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DAN KALLUS
revi~i
ted
RUSSELL D. LARSEN
Texas Tech University
Lubbock. TX 79409
Toquote from an essay written by R. G. Parr ( l ) ,"Chemi- ter, two-center, localized, protonated, quadruple, sigma, pi,
cal bonds are the forces that hold iitnms together in mole- delta,phi, unusual, dangling, semipolar, weak, strong, cova-
cules and solids." We should perhaps stop to reflect for a lent, Ionic, metallic, van der Waals, hydrogen, and coordi-
moment on the term molecule. Robert S. Mulliken, who nate covalent.
received theNohel Prize in chcmistrv in 1966 for hisseminal We will divide our discussion into five parts, which will
work on the chemical bond states (27: allow us to take up several of these types of bonds. The five
A molecule may be thought of either as a structure built of atoms
parts are: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds,
bound together by chemical forces or as a structure in which two bonds in the solid state, and variation in bond strengths.
or more nuclei are maintained in some definite eeometrical eon-
figuration by attractive forces from a surroundingswarm of elec- lonlc Bonds (4)
trons. The simnlest bonds to describe are those that result from
attractions between ions of opposite charge, as in most rrys-
We see that it is impossible to define the term molecule talline solids. Unfortunatelv, even simple crvstalline solids
without mention of bonding and vice versa. have rather complicated connectivity patterns between at-
Most definitions of the term molecule refer to atoms, but oms compared to simple molecules. For example, in a single
there is no agreement about what we mean by an atom in a crystal of ordinary table salt, each sodium atom is surround-
molecule! The fundamental difficulty is that electrons are ed by six chlorine atoms and vice versa. Therefore, let us
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indistineuishable and therefore. once a molecule is formed.
WP no longer know how to partition the space among the
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beein bv an examination of the bondine in gaseous diatomic
u
Applications of LEDS
Reactivity. The molecules presented in Figure 2 are all
stable at room t e m ~ e r a t u r eand normal Dressure if laced in
an inert container: All of these molecuies satisfy the octet
rule. On the other hand.. eas - -~ h a s molecules
e such as BHx,
CHs, CH2, and CH are extremely reactive; they have leis
than the octet of electrons. The former substances can be
ordered from numerous suppliers, whereas the latter are
only available as transient molecules. This is not to say that
the transient molecules are unimportant; especially the hy-
drocarhon free radicals mentioned above may be very impor-
tant in flame rhrmistrv. We also do nor wish to e k e the
impression that all stadle substances must satisfy &e octet
rule. Such is certainlv not the case. For examule. . . there are
numerous cage and cluster molecules for which the tradi-
tionaloctet rule is not satisfied. Yet for the tsvical molecules
encountered in a high school chemistry course the octet rule
remains eminently useful as a predictor of molecular reactiv-
ity.
Valence-Shell E l e c t r o n - P a i r Repulsion M e t h o d -----I
(VSEPR). This method has received much attention in this tetrahedral
Journal (8)as a simple approach to molecular shape. I t also
has come under attack in the chemical community since i t
did not seem to be firmly grounded in quantum mechanics. +--e
More recent work has shown that the method is in fact well
grounded ( 9 ) for which we can breathe asigh of relief This is
not to sav that there are no exceutions to the VSEPR meth- I I'
od. ~ o w k v e r it
, is an extremely useful introduction to the uipnal pyramidal
prrdiction of molecular geometry.
The essence of the VSKI'R method is shown in Figure 3.
Although hondanglev between 100" and 109°arequitecom-
mon fo;moleculesin which the central atom is from the first
row (C, N, 0 ) in the periodic table, angles close to 90° are
much more common for the second and subsequent rows.
Examples are given in Figure 3.
Formal c h a r m This term s i m.~.l vrefers to a method of
partitioning the electrons in a molecule. Consider again the
gaseous NaCl molecule. In that case we formally thoueht of Figure 3. Molecular shape asa function of me number of elechan pairs arwnd
;he bonding in terms of a transfer of an electronfrom the Na the central atom (VSEPR).
two SP linear
three sp2 trigonat pianav
four sp3 tetrahedrain
far a pocket computer to tell what you are supposed to say when
seeing a given chromophore.
We present in the table the sort of "electronic parrot" that
most stahle connectivities of the atoms in a molecule can he Jorgensen refers to. The concept of hybridization is mostlv
deduced by a simple nuclear repulsion theory. We here em- employed in organic chemistry, and even there i t is not df
ploy LEDS to accomplish a similar goal. Suppose we are much use except for the carbon atom. Recently, it has been
asked to nredict the molecular structure for the molecule shown that the ratio of s t o p character should not he taken
HC'OF, which has I 8 valence electrons. Will this molecule be too literally (14). Pauling continues to find refreshing ways
linear HCOF. HOCF. HFCO. HFOC. HOFC, or HCFO'! Or in which to apply the concepts of hybrid orbitals (15).
will i t be nonlinear, and if so,'will i t be plana;?
