Transformers

1
 INTRODUCTION
 Transmission of electrical energy at high voltage is
economical , therefore some means are required for
stepping up the voltage at generating stations and
stepping down the same at the places where it is to be
used.
 Electrical machine used for this purpose is transformer
 Transformer is an ac machine that transfers electrical
energy from one circuit to another with out change of
frequency by the principle of electromagnetic
induction and has electric circuits that are linked by a
common magnetic circuit.
 When a transformer raises the voltage i.e when the out
put voltage of a transformer is higher than its input
voltage it is called step up transformer and when it
lowers the voltage it is called step down transformer.
2
 The electric circuit which receives energy from
the supply mains is called primary winding
and the other circuit which delivers electrical
energy to the load is called secondary
winding.
 If the secondary winding has more turns than
the primary winding, then the secondary
voltage is higher than the primary voltage and
the transformer is called a step-up
transformer.
 When the secondary winding has less turns
than the primary windings then the secondary
voltage is lower than the primary voltage and
the transformer is called step-down
transformer.

3
 Note that a step-up transformer can be used as a
step-down transformer, in which the secondary of
step-up transformer becomes the primary of the
step-down transformer.
 Actually a transformer can be termed a step-up or
step-down transformer only after it has been put
into service.
 Transformers are used extensively in ac power
systems.
 AC electrical power can be generated at one central
location, its voltage stepped up for transmission
over long distances at very low losses and its
voltage stepped down again for final use

4
 Power transmission using transformers

• Unit transformers
• Substation transformers
• Distribution transformers
5
 The principal purpose of a transformer is to convert ac
power at one voltage level to ac power of the same
frequency at another voltage level .
 Transformers are also used for variety of other purposes
1) for metering purpose (voltage and current sampling )
Instrument transformers - potential transformers
- current transformers
2) Electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another )
3)Matching source and load impedances for maximum power
transfer in electronic and control circuit (impedance
transformation)
4)Auto –Transformers :- used for starting ac machines
5)Used to provide very high voltages in laboratories for testing
purpose (testing transformers)

6
PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER ACTION
 An elementary transformer consists of a core and two windings
placed on it .
 The windings are insulated from both the core and each other
 The core is built up of thin soft iron or silicon steel laminations to
provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux .
 The winding connected to the supply mains is called the primary .
 The winding connected to the load circuit is called the secondary.
 The winding connected to higher voltage circuit is called the high
voltage (H.V) winding while that connected to the lower voltage
circuit is called the low voltage (L.V) winding .
φ

V1 P N1 N2 S

7
 The action of a transformer is based on the principle
that energy may be efficiently transferred by induction
from one set of coils to another by means of a varying
magnetic flux, provided that both the sets of coils are
on a common magnetic circuits.

 The primary winding P is connected to an alternating

voltage source, therefore, an alternating current Im
starts flowing through N1 turns.
 The alternating mmf N1Im sets up an alternating flux φ
which is confined to the high permeability iron path
 The alternating flux induces voltage E1 in the primary
and E2 in secondary .
 If a load is connected across the secondary, load
current starts flowing.

8
 The flux of the iron core links not only with secondary
winding but also with the primary winding ,so
produces self induced emf in the primary winding.

 This induced emf in the primary winding oppose the

applied voltage and therefore , sometimes it is known
as back emf of the primary.

 The induced emf in the primary limits the primary

current.

9
 CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER
 There are basically two types of transformer, the
core-type and the shell-type.
 The two types differ from each other by the manner
in which the windings are wound around the
magnetic core.
 The magnetic core is a stack of thin silicon-steel
laminations about 0.35mm thick for 50Hz
transformers.
 In order to reduce the eddy current losses, these
laminations are insulated from one another by thin
layer of varnish.

10
 CORE TYPE
 In core type construction the coils are wound around
the two sides(limbs) of a laminated rectangular
magnetic core.

