Safety Management Week 6 9

Technological University of the Philippines Visayas
Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental
College of Engineering Technology

Office of the Program Coordinator
WEEK NO. 5 & 6
TOPIC:
- ELECTRICAL SAFETY
OBJECTIVES:
1. Define the basic terms in electricity

2. Describe the danger of electric shock
3. Identify the practical measures in preventing electric shock accidents
MATERIALS SUPPORT/REFERENCES:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/electrical.html
http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter02.html
http://www.amasci.com/miscon/whatis.html
CONTENTS:
Electricity
Electricity is essential and considered as among the basic needs of

everybody. Electricity had made our houses into homes, changed the mode
of transportation from kalesas into taxis and Metro Railway Transport
Systems (MRTS), and improved shops to malls and factories. It is hard to
imagine if we had no electricity until now. However, it is also among the
common causes of occupational accidents resulting to injuries, death and
property damage.
More than a thousand workers are killed each year by electrical shock and thousands
more are burned or maimed. More than 90% of the fatalities occurred when a person who was
grounded made contact with live wire or an energized equipment housing. Line to line contact
accounted for fewer than 10% of the deaths.
Electrical safety requires understanding of what electricity is, how electrical energy is
transferred and how the path through which electrical current travels can be controlled.
Electricity can be defined as the flow of electrons along a conductor. Electrons are
negatively charged particles distributed in orbits around the nuclei of atoms,
which are the smallest units of an element than can exist either alone or in
combination. In an atom, the negative charge of the electrons is neutralized
by the positive charge of particles called protons, so that the atom is
electrically neutral. If an external force is applied so that the electrons are
removed from their orbit and directed to a given direction, electric current is
produced in that direction.
Electric current requires a suitable circuit to provide the energy
needed for lighting, heating, etc. An electrical circuit usually contains a power
source and an electrical load. Suitable conducting material connects the
Curriculum and Instructional Materials and Development Committee
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power source to the load in order to complete the electrical circuit. These conductors are
covered with a suitable insulating material to prevent the current from leaking out.
Some materials such as metals have loosely bonded electrons, and the amount of
thermal energy available at room temperature is sufficient to generate free electrons. Materials
that have a relatively large number of free electrons at room temperature, which are called
conductors, are capable of conducting electricity (the movement of electrons in a given
direction). On the other hand, materials that do not have a large number of free electrons at
room temperature (such as plastics), which are called insulators, are incapable of conducting
electricity. Materials that fall in between the two extremes are termed semi-conductors.
Elements of electricity
 Voltage. In order for electrons to move between two points, a potential difference
must exist. The potential difference between two points in a circuit is measured in terms of
volts. The higher the potential difference, the easier it is for the electrons to move from one
point to another, and the higher the electric current.
 Resistance. The flow of electrons is also governed by the resistance offered by the
conducting materials. It is measured in Ohms
 Current. The current flow in a circuit is measure in terms of amperes. One ampere,
by definition, is the flow of 6.28 x 1018 electrons per second past a given point in a circuit.
Sometimes it is necessary to use smaller units of measurement for the current flow, the most
commonly-used units being the milliampere (0.001 ampere)
Electricity and water analogy

Water Flow is analogous to Electricity
Ohm’s Law
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The relationship between the elements of electricity was introduced by Mr. Georg
Simon Ohm. It has been known as the Ohm’s Law.
Electrical Resistance
Table 6.1 Normal resistance Values of Various Materials
Table 6.2 Human Resistance to Electric Current
Hazards of electricity:
 Electric shock
 Burns
 Fire
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Electric shock occurrence
Electrical shock is a common hazard encountered by people involved in the installation,

maintenance, and operation of electrical equipment. Electric shock occurs once the worker’
body becomes part of an electrical circuit when