so the next unit of work
you might tell them they have a choice of a PowerPoint presentation,
an assignment or an essay. The task that you offer will be part of your
assessment strategy designed to ensure a range of types are used across
a reporting period, while being more culturally inclusive, allowing for
collectivist and individualist approaches.

PERSONAL REFLECTIONS Do you think you should have a say in how you are assessed?
for sharing As a teacher, how might you manage the process of giving students a
say in how they are assessed?
Showing learning progress

Formative (ongoing) assessment provides more information about the
achievement of students than the assessment occurring at the end of
an instruction period (summative assessment). It is for this reason that
assessment of learning should be continuous in a classroom. In her 2002
study in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, Gribble found that
the biggest concern for teachers was how to measure student progress in
ways that provide positive reinforcement to students while at the same
time providing accountability for their own work.
It is important for both teachers and students to know that they have
progressed in their learning during a reporting period. Knowing ‘distance
travelled’ can be positively reinforcing for both students and teachers.
Teachers need to know that their efforts have not been in vain and students
similarly need to know that they are learning and developing, particularly
if they’d rather be doing other things instead of being at school.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS What is your personal preference: continuous (formative) assessment or

for sharing end-of-term/semester exams that generate a mark for the entire term/
semester (summative assessment)?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?
What forms of assessment do you think provide the best balance?
Showing progress in the classroom in an ongoing way is essential

for students for whom benchmarks and targets might be too wide to
progress through in a single reporting period. EALD outcomes and the
expectations are both probably in this category for many EALD students.
Teachers must be able to show progress of students in the classroom on a
monthly or weekly basis. They can do this using graphs and tables that
enable children to see their own progress. For example, graphs on the

classroom wall showing the size of student’s vocabulary or number of sight

words, spelling marks, number of English words learned and/or used in
writing, number of sentences written in a narrative, number of counting
words, number facts, multiplication tables and so on all provide data for
graphs and charts. Students can improve their numeracy by keeping them
up to date themselves and can take some responsibility for their own
learning by setting individual targets. Student attendance graphs should
be placed alongside so that students can see the relationship themselves
between amount of schooling attended and their own personal learning.
(Perso 2011, p. 46)
Providing feedback
Providing quality feedback is an important part of learning and assess-
ment in teaching. A research synthesis conducted by Black and Wiliam
(1998) showed that poor-quality feedback can have a negative impact
on students. Comments such as ‘good work’ or ‘well done’ given to low
achieving students can be seen as patronising with students believing
that they are only capable of work of a low standard.
Good feedback can be given in the form of comments that indicate
to students
• what they have done well
• what they need to do to improve, and
• how to do what is required.
The ‘how’ is important and can be elaborated on by teachers verbally. In
effect it is about setting ‘targets’ for students so that they also know the
high expectations that their teachers have of them. This also, as described
previously, will have the benefit of raising students’ self-esteem in the
knowledge that their teacher knows that students can achieve these targets.
Research experiments have shown that when students
are given a mark or a grade as well as a comment, they Assessment feedback often
tend to ignore the comment. This can be the result of has a negative impact,
particularly on low achieving
conditioning in schooling; students have learned to
students, who are led to
focus on their grades and marks. However, this can believe that they lack ‘ability’
change if whole-school policy in this area changes; if and so are not able to learn.
all teachers focus on their comments (which provide BLACK & WILIAM, 1998

information about what students need to do to improve, and how) rather

than providing marks and grades, students will not be conditioned in
this way—they will instead look to their comments to help them learn
what they need to do to improve, and how.
Hattie (2009) describes the roles of challenge and feedback in learning
outcomes:
[C]hallenge and feedback [are] two of the essential ingredients of learning.
The greater the challenge, the higher the probability that one seeks and
needs feedback, but the more important it is that there is a teacher to
provide feedback and to ensure that the learner is on the right path to
successfully meet the challenges. (p. 24)
The challenging thing for teachers might be to learn to write quality

feedback comments that include the ‘how’ and the ‘what’. You need to
be really clear about what you want your students to learn in the first
place, and what you are looking for in student responses. Teachers’
deep knowledge of the intended learning was discussed earlier, and the
importance of this cannot be underestimated. By aligning assessment
tasks to the desired learning teachers are better positioned to deeply
understand what their students have done well and what they need
to do in order to improve, and how. This alignment is essential for
scaffolding and differentiating the curriculum, described in the
previous chapter.
You should explicitly teach your students how to use the feedback
comments provided; that is, what they themselves can do to improve.
This can become an important teaching strategy by supporting students
to focus on their individual targets. You might then provide time in class
for students to rewrite or re-do tasks and internalise the comments you
have made. The tasks would not be done under assessment conditions
but rather under conditions where students can use learning resources—
including you as the teacher—to help them meet the targets.
The strategy will be enhanced if students are given opportunities to
mark the work of classmates and write comments (containing the ‘how’
and the ‘what’) for their peers. This is a powerful learning strategy since
many students, while not taking on board the comments of teachers,
will often take more notice of them if they are provided by a classmate.

Students are often more inclined to put more effort into their work if
they know that a classmate will mark it (making sure that the ‘right’
classmate is selected in terms of Indigenous relationships). Another
advantage is that comments given by classmates are more likely to be in
language that the students can understand. This is particularly important
for EALD learners who should be encouraged to have discussions—even
disagreements—about their work in their home language (with their
peers who speak the same language or with a bilingual teacher aide).
This type of peer assessment can also build the skills of the students;
if they understand what is required to be demonstrated by a classmate,
students will better understand what is also required of them.
For many tasks, a rubric can clearly outline for students what they
need to do to improve. Students are also able to see examples of what
they could have done to get a higher grade by examining the work of
other students and how it rated against the rubric.
Learning quality and the use of rubrics

All learning has both a quantity and a quality dimension. In the past,
grades were awarded based on norm-referencing. For example, the top
20 per cent of students obtained an ‘A’, the next 30 per cent were given
a ‘B’, and so on. This process of awarding grades did not indicate to
either students or parents, ‘how well’ students had learned the intended
learning; it usually indicated ‘how much’.
The quality of the students’ learning is best understood through the
following questions:
• What is the depth of the learning?
• How broadly can the learning be applied in unfamiliar contexts?
• What is the sophistication of skills (thinking and affective) that can
be demonstrated with the learning?
These questions can help teachers in their learning design since it is
important to focus not only on the transmission of knowledge but also
the skills (thinking and affective) that are needed to apply and work
with the new knowledge. Also, by being taught these skills students
gain a deeper understanding of the knowledge.

Learning quality
A good way to think about learning quality is to connect the A–E
reporting scale to Bloom’s Taxonomy (see <www.nwlink.com/~donclark/
hrd/bloom.html>). Table 6.4 outlines the thinking and affective skills,
indicates how student activities use them, and shows how they relate
to learning quality.
TABLE 6.4 Bloom’s Taxonomy: Thinking and affective skills, activities that require
them, and learning quality
A–E learning
Skills Activities quality scale
Evaluation Critique, solve, summarise, make recommendations, assess, A

make connections, make judgements, make generalisations,
identify errors
Analysis and Distinguish, investigate, examine, make conjectures, role-play, B
synthesis design, organise, classify, compare, analyse, compare, contrast
Application Sort, create pictures, complete puzzles, produce drawings that C
connect to words
Comprehension Paraphrase, restate, illustrate, match D
Recall Gather information from a dictionary, a website, talking, reading, TV E
Students who are only able to recall facts and information are able
to achieve an ‘E’ grade; those who can evaluate, analyse, synthesise,
apply, comprehend and recall all of the time, with no support and in a
range of contexts, are able to achieve an ‘A’ grade.
Teachers are in a very powerful position as far as giving students
access to learning qualities and the grades that go with them. If all tasks
written by teachers only demand recall work, then students are unable
to demonstrate the qualities needed for anything higher than an ‘E’.
Even gifted students are unable to demonstrate learning qualities beyond
recall level if the tasks don’t demand more than recall skills.
Unfortunately, as we have seen previously, if teachers have low
expectations of students not only do they teach with little learning
quality they also assess with little learning quality; students are unable
to demonstrate their learning at levels they might be capable of if they
are not given opportunities to do so. The teacher controls this through
the curriculum they provide and the assessment tasks they develop.

Tests such as those that assess recall of multiplication tables, memor-

isation of algorithms and methods, dates from history or the periodic
table in Science can only provide students with the opportunity to
demonstrate an ‘E’ level. While these types of tests may support students’
self-esteem (if they have success with them), they are insufficient for
students to demonstrate a depth of understanding. There is still a place
for these tests in a comprehensive assessment portfolio, but over a
reporting period, students need to be given access to the full range of
learning qualities in both their learning and in their assessment tasks.
Rubrics are used to display learning qualities. For students to be clear
about what they have to do to gain high grades they need to be clear, from
the outset, about what learning qualities they must demonstrate in order
to obtain certain grades. These can best be shown to students in a rubric.
Teachers can develop rubrics for students by first understanding the
intended learning and then breaking up the learning against Bloom’s
Taxonomy. For example, if the learning goal is Students represent and solve
simple addition and subtraction problems (Year 1) teachers might develop
a rubric for this goal and give it to their students, as shown in Table 6.5.
Example of a rubric to assess learning qualities for a learning goal: TABLE 6.5
addition and subtraction
Grade What students need to do
A Create and solve an addition or subtraction story problem, representing it with drawings,
objects and a number sentence.
B Complete addition and subtraction sentences resulting from situations where one number
and the solution are given, and draw a diagram or number sentence to show this. For
example:
‘When Jill hid 7 of Celia’s crayons there were 5 remaining. How many did Celia have to start
with? Show this with a number sentence’, and
‘Shelley had 6 pencils, but when they were combined with William’s there were 13.
How many did William have? Draw a diagram to show Shelley’ and William’s pencils.
C Apply addition and subtraction facts to situations such as ‘Fred has 7 marbles and Sam
has 3. How many more marbles has Fred got than Sam?’
D Understand addition and subtraction by:
• representing addition and subtraction situations using symbols and objects
• using pictures to solve ‘altogether’ and ‘total’ problems
• understanding that addition is ‘bringing together’ and subtraction is ‘taking away’.
E Recall and compute addition and subtraction facts, such as 3 + 4 = 7, 8 – 2 = 6.

When students have the rubric in advance, they know exactly what
they need to do to achieve each of the learning quality grades. Their
parents also know the learning demonstrations needed. EALD learners
may need support to (read and) understand each of the entries in
the rubric.
You should ensure that your teaching strategies give all students
in the class the opportunity to obtain an ‘A’ for this learning goal.
This means:
• clearly understanding the learning goal (content descriptor) yourself
• using a range of teaching strategies, scaffolding the learning over
time, beginning with teaching recall facts needed for an ‘E’, and
• developing an assessment task that gives students the opportunity
to demonstrate learning at one of the learning quality levels.
You should also make sure that the rubric is:
• related to the content descriptor
• written in student-friendly language, where appropriate, and, where
possible, translated or interpreted by an Indigenous support teacher
or parent, and
• put up on the wall or somewhere in the classroom at the start of the
unit of work, and referred to often.
A range of websites exist to support teachers in developing rubrics. If
you use these consistently they can help raise the learning quality of
your students. They will also help to ensure that your judgements about
students’ grades for reporting purposes are clear and defensible for
everyone concerned, including students, parents and extended families,
other teachers and school administrators.
Rubrics also provide a powerful way for students to ‘see’ that you
have high expectations of them. You should be constantly pushing
and encouraging all students to strive for the grades higher than
the ones they are currently achieving; there is no such thing as a
student who will always get an ‘E’. All students are capable of at least
a ‘C’ with good teaching. Language and cultural differences are just
that—differences. They don’t indicate that students can’t achieve at
the highest levels.

Making consistent judgements

Using rubrics will support your judgements to be consistent. In fact, if
you do not have a set of clear and explicit descriptions of what you are
using to make A‒E judgements then not only will you be unable to be
consistent but you will certainly not be able to defend your judgements
either to yourself or anyone else.
Assigning a grade for a task

If there is some doubt about the learning qualities demonstrated in
a task, you should consider the level of independence demonstrated
by the student—did the student ask you or others for help or did the
student do it on his or her own? In general, if you have doubts then
err on the side of the lower grade. Make sure you judge the learning
demonstrated solely in the task; don’t be swayed by the presentation
or whether the student is ‘good’ or ‘well-behaved’, or whether their
attendance rate is high.
Assigning a grade for achievement over a reporting period

Over a reporting period of six months, students may demonstrate a
range of learning qualities—a student will not always achieve a ‘C’, for
example, but may achieve, on six consecutive tasks over the six months,
‘C’, ‘D’, ‘B’, ‘B’, ‘C’ and ‘B’.
In deciding what to give this student on his or her report there is
clearly improvement since the ‘D’ occurred in the earlier part of the
reporting period. The student has more ‘B’s than ‘C’s so you might
want to give a ‘B’. However, the ‘C’s may indicate the student’s ability to
‘apply’ all of the time independently, whereas the ‘B’s may indicate that
sometimes the student needs teacher support to achieve at that level.
Only you will know the student’s history and what the evidence shows.
Whatever you decide, make sure that your decision is defensible, and
write yourself notes to support your decision-making whenever you have
doubts about whether a student should receive one grade or another.
Written comments on a student report should indicate the quality
of learning demonstrated over the reporting period, including whether
students have improved, and what students need to do to improve.
For example, ‘C—Jeremy needs to develop stronger analytical skills.

Although he can solve most problems in different contexts he is unable

to determine the most efficient approaches to use and to justify them
in context.’
Reporting on learning to students and families

Good practice in reporting to parents is to ensure that there are no
surprises. Parents should not hear how their student is going at school
through their twice-yearly student report. Reporting to parents is an
ongoing activity and should be part of the process of gathering information
about the student, their interests and learning strengths. One of the
findings of a recent study in Western Australia (Zubrick et al., 2005)
found that the majority (approximately 85–90 per cent) of parents thought
that their children were doing well at school, when they were, in fact,
experiencing difficulties. This perception resulted through lack of regular
communication or interaction between school and parents.
Teachers in small schools and communities should try to find out as
much about their students as possible, as part of their journey towards
being culturally competent. For teachers in larger schools, investing
in time spent sending emails to parents or phoning them will be well
rewarded. It is during these communications that parents can (and
should) be kept in the loop regarding their child’s progress. They should
be told how the student is performing (that is, the quality of learning
they are achieving) and given the rubrics you have used for making
judgements. If they ask to see their child’s work, you should ask them to
come to the school where they can see the portfolio of work belonging
to their son or daughter. This should ideally occur at least two or three
times during a reporting period, so that there are no surprises when
their child receives his or her report.
Rubrics should also be available to parents before students undertake
assessment tasks, so that they and others can help their child if they
want to.
Discussions with parents

Discussions with parents should focus on the whole assessment process.
Parents should know not only what their child is expected to learn, but
also the learning qualities on which their child will be judged. Remember

that, when parents were students themselves, most would have been
assigned grades determined on a norm-referencing scale; if their child
is ‘top of the class’ they may expect him or her to receive an ‘A’. They
need to be shown that assigning grades based on learning quality (where
the qualities are the same for every Australian student) is aimed at
ensuring that all Australian students’ achievements are compared with
each other. This is a lot broader than just comparing their results with
those of others in the class or school. It may be possible, for example,
for all students in the class to receive the same grade or that there are
no students achieving an ‘A’ in the school in any one reporting period.
Parents may ask to see the assessment tasks you use to make judge-
ments on the learning of their child; this is their right. Parents should
be told and shown that their child is making progress even though they
might not have achieved a higher grade this semester, for example. You
should work hard to progress students along the learning quality scale,
from an ‘E’ to a ‘D’ or a ‘D’ to a ‘C’ and so on. For some students, this
might take some time, particularly EALD students in remote Indigenous
communities; they are learning in a foreign language. The language
barrier is indeed formidable.
The importance of building relationships with parents of Indigenous
students has been discussed earlier. Talking to parents about student
learning, assessment and learning qualities provides a strong basis
on which to build partnerships and trust. Whether or not parents
understand these connections it is important that they know that their
child’s achievements are being judged on the same scale as all students,
and that they trust you to do whatever it takes to support that child
to gain an education that is equitable with the education provided for
all Australian students. This trust will only develop as you show them
that you care about their child; that you believe they can learn at the
same standard as all children, and that you care enough to talk to your
students’ families.
It is essential that parents are able to understand the school reports
for their children. Schools should ensure that translators are available
for EALD students, or that Indigenous teacher aides are present or
contactable for parents who want to know and understand more. For
parents who might feel anxious about attending or phoning the school,
which is often the case for Indigenous parents, teachers, teacher aides

and Indigenous support workers need to be proactive, making contact

and asking parents if they need help understanding the reports. This
provides yet another opportunity to build relationships with parents
and extended families.
Conclusion
Assessment of student learning is arguably the single most important
part of the curriculum alignment process. A teacher’s assessment tasks
provide a ‘window’ into his or her classroom; they indicate what is being
taught and how, reflect the teacher’s understanding of the intended
learning and reveal the depth and breadth of instruction as well as the
sophistication of cognitive skills being taught and applied. A teacher’s
interpretation of student performance on tasks can result in powerful
feedback to students that impacts directly on future learning. It also
‘feeds back’ to teachers and can make the difference between a poor
teacher and a good teacher. It should never be regarded as an activity
that is ‘tacked on’ to the end of a learning period, but rather as integral
to the whole learning and teaching process.