H.V.
Winding Yoke
Limb or
Leg

L.V.
Winding

11
 The vertical portions of the core are usually called
limbs or legs and the top and bottom portions are
called yoke.
 By placing halves of the low voltage (LV) and high
voltage (HV) windings over one leg and the other
halves of both winding over the second leg or limb
the leakage flux can be reduce and, therefore,
increase efficiency..
 In core-type transformer, the flux has a single path
around the legs or yokes

12
 SHELL TYPE
 In shell type construction the coils are wound around
the center leg of a three limb laminated magnetic
core.
 shell type has three-legged core
Yoke

L.V

H.V φ φ φ
Limb or φ 2 2
L.V 2
Leg 2
H.V

L.V

13
 In shell-type transformer the low voltage and high
voltage windings are wound over the central limb and
are interleaved or sandwiched

 In shell-type transformer, the flux in the central limb

divides equally and returns through the outer two
legs

14
TYPES OF LAMINATIONS AND LAYERS ARRANGEMENT
 In both core and shell-type transformers, the
individual laminations are cut in the form of long
strips of L's, E’s and I's

p I’s strip

d I’s laminations

15
 One type of laminations for the core and shell type
of transformers is illustrated in Figures below

But t J oint s

B utt
Joints

1st, 3rd, 5th… layers

1st, 3rd, 5th… layers
Butt Jo ints

B utt
Joint s

2nd, 4th, 6th… layers

2nd, 4th, 6th… layer s

two adjacent layers for

core and shell type transformers 16
 In order to avoid high reluctance at the joints where the
laminations are butted against each other, the alternative
layers are stacked Butt Joints

Arrangement of
butt joints in magnetic core.

 During the transformer construction first the primary and

secondary winding are wound, then the laminations are
pushed through the coil openings, layer by layer and the
steel core is placed.
 The laminations are then tightened by means of clamps
and bolts.
 Low-power transformers are air cooled whereas larger
power transformers are immersed in oil for better cooling.
 In oil-cooled transformer, the oil serves as a coolant and
also as an insulation medium.

17
 IDEAL TRANSFORMER
 For a transformer to be an ideal one, the various
assumptions are as follows
1. Winding resistances are negligible.
2. All fluxes are confined to the magnetic core and link
both windings ; that is , no leakage fluxes are
present.
3. The core losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses)
are negligible.
4. Permeability of the core is infinite (i.e.,μ →∞).
Therefore , the exciting current required to establish
flux in the core is negligible; that is , the net mmf
required to establish a flux in the core is zero.
 An ideal transformer is supposed to consists of two
purely inductive coils wound on a loss – free core .
18
19
 EMF Equation of A Transformer
 Let the voltage V1 applied to primary winding be
sinusoidal (or sine wave). Then the current i1 and,
therefore, the flux φ will flow with the variations of i1 .

 That is, the flux φ is in time phase with the current i1

and varies sinusoidally.
 Let sinusoidal variation of flux φ be expressed as
φ = φm Sin ωt
Where φm is maximum of the magnetic flux in Weber
ω = 2πf is the angular velocity in rad/sec
f is the supply frequency in Hz.
 The emf e1 in volt, induced in the primary of N1 turns
by the alternating flux is given by

20
 dφ
e = − N1
1
dt
= − N1ωφ mCos ω t
π
= N1ωφm sin( ωt − )
2

 Its maximum value, E1max is equal to

 π
E1m = N1ωφm and e = E1m 
sin ωt − 
1
 2 
The RMS value of the induced emf E1 in the
primary winding is
E1m 2π
E1 = = fN1ωφm
2 2
= 2πfN1φm
= 4.44 fN1φm
21
Since the primary winding resistance is
negligible hence e1, at every instant, must be
equal and opposite of V1. That is,
dφ or
v1 = −e1 = − N1 V1 = − E1
dt
The emf induced in the secondary is
dφ
e2 = − N 2 = − N 2 ωφm cos ωt
dt
π
= N 2 ωφ s in ( ω t − )
2
π
= Em 2 sin ( ω t − )
2

Rms value of emf E2 induced in secondary

winding is given by E =
E2m
= 2 πfN φ
2 2 m
2
= 4.44 fN 2 φm
22
The maximum value of emf induced per turn
E = 2π f φm volts

The rms value of emf induced per turn

E
=
E = 2π f φm volts
2
= 4.44 f φm

E1 E2
= = 2 π f φm
N1 N2

the ratio shows that the emf per turn in each

of the windings is the same.

23
 Voltage Transformation Ratio
 From the above discussion it is clear that the volts per turn is exactly the
same for both the primary and secondary windings , thus

E1 V 1 N 1
= = = a
E2 V 2 N 2

 The ratio is known as voltage transformation ratio (turn ratio).

 the voltages in the windings of an ideal transformer are directly
proportional to the turns of the windings.
 If N2 > N1 i.e., a<1, then the transformer is called a step-up transformer.
 If N2 < N1 i.e., a>1, then the transformer is known as a step-down
transformer.

24
 In an ideal transformer the losses are negligible ,
so the volt – ampere input to the primary and
volt – ampere output from secondary can be
approximately equated
Input VA = Output VA
V1I1 = V2I 2
and
I1 V2 E 2 N 2 1
= = = =
I 2 V 1 E1 N 1 a
 Hence, The currents in the windings are inversely
proportional to the turns of the windings.