We have developed a set of emdrical "rules" that seem to Difficult Areas for LEDS
he valid for the irediction of tl;e most stahle topology of Resonance. We are so familiar with this nrohlem that we
many molecules (11). These rules are not foolproof, hut they may not even think of it a s a problem! Yet. whether in SO,or
do p&ide reasonahk guidelines for deducing stahle topolo-
in t~enzencwe need to use more than one LEDS to descrihc
riesof molecules. The priority oftherulesshuuld be taken in the full symmetry of the molecule. Delocalization introduces
the order listed a problem for what is essentiallv a localized theorv of the
1. Hydrogen atoms are terminal. Example: HCN not CHN. e ~ & r o n - ~ a ihond.
r
2. For two elements from the same row in the neriodic chart. the
~ ~~~ ~
H, - H +H dissociation energy = 103 kcaL'mol Hydrogen bonding has important consequences for the
solid-state structures adopted by H F and H20,Figure 7. The
Let us consider the four-particle system with the nuclei structure of H F is found to exhihit a zigzag chain of H F
fixed a t a distance R from each other. The total energy will molecules, linked together by hydrogen honds. The struc-
he determined by the total potential energy and the total ture of ice shows that each oxygen atom of a polar H20
kinetic energy. Since we take the nuclei t o he fixed, the molecule is tetrahedrallv coordinated to four other oxveen
kinetic energy is due solely t o the electrons. The total energy atoms in a structure that somewhat resembles that o i k a -
varies as a function of distance and is usuallv exhibited in mond. Each oxveen atom is hound to its four neiehbor oxv-
what is mistakenly called a potential energy curve (Fig. 5). gen atoms by hidrogen bonds. In two of t h e ~ ~ h y d r o g e n
We are interested in how this total enerev is com~osedof honds the central Hz0 molecule s u ~ p l i e sthe hvdroeen at-
kinetic energy and potential energy. The results arepresent- oms; in the other two honds the H &oms come fromvneigh-
ed in Figure 6 and show that the shape of the total energy boring water molecules. Although the hydrogen honds are
curve is a subtle interplay between the kinetic energy and relatively weak compared to typical covalent bbnds, they are
potential energy. We will not attempt to discuss these curves nonetheless important because there are so many of them in
here, since entire chapters of books have been devoted to the solid and liquid phases. This explains the high boiling
this topic, and a recent article in this Journal (20) has also point, for example, of H 2 0 (100 OC) compared to H2S (-61
discussed these matters. Suffice it to say that i t is not entire- "C).
ly correct to say that the electrons are simply the "glue" that Since hydrogen bonding causes an open network in ice
bind nuclei together; such a statement implies that binding (Fig. I ) ,ice is less dense than water a t the melting tempera-
is due solely to potential energy. In the early part of the ture. Upon melting, part of the open-cage structure col-
curve (large R ) it is the change in kinetic energy that is lapses, so that the liquid is more compact than the solid. The
bringing the nuclei together, then just as the kinetic energy measured heat of fusion of ice is only 1.4 kcallmol, whereas
begins to increase the change in potential energy swoops in the enerw of its hvdroeen honds is about 5 kcallmol. This
to save the day. Perhaps this is a fitting place to repeat contrast jndicates that only about one-third of the hydrogen
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Variation In Slrenaths of Chemlcal Bonds a. Kutzelnigg, W. Angew. Chrm. Inl. Ed.Engl. 1984.28.272.
4. Muchofthe material in this soction istskon from DeKoek,R. L.;Gw, H. B. Chamieol
I t is worthwhile to obtain an overview of chemical bond Strurtum ond Rondine: BeniaminICumminns:Menlo Park.. CA.. 1980: .. oo 86-89.
6. Barhe. J. J. Chrm. ~due.~l983,60,640.
strengths. This can best be accomplished by a histogram plot 6. Lever, A. B. P. J. Chrm. Educ. 1972.4%819. Zandler, M. E.: Talaty, E. R. J. Chem.
for a set of molecules (251,Figure 10. Notice that the weakest ..-
PA,," .."., ir , l l d
19Ld f-.
bonds consist of van der Waals bonds and hydrogen bonds, 7. Ref 4, pp 93-101.
- ~
Society, for support of this research. 20. Bsird. N. C. J. Cham. Edur. 1986.63.660.
21. Ref. 4, pp 43-41.
22. Gipuere, P. A. J. Ramon Spectroscopy 1984,15,354.
~~ ~
73. Brewer, L. J. Moteriols Educ. 1984.6, 733.
1. P s ~ rR.
, G.McCrolu HilIEneyrlopedioof Chemisfry,Parker,S. P.,Ed.: McCraw-Hill: 24. Knight, L. R.. Jr.: Briftain. R. D.:Ouncan. M.: Joyner. C. H. J. Phyr Chsm 1975.79,
New York. 1983: p 134. llS3.
2. Mul1iken.R.S. In ret 1.~628. 25. Ref. 4, pp 229, 259, and 265.