The focus of this chapter has been on assessment, feedback and reporting.
It aligns comprehensively with Standard 5, Assess, provide feedback and
report on student learning. Table 6.6 gives more details on this.
A large section of the chapter focuses on Standard 5.1, Assess student
learning, since we recognise the importance of developing quality
assessment tasks that align with the intended learning. This requires that
assessment be valid, and hence teachers need to understand the concept
of cultural validity when teaching students from different cultures, in
this case Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students.
Culturally responsive behaviours presented in the chapter are briefly
summarised in Table 6.7. Both students and their parents/carers need
to understand feedback, and this may entail using interpreters in
some locations. Inviting parents to discuss their child’s achievement is
essential. However, as we will discuss in Chapter 7, an invitation direct
to parents may be too abstract to elicit the desired response. Teachers

National Professional Standards addressed in Chapter 6 TABLE 6.6

5.1 Assess student Develop, select and use informal and formal diagnostic, formative
learning and summative assessment strategies to assess student learning
5.2 Provide feedback Provide timely, effective and appropriate feedback to students
to students on their about their achievement relative to their learning goals
learning
5.3 Make consistent Understand and participate in assessment moderation activities
and comparable to support consistent and comparable judgements of student
judgements learning
5.4 Interpret student Use student assessment data to analyse and evaluate student
data understanding of subject/content, identifying interventions and
modifying teaching practice
Culturally Responsive Behaviours, Standard 5 TABLE 6.7

5. Assess, provide • Ensuring that assessment forms are negotiated with students and their families
feedback so that they are truly able to demonstrate the desired learning
and report • Ensuring that ability to demonstrate learning is not limited by language control
on student • Providing timely, effective and appropriate feedback to students relevant to
learning their learning goals; ensuring progress is demonstrated even if goals aren’t
achieved
• Analysing student achievement data, reflecting on practice and identifying
interventions and modifications to teaching practice as needed
• Using appropriate reporting formats and/or interpretive services as needed to
report student progress to parents
need to be proactive about this, visiting parents who may not be willing
to come to the school for cultural or other reasons.
Student reports need to focus on more than achievement of desired
academic goals. Some Indigenous parents, for example, may be more
interested in discussing the classroom and school environment and
issues such as bullying and teasing than whether their children are
becoming more literate in SAE. This is more likely to be the case in
remote schools. Additional challenges for teachers in these locations
are addressed in the next chapter.

Challenges of teaching students
in remote contexts
CHAPTER 7
All children, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students,
sit somewhere along the same learning continuum. That is why the
messages discussed in previous chapters are for all teachers, not just
those who teach descendants of Australia’s First Peoples. Good teaching
and learning for these children does not necessarily require anything
different, just different emphases.
If you work in a remote context, it is likely that all your Indigenous
students will come from the same community or from similar
communities. While some of the particular strategies for teaching
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students presented in this book
are useful some of the time for all teachers, it is likely that all of the
strategies will be useful all of the time for teachers in remote communities.
Characteristics of students previously mentioned as possibilities in
earlier chapters are likely to exist for all students in a remote school.
Similarly, learning challenges previously described as
possibilities may be realities for the majority in these I’ve heard it said on a number of
schools. occasions by people who have
This chapter presents in-depth analysis of the challenges worked in extreme environments
overseas—Afghanistan, East
of working in schools in remote communities. On arrival Timor and the like—that none of
in these schools many teachers have no real idea what this it compares to the difficulties they
experience will be like; although many might have been encounter in Indigenous Australia.
MAHOOD (2012)
told what to expect, they are unable to cope with the reality
of the experience.
201

Context
It is almost impossible to fully prepare someone for the job of teaching
in a remote school in Australia. A recent essay by Kim Mahood (2012)
paints a realistic picture of what life in a remote community is like,
particularly for Kartiya (‘whitefellas’) assigned to a service role in
an Indigenous community. Mahood’s paper is named after a remark
made by a Western Desert woman about whitefellas who work in
Indigenous communities: ‘Kartiya are like Toyotas. When they break
down we get another one.’
This comment, made from an Aboriginal perspective, implies that
whitefellas in remote communities will break down, and that when they
do and after they leave in order to recover, their employer will merely
send another one to replace them. Mahood explores the reasons for
whitefellas breaking down, indicating that there are two major reasons,
or groups of reasons. The first is that work that involves interaction with
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in remote communities is
demanding, unrelenting and constant and will eventually wear teachers
down. The second reason is that, if the worker isn’t successful, the Kartiya
will be blamed—not the Indigenous people—providing a scapegoat for
community frictions, which often happens. Mahood (2012) describes
the inherent problems:
The contradiction at the heart of the story is that for the quality of desert
Aboriginal lives to improve in the terms demanded by humanitarian
standards—health, education, housing and the like—the people them-
selves must become more like us, and to become more like us requires
them to relinquish their identity from which their sense of resilience and
sense of self is drawn. Without their Aboriginal identity they are reduced
to society’s dross: the poorest, the least employable, the shortest lived,
the least literate, the substance abusers and losers and wife bashers. And
one of the most powerful ways in which they keep hold of that identity
is by defining it against white people. (p. 7)
While the insights offered in Mahood’s essay are accurate, it should

be pointed out that the interactions Mahood describes are with adults
in the communities; children in schools are often not part of this
discussion, and we might view them as the silent victims in this persistent

CHALLENGES OF TEACHING STUDENTS IN REMOTE CONTEXTS 203
conversation between government, employees and Indigenous adults

and parents.
While it is not our intention to dissuade young teachers from seeking
employment in remote schools, it is essential that teachers accessing
positions in these locations have some idea of what life may be like for
them there. They should not apply for teaching positions in remote
schools unless they are prepared and resilient.
How do you understand Mahood’s statement, presented here; for PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
example, do you see any conflict between ‘humanitarian standards’ and for sharing
Aboriginal identity? If so, can you describe it?
To what extent do you think it’s possible to maintain Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander identity and meet humanitarian standards for health,
education, housing and so on?
Privilege
It is a great privilege to teach in a remote school. When you understand
some of the challenges that Indigenous students face in remote Western
schools in Australia, you will be struck by how difficult it is for them,
as they often are expected to:
• learn in a foreign language, with a teacher who doesn’t know their
language
• learn in an environment that is totally foreign to where they usually
learn; that is, in the open environment on country where they know
they belong and feel safe
• try to write with a pen on paper, which they haven’t used before and
which may not exist in their homes
• use Western social words, such as ‘please’ and ‘thank you’, even
though no one has told them why and similar responses don’t exist
in their homes and communities
• follow the behaviours their teacher sets out, most of which are foreign
to them—the teacher seems bossy and tells them what to do
• learn things that have no obvious relevance, and
• turn up the next day and do it all again.

Most conditions in the physical and social environment of a Western

school are foreign to Indigenous students. Western teachers complain if
their Indigenous students don’t attend, but it’s important to remember
that many of these children are taught to make their own decisions
about where to go and when, what to eat and when to eat it and when
to sleep. When you realise this, it will allow you to develop different
understandings and expectations.
Western teachers are privileged to teach these children, who are
fellow Australians and who can help their teachers learn so much. If
you see yourself as a ‘learner’ instead of as a ‘teacher who knows it all,
sharing it with children who know nothing’, you will succeed in many
ways. In particular, children and their families will learn to like and
trust you. When this happens, they will choose to attend (especially if
there’s something worthwhile and interesting happening), engage and
learn if there is no family business occurring—which will usually always
take priority over school attendance. You are being invited to share in
the most ancient cultures in the world.
Teaching in a community school carries with it responsibility,
and it isn’t a 9-to-5 job; there will be some expectations from your
community and principal that you take part in community events and
make relationships with students outside of school hours. If you take
on these responsibilities willingly, you will reap personal rewards that
will stay with you for life.
What works in schools

A review of the research about what educational practices are successful
to improve the educational outcomes of Indigenous children across the
world and Australia (Perso, 2012) results in the following (given in no
particular order). Practices should:
• include—and perhaps begin with—non-Indigenous people recog-
nising and respecting the distinctive aspects of the culture and
identities of Indigenous peoples
• ensure Indigenous people play a role in helping to define the purposes
and nature of the education their children receive; we must be able to
answer the ‘learning for what?’ question convincingly (DEST, 2007)

• directly involve the community in the design, delivery and assessment

of educational outcomes for their students
• include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives, culture,
history, languages and values in the curriculum for both Aboriginal
and non-Aboriginal students
• allow for implementation of culturally appropriate early childhood
education
• collect and use data as a tool for tracking, monitoring and person-
alising the learning of each student
• establish a culture of urgency, making the failure of any student
unacceptable
• provide teachers with training, support and resources for culturally
sensitive teaching and content
• encourage Elders and other Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
role models into the school and the classroom
• ensure teachers have had preparation to help students achieve at
high levels, and
• allow time in the timetable for teachers to thoroughly teach the language
demands (including the language of instruction) of curriculum.
These practices refer mostly to school and operational practices and are
supported by the information provided in the NTDET (2010) and the
Alaska Native Knowledge Network (1998).
What works in classrooms

More has been written about what works in schools than about what
works for individual teachers in classrooms, supported by whole-school
approaches. We know that what works for one teacher does not
necessarily work for another teacher; that local solutions, supported
by local commitment to those solutions, are more likely to be effective
than ‘one-size-fits-all’ approaches. The research and information
shared so far in this text have synthesised the evidence sufficiently to
provide a basis for understanding what works in classrooms. Individual
teachers need to work from this basis, being sufficiently flexible to
adapt good practice to meet the needs of individual students with the
help of parents and Indigenous people in schools and communities.

Case studies are rarely documented. However, we can read those cases
that are documented and learn anecdotally about others, and from them
distil some basic truths or elements—maybe even principles—that will
help school leaders and teachers committed to improving the educational
outcomes of their students to achieve their goals. The box ‘Improving
educational outcomes for students’ suggests some approaches.
Improving educational outcomes for students

School leaders and teachers can take the following whole-school
approaches:
• Establish a culture of urgency; make failure of any child

unacceptable.
• Have high expectations of all students and staff; accept no
excuses for low student achievement.
• Track individual student achievement and use data to show
progress and drive/inform improvement.
• Prioritise curriculum based on student needs.
• Assign classes to teachers with consideration of student gender
and age.
• Focus school programs on student language needs.
• Focus on oral language use and development in all learning,
particularly in the early years.
• Create a physical ‘space’ in the school grounds in which
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people can feel safe and
comfortable (that is, ‘their space’). This will serve to maximise
their involvement and participation in the education of their
children, rather than potentially leading them to perceive school
as alien and unwelcoming.
School leaders and teachers can also take the following approaches
to pedagogy:
• Have high expectations of all students.

• Provide a strong, systematic, structured and predictable curriculum.

• Value cultural and language differences through pedagogy.

• Find out as much as you can about your individual students
from families, communities and Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander teacher aides and assistant teachers; in particular, what
they know, how they learn best, what their interests are,
what languages they speak and their familiarity with text and
Standard Australian English (SAE). Learn from them.
• Use explicit teaching—make everything clear and concise, without
assumptions about prior knowledge and language (and be careful
not to talk too much!).
• Scaffold all learning for students and with students before
expecting them to work independently.
• Ensure learning contexts are physical and ‘hands-on’, accessible
for all students, and ‘language-rich’ with a focus on oral language
development.
• Teach holistically rather than incrementally; that is, show students
the goal before embarking on the process.
• Have students work in groups and collaboratively rather than
individually when you can.
• Use ‘code-switching’ between ‘home way’ and ‘school way’ as a
means of acknowledging and valuing cultural differences and to
give students a ‘framework’ on which to hang their learning.
In addition, at the regional level (that is, a whole-of-education-system

level), induction of teachers into remote locations—if done at all—is
generally done poorly. An education system or region will often provide
a ‘one-off’ induction (or orientation) program where they may invite
Indigenous Elders and other prominent Indigenous representatives to
speak and provide their perspectives on what teachers working with
their children need to know. Teachers who have worked in remote
locations may also provide a perspective of what they have learned
through this experience.
For induction to be meaningful and impact on day-to-day relation-
ships and behaviours, non-Indigenous staff need to be involved in an
ongoing induction process rather than an initial event.