25
 Impedance transformation
 Consider the case of a sinusoidal applied voltage and a secondary impedance Z2
as shown in the figure

2
 N1 
=z 1 =
2

 Z 2 a Z2
 N2 

2
 N2  Z1
=z 2 =  Z 1

 N1  a2

26
 Impedance can be transferred from secondary to primary if its value is
multiplied by the square of the turns ratio.

 An impedance from the primary side can also be transferred to the

secondary side, and in that case its value has to be divided by the square
of the turns ratio.

 Transferring an impedance from one side of a transformer to the other in

this fashion is called referring the impedance to the other side;
impedances transform as the square of the turns ratio.

 In a similar manner, voltages and currents can be referred to one side or

the other to evaluate the equivalent voltage and current on that side

 To summarize, in an ideal transformer, voltages are transformed in the

direct ratio of turns, currents in the inverse ratio, and impedances in the
direct ratio squared; power and volt-amperes are unchanged.

 This impedance transfer is very useful because it eliminates a coupled

circuit in an electrical circuit and thereby simplifies the circuit.

27
 Transformers on No-Load
 When the primary of a transformer is connected to the source of ac supply and
the secondary is open , the transformer is said to be at no load.
(there is no load on secondary)

 The alternating voltage applied to the primary winding will cause flow of
alternating current in the primary winding.

 Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no out put
(the secondary being open) the primary draws the exciting current (Io) only.

28
 In put current to the primary Io , called the exciting current, has
two components
1) core loss component Ic which is the current required to make up for
hysteresis and eddy current losses
2) magnetizing component Im which is the current required to produce
the alternating flux in the transformer

Note :
1) The no- load primary current Io is very small in comparison to the
full load primary current (Io = 2-5% If)
2) Im > Ic
3) No – load primary copper loss (i.e Io2R1) is very small and may be
neglected .
Thus the no-load primary input power is practically equal to the
iron/core loss occurring in the core of the transformer i.e

No-load primary input power (Po )= V1Io cos Øo = iron (core ) loss

29
Transformer on Load
 When the secondary circuit of a transformer is completed through
an impedance , or load , the transformer is said to be loaded and
current flows through the secondary and the load

 When the transformer is on no-load it draws no-load current Io from

the supply mains . The no- load current Io setup an mmf N1Io which
produce flux Ø in the core.
 When an impedance is connected across the secondary terminals
current I2 flow through the secondary winding
 The secondary current I2 sets up its own mmf N2I2 and hence
creates a secondary flux Ø2 .

30
 The secondary flux Ø2 opposes the main flux Ø set up by the
exciting current Io.

 The opposing secondary flux weakens the main flux

momentarily , so the primary back emf E1 tends to be
reduced .

 So difference of applied voltage V1 and back emf E1 increase,

therefore , more current is drawn from the source until the
original values of flux is obtained .

 Let the additional primary current be I2’ , the current I2’ is in

phase opposition with secondary current I2 and is called the
counter – balancing current (load component of primary
current)

31
 The additional current I2’ sets up an mmf N1I2’ producing Ø2’
in the same direction as that of the main flux Ø and cancels Ø2
produced by secondary mmf N2I2 being equal in magnitude
 The magnetic effects of secondary current I2 are immediately
neutralized by the additional primary current I2’

N1I2’= N2I2 (I1= I2’+ Io and I2’>> Io hence I1≈ I2’)

N1I1= N2I2
I1 N 2 1
= =
I 2 N1 a

 So the net flux in the transformer core remains almost

constant from no-load to full load .

 The core loss is also practically the same under all load
conditions.
32
 Equivalent circuit of a transformer
To model a real transformer accurately, we need to account for
the following losses:

1. Copper losses – resistive heating in the windings: I2R.

2. Core loss = Eddy current losses + Hysteresis losses
3. Leakage flux – flux that escapes from the core and flux that
passes through one winding only.
 The exact equivalent circuit of a real
transformer
Copper losses are modeled by
the resistors Rp and Rs.
Leakage flux in a primary
winding produces the voltage:

dφLp
eLp (t ) = N p
dt
Since much of the leakage flux pass through air, and air has a constant reluctance that is
much higher than the core reluctance, the primary coil’s leakage flux is:

φLp = P N p i p φLs = P N s is
permeance of flux path
Therefore:

(P N p i p ) N pP
d di p
=eLp (t ) N=
p
2

dt dt
Recognizing that the self-inductance of the primary coil is Lp = N p2P

the self-inductance of the secondary coil is Ls = N s2P

The induced voltages are:

di p
Primary coil: eLp (t ) = Lp
dt

dis
Secondary coil: eLs (t ) = Ls
dt

The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary inductors.

The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance XM connected across the
primary voltage source.
The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance RC connected across the primary
voltage source.
 The transformer’s
equivalent circuit

However, the exact circuit is not very practical.

Therefore, the equivalent circuit is usually referred

to the primary side or the secondary side of the
transformer.

Equivalent circuit of the transformer referred

to its primary side.

Equivalent circuit of the transformer referred

to its secondary side.
 Approximate equivalent circuit of a
transformer
For many practical applications,
approximate models of transformers
are used.

Referred to the primary side.

Referred to the secondary side.

Without an excitation branch

referred to the primary side.

The values of components of the

transformer model can be determined Without an excitation branch
experimentally by an open-circuit test or by referred to the secondary side.
a short-circuit test.
 Determining the values of components

Open-circuit test

The transformer's secondary winding is open

circuited, and its primary winding is connected to a
full-rated line voltage.

The input voltage, current, and power are measured.

From this information, the power factor of the input current and the magnitude and the
angle of the excitation impedance can be determined.

To evaluate RC and XM, we determine the conductance of the core-loss resistor is:
1
GC =
RC
The susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is:
1
BM =
XM
Since both elements are in parallel, their admittances add. Therefore, the total excitation
admittance is:
1 1
YE =GC − jBM = − j
RC XM

The magnitude of the excitation admittance in the open-circuit test is:

I oc
YE =
Voc
The angle of the admittance in the open-circuit test can be found from the circuit power
factor (PF):

Poc
θ PF
cos= =
Voc I oc
In real transformers, the power factor is always lagging, so the angle of the current always
lags the angle of the voltage by θ degrees. The admittance is:

I oc I oc
Y=
E ∠ − θ
= ∠ − cos −1
PF
Voc Voc

Therefore, it is possible to determine values of RC and XM in the open-circuit test.

Short-circuit test

The secondary terminals of the transformer are

short circuited, and the primary terminals are
connected to a fairly low-voltage source.
This voltage is adjusted until the current in the
secondary winding equals to its rated value.

The input voltage, current, and power are again measured.

Since the input voltage is low, the current flowing through the excitation branch is
negligible; therefore, all the voltage drop in the transformer is due to the series elements in
the circuit. The magnitude of the series impedance referred to the primary side of the
transformer is:
VSC
Z SE =
I SC
The power factor of the current is given by:
PSC
= =
PF cos θ
VSC I SC
Therefore:
VSC ∠0° VSC
Z SE= = ∠θ °
I SC ∠ − θ ° I SC

Since the serial impedance ZSE is equal to

Z=
SE Req + jX eq
Z SE =( Rp + a 2 RS ) + j ( X p + a 2 X S )
The same tests can be performed on the secondary side of the transformer. The results
will yield the equivalent circuit impedances referred to the secondary side of the
transformer.
 Example : The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 8000/240-V, 6O-Hz
transformer are to be determined. The open-circuit test and the short-circuit test were
performed on the primary side of the transformer, and the following data were taken:

VOC = 8000 V VSC = 489 V

IOC = 0.214 A ISC = 2.5 A
POC = 400 W PSC = 240 W

Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary
side, and sketch that circuit.
Solution
The power factor during the open-circuit test is
POC 400
= =
PF cos θ = = 0.234 lagging
VOC I OC 8000 x0.214
=θ cos
= −1
(0.234) 76.50
The excitation admittance is

I OC −1 0.214 −1 1 1
Y=
E ∠ − cos PF= ∠ − cos 0.234
= 0.0000063 − j 0.0000261
= −j
VOC 8000 RC XM
Therefore: 1 1
R=
C = 159 k Ω; X=
M = 38.3 k Ω
0.0000063 0.0000261

The power factor during the short-circuit test is

PSC 240
= =
PF cos θ = = 0.196 lagging
VSC I SC 489 x 2.5

The series impedance is given by

VSC −1 489
Z SE = ∠ cos PF = ∠78.7°
I SC 2.5
= 38.4 + j192 Ω
Therefore:
R=
eq 38.4 Ω; X=
eq 192 Ω

The equivalent circuit

Exercise
• Tests are performed on a single phase, 10 kVA, 2200/220 V, 60 Hz
transformer and the following results are obtained.