Ongoing induction
While Chapter 2 presented the perspectives of people from a range of
remote communities, it is important to note the differences between these
communities, which are geographically close together; differences relate
to cultural ways of doing things, community expectations of teachers,
relationships and so on. From this, it is apparent that no systemic or
regional induction program can prepare teachers fully for their own
circumstances and communities. Many issues facing new teachers
will arise on the job and hence need to be dealt with in ongoing ways
by the school or employing authority. It is incumbent on the school
to take responsibility for continuous teacher induction into both the
school and the community. Due to high turnover of teachers and school
leaders, staff remaining need to work closely with school board and
council members to ensure this practice is ongoing and continuous.
New teachers, for example, need to know where they are allowed to go
on country (for example, being advised of the locations of men-only
places and sacred sites), as well as learning about mortuary rites and
other ceremonies, and behaviours that might offend individuals and
groups in the communities.
Schools also need to respect initiation rites in communities, which
are shared through strong community relationships. One Catholic school
we are aware of, for example, closes for two weeks of the year while
young males undergo initiation rites into manhood. Teachers spend
two weeks undertaking planned professional development; some is about
how to treat the young men on their return, while the school admin-
istration rearranges teacher placement and timetables so that young
women are no longer responsible for teaching these ‘men’, where possible.
All of these factors will affect teacher, school and community relation-
ships, and hence student attendance.
An analysis of 119 studies of more

than 355 000 students found that
Attendance
the primary reason that students
don’t want to come to school
There is no ‘silver bullet’ to improve Indigenous
or who don’t like school is that students’ school attendance, but there are two important
they don’t like their teacher. factors to consider: push factors and pull factors. The
CORNELIUS-WHITE, 2007
push factors are those that exist within the students

themselves and their cultures, motivating them to go or not to go

to school. The pull factors are those within the school, drawing the
students to attend.
Push factors within the students (that is, who they are) have been
described in chapters 1, 2 and 3. The principal factor is that children
generally are encouraged to make decisions themselves about what to do
and when. They are not driven by Western clocks, start and finish times,
but more about what is happening and with whom. If they like and have
a good relationship with their teacher, they will want to spend time with
the teacher at school. Similarly, if the teacher is doing interesting and
challenging things, these too can have a strong pull factor in motivating
students to go to school. You will need to bear in mind, however, that
for most Indigenous people family responsibilities will always take
precedence over school, no matter what is happening at school, and
students may be expected to stay home in those circumstances. In
some communities, for example, attendance at a football match might
be a strong family event—a chance to renew family ties and kinship
connections.
The converse of these factors operate to keep students from attending;
teachers who don’t have strong relationships with their students and/or
who are doing ‘boring’ (i.e. meaningless and irrelevant) things in class
are likely to discourage students from attending.
Other factors influencing students are about the ‘tone’ in the whole
school. If bullying between students is allowed to persist—or if teachers
and non-Indigenous students engage in racist behaviours that leave
students feeling belittled, deficient, not valued, and so on—they will not
feel ‘pulled’ to attend but may rather seek alternatives to being at school.
The school tone is generally created from the principal down; even if the
student is strongly motivated to attend by his or her teacher, this will
not stop the student staying away if the principal or other significant
adults at the school behave in discouraging ways.
Stories from schools with high attendance rates indicate that teacher‒
student relationships and program quality are the two main pull factors
at work. They also reveal that effective attendance strategies must be
‘place-based’. What works in one location will not necessarily work in
another. It will depend on the relationships, programs, longevity of
staff tenure and so on.

Teachers cannot blame parents for their students’ attendance levels;

because of child-rearing practices that encourage early independence,
parents are not often inclined to force their children to go to school if
they don’t want to. They might want to know why their children don’t
want to go, but when students tell their parents about classes that are
boring, irrelevant or not challenging, and of teachers who pick on them,
who criticise, or who are ‘bossy’, this feedback is often sufficient for
parents to choose to not intervene. Also, if parents are aware that their
children are being teased and bullied by other students (see Chapter 3),
they will often not encourage or insist on their children attending school.
While most parents want their children to have a good education, this
is not at the expense of their identity and self-esteem.
Strong partnerships with parents can assist parents to see the link
between attendance and achievement. Most parents want their children
to succeed and to have access to everything the world has to offer.
However, if ‘the world’ that parents see does not hold much hope for
strong futures for their children, and if they see school as the place
where their children lose their Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander
identity, then they are unlikely to insist on their children attending
school every day. Schools can help to break down these perceptions and
negativities through their interactions with parents and communities,
and the opportunities provided to their children.
Literacy and numeracy

In order to access Western learning and a global society, people need
literacy and numeracy skills.
The Australian Curriculum describes what all students are expected to
know and be able to do in each year of schooling. The English curriculum
and mathematics curriculum clearly outline the content scope of these
two learning areas in sequences that are underpinned by research about
what students are capable of achieving. Similarly, while acknowledging
that all students learn at different rates, national work in these areas
during the last decade has given teachers a sense of what to expect from
students when they are given access to appropriate curriculum.
Aspects of literacy and numeracy, including basic learning tools—
such as reading, writing, oracy (oral language development), number

sense and measurement—are absolutely critical for students to learn

in order to successfully progress from one year of schooling to the
next and, in particular, be able to access the broad curriculum of the
following years. If students do not acquire these skills in the early years
of schooling, they will need additional time and support in these areas
with a sense of urgency.
Achievement that is anything less than that described in the English
and mathematics content description scoping, and literacy and numeracy
sequences of the Australian Curriculum, flags the urgency for children
to ‘catch up’ and ‘keep up’.
Teachers use these continua to inform their planning using the
following questions:
• Are my students able to meet the literacy and numeracy demands of
Australia-wide curriculum standards in ways that enable successful
learning?
• If not, which areas require immediate attention?
• How can I ‘catch those areas up’ with a sense of urgency and how can
I scaffold the literacy and numeracy demands of curriculum while
they are catching up to avoid accumulative educational disadvantage?
ESL or EALD learners usually require additional support in literacy and
numeracy to catch up to and keep up with their same-age peers. The
amount of additional work required will generally be in direct proportion
to their degree of exposure to quality SAE language and culture.
For many students in Australia, accessing their right to learn and
use SAE successfully requires careful attention in schooling. Teachers
in schools across the north and central parts of Australia, in particular,
have a dual focus in ensuring students become capable users of SAE
while at the same time continue to develop competence in their own
languages. The responsibility of teachers to the former is to provide
quality teaching and learning programs in SAE. For the latter, the
responsibility of teachers is to:
• permit—and ensure—that students talk and communicate in home
languages
• insist on home languages being used to support the teaching of SAE
wherever possible

• learn some of the local language and make appropriate use of it in

their teaching, and
• value, honour and respect the home languages as being part of the
identity of the students they teach.
This teacher behaviour will enable students with EALD to operate
confidently in the two worlds they must negotiate throughout their
lives. Teachers must understand the importance of equally valuing
and recognising all the languages that their students speak (including
Aboriginal English), as these are vital to the identity of their students.
For learners struggling to meet the SAE literacy and numeracy
demands of curriculum (due to difficulties in learning the language),
particular support is needed, from parents and families, and from
teachers. Parents and families can support their children primarily by
doing their best to make sure they attend school every day. They can
also support them in other ways, such as by nurturing their children’s
health and wellbeing and by ‘talking up’ the value of schooling.
EALD support in schools should not be confused with that applied
to students with learning problems due to neurological difficulties. Of
course, a small number of students may have both. A language-based
approach to instruction focuses heavily on explicit teaching of language
and culture and should always be tried first, before specific approaches
to learning difficulties, which will not be successful if the issues are
language-based.
In order to maximise the literacy and numeracy learning of learners
with EALD, you should:
• understand the curriculum you must teach in order that students
have access Australia-wide standards
• seek to understand the languages and cultures your students bring,
and
• scaffold (or ‘bridge’) the learning between these two.
The skill required of the teacher in scaffolding current learning to
desired new learning is complex. It requires:
• cultural competence in determining what students know and bring
with them to the learning environment; that is, through partnerships
with parents and community, teacher aides and support staff

• sensitivity and empathy in valuing what students know and do,

acknowledging their strengths and capabilities, and valuing differ-
ences, and
• presenting new learning in achievable ‘chunks’ using the theory of
zone of proximal development (as described in Chapter 5).
Scaffolding from what students know to the literacy and

numeracy they need to know
To scaffold the learning of English language speakers who already speak
English and understand concepts of print, having been immersed in a
literate environment since birth, is challenging enough for teachers. To
scaffold English literacy and numeracy learning from another language is
a lot more challenging since students have to learn the English language
and learn literacy and numeracy skills in English. Advice on scaffolding
has been provided in Chapter 5.
All students bring to school a ‘virtual schoolbag’, full of their own
personal knowledge and capabilities. What the schoolbag contains
will vary depending on a student’s cultural background, experience,
knowledge, language background, family and community histories and
so on. Teachers will work with families, assistant teachers and with the
students themselves to find out as much as possible about what is in each
student’s virtual schoolbag. This will support their planning to bridge
the gap between what is known and what is to be learned.
Recognising that all contexts are a vehicle for literacy

and numeracy
It is imperative that teachers see all topics and contexts as vehicles for
literacy and numeracy development. It is for this reason that the distinction
between literacy and subject English, and numeracy and mathematics,
has been made. Every subject and every lesson is a context for developing
reading, writing, speaking and listening skills and for applying mathem-
atics. It is essential that you make teaching the students your priority; not
‘getting through’ the courses that you have been assigned to teach. While
teaching subjects is important, it is the literacy and numeracy skills and
processes that will give students access to further learning and subjects.
For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in remote
communities, it is imperative that you start with what the students

can already do; they can speak and they can listen. Reading needs to
be scaffolded from these strengths.
Oral language development, hearing loss and

EALD learners
The importance of oral language development in education cannot
be underestimated. A recent study of 50 years of research indicates
that children of low socioeconomic status (SES) are likely to score
more than two years behind on standardised language development
tests by the time they enter school (Fermald et al., 2013). Since the
majority of Indigenous children from remote contexts come from low
SES backgrounds, they are more than likely to be in this category. In
addition, the links between hearing sounds and reading were discussed
earlier in Chapter 4; phonological awareness is ‘the best single predictor
of reading performance’ (Gillon, 2004).
As indicated in Chapter 4, hearing loss is by far the major factor
impacting on the oral language development of children in remote parts
of Australia. As much as 80 per cent of children in remote schools may
experience conductive hearing loss (CHL). CHL can greatly reduce the
hearing of children for long periods of time and if sustained can cause
permanent damage to the ear and hence to hearing. Hearing loss in
childhood has also been found to contribute significantly to learning
and behavioural problems at school, with Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander children having CHL caused by otitis media found to often be
rejected by peers socially, and be more disruptive in class than other
students (Howard, 2004b).
Since these combined effects of CHL often lead to poor achievement
results in schools, CHL has been linked to contact with the criminal
justice system in later life:
The higher prevalence of hearing loss among Indigenous adults is mostly
an outcome of pervasive childhood ear disease among Indigenous
children. Indigenous people experience ear disease that starts earlier, lasts
longer and reoccurs more often than other Australians. The worst ear
disease that affects a higher proportion of people occurs in communities
where there is greatest general disadvantage; such as in remote Indigenous

communities in the NT. For example, crowded housing spreads infection

and compromises hygiene leading to more children experiencing persistent
infections throughout childhood. These persistent ear infections during
childhood can damage the ear drum and other middle ear structures,
so that adults with a history of persistent ear disease often acquire some
degree of permanent hearing loss. The World Health Organization reports
Australian Indigenous people have the highest rate of perforations of the
ear drum of all countries surveyed. Because of the early onset of this
type of CHL, people may be unaware that they hear differently to others.
(Vanderpoll & Howard, 2011)
One study in a youth detention centre in the Northern Territory

(Yonovitz, 2004) suggested that some 90 per cent of Indigenous youth
in detention may have a hearing loss. In 2010, the Senate Hearing
Health Inquiry conducted by the Senate Community Affairs Committee
Secretariat raised serious concerns about hearing loss among Indigenous
inmates (Vanderpoll & Howard, 2011).
One of the dangers for teachers in remote locations is that they tend
to immediately associate delayed learning of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander children with their Indigeneity. It is more likely that the
learning delays result from the children having some form of hearing
loss or to the fact that they are attempting to learn in a foreign language.
To help your students learn in a remote context, you need to know
something about each of these causes.
Since different sounds have different frequencies
children can miss high frequency sounds (such as f, s Oral language competence [is]
the ability to use and understand
and th) but have no trouble hearing lower frequency
spoken language in a range of
speech sounds. Children who hear some sounds and situations and social exchanges,
not others clearly give ‘mixed messages’ to their teachers in order to successfully negotiate
the business of everyday life.
about what they are learning and will obviously find
ADAM TOMISON, DIRECTOR,
participating very frustrating. CRIMINOLOGY RESEARCH COUNCIL
The following behaviours may indicate hearing loss: IN SNOW & POWELL, 2012
• poor articulation or pronunciation

• frequent requests to repeat instructions
• poor spelling
• lack of attention
• inappropriate responses

• delayed responses
• focusing on speaker’s lips
• frequent colds
• earaches
• rubbing ears
• unnatural pitch of voice
• turning ear towards speaker
• speaking too loudly or quietly, or
• discharge from ear (Konza, 2006).
Not only can the behaviours of children indicate hearing loss but hearing
loss can also affect the behaviours of children. Howard (2006a) found
that the behaviour of children with hearing problems in classrooms
can be highly problematic:
Children with listening difficulties often experience stress at school.
Firstly, noise itself can be stressful and schools are inevitably noisy places
because they bring many children together in the same place. School
rules restrict children’s capacity to escape from what they experience as
excessive noise (students with auditory processing difficulties can often
be more sensitive to noise, in addition to this they have trouble with
speech perception when it is noisy, so they experience more stress).
Because they have to work harder to follow what is said, they often tire
quickly or don’t cope. The challenge of not coping with spoken instruction
means that at the end of a lesson, or by the end of the day, children may
be exhausted and emotional. For some children, this may lead to beha-
vioural problems, poor school performance, or shyness and reluctance
to participate in lessons or other class activities. These responses may
represent strategies to avoid obviously failing the listening challenges
at school.
Strategies that teachers can use to support children with

Overcoming oral language
deficits in the early years should hearing difficulties in their classrooms follow.
be a focus of prevention and In addition, other domains associated with CHL
early intervention strategies
among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander chil-
aimed at reducing the prevalence
of antisocial behaviour. dren—many of whom experience endemic levels of this
SNOW & POWELL (2012), CITING BOR condition (Howard, 2006b)—include diminished social
ET AL. 2004 AND SMART ET AL., 2003
and emotional wellbeing (Zubrick et al., 2005), lower

levels of achievement at school (Howard, 2004a) and greater levels of

absenteeism from school (Couzos et al., 2003).
It is worth repeating here that if children are to learn language they
need repeated exposure to good language modelling; the more children
hear language spoken, the more they learn. Not only will the extent of
children’s hearing possibly vary from day to day due to CHL, but the
messages they hear can also vary on a daily basis. This impacts on the
words they learn (therefore the size of their vocabulary) and their ability
to discriminate sounds in words (phonemic awareness), both important
elements in learning to read, write and spell.
The following box lists strategies that will help to maximise learning
for students with CHL (be aware that these strategies will support the
learning of all students).
Classroom strategies to support learning of students

with hearing loss
• Reduce background noise as much as possible so that students
will better hear your instructions. This might include turning down
electrical appliances, such as fans, air conditioners and fridges;
fixing rubber pads to chairs and desks; and using carpet or mats
on floors. If fluorescent light tubes are buzzing, replace them.
• Discuss with students the impact of noise on hearing and how to
reduce noise in the classroom so everyone can hear properly.
• Make sure students are all listening and facing you when you
give instructions. Speak clearly and ensure the light source is on
your face.
• Stand still if you’re addressing students in the classroom—don’t
move around! Stand close to children who have the greatest
hearing difficulties.
• Project your voice to the children—don’t speak into the
whiteboard or the wall. Don’t vary your tone or pitch too much
as some children have difficulties hearing different registers. It
will help the children to read your facial expression and lips.