(a) Derive the parameters for the approximate equivalent circuits

referred to the low-voltage side and the high-voltage side.
(b) Express the excitation current as a percentage of the rated
current.
(c) Determine the power factor for the no-load and short-circuit
tests.

45
POLARITY DETERMINATION
• Windings on transformers are marked to indicate
terminals of like polarity.
• Consider the two windings shown in Fig. a. Terminals 1
and 3 are identical, because currents entering these
terminals produce fluxes in the same direction in the
core that forms the common magnetic path. For the
same reason, terminals 2 and 4 are identical.
• If these two windings are linked by a common time-
varying flux, voltages will be induced in these windings
such that, if at a particular instant the potential of
terminal 1 is positive with respect to terminal 2, then
at the same instant the potential of terminal 3 will be
positive with respect to terminal 4.
• In other words, induced voltages e12 and e34 are in
phase. Identical terminals such as 1 and 3 or 2 and 4
are sometimes marked by dots or ± as shown in Fig b.
These are called the polarity markings of the windings.
They indicate how the windings are wound on the core.
• If the windings can be visually seen in a machine, the
polarities can be determined. However, usually only the
terminals of the windings are brought outside the
machine. Nevertheless, it is possible to determine the
polarities of the windings experimentally. A simple
method is illustrated in Fig. C, in which terminals 2 and
4 are connected together and winding 1-2 is connected
to an ac supply.
• The voltages across 1-2, 3-4, and 1-3 are measured by a
voltmeter. Let these voltage readings be called V12 , V34 , and
V13 , respectively. If a voltmeter reading V13 is the sum of
voltmeter readings V12 and V34 (i.e., V13 = V12 + V34), it means
that at any instant when the potential of terminal 1 is positive
with respect to terminal 2, the potential of terminal 4 is
positive with respect to terminal 3.
• The induced voltages e12 and e43 are in phase, as shown in Fig.
C, making e13 = e12 + e43. Consequently, terminals 1 and 4 are
identical (or same polarity) terminals. If the voltmeter reading
V13 is the difference between voltmeter readings V12 and V34
(i.e., V13 = V12 - V34), then 1 and 3 are terminals of the same
polarity.
• Polarities of windings must be known if transformers are
connected in parallel to share a common load.
• For three-phase connection of transformers the winding
polarities must also be known.
EFFICIENCY
• Equipment is desired to operate at a high efficiency.
Fortunately, losses in transformers are small. Because
the transformer is a static device, there are no
rotational losses such as windage and friction losses in
a rotating machine. In a well-designed transformer the
efficiency can be as high as 99%.
The efficiency is defined as follows:
• The losses in the transformer are the core loss (Pc) and
copper loss (Pcu).Therefore,

• The copper loss can be determined if the winding

currents and their resistances are known:

The copper loss is a function of the load current.

• The core loss depends on the peak flux density in the
core, which in turn depends on the voltage applied to
the transformer. Since a transformer remains
connected to an essentially constant voltage, the core
loss is almost constant and can be obtained from the
no-load test (open-circuit test) of a transformer.

• Therefore, if the parameters of the equivalent circuit of

a transformer are known, the efficiency of the
transformer under any operating condition may be
determined.
Now,

• Normally, load voltage remains fixed. Therefore,

efficiency depends on load current (I2) and load power
factor (cos θ2).
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
The majority of the power generation/distribution systems in the
world are 3-phase systems. The transformers for such circuits can be
constructed either as a 3-phase bank of independent identical
transformers (a 3-phase transformer bank and can be replaced
independently) or as a single transformer wound on a single 3-legged
core (lighter, cheaper, more efficient).
Three-Phase Transformer Connections
• A three-phase transformer consists of three
transformers, either separate or combined on
one core. The primaries and secondaries of any
three-phase transformer can be independently
connected in either a wye (Y) or a delta (Δ ).
• This gives a total of four possible connections
for a three-phase transformer bank:
1. Wye-wye (Y-Y)
2. Wye-delta (Y -Δ)
3. Delta-wye (Δ -Y)
4. Delta-delta (Δ - Δ)
• The key to analyzing any three-phase
transformer bank is to look at a single
transformer in the bank.
• Any single transformer in the bank behaves
exactly like the single-phase transformers
already studied.
• calculations for three-phase transformers are
done on a per-phase basis, using exactly the
same techniques already developed for single-
phase transformers.
1. Wye-wye (Y-Y)
2. Wye-delta (Y -Δ)
3. Delta-wye (Δ -Y)

VLP a
= (∆ − Y)
VLS 3
4. Delta-delta (Δ - Δ)