• Explicitly teach children how to listen. Teach them how to sit—

facing the speaker, not shuffling or moving parts of their bodies.
They need to be taught how to think about what you are saying.
• Make sure you use a multi-sensory approach to teaching. Don’t
use a lot of talk; use visual cues (such as pictures, diagrams,
demonstration and role-plays) to maximise comprehension.
• Use group work when possible—this will allow students with CHL
to practise speech, ask questions and be involved in their learning.
• When you give instructions ask students to repeat what they have
heard.
• Pair children up with a friend or ‘buddy’ whom they can check
with if they don’t hear instructions properly.
• Make sure you specifically focus on phonological and phonemic
awareness skills. This will benefit all children, not just those with
hearing problems.
In addition, a report in Western Australia (Callahan, 2009) recommends

a ‘tutor program’; tutors are selected from older siblings, years 6 and
7 students, the local community, grandparents, mothers or cousins.
Tutors can be trained to:
• talk about the sound of a letter and its name
• count sounds in words, looking for the longest or shortest word
• sound out words from the text and make them with magnetic letters
• pick a sound from magnetic letters and find that sound written in
the text
• practise making funny words with magnetic letters
• talk about words that don’t sound out, and
• practise simple rhyming games; for example, put ‘an’ down with
magnetic letters and ask children to make as many words as they
can by adding different beginning letters.
Years 6 and 7 tutors will also benefit from playing the teacher role,
reflecting on their own understandings and how language works.
Many Indigenous children experience significant challenges in
moving from an oral language style to the literate style required for

literacy in SAE (Berry & Hudson, 1997; Kaldor & Malcolm, 1991).
Those with chronic CHL may also have experienced weak language
development in their home language. These children need strong oral
language programs in both home language and SAE, preferably in
contexts that enable them to orally compare and contrast these languages.
Due to the high prevalence of CHL of Indigenous children in remote
communities and the impact of this on students learning to read and
developing socialisation skills, we focus here on the phonological
awareness of these children. In particular, all children—particularly
EALD learners—need to be explicitly taught the 44 phonemes of SAE,
many of which (20 or more) do not exist in their home languages. It is
obvious that if they don’t first hear and identify the sounds in words
and then speak them they will not be able to read or write them.
Acknowledging that learning English is difficult

Teachers need to empathise with EALD learners in remote contexts; not
only do they have to learn to speak an additional language, English,
they also have to:
• learn in English, invariably being taught by a teacher who doesn’t

speak their own language and hence can’t explain and describe the
intricacies of English to them in their home language
• begin to use English to develop literacy (including concepts of print
for students who come from oral traditions), and
• learn new concepts that might be foreign to their culture; for example,
the concept of non-living in Western science is at the first level of
scientific classification but does not exist as a concept in many
Indigenous cultures.
Cultural competence for teachers teaching English If you want immigrant and
language to multilingual learners includes: minority group students
to emerge from schooling
• knowing that learning to speak another language after 12 years as intelligent,
is hard imaginative, and linguistically
talented, then treat them as
• knowing that English is a hard language to learn intelligent, imaginative, and
• knowing that English is not somehow ‘innate’ linguistically talented from the
• acknowledging the linguistic superiority of your first day they arrive in school.
CUMMINS (2009)
multilingual students, and

• not assuming your students all want to learn to speak English.

Even children whose home language is English, can find learning
English difficult since the language used in school for learning and the
communication protocols expected for learning may be totally different
than those used for every day social interaction in their home. It should
never be assumed that children will know these ‘school ways of working’;
they need to be explicitly taught to all children.
Recognising the part played by home language in learning English

Research indicates that children who have high levels of language skill
in their home languages (especially when these include print literacy)
find it easier to learn SAE. Consider the following example.
An English-speaking student is being taught how to measure length in a
foreign language. Since they already know how to measure length and what
the task is, it is relatively simple—they are merely making connections to
what they already know and learning new ‘labels’ for familiar knowledge.
Compare this with the experience of many young Indigenous children
who don’t speak English learning how to measure length in SAE. For
a start, the traditional languages of most Indigenous cultures do not
have the same measurement concepts that exist in English: words for
measurement units, such as ‘millimetre and centimetre’, do not exist
in many traditional languages, since there has never been a need for
this level of precision or standardisation and communication of exact
measurement in practice. Consequently, not only do many children not
have words and learning about measurement with which to connect, they
also don’t know why they might need to know and learn them, since the
activity is unlikely to occur in their lived realities.
Even exceptional teachers may be stumped by this: What to scaffold
this learning to? You may need not only to create situations in which
this learning is relevant, but also to teach the concept and the language
needed to learn the concept (Berry & Hudson, 1997; Malcolm et al.,
1999). Unless this knowledge and skill are practised and modelled and
students see a real need for them the learning is unlikely to persist to
the extent that it becomes deep learning. At the very least, this sort of
learning needs to occur in meaningful and relevant experiences over
time, with the language explicitly taught. From a Western perspective,

meaningful and relevant experiences may not be apparent. However,

discussion with Indigenous education workers, family and community
members will help reveal opportunities for connection.
Many bilingual or multilingual Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
learners are able to move fluently between languages they already know
but struggle with English for this reason. This is in addition to the issues
around the extra sounds (phonemes) in SAE previously discussed.
EALD learners who come to school with a strong command of
their home language—particularly when concepts in this language are
very similar to those of English (as is the case, for example, in Anglo
and Germanic languages)—do not find learning English as difficult as
Australian Indigenous children with traditional home languages. In
addition, younger children who don’t already have a strong command
of their home language find this a lot more challenging. Gibbons (1993)
believes that children are most vulnerable in this regard at the age of 5
or 6, compared with even younger children who learn two languages
concurrently with ease. The reason, she maintains, is that these children
are learning both languages in an environment where there is no threat to
their home language. She continues that ‘perhaps most vulnerable are those
who enter school in kindergarten with minimal English. For these children
it is important that schools not only support the development of English,
but also do all they can to provide support for the mother tongue’ (p.7).
Using home language in the classroom enables children to put
more cognitive energy into learning new concepts and hence facilitates
cognitive development of children. By contrast, not using home language
requires children to share the energy available to them between trans-
lating and learning new concepts.
Since bilingual teachers are not always available, it is essential that
teachers make use of bilingual home language assistant teachers and
community members to support children to scaffold their learning
whenever possible—either directly through translation or indirectly
through using familiar or similar home language words and concepts.
This will also ensure that children feel safe and hence maximise their
confidence and self-esteem, and consequently their learning.
Teachers can reflect children’s home languages in the classroom
in a number of ways. If they are fortunate enough to have a bilingual
helper (usually a parent or assistant teacher) they need primarily to

recognise the valuable asset these people are to their teaching and
learning program.
These Indigenous support staff and parents generally provide the
‘bridge’ from home language to SAE in the classroom; they understand
the lived experience of the children, and their environment, culture and
language. Because of this, they may be able to identify and interpret
students’ problems, explain their behaviour and provide teachers with
insight regarding the knowledge and skills that students bring with them
into the classroom, so that new knowledge can be scaffolded onto what
they already know. They are also able to provide a valuable link to the
community and to parents in particular.
You should:
• build a strong, personal and trustful relationship and partnership
with bilingual helpers
• behave towards bilingual helpers in ways that help children to see
the relationship as one between equals
• distribute clear roles between yourself and your bilingual helpers so
each knows whose responsibility is what and what tasks each will
undertake each day
• make sure bilingual helpers know exactly what the children will be
required to do in each task so they are able to scaffold the activity
exactly as it is required
• involve the bilingual helper in planning lessons or units of work;
find out whether new concepts do or don’t exist in students’ home
language and culture; ensure new material is culturally appropriate,
not biased or likely to be offensive; determine new vocabulary that
needs to be explicitly taught, and
• thank helpers for their input and their help daily, and more frequently
as required.
If a bilingual helper is not available full time in the classroom, you can
use other methods to show that home language is valued and supported.
These might include:
• inviting community Elders and parents into the classroom to read
or tell stories in home language

• enlisting the help of community members or the siblings of children

to make aural recordings of home language being used to describe
places or animals, for example, to scaffold new learning onto existing
learning, and/or
• undertaking to learn some of the children’s home language words
and phrases (ask children to teach you these and laugh at yourself
when you get it wrong!).
Focusing on oral language development in the classroom

Research indicates that if oral language is to be developed sufficiently
to support the development of literacy, certain conditions need to be
present in classrooms. Bilingual and multilingual learners generally
require more of these supports; however, all children need them to
some extent.
Research over many years has revealed that teachers generally
dominate classroom talk time, talking about twice as much as students.
What’s more, changing this balance is extremely difficult, even when
pointed out to teachers who know they need to be giving their students
more opportunities to develop oral language skills. Teacher-dominated
talk generally follows the pattern of teacher initiation, student response
and teacher evaluation, and the teacher will usually have a response in
mind before the student responds (Cullican, 2007).
Many teachers need to make a deliberate effort to redress this balance,
so that they become listeners and students do a lot more talking. This is
particularly the case in remote classrooms since many Indigenous students
will not participate or respond as teachers expect, leaving large periods
of silence. Teachers need to use pedagogies that increase the opportunities
for students to talk in meaningful ways for a variety of purposes.
This focus on oral language and talk (both in home
languages and SAE) provides students with oppor- A cycle of failure, low self-esteem
and subsequent expectations
tunities to use their already developed knowledge and of continued failure must not
experience in the learning environment. This similarly be allowed to develop . . .
enables the teacher to value what these children bring positive responses by teachers
to children’s first language
to learning experiences. and culture are important in
Some teachers, when confronted with bilingual enhancing learners’ self-esteem
or multilingual learners, feel inadequate and ‘out of and developing their confidence.
GIBBONS (1993)
their depth’, especially if they do not have EALD/ESL

support available to them. Gibbons believes that these teachers should

be reassured that learning a second or additional language is in many
ways similar to learning a first language since many of the processes are
the same. Teachers who provide a supportive, caring classroom where
children feel welcomed, comfortable and included, she believes, already
have a good language learning environment (1993, p. 10).
Processes are similar in that in both first and additional language
learning there is a gradual approximation to standard forms of grammar;
from ‘want eat’ to ‘I want to have something to eat’. Children move from
content words to function words as they gradually add new words or
phrases as they are learned.
It is the conditions for learning that, in the main, make the processes
different. Table 7.1 compares these conditions using a range of categories.
TABLE 7.1 Conditions for language learning in home and school environments
Learning additional language
Context Learning home language at school
Adult attention Children have sole attention of one Frequently one adult working with many
(or more) adult/s children
Working with Children working with parents and Children working with non-family
known adults family who know them well enough to
‘fine tune’ and correct responses
Cognitive and Cognitive and conceptual level lower Cognitive and conceptual level more
conceptual level since children are younger advanced than when learning first
language
Risk-taking/ Children feel ‘safe’ and able to take risks Children less likely to take risks for fear
self-esteem without self-esteem being damaged of damaging self-esteem
Timeframe Children take as much time as they Short timeframe and more pressure due
need to expectations and need to ‘keep up’
Source: Adapted from Gibbons (1993)
A supportive classroom, according to Gibbons (1993) is one where:

• children are at ease and comfortable
• language is used to learn about other things besides language
• there are planned opportunities for meaningful interaction between
peers (students need to need to communicate; that is, real motivation
is necessary)

• children have opportunities to solve problems rather than just be

receivers of information (children need to be given responsibility for
their learning or the learning of the group)
• the models of language used must be understandable to the children
but must also provide new ways of expressing meaning in order to
challenge them to increase their vocabulary (for example, a teacher
continuing to use ‘water’ and ‘dew’ to describe ‘condensation’ or
‘wearing away’ instead of ‘erosion’, in attempting to support students,
is in effect ‘dumbing down’ the curriculum that children have a right
to access), and
• there are frequent opportunities for individual children to interact
one on one with the teacher (p. 11).
It should be stressed that these conditions need to be present for all
children in classrooms if oral language is to be developed sufficiently
to support the development of literacy language. While bilingual and
multilingual learners generally require more of these supports, all
children need them and it should not be assumed they have them just
because they already speak SAE or come from homes where SAE is the
main language of communication.
Recognising oral language and the links between literacy:

phonological awareness
In Chapter 4, we shared the importance of oral language development
in children’s learning to read. For Indigenous children living in remote
locations where the use of print is often minimal, it is paramount that
phonological development is used as a bridge to learning to read.
Students must be explicitly and directly taught how to hear and make
the 44 sounds of SAE and shown how these sounds can be written
down. To reiterate Konza (2006): ‘If children are unable to hear the
separate sounds in words, they cannot relate these sounds to the letters
of the alphabet and so cannot use decoding skills to attack
unknown words.’
The best ways that teachers and educators can help
Phonological awareness is
children begin to develop the appreciation of the sounds the best single predictor of
of speech is through rhythm and rhyme. In Western reading performance.
GILLON (2004)
society, a collection of nursery rhymes has evolved

over centuries to teach children the sounds in English language. We

will come back to this later.
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS Did you learn nursery rhymes as you were growing up?
for sharing Which were your five favourites, and why did you like them best? List the
phonemes that your chosen rhymes focus on.
Bridging the gap through phonological awareness and skills

Foundational to bridging the gap from oral language to literate language
is the connection between thinking, talking, speaking, writing and
reading; as Allan (1961) has pointed out, ‘What I can think about, I
can talk about; what I can say, I can write; what I can write, I can read.’
For children to learn the relationship between what they say and
words, teachers need to write down what children say when they are
talking about shared experiences, such as a walk or a television program
or a book they have read together, or including pictures or photos that
children can take themselves or bring from home. These resulting
‘stories’ can be read together repeatedly and used as a teaching artefact
(for example, children match pictures with what is said) so that children
develop phonological and word recognition skills.
Programming for the development of phonological
awareness needs to begin with the listening of the
What I can think about, I can talk larger linguistic units (that is, syllable and rime, with
about; what I can say I can write;
what I can write, I can read. ‘rime’ being the sound following the onset e.g. in cat
ALLAN (1961) the onset is ‘c’ and the rime is ‘at’) and progressing to
the smaller units (that is, the phoneme, the individual
sounds in language).
All children need to develop phonological awareness and sound–letter
correspondence (that is, knowing that a letter or letter combination
represents a sound)—even those who may have high levels of whole-
word recognition skills—since these skills are required for spelling and
decoding.
Teaching phonological processing skills

Children first need to be taught how to listen through explicit teaching
of listening skills. This can be done using puppets to model appropriate

behaviours. For example, the puppet can be playing or talking or

‘jigging around’—students are asked, ‘Is the puppet listening now? Is he
listening now?’ and so on, so that they learn to listen with their whole
body, not just their ears. Metaphors can be used to assist this process
(see Chapter 2); ask students to suggest an animal that listens, or that
is alert, with its whole body—for example, a kangaroo—and then, when
you want them to listen, ask them to ‘be’ a kangaroo, or to listen and
be alert like a kangaroo. Listening can also be learned through playing
games such as Chinese Whispers.
Barrier games are a particularly good way of developing language
and listening skills; children sit on either side of a ‘barrier’, which may
be a board separating them across a desk, or even sit back to back. One
student is given some objects and the other is given the same objects
as well as some different objects. The one with the small amount has
to describe which ones he or she has, enabling the other student to
put all those remaining aside so that they both end up with the same
objects. This process can also be used where one child has an object and
describes it to another who has drawing paper and pen. The student
who is drawing has to sketch the object based on the description given
by the other child.
Understanding the developmental levels of phonological

awareness
Phonological awareness can be divided into four developmental levels
(DETWA, 2009) as follows:
1. word
2. syllable
3. onset–rime, and
4. phoneme.
Within these levels, there is a hierarchy of tasks that range from simple
to complex as follows:
1. discriminating between two sounds; responding with ‘same’ or
‘different’
2. making a judgement by giving a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response to a question
such as ‘Does dog start with ‘c’?

3. identifying by showing or finding a correct response (for example,

selecting a picture of a cat when asked ‘show me something beginning
with “c”’)
4. detecting the odd one out (for example, detecting the odd one out
when given pictures of three objects, two of them beginning with the
same sound, or hearing three words spoken, two beginning with the
same sound). This can also be done with words of the same sound
5. sorting or classifying objects into groups with the same sound
6. silent blending (choosing a picture or object of a spoken word but
not saying the word)
7. blending (choosing a picture or object of a spoken word and saying
the word)
8. segmenting words (completing words with picture cues, or segmenting/
stretching out a word—for example, c-a-t—and saying the example)
9. fluency: giving first one and then multiple words with a given sound,
and
10. deleting or manipulating a sound, syllable or word and providing
examples.
Tasks need to be presented in fun and interactive ways and in a
supportive environment where children can take risks. Teachers can
use some of the following suggestions for presenting tasks that develop
phonological awareness:
• using closed questions (for example, does bird start with ‘c’?), forcing
alternatives (for example, does cat start with ‘b’ or ‘c’?), or using open
questions (for example, what sound does dog start with?). Questions
should also be scaffolded so as not to be confronting, which is an
extremely important aspect when working with multilingual learners
from different cultural backgrounds (for example, who can tell me
. . . ? I wonder if . . . ? Let’s think about this together . . . ? Put your
hand up if . . . ?)
• modelling and demonstrating by thinking aloud (for example,
I wonder whether dog and cat start with the same sound. Dog starts
with ‘d’ and cat starts with ‘c’. ‘D’ and ‘c’ don’t sound the same, do
they? So the answer must be ‘no’.)
• using visual clues, such as drawings or rows of empty boxes, to
indicate the number of sounds being sought, or beads so they can
make one-to-one links with the number of sounds to be identified, or

• using written cues, such as magnetic plastic or wooden letters, so that

students can physically manipulate the letters as they say or sound
them; this will help children make the sound–letter correspondence
connections.
There is a need for caution when introducing segmentation tasks (that
is, those requiring students to segment, or break up, consonant-verb-
consonant words into sounds such as c-a-t). Words should initially be
chosen that contain continuant sounds (phonemes). These are sounds
that are only one continuous sound that can be held (such as ‘f’, ‘s’
and ‘sh’) compared with non-continuant sounds (such as ‘d’, ‘b’ and
‘n’). When modelling sounds by speaking them, ensure that these
phonemes are correctly pronounced. For example, when saying the
sound represented by ‘v’ we might say ‘vee’, or when saying ‘c’ we might
say ‘cee’ and this can lead to children being confused. It is similar for
blend sounds such as ‘pl’, which should not be said as ‘pler’ but should
be modelled at the phoneme level as ‘p’, ‘l’ (Leitão, 2003).
Phonological skills
Phonological processing should be developing at the same time as
sound–letter correspondence (we will come back to this later).
Phonological skills must be explicitly taught. They include:
• rhythm
• rhyme recognition
• rhyme production
• alliteration
• isolation
• blending, and
• segmentation (Konza 2006).
Examples of how each of these skills can be taught follow. They have
been derived from the work of Konza, who highlights these skills as
essential in the development of phonological awareness. We also explore
the skills of deletion and sound–letter correspondence.
Rhythm
A good place to start is by having children clapping, clicking and
stamping the ‘beats’ in their names. They can then move onto other

names, places and familiar words. If children cannot break words into
separate syllables (this may be because they cannot hear the syllables),
it may help to scaffold the learning from familiar words (described
above) to new compound words by using compound words made up
of syllables that have meaning in their own right, such as ‘sunlight’,
‘football’ and ‘toothbrush’. A box full of toys and objects can be used
as a game: a child draws out a toy, names the toy and then claps the
syllables independently or with all children.
Rhyme recognition
Children should be explicitly taught what ‘to rhyme’ means. This can
be done using nursery rhymes: speak the rhyme and then say, ‘Do hat
and fat rhyme?’ ‘Yes, they sound the same at the end’; ‘Do mouse and
dog rhyme?’ No, they don’t sound the same at the end.’ Children can
be asked to listen carefully to three words, such as ‘hat’, ‘mat’ and ‘dog’,
and asked which the odd one out is, and why. They can eventually be
asked ‘What is the sound that rhymes?’ (The answer is ‘at’.)
Rhyme production
Say a word and then ask children to give you a word that rhymes. Have
children work in pairs or groups to see how many words they can make
that rhyme with a given word. Play ‘rhyming I spy’ by starting with
‘I spy with my little eye something that rhymes with . . .’
Alliteration
Use children’s names in activities, paying particular attention to the
sound at the beginning of the name (alliteration is about the sound,
not the letter; opulent ostrich is an example of alliteration since the ‘o’
sounds the same in both words, but Amy’s attitude is not since the ‘a’
sound in each word is different). For example, busy
beaver bent before bungying. Listening games can also
When asked about her success
with learning fluent English at
be used to promote children’s listening: everyone whose
Yuendumu School in Central name begins with rrrr stand up. Tongue twisters are
Australia during the sixties, a great way of getting children to listen, make and
one Warlpiri woman said: ‘The
teachers loved us to bits and
practice a particular sound: Peter Piper picked a peck
they drilled us with phonics.’ of pickled peppers. Getting children to help you make
WARLPIRI WOMAN, them up and then saying them together is a great way
NORTHERN TERRITORY
to focus on the sounds.

Isolation
Play games of bingo, concentration and ‘sound’ snap, adapting the games
so that children can practise isolating initial, final and medial sounds
(for example, a bingo board with sounds on it, to which you give clues
such as ‘the medial sound in “book”’).
Blending
Children play a version of bingo again, where the teacher calls out a
word in a stretched out way (for example, ssmmaaall). Children find
the word on the card and colour or cover it. Konza (2006) also suggests
making up non-existant words such as ‘v-o-g’, ‘t-o-b’, ‘t-r-i-t’ so that
children are confronted with totally foreign words and have to concen-
trate on the unfamiliar sounds.
Segmentation Systematic phonics instruction

is a way of teaching reading
Another task suggested by Konza requires children to
that stresses the acquisition of
count the sounds that are made when saying the name sound–letter correspondents
of an object (for example, given a picture of a dog and and their use to spell words
(Harris & Hodges, 1995). Phonics
three boxes they write ‘d-o-g’ in each respective box).
instruction is designed for
beginners . . . and for children
Deletion having difficulty learning to read.
LANGENBERG ET AL. (2000)
A sound is removed from a word and children are asked
what word or sound remains (for example, What word
remains when ‘s’ is removed from soap/smile/stop?).
Sound–letter correspondence
Research indicates that the correspondence between sound and letters
has been identified as a critical component of becoming literate. Synthetic
phonics is an evidence-based method for teaching children skills needed
to read and write in a systematic and structured way. Research continues
to indicate the success of synthetic phonics instruction for all children for
making greater progress in reading than for children with no phonics
teaching (Torgerson et al., 2006).
Synthetic phonics is a form of phonics teaching in which ‘sounding
out’ is used; children are taught to access their knowledge of letter
sounds and to then blend these sounds to produce spoken words. This
method was widely and successfully used in teaching baby-boomers to
learn to read in the 1960s and ’70s. When writing, children are taught

to break a known spoken word into segments of individual phonemes

(sounds) and then write the corresponding letter for the sound.
Elements of the successful method include:
• children explicitly being taught the 44 sounds of English, not just

the 26 alphabet sounds
• teaching these sounds first and then related to the symbols used to
represent the sounds
• teaching sound–letter correspondence through multi-sensory
approaches to make the learning fun, and
• developing sound–letter correspondence for children through the
following progression:
– knowledge of the alphabet
– single sound to letter link
– learning the links between letters and multiple phonemes (sounds),
and
– multi-letter orthographic strings and phonemes. (DETWA, 2009)
The sounds are introduced in order of sound–letter groups (identified

by Lloyd, 2005); each group was carefully selected to help children learn
the sounds. The first group has been selected so that they can be used
to make up simple words (for example, ‘pin’, ‘pat’, ‘sat’). Since ‘b’ and
‘p’ sounds and look similar, these are not introduced together, while
‘c’ is introduced early as it provides a template for writing ‘a’, ‘d’, ‘o’, ‘g’
and ‘q’. The letter groups are:
• s, a, p, i, t, n
• ck, e, h, r, m, d
• g, o, u, l, f, b
• ai, j, oa, ie, ee, or
• z, w, ng, v, short oo, long oo
• y, x, ch, sh, voiced th (as in ‘the’’), unvoiced th (as in ‘think’), and
• qu, ou, oi, ue, er, ar.
Letter sounds have been successfully introduced at a rate of one letter a

day, and all sounds are covered in a term. Children seem to cope well
with this pace, though bilingual and multilingual learners may require
a slower rate than this.

To introduce the new sounds an approach such as that used in The

Phonics Handbook (Lloyd, 2005) is recommended. This approach
associates each new sound with a story line, a picture,
an action and words containing the sound. It is also Bus and van Ijzendoorn (1999)
conducted a meta-analysis
suggested that songs and nursery rhymes be used to of phonological awareness
introduce the sounds, teachers selecting rhymes that training programs and early
repeat particular sounds in verse and chorus. In doing reading. They determined that
phonological awareness training
this, it’s important that you: should be seen as a causal
factor in learning to read.
• focus initially on lower case letters
HATTIE (2009)
• use letter sounds rather than their names (for example,
‘sss’ rather than ‘esss’ and ‘t’ rather than ‘tee’)
• revise letters learned in previous lessons at the start of each new
lesson
• target specific sound–letter correspondences while attending to
phonological skills
• explicitly teach appropriate meta-language (for example, sound–letter,
letter name and vowel), and
• take care when selecting stimuli (some alphabet books show pictures
of objects that don’t match letter sounds; for example, showing a
xylophone when ‘x’ is said as ‘z’).
It is a good idea to give each student a ‘sound book’ (an online digital
set of drawers can also be used) where teacher and child can keep a
record of each of the 44 sounds they are successful in learning to say.
For many Aboriginal children in the Northern Territory, more than
half of the 44 English language phonemes are foreign to them; they do
not exist in their home language. You should talk to Indigenous teacher
aides and parents and possibly any local linguists who are able to tell
them what SAE phonemes do not exist in the home languages used by
children. This will help teachers with their planning and subsequently
ensure that a specific focus is placed on learning these in order to enable
children to access the language spoken in classrooms.
Trauma and nutrition

While pedagogy is more about teaching than supporting students to
come to the learning environment ready and willing to learn, it is

important that teachers in remote schools—particularly those with few

specialist student services staff available either on-site or close by—are
able to provide these services embedded in their pedagogy. Without this
their students will not learn, despite having been taught.
For many children in remote Australian Aboriginal communities,
sexual, physical and psychological abuse is part of their daily lives (NT
Government, 2007). It can be caused by domestic violence, neglect or
lack of basic care. The ‘code of silence’ in communities about these
situations means that schools and teachers often aren’t aware of them.
This means that teachers might jump to the wrong conclusions, blaming
children themselves for their bad behaviour and inability to learn. This
can result in judging the symptoms presented by the students rather than
adjusting their own teaching styles as a result of awareness of the cause.
Some children are beaten or abused by drunken parents and other
family members. Older children might, for example, spend a large
portion of each night protecting younger children from predators (for
example, adults under the influence of alcohol), having been told by the
women to gather young children together and take them out of camp
and harm’s way at night time. These children may be constantly on the
move all night. They might come to school in the morning seeking safety
and rest. Some schools provide the only safe haven that children know.
Some children are traumatised by witnessing or hearing their parents
and other adults in violent situations (for example, men beating women
and children). They might then have to live with ongoing effects, such
as depression of their mother or having to look after young children due
to their mother having a broken arm. These children are traumatised by
both the violence and feelings of guilt due to their inability to intervene
due to fear.
Research has shown that trauma affects the ability of children to
learn, form relationships and function in appropriate ways in classroom
settings. It is important that schools work effectively to ensure that all
children can maximise their learning, achieving to their highest potential
despite the traumatic circumstances that surround their home lives.
The Massachusetts Advocates for Children (Cole et al., 2005) describes
the impact of a particular type of trauma on child learners:

When the perpetrator of violence is a caregiver . . . the betrayal a child

experiences can be devastating (and) the impact on a child’s self-perception
and worldview can be carried into a classroom, where it can interfere with
the ability to process information and maintain control over behaviours
and emotions. (pp. 2–3)
Apart from potentially being on the move all night avoiding physical
abuse there are other reasons for children getting insufficient sleep
in remote communities. One of these is overcrowded houses. A link
between school attendance and the number of children sharing a room
has been established. Schools need to learn and plan from this type of
data. Children who are tired are unlikely to learn. Some schools offer ‘rest
time’ during the day for all children to put their heads down and sleep.
Another form of trauma is caused by neglect. Some children are not
provided with adequate food or the right kinds of food to sustain their
health. Basic nutrition is essential in order for children to learn—for a
variety of reasons, it cannot be assumed that they will get it at home.
Most reasons stem from dysfunctional communities and households;
other reasons stem from financial hardship and the cost of buying
quality fresh food, especially fresh fruit and vegetables. Children should
not be judged for these circumstances.
Many remote schools provide breakfast programs for children to
ensure they are given a nutritious meal before they are expected to do
school work. This can have the added bonus of enticing students to
school who might otherwise go hungry at home all day. Provision of
food to hungry students shows genuine care and will earn trust while
also positioning the student for more effective learning.
Symptoms of trauma
Children who are experiencing (or have experienced)
trauma through family violence may present with When a child feels appreciated
and cared for by a teacher, a
behaviours such as aggression, defiance, withdrawal, sense of safety grows, and the
reactivity and impulsivity and even perfectionism. child consequently becomes
These children may have difficulties with attentiveness, more open to learning.
COLE ET AL. (2005)
regulating their emotions, understanding cause and
effect relationships, communication and language.

These may work individually or collectively to inhibit children’s engage-

ment with the curriculum, which is essential for learning. Moreover,
studies show that these children are more likely to engage with risk-
taking behaviours, such as substance abuse, alcohol consumption and
smoking.
Schools, teachers and trauma

Schools and teachers can play a vital role in traumatised children
restoring their faith and trust in adults. Strong relationships with adults
who care can strengthen children, restore their self-esteem and, at the
very least, lessen the effects of family violence and trauma. Mastering
academic learning and social skills can play an important part in healing
traumatised children. The pedagogies of teachers play an important
role in developing and maintaining mastery. While all of these have
been presented and discussed in earlier chapters, their importance is
highlighted here in remote contexts for traumatised children. They
have also been shown to benefit all children, not just those who are
traumatised. They include the following:
• Find out the strengths that students bring with them and give
them opportunities to develop and display these strengths. Your
recognition, affirmation and celebration of these (without causing
the child shame) will foster trust and close relationships as well as
bolstering self-esteem and self-concept. Areas of strength may be
academic or non-academic.
• Establish predictability for children through daily, weekly and
monthly/term routines. This includes term programs and ‘maps’ of
what children are learning and when. These help provide the safe
and secure environment needed by traumatised children. If children
know what to expect and when at school they are more likely to
attend and to want to attend.
• Break tasks into achievable parts while working within an under-
standing of the goals of the ‘whole’ tasks. This can provide students
with additional structure that will benefit all students, particularly
those who are traumatised. This can be done through the construct-
deconstruct pedagogy (Yunkaporta, 2009a–c) outlined in Chapter 5.

• Provide language-based supports (see chapters 4 and later), including

presenting information in multiple forms (written, multi-modal,
pictorial and verbal), and scaffolding that ranges from concrete (for
example, physical manipulatives and graphic organisers) to abstract.
• Use work in literacy to help students identify and process feelings
(for example, reading a story about a frog that got angry and then
having children write words, draw pictures, use colours and shapes
and so on, that represent anger).
Schools can support and complement these pedagogies
Learning to identify and
through appropriate policies and supports for teachers articulate emotions will help
in whole-school approaches. Some of these have been [traumatised children] regulate
their reactions. However, it
mentioned in earlier chapters, including the following:
is important to let children
calm down before helping
• Provide daily, weekly and term routines that include
them identify their feelings.
school assemblies, excursions, school approaches to COLE ET AL. (2005)
reading (for example, daily literacy hour) and term
celebrations. Similar patterns should be a feature of
classroom routines.
• Have weekly awards for celebration of student strengths and achieve-
ments (without causing shame) presented at school assemblies.
• Ensure school behaviour management policies are consistently
addressed by all staff and that the policies are culturally safe (see
Chapter 3).
• Engage specialists wherever possible to determine when student
behaviours are due to trauma.
• Ensure consistency with behaviour management including for
traumatised students as students must be held accountable if they
knowingly break the rules. However, if the response is to be effective,
the choice of the response must take into account the traumatised
child’s knowledge of impairment to self-control, understanding of
rules and expectations and likely inability to explain why they did
the wrong thing.
• Children who experience violence often believe that conflict is
resolved through violence since they have had that behaviour
modelled to them. Schools need to model approaches to conflict
that are non-violent and respectful.

• Schools must address behaviours that are disruptive to the learning

of students, even if committed by traumatised students. However, it
is essential to keep students in school rather than expel or suspend
them. Teachers need to ensure that conflict with students does
not spiral out of control and that children are not backed into a
corner (see Chapter 4). Children need to be given choices about
how their unacceptable behaviours are dealt with. Responses should
balance accountability with firmness and understanding. Behaviour
management plans negotiated with students and parents are ideal
and show respect.
Genuine care
The research overwhelmingly indicates that if Indigenous students
are to learn they need to know that their teacher cares for them.
Teacher–student relationships have been described in detail in Chapter
3. However, what is critical is that they are genuine. Teachers cannot
create or manufacture genuine, heartfelt relationships. They are either
real or they are not and Indigenous students can tell the difference. They
are experts at reading the body language of teachers. This includes the
tone of your voice, and the way you move. Students will be wary of you
if they know you don’t really care.
If care isn’t occurring naturally, then you will need to work on the
relationship; find out more about your students and who they are as
people. What do they like and dislike? What are their strengths? In
learning more about them, you are more likely to begin to find things
in common to talk about. You can discuss places that are familiar, and
sports that students may like, such as football. You will also need to be
prepared to share things about yourself; foods, likes, dislikes, sports,
heroes and so on will also help build sharing relationships.
Relationships are two-way and need to be nurtured. For Indigenous
students in remote locations, there is likely to be distrust and even
hostility towards whitefellas, which may have been passed down for
generations. Barriers need to be broken down. Shared meals can break
down barriers as through the act of giving and sharing, trust is generated.

Some teachers, in the interests of maintaining good health and nutrition,

give students treats, such as nuts and fruit, as rewards.
Maintenance of standards and high expectations

The need for consistent standards has been explained in Chapter 3.
Sometimes teachers in remote schools might come to the understanding
that the gap between what their students already know and what they
need to know (in order to have equivalent outcomes to students of the
same age-cohort throughout Australia) is so wide that it is impossible
for them to make a difference. For many, they simply ‘don’t know where
to start’ and, even if they did, many believe they do not have the skills
or know-how.
From this conclusion, a defeatist attitude can arise, resulting in
teachers providing mere ‘busy work’, which will keep the students
occupied and provide a sense of ‘learning’ in the classroom, but which
in fact fails to meet the Standards. Teachers who use ‘busy work’ are not
setting achievable targets aimed at the intended curriculum, nor are they
making the Standards explicit or ensuring that students hold to those
Standards. They do not tell students that this is the learning they expect.
Students in remote communities generally know when this is
happening. They know when they are not being challenged, and school
work becomes ‘boring’. It is their right to access the same curriculum
(in terms both of quantity and quality) as all other Australian students.
By maintaining these standards your job will become more challenging
but also more meaningful; if you lower the standards you will get what
you are expecting and your job will become less rewarding. You will
become bored.
It is critical that teachers in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
community schools do not lower their standards. Work undertaken
by Chris Sarra at Cherbourg State School (2003, 2007) showed that if
students are told they are smart and that standards are maintained for
them, their achievement will match the expectations. If teachers keep
standards where they should be and work with students to set learning
targets and let students know they are expected to achieve them, there
is a strong likelihood that they will.
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Standards, attendance and cultural identity

Cherbourg State School, Queensland, has approximately 250
students, most of whom are Indigenous, and seven Indigenous
Education Workers. While Cherbourg is technically not a remote
school, its student population is 99 per cent Indigenous—the school
is socially if not geographically remote. The following is by Chris
Sarra (2003b), the former principal of Cherbourg.
I came here in 1998 there were dramatic levels of underachievement.

Almost all the kids were caught in the [Year 2 diagnostic] net, and
that was being explained away by saying things like ‘the kids have
very complex social lives’ or ‘the context is very difficult’ . . . teachers
weren’t challenged or questioned about the poor performance.
. . . Aboriginal parents want [their] children to mix it with anybody
in any school . . . but not at the expense of their cultural identity . . .
Hence the school wanting to be ‘Strong and Smart’ . . . that’s the
vision.
It irritates me when people say ‘we need more Indigenous
principals, like Chris’ . . . it’s dangerous ground. Yes, we do need
more Indigenous teachers and principals but at the same time not
having them can’t be an excuse for not taking action . . . All it takes
to make a start is good will.
Just as outcomes were unacceptable, so was attendance. We
worked with the community on it and then made it a public thing,
where classes reported to the rest of the school each week, and
there were rewards for the best attendance record. Getting rewarded
along the way is part of being ‘Strong and Smart’, part of being
proud to be Aboriginal.
I insist on not using separate or watered down measuring sticks
for our kids . . . parents don’t want to know some sort of fluffy
outcomes—they want the real deal . . . We’re not out to make them
like non-Aboriginal kids, we’re just focusing on academic outcomes.
We want to do both things simultaneously.
We aim for the same targets as the rest of the state and we’re not
there at the moment but we are on the move. We were dramatically

behind but I won’t be content until we’re either up with it or in front

of it. I wouldn’t accept anything less.
. . . I expect any parent should be able to come in and ask how a
kid is doing and we should be able to bring up a profile that shows
the kid’s progress and show it to them . . . in a form that they can
understand. So we’re able to say, look, well, this is where the kid
is at and this is where he or she has come from. And this is where
kids in Queensland are expected to be at this age. So there’s no
nonsense about it.
And where parents don’t ask I do the asking instead. Because I
want every kid to succeed.
Celebration of success
Celebration is a big part of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures.
NAIDOC, for example, is a celebration of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander cultures and an opportunity to recognise contributions made
by Indigenous Australians in various occupations and activities. Its
origins are in the 1920s, when Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
groups sought to increase awareness in the wider community of the
status and treatment of Indigenous Australians.
Celebration is an essential part of every learning journey. Every
time students achieve a target or learning goal or apply their learning
successfully, there is cause for celebration. Celebration is an important
part of formal education. Non-Indigenous cultures often celebrate
successes in learning in formal ways, such as graduation ceremonies.
Some cultures consider celebration as an essential way to share the joy
created by achieving goals and targets that individuals or groups set out
to achieve. This can motivate students and teachers to continue through
success and enhanced belief in themselves. This part of the journey is
critical in remote communities.
What is celebration in a learning journey about?

Some questions that might help focus on this part of the learning
journey include:

• Have we recognised the need for the community to celebrate our

achievement?
• Should we have a formal celebration to mark the occasion?
• Who needs to know our successes?
• How successful have we been?
• Have we determined how the achievements impact on students and
their families and communities?
• What can we learn from the journey—how it went and what we
achieved?
In order to celebrate learning, students might need to reflect on whether:
• their goals and targets were achieved
• the learning journey went smoothly
• they have had the opportunity to fully demonstrate the extent of
their learning
• they learn things beyond what they planned to achieve, or
• they now have a stronger sense of who they are and their identity.
As Indigenous people aspire towards greater self-determination, it is
important that we, as a wider community, join in celebrating achieve-
ments that demonstrate progress and remind us all of what is possible
when we work together in a spirit of national reconciliation.
Celebration of teaching and learning is a form of positive feedback,
inspiring learners to continue their learning journey. Celebration can
increase motivation and raise self-esteem. When celebrations occur
along a learning journey, they can motivate people by recognising and
valuing what has been achieved so far, instilling a positive self-concept
and fostering a ‘we can do this’ attitude (Bandura, 1977, 1986).
Schools would do well to celebrate the attainment of learning
and teaching goals, whether planned or unplanned. In Indigenous
communities and partnerships between students, teachers, families,
communities and sometimes industry and trainers, it is important for all
partners to be involved in the celebrations, so that they can be thanked
for their contribution but also motivated to continue.
The successful learners and their families, through the shared
celebration, have an opportunity to thank those who supported and
enabled their success. For older students involved in training, industry

partners and trainers can share in the role they played by seeing the
impact of that role on student success. They can also take the opportunity
to build relationships with the students and enhance the opportunity
of potential employment.
Supporting students and their transitions is also an essential part of
the learning journey and activity that arises from celebration. Increased
self-esteem and confidence should encourage discussion for older
students about ‘what next’. Counsellors need to be careful about giving
messages to students that they are not ‘ready’ or sufficiently competent
for the next educational step or target that they might set their sights on.
In some schools, for example, there is evidence of Indigenous students
repeatedly being counselled into doing another Certificate 1 or yet
another Certificate 2 rather than moving forward to greater challenges.
Teachers, trainers and counsellors need to be careful of giving this
advice. In Chapter 5, we discussed the importance of high expectations
for Indigenous learners. Teachers, trainers and counsellors need to have
high expectations for success for all students and to hold all students
to these expectations through their pedagogies. Affirming attitudes
that teachers demonstrate towards their students not only shape the
expectations held for their learning but also shape the ways that they
treat their students and, ultimately, what their students learn (Ladson-
Billings, 1994; Lucas et al., 1990; Sarra, 2003a).
Some researchers caution against terms such as ‘pathways to employ-
ment’, suggesting that they are laden with Western values that assume
all students want to get jobs and that they will continue on a pathway
through successive years of schooling and education until they get them
(McRae-Williams & Guenther, 2012). They prefer the use of the term
‘pathways to wellbeing’, acknowledging that the pathway might not
require engagement with employment, and suggest a need to explore
and ‘discuss meaning and purpose in life, and from this position the
potential for livelihoods. A livelihoods approach recognises . . . that
“work” may be conceptualised more broadly than a nine-to-five job’
(Guenther et al., 2011).
Older students in completing the learning targets they set themselves
should reflect on their learning by asking questions such as ‘What do
I want to do as a result of this learning?’

Similarly, because communities frequently have collective goals in

supporting older students to take on higher schooling, they need to
reflect on the achievements of their students and young people in the
context of what they are now able to contribute to the community, and
what else might be needed in their education.
The role of ICTs in assessment was discussed in the previous chapter.
Some researchers describe ICTs as pathway enablers, particularly since
e-portfolios have been identified as having a role in supporting successful
learning pathways with learners using them to support personalised
forms of learning and manage their lifelong learning records (Curyer
et al., 2007; Joyes et al., 2009; Wallace, 2009).
What are the roles in celebrating?

Once it has been determined that celebration is desirable and even
necessary the main elements—planning, reporting and communic-
ating—need to be considered.
Existing celebrations, such as class and school graduations, should be
continually re-evaluated to ensure that they are serving their purpose for
students, families and community. Planning should include community
representatives, industry partners, teachers and the students themselves.
It is especially important for schools to value their staff in this
process, not only teachers but support staff, such as Indigenous teacher
aides who play a significant role in the learning journey of students.
Older students should de-brief the learning journey, from start to
finish, with those who had a key role in sharing the journey with them. A
specific adult might be appointed to each Indigenous student to arrange
a one-on-one discussion regarding what has been achieved, how it has
been achieved, issues that arose that could have been avoided and, in
particular what the student has learned about themselves and their
identity. Formally arranging these debriefing sessions by agreeing on a
time and place in which to do this is important to give older students
a ‘voice’ and some control over their learning and education.
Feedback might also be provided to encourage students about how
they might tackle the next stage of their learning, if that is appropriate.
It is important not to instil fear into students whose next learning phase
might be at a higher level or in a different institution. Encouragement

with an attitude of ‘high expectations’ should result, leaving the successful

student with an ‘I can do this’ attitude.
Celebrating student success as a means of thanking communities
and families for their support is also a role for schools. A ceremony
separate from graduation might include a symbolic ‘handing back’
of each successful student to representatives from their families and/
or communities. Alternatively, a written communication to Elders or
significant adults in communities might serve a similar purpose. In
the context of sharing achievements more broadly, communication of
achievements should perhaps be web-based.
In traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, celeb-
rations and ceremonies were often initiations into new roles and new
ways of being. Celebrations and transitions were therefore connected.
In the learning journey, a graduation is an acknowledgement that the
graduands are different people; they have changed as a result of their
learning, and public celebration recognises that change. Schools in
remote contexts do well to be aware of this connection. A celebration is
not ‘the end’ but may be ‘the beginning’. Moving from one to the other
and into new ways of being can be challenging. Those moving forward
often need support if they are to meet expectations.
Transitions
Transitions are generally hard for everyone. Transitions often follow
celebrations with increased community expectations of different
behaviours.
For Indigenous students, transitions faced as a result of increased
learning may result in ‘jarring’ and even trauma. This is often particu-
larly acute for these students due to close ties with family, community
and ‘country’, as explained in earlier chapters. Transitions can include
moving from:
• one learning institution to another (for example, primary school to
high school)
• one set of teachers to a new set of teachers
• living at home to boarding

• being a child to being an adult and taking greater responsibility for

oneself
• attending school to undertaking work experience in a workplace
• living in one location (for example, on country) to living in an
unfamiliar location
• living with family to living with strangers or in a boarding school,
and having no family around, and
• being close to friends to having to make new friends.
For Indigenous people, some of these transitions can be overwhelming.
Being away from family and ‘country’, for example, especially for long
periods of time, might feel like being incarcerated. Without support,
this might become unbearable and result in students ‘going home’ or
‘withdrawing’ in an effort to find inner peace.
Communities, schools and workplaces can play a significant role in
minimising the internal (psychological) and external (environmental)
‘jarring’ that these transitions might create. Communities and families,
for example, might be encouraged to communicate as often as possible,
including by visiting. The use of digital technologies (including Skype,
video-conferencing and mobile phones) can help students feel less
isolated and ‘cut off’ from families through enabling a range of frequent
communications. Boarding schools can also support students in arran-
ging the following communications:
• making changes to the physical environment so that students feel
more ‘at home’ (for example, photos and posters of students’ home
environments, signs in students’ home languages and holding classes
outdoors), and
• offering and organising regular seminars, particularly in the initial
periods, for students transitioning together with more experienced
students who have already transitioned. These might be informal
sharing sessions or more structured formal sessions focused on partic-
ular topics identified as being issues for transitioning students, such
as finances, transport, communicating with home and community,
how to manage study demands, required skills for writing new genres
(for example, reports, assignments and essays).
Supports should be collaboratively provided and shared by institutions
on either side of the transition. For example, a student moving from a

Year 9 class to a workplace may need support from both their teacher
and the employer in understanding the environment and conditions
from which the student is coming. Employers can work with school
teachers, counsellors and support staff to understand this and hence
put in place structures and processes to make the transition smoother.
These can include:
• workplace engagement strategies for teachers to help them understand
what will be required of students
• mentoring on the worksite
• cultural competence training for non-Indigenous staff in a workplace,
and/or
• increasing the number of Indigenous staff at the worksite.
One report (Rea et al., 2008) highlights the benefits of work placements
in introducing people to different types of employment. They recom-
mend students spending a short time on a range of work sites before
transitioning into full-time work since this can help to ease ‘jarring’ as
students adjust to the expectations of work.
Home way/school way

In Chapter 2 we discussed the concept of ‘code-switching’ and its place
in teaching students who bridge cultures, languages and behaviours in
the process of accessing Western schooling. In remote locations this
practice is occurring for all children on a daily basis. Some children
even live in an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community that
is physically separate from the town in which their school is located.
The practice needs to be explicitly taught to all children as a means
of bridging cultures and contexts. In doing this, you should aim to
embed the value of difference. We do things differently in school than
at home, and you should ensure that children don’t feel that their way
is inferior to Western ways; it’s just different. You could even model the
practice through discussing ‘school way, city way’, describing how you
might talk differently, dress differently or behave differently when you
return to the city for your holidays, for example. Emphasise that this
is a normal practice for all people, not just something that was created
for their sake.

The following statement from St Clair (2000, p. 6) presents the issues

for Indigenous children growing up in bi-cultural societies, in particular
with respect to the demands placed on children operating in the two
worlds of home and school and the code-switching required.
For children growing up in a bicultural system, the problems of literacy
are compounded. They must learn how to reconstruct the social reality
of the host culture and also be able to shift from one system or form
of legitimization to the other. At home, for example, the oral culture
framework may pervade with its emphasis on cooperation, being person
oriented, seeking affection as a feedback for group sanctioned behaviour,
and a concern for how things are related to a larger pattern or cultural
configuration. But at school, the situation can be reversed. Here children
are often asked to work alone and to compete with their fellow students.
The focus is on completing daily assigned tasks for which the rewards are
many, but of a different nature. Gold stars and the grading system replace
the feelings of warmth and love of the primary socialisation of the home.
In school, there is much concern with details and with the acquisition
of knowledge. Many of the deep concerns of the bicultural child go
unnoticed or unconsidered. Under these circumstances, the difference
between primary socialization in the home and the secondary socialisation
of the school system is one of social distance and personal alienation.
Working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander

teacher assistants and support workers
In most remote schools, there are usually local assistant teachers and
support workers who have a great deal of knowledge about their students,
local families and communities, which is an invaluable resource. Not
only do they speak the local languages, but they are also fluent in the
process of mastering English and can translate from one language to
the other efficiently and effectively. Moreover, they care deeply about
the students and are often related to them. They provide direct links
to parents and extended families of students.
These assistant teachers are often studying in their own time to gain
qualifications to support them in their roles. They learn by watching
you. More importantly, you can learn a great deal from them if you
are willing to build equal partnerships with them. If you treat them in

subservient ways, or as if they are inferior and ‘second rate’, you will
not gain access to their knowledge and wisdom, since if they do not
feel valued and respected, they are likely to withdraw much of what
they might otherwise offer.
Ask for their advice in planning and decision-making, using questions
such as:
• What is the Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander perspective on this
topic or event?
• How do you suggest I teach this?
• For this activity, will children work best in groups or individually?
• Which children cannot sit or work together for cultural or family
reasons?
• How do you suggest I deal with this student?
Teachers need to value these assistant teachers and support workers,
not only because they deserve respect, but also because by valuing
bilingual workers—who are from the same cultural background as the
students—they model respectful behaviour and implicitly say to children,
‘I value your culture, your language, your knowledge and your bilingual
skills’, so helping children to build self-esteem and self-confidence.
Working in partnership with parents

We discussed relationships between schools and their communities in
Chapter 3. In remote communities, it is absolutely essential that you work
to build trusting relationships with parents and families. Remember,
relationships are a critical part of Indigenous cultures. If parents do
not trust you, it is unlikely they will participate in supporting their
children either to attend school or engage with you or with learning
when they are there.
Parents need to know that you acknowledge and value them as the
first teachers for their children. They need to know that you are not
going to try and assimilate their children into Western ways; they want
learning for their children but not at the expense of their cultural identity.
You should make sure that parents and other family members are
invited, encouraged and made to feel welcome in your class at any time.
They will see this in your body language and hear it in your voice tone.

Invite their support and participation in making decisions about the

education of their children. Seek them on their home ground; Western
schools can be intimidating and even feel threatening for Indigenous
parents. They may have bad memories of these from their own schooling.
They will, however, have good memories of particular teachers they may
have experienced. These ‘good’ memories may be recollected through
images of kindness, genuine care, warmth, interest, being listened to, and
so on. These are the qualities they want their own children to experience.
If Indigenous parents seem disinterested or uncaring, this may
simply be a reaction to you and what they have heard about you and
your dealings with children in their communities. Do not be quick to
blame or judge them for their seeming lack of interest, but instead have
a good look at yourself and ask a teacher assistant for open and honest
feedback to help in your self-reflection.
Sometimes invitations can be insufficient and abstract. Ask the advice
of Elders and teacher assistants; better to plan events giving time and
place with a request for participation than a general ‘you are welcome
any time’. Class barbeques, morning teas and ‘cup-o-tea’ before class time
can be less intimidating and more successful in building relationships
and partnerships with parents.
Isolation
Living and working in remote communities can be lonely at times.
Teachers need a strong conviction that this is what they need to be
doing—it is not just another job or an adventure. Each day needs to
provide its own rewards in order to continue to provide the motivation
needed to remain in some remote locations. Some teachers struggle
to survive from week to week, let alone from term to term. This is
another reason to build strong relationships; those that are nurturing
and rewarding can sustain you in the long term. ‘Nurturing’ and
‘rewarding’ speak of strong relationships and high expectations.
The greater the achievement of learning goals by students the greater
the sense of efficacy for teachers. This ‘can do’ attitude encourages
persistence and provides motivation and consistency.
It is also important to build strong relationships with colleagues,
either on-site or using digital technologies. Skype and other ICTs

enable strong, supportive relationships with other teachers in similar

circumstances. You will meet these people at events held by your
employer. You should nurture these relationships; teachers who act as
if they are self-sufficient limit their own learning as well as insulating
themselves from much-needed support.
Conclusion
This chapter provides discussion on a demonstration of cultural respons-
iveness in a particular context in Australia. It demonstrates that each
context is different and that generic advice and examples need to be
sufficiently flexible and adaptable to be used and implemented wherever
teachers are working across Australia. Discussion also focuses on the
particular complexities faced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
children and their families interacting with the Western schooling
system, and the challenges that brings.
Awareness of the issues and challenges that one is likely to face
on being sent to a remote school can only support teachers (and their
families) as they move into a ‘foreign’ environment.

Conclusion: Learning to teach in
a culturally responsive way
CHAPTER 8
In the introduction to this book, we included the following statement:
Culturally responsive teachers are those who, in seeking to understand
their Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, learn more about
themselves in the process. This understanding of ‘self’ and personal
identity promotes a greater awareness of the similarities and differences
between people, including people from different culture groups. With
this awareness comes a greater respect and a desire to learn more.
Teachers who become learners of their students and their cultures
approach their role differently; respect develops into genuine ‘caring’;
students and their parents can feel and sense the care, trust and
relationships developing; and learning increases for both teachers and
their students.
While the National Professional Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2011)

include only two (out of 37) focus areas that specifically mention
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students (standards 1.4 and 2.4),
culturally responsive teachers pay particular attention to the needs of
these students all the time. In other words, cultural competence is an
attitude that pervades all their decision-making relating to their teaching.
This attitude is demonstrated as cultural responsiveness. The cultural
competence demonstrated in the responses (actions) is embedded in
each of the Standards.
Each of the cultural responses discussed in chapters 1 to 7 can be
aligned to at least one of the Standards, as shown in Table 8.1.
253

TABLE 8.1 Alignment between National Professional Standards for Teachers and
cultural responsiveness

1. Know students • Knowing the learning strengths and preferred learning styles of each student
and how they • Knowing what the students already know and bring with them into the learning
learn environment
• Knowing the students’ interests and home lives in order to ensure the learning
is relevant and interesting
• Knowing the cultural identity and linguistic background of each student
• Knowing what teaching strategies and activities will support the full participa-
tion and learning of all students
• Knowing the historical and contemporary relationships between Indigenous and
dominant cultures that may be responsible for legacies of distrust
• Knowing that diversity exists within cultural and ethnic groups
• Respecting and valuing the cultures of students
2. Know the • Knowing the content that students need to learn and how to deconstruct and
content and scaffold and differentiate it
how to teach it • ‘Situating’ the intended learning content in students’ lived realities
• Knowing what the students already know and bring with them into the learning
environment
• ‘Bridging’ the intended learning content from what students know, their values
and languages, to individual starting points, using an organised teaching
sequence
• Knowing the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspective/s on the content
to be taught
effective • Planning and designing teaching sequences by ‘breaking down the content
teaching and ‘and ‘building it back up’ in achievable steps through realistic scaffolding
learning • Knowing and understanding the communication styles of students and use
• Using feedback from students and parents, and student achievement data
(generated by quality assessment) to inform planning
4. Create and • Supporting student participation by establishing and implementing inclusive
maintain and positive interactions that engage all students
supportive and • Establishing and maintaining orderly and workable routines so all students know
safe learning what to expect and ‘know the rules’
environments • Managing challenging behavior by establishing and negotiating clear expecta-
tions with students and parents
• Ensuring expected behaviours are culturally inclusive, shared and made explicit
• Ensuring students feel physically, emotionally and culturally safe and welcomed
into the learning environment

CONCLUSION: LEARNING TO TEACH IN A CULTUR ALLY RESPONSIVE WAY 255

5. Assess, provide • Ensuring that assessment forms are negotiated with students and their families
feedback so that they are truly able to demonstrate the desired learning
and report • Ensuring that ability to demonstrate learning is not limited by language control
on student • Providing timely, effective and appropriate feedback to students relevant to
learning their learning goals; ensuring progress is demonstrated even if goals aren’t
achieved
• Analysing student achievement, reflecting on practice and identifying interven-
tions and modifications to teaching practice as needed
• Using appropriate reporting formats and/or interpretive services as needed to
report student progress to parents
6. Engage in • Seeking to learn about the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of students from
professional their families and communities, and colleagues
learning • Immersing yourself in the community and language if possible
• Contributing to collegial discussions about students and how they learn
• Reflecting on your own cultural knowledge and beliefs, adjusting these as
needed in order to empathise with students in on-going ways
7. Engage profes- • Establishing and maintaining respectful collaborative relationships with parents/
sionally with families/communities regarding their children’s learning and their cultural and
colleagues, linguistic backgrounds
parents/ • Participating in professional and community networks and forums to broaden
carers and the knowledge and improve practice
community • Building trusting partnerships with parents
• Participating in community events and activities in appropriate and supportive
ways
• Working closely with parents to achieve smooth transitions for students
between home and school
• Ensuring families receive individualised (and understandable) information about
the students and their learning progress; ensuring families know what their
children are expected to do and whether they are on track to do it, and what
help families can give their children
Culturally responsive teachers don’t set a specific target to attend to

standards 1.4 and 2.4 in their practice, and they can’t simply ‘add’ them
to what they already do. If teachers’ practices don’t already address these
Standards, then they need to engage in professional learning through
each one, to increase their knowledge and (we hope) to generate the
desired response—one that comes from the heart, not the head.
Teachers who try to attend to standards 1.4 and 2.4 through a
cognitive (head) response are likely to fail miserably, since the genuine

caring response, recognised in the research as being an essential

component for cultural responsiveness (Cooper, 2002; Collins, 1993;
Gay, 2000; Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2000; Green, 1982; Ladson-Billings,
1994; O’Keefe, 1989; Tharp, 1982; Waxman & Tellez, 2002) cannot be
artificially created.
Standards 6 and 7 refer specifically to professional learning. While
these have not been specifically and deliberately attended to in previous
chapters, the culturally responsive behaviours in the table above aligned
to these standards indicate that they can be attended to through cultural
responsiveness outlined in all teaching activity. Most of these occur in the
context of building relationships and partnerships with the community
and/or having professional discussions with colleagues and members of
the school leadership team. Much learning and development can occur
through both of these activities.
This book has given you much to reflect on. Even lead teachers need
to continually develop in their cultural competence since it is a personal
capability. Cultural competence plays out in different contexts, and it
is possible to be culturally responsive in one context but to be less so
in another. Every school will require different responses depending on
location, histories, languages and cultures of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islanders who are present and who are the traditional owners
of the land on which the school sits, or the Indigenous communities
whose children attend the school. Importantly, cultural competence
and cultural responsiveness are about respect for the students we
teach, for their families and their communities. Both competence and
responsiveness are integral to the building of positive relationships, and
they not only make us more effective educators and the students we
teach more successful learners, but also ensure that we all enjoy and
benefit from the learning journey we take together.
Teachers of Indigenous students can now access an overwhelming
amount of material about what does and doesn’t work, and about things
to try in practice. It is important that we pay attention to the Standards,
on which we, as a nation, have agreed. We must, however, remember
that we have also agreed to ‘close the gap’ between the achievements of
non-Indigenous students and those of Indigenous students.
We do not propose that all teachers do everything suggested in
this book. At best, we hope that those suggestions we believe are

essential will raise awareness of the differences between teachers and

their Indigenous students. This raised awareness will draw teachers’
attention to the need for cultural competence and responsiveness if they
want to make a difference. We propose a model that is fundamentally
about good teaching in a caring and culturally safe environment, which
is best thought of as the aligned curriculum model we presented at
the start of this book (refer to Figure 0.1 in the Introduction). The box
‘Key questions’ outlines the critical points for all teachers to ensure
they understand.
Key questions
Who are the students?

It is essential to find out about your students, to help you build
relationships, learn about their cultures and design learning
opportunities.
What do we want the students to learn?

There is a need for good teachers to understand the intended
curriculum deeply and, in particular, to know what the desired learning
is from an Indigenous perspective, so that they can plan scaffolded
lessons that bridge cultures, and are situated in students’ lived realities.
How will we teach it so all students will learn it?

Teachers need to know how Indigenous children are taught and
learn at home, and consider Yunkaporta’s Eight ways of learning and
other local ways learned through relationships and communications
with parents and Indigenous support workers or teachers, explicitly
taught in an environment where behaviour management strategies
are culturally safe.
How will they show what they know? How will we find
out if they’ve learned what we wanted them to learn?
It is important to ensure that assessment tasks are valid, unbiased
and aligned to the intended learning. The tasks should ideally

be developed before embarking on the teaching program, with

accompanying rubrics being given to students and parents so they
know what is expected of them. Feedback must relate to the assessed
intended learning with clear advice about what improvement is
needed and how to improve.
How do we communicate what students have

learned and how well have they learned it?
Learning quality should be written into the assessment tasks (and
hence explicitly taught) with high expectations for all students.
Students and parents need to understand statements about learning
in formal and informal reports; translation should be offered and
available whenever possible.
This book has provided direction and advice about ‘how’ each of these
elements can be done for all students, with specific advice concerning
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. If you embrace these
ideas and embed them in your practices you can help to ensure your
teaching achieves significant improvements for your students. This
activity essentially describes the proficient level of the Standards, with
a particular focus on cultural responsiveness; a big ask, but one to
which all teachers must aspire if they are serious about ‘closing the
achievement gap’.
One message stands out

In considering all the messages provided in this book about culturally
responsive pedagogies, one message in particular stands out. In order to
scaffold the desired learning for our students from their current know-
ledge base it is insufficient to break down Western intended learning to
current Indigenous knowledge from a Western perspective. In Chapter 5,
we discussed the metaphor of the bridge in understanding scaffolding
(refer to Figure 5.4). In summary, we explicitly propose that we must
scaffold from the Indigenous perspective to the Western perspective of
each of these domains, rather than from Western to Western.

In other words, we also need to scaffold for students from Indigenous

ways to Western ways, avoiding methods that would compromise
Indigenous identity. To successfully undertake this task, we must
begin by trying to understand what our Indigenous students know and
understand from their perspective rather than our own. As teachers,
we need to also become, and see ourselves as, learners.
As quoted in McCrossin (n.d):
Chris Sarra, Principal at Cherbourg State School in Queensland, told his
very ﬁrst school assembly: ‘The most important thing you’ll learn from
me is that you can be Aboriginal and you can be successful.’ Under his
leadership, unexplained school absences dropped by 94 per cent in less
than 18 months. Within three years, the percentage of Year 2 students
reaching the expected literacy level for Queensland students rose from 13
per cent to more than 60 per cent. How did he improve school attendance
and performance? ‘Replacing the negative stereotype of being Aboriginal
with the ‘strong and smart’ identity was the beginning,’ he says. ‘And it
was crucial to change staff and remove teachers who colluded with the
negative perception of Aboriginal children by not bothering to ring the
bells on time or by setting work that was too easy.’
As indicated in the introduction to this book, our success as culturally

responsive teachers will depend largely on our willingness to engage as
learners and to become ‘bi-cultural’. We need to learn more about how
Indigenous children are taught at home and in communities, and how
they learn in their own environment. This means not only scaffolding the
content or knowledge for our students but also scaffolding the pedago-
gies, environments and relationships, so that Indigenous students feel
consistently ‘safe’ and able to be themselves without experiencing feelings
of deficit. We need an attitude change to start this process, enabling our
students to become hungry for, and to achieve, greater learning.

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Index
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander(s) 29 cultural validity 173–8

clans 30 formal or informal 167
cultural differences 31 formative assessment 166–7, 188
cultural protocols 35–7 learning, for 166
culture 7–8, 118 learning, of 167
epistemologies 11–14 nature and use of xix
First Peoples xviii negotiating with students 187
kinship systems 7 process of 166
learning and ways of learning 118–25 quality assessment see quality assessment
learning styles 51–2, 126 summative assessment 167, 188
‘nations’ 30 teachers learning from xix
perspectives 8–14 assessment tasks
regional groups 30 teaching students how to do 183–4
self-determination 242 types 178–82
social language 35–7 Australia
students, differences between 29 colonisation 8, 86
support workers 248 invasion 8, 17, 38, 86
teacher assistants 248 Australia Day 5, 8, 17
terminology xv Australian culture 4–5
Torres Strait Islander people 30 Australian Curriculum 10, 82, 127, 210
‘traditional’ Aboriginal literacy 14 Indigenous perspectives in 85
Western schools, in 42–5 key concepts 10
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Action Plan 45 what children are expected to learn 84–7
Aboriginal English (AE) 39, 89–90, 100–2 Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting
‘Aboriginal people’ 29 Authority (ACARA) xviii, 84
Aboriginality 7 Australian history 6
absenteeism 20 Australian identity 4
abuse of children 97, 234 Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership
achievement gap 93 (AITSL) xxii
agentic thinking 20–1 Australian values 4–5
alliteration 230–1
American Indians behaviour
educational cognitive styles 54 code-switching 39–40
mainstream curriculum 88 bias
teacher pedagogy 155–6 curriculum, in 87–8
terminology xvi teachers, of 87
assessment Bloom’s Taxonomy 192
consistent judgements, making 195 bridging learning 128
271

bullying 74–5 bias 87–8

‘busy work’ 19, 20, 71, 115, 146, 161, 239 concept 83
definition 83
celebration differentiating 135–6
learning journey, in 241–4 ‘dumbing down’ 115, 133, 225
roles in 244–5 equitable 84, 85
success, of 241 relationships between aspects of 83
child-rearing practices 37–8, 62, 155 resources 87–8
classrooms
oral language development in 223 dadirri 33–5
relationships in 3, 13 deficit thinking 20
remote communities, in 205–7 dialects 38, 100–1
supportive 224 differences
code-switching 39–40, 247 accepting 22
cultural values, between 62 awareness of xvii
language 39–40, 89–90, 92 cultural see cultural differences
collaborative learning 133–5 value of 247
collectivism 174–5 direct instruction 144–6
community links 123 direction, skills in 107
concepts for words 41 discipline 65–9, 72, 78
conductive hearing loss (CHL) xix, 92, 95, 214 discipline gap 67–8
constructivism, theory of 46 double standards 72, 78
‘country’, affinity with 4, 7, 31 ‘dumbing down’ curriculum 115, 133, 225
‘Country/Place’ concept 10
creole 39, 89–90 empathy 15–17, 91, 213
cultural competence xxii, 1–2, 14, 45, 212, 219, 253 English as a Second Language (ESL) 29
continual development in 256–9 pedagogies for ESL students 152–4
English language, teaching 91 English as a Second Language or Dialect (EALD) 29, 90,
training in 61 130
cultural differences literacy and numeracy learning 212
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders 31 support in schools 212
Aboriginal and ‘Western’ worldviews 9 English language
acknowledging and respecting 64 difficulties in learning 219
lack of awareness 173 home language, part played by 220
language, use of 35 prepositions 101
presenting 86 sounds in 96
student behaviour 11 Standard Australian English (SAE) 38, 41, 89–90
cultural identity 10, 17, 21, 37, 61, 63, 74, 75, 82, 240, 249 teaching 91
cultural responsiveness xv, xxi, xxii, xxvi, 1–2, 22, 24–5 epistemologies, Indigenous 11–14
behaviours 54, 79–80 e-portfolios 182–3, 244
characteristics of teachers 117–18 expectations, high 71–4
‘heart response’ 14 explicit teaching 144–6
National Professional Standards for Teachers and 254
cultural safety 79 ‘fair go’, concept of 4, 6
cultural validity feedback, providing 189–91
assessments, of 173–8
culturally responsive teaching 2–3, 253–9 geometry 105–8
culture grades, assigning
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 7–8, 118 achievement over reporting period, for 195
Australian 4–5 task, for 195
code-switching 39–40, 62 group behaviours 74–5
influence of 173 group tasks 182–2
language and 40–1
learning and 118 hearing loss 94–5, 214–19
‘Cultures’ concept 10 high expectations 71–4, 146–7, 243
curriculum maintenance of 239
alignment xvi, xix higher-order skills 133–5
Australian Curriculum 10, 82, 84–7, 127 History subject 85

INDEX 273
ICTs see information communication technologies (ICTs) bridging learning 128

identity, understanding 4 collaborative learning 133–5
Indigenous art 108 community links 123
Indigenous Australians 29 ‘cultural referents’ 48
terminology xv culture and 118
Indigenous children deconstruct–reconstruct 122
abuse 97, 234 designing the learning experience 110–11, 127
literacy of 93 intended learning xviii, 84, 85, 169
preferred learning styles 50 land links 122
remote communities 93 language for 95–6
trauma see trauma learning maps 121
Indigenous students see also students meaningful and relevant 47–8
affiliation 63 metaphors, using xix, 48, 53, 147–52
behaviour management 65–70 non-linear processes 122
communication 63 non-verbal learning 121
conflict areas 63 purpose 74
disabilities or special needs 66 quality of 191–2
discovering how they learn best 45–6 scaffolding learning see scaffolding learning
empowering 46 showing progress 188
equality 63 situating in students’ realities 135
learning from 45 story sharing 120–1
personal attributes 64 styles of 48–54
practical competencies and independence 63 symbols and images 121–2, 148, 151
relationships between 74 teaching, distinguished 116–17
situating learning in realities of 135 theory of 46–7
teacher perceptions of behaviours 66–7 visual learning 49, 53
validating identities of 46 listening skills 226
visual learning 53 literacy xviii, 14, 82, 210–13
Western schools, in 42–5, 60 all contexts are vehicle for 213
individualism 74, 174–5 learning tool, as 93–102
information communication technologies (ICTs) xix oral language, links with 225
fluency 82 Standard Australian English, in 99
learning and engagement through 156–7 low expectations 72, 115
remote communities 250–1
Maori 58
kinship systems 7 ‘mateship’ value 6
knowing ourselves 22 mathematics 102, 108
Kriol 39, 101 scaffolding learning 136–44
measurement 105–8
land links 122 Melbourne Declaration 45
language xviii metaphors for learning xix, 48, 53, 147–52
awareness 90–1 ‘mirroring’ 15–16
code-switching 39–40, 89–90, 92 MySchool website 85
culture and 40–1
development of 40 NAPLAN see National Assessment Program for Literacy
differences in 38–9 and Numeracy (NAPLAN)
English see English language ‘nation area’ xvi
instruction, of 89–90 National Assessment Program for Literacy and Numeracy
learning, for 95–6 (NAPLAN) 85, 109, 184–5
schooling, for 41 national Australian values 4–5
separation 91–3 National Professional Standards for Teachers xxii, 21–2, 54,
Warlpiri 96 79, 85, 111, 162, 198, 253–4
Languages Other Than English (LOTE) 89 cultural responsiveness and 254
learning domains xxii
Aboriginal learning and ways of learning 51–2, 118–25, focus areas xxiii
126 Standards 1.4 and 2.4 xxii, 22–3, 25, 55, 253–4
actual and intended 84 Standards 2 and 3 112
asking questions 154–5 Standard 3 162, 164

Standard 4 79 fair and equitable tasks 171–2

Standard 5 198–9 validity 167–9
Standards 6 and 7 256
neglect of children 235 race as a factor 61
numbers 103–4 racism 3–4, 16
numeracy xviii, 82, 210–13 racist behaviours 16–17, 19–20
all contexts are vehicles for 213 reading
learning tool, as 102–10 comprehension 94, 99
problem-solving in 109–10 learning to read 97–9
nursery rhymes 225 relationships
nutrition 235 classrooms, in 3, 13
Indigenous students, between 74
oral cultures 49, 53 teacher–student see teacher–student relationships
oral language development 214 remote communities
classroom, in 223–5 ICTs, using 250–1
literacy, links with 225 isolation 250–1
otitis media 95, 214 remote schools xix, 201
attendance 208–10
parents classrooms 205–7
building relationships with 70, 78, 197 context 202–3
discussions with 196–8 ongoing induction 208
partnerships with 249–50 privilege of working in 203–4
remote communities, in 41 successful educational practices 204–5
reporting to 83, 196 support workers 248
school partnerships with 75 teacher assistants 248
pedagogy 115 respect, showing 36
Aboriginal pedagogy 126–7 rhyme production 230
‘Peoples’ concept 10 rhyme recognition 230
performance tasks 178–81 rhythm 229–30
personal values 6 rubrics, using 191, 193–4
phonemes 96, 98
phonemic skills 94 scaffolding learning 128, 213
phonological awareness 226–8 macro-scaffolding 130, 131–2
developmental levels 227 mathematics, in practice 136–44
phonological skills 94, 96, 97, 98, 225, 226–9 micro-scaffolding 130, 132–3
alliteration 230 zone of proximal development and 128–30
blending 231 schools
deletion of sound 231 behaviour management 70
isolation 231 community, relationships with 75–8
rhymes 230 family engagement with 75–8
segmentation 231 language of schooling 41
teaching 229–33 places of power, as 3
pidgin language 39 remote see remote schools
portfolios 182 school readiness 75
prejudice 3–4 suspension from 72–3
print 98–9 Western see Western schools
print cultures 49, 53 self-assessment 181
probability in numeracy 108–9 ‘shaming’ 60, 61, 74–5, 175
problem-solving model 134 social communication rules 35–7
professional learning 256 social inequities 4
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) sound–letter relationship 93, 98, 102, 153, 226, 229, 231–3
173–4 Standard Australian English (SAE) 38, 41, 89–90, 101
definition 100
quality assessment prepositions 101
characteristics 167 statistics 108–9
comprehensive tasks 170 stereotyping 28–xvi, 9, 50, 126
explicit tasks 170 stereotyping resources 17, 87
extent and depth of learning, demonstrating 171 stolen generation 86

INDEX 275
story sharing 120–1 styles 116, 155–6

‘strengths base’ 15, 21, 46 successful, strategies for xix
Stronger Smarter Institute 72 teasing 74–5
students see also Indigenous students terminology xv
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students 29 tests 178
behaviour management 65–70 learning from 185–6
discipline 65–9 standardised tests 184–5
finding out about 27–8 teaching students how to do 183–4
knowing 2, 59–60 Third International Mathematics and Science Study
recognising differences among 18–19 (TIMSS) 174
reporting on learning to 196 time, concept of 106, 107
transitions 245–7
teacher(s) trauma
Aboriginal perspectives on teacher behaviours 44 Indigenous children 97, 233–5
behaviour management 65–70 neglect 235
change agents 3 nutrition and 233–5
culturally responsive3 117–18 schools and teachers, role of 236–8
designing the learning experience 110–11, 127 symptoms of 235–6
expectations of 71–4 tutor program 218
fairness and consistency 22
most successful 160 visual learning 49, 53
powerful role 3
self-reflection xix Warlpiri language 96
students’ behaviours, perceptions of 66–7 wellbeing, pathway to 243
teacher–student relationships 57–64 Western schools
authentic and trusting 47 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in 42–5,
building strong 15, 27 60
genuine care 238–9 ‘Western’ worldviews 8, 9
poor 57 ‘whiteness’ 3, 60
respect, based on 64 ‘who are you?’ 4
teaching words for concepts 41
Aboriginal pedagogy 126–7 work placements 247
asking questions 154–5 worldview 8–9, 18, 74, 106, 173, 177, 235
culturally responsive 2–3
direct instruction 144–6 Yunkaporta’s eight ways of learning 118–25, 148
explicit teaching 144–6
learning, distinguished 116–17 zone of proximal development (ZPD) 47
planning and presentation 158–9 scaffolding and 128–30

Teaching Indigenous Students

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Teaching Indigenous Students

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‘At the core of this detailed account of teaching Indigenous students are the

important practices of understanding the cultural background of the Indigenous

—Professor Peter Buckskin PSM FACE, Dean, Indigenous Scholarship,

—Dr Chris Sarra, Chairman, Stronger Smarter Institute

‘If I were to be teaching Indigenous students in Australia, be they located in

—Russell Bishop PhD, Emeritus Professor of Maori Education, University of Waikato

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Published 2020 by Routledge

ISBN-13: 9781743316061 (pbk)

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About the authors ix

Introduction Curriculum alignment and professional standards for teachers xv

Chapter 1 Cultural competence and cultural responsiveness in schools 1

Knowledge, attitudes and skills for teaching in culturally responsive ways 2

Chapter 2 Understanding who your students are 27

Finding out about your students 27

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Chapter 3 Managing and setting expectations for relationships

Chapter 4 Intended curriculum, standards, literacy and numeracy 82

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Teaching and learning 116

Chapter 6 Assessment, feedback and reporting 166

Characteristics of quality assessment 167

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Chapter 7 Challenges of teaching students in remote contexts 201

Chapter 8 Conclusion: Learning to teach in a culturally responsive way 253

One message stands out 258

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Professor Colleen Hayward AM

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Western Australia. I come from a teaching family; my father was ECU’s

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Although we, the authors, come from different cultural backgrounds, we

As experienced educators, we want to help address some of the ignorance

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Special thanks to Dr Kevin Gillan for insight provided to inform inclu-

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If you work in or visit a particular area, then reference to the particular

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Curriculum alignment FIGURE 0.1

Reporting Students Pedagogy

Source: Developed by T. Perso for Education Queensland (2008)

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not they learn through Western schooling models, Australian Aboriginal

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There is also an expectation that you consider the contexts and

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relatively few graduate teachers are posted to these schools. However, a

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For this reason, cultural competence does not rely on a teacher’s

National Professional Standards for Teachers

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Standard Focus areas

3. Plan for and implement 3.1 Establish challenging learning goals

4. Create and maintain 4.1 Support student participation

5. Assess, provide feedback 5.1 Assess student learning

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Standard Focus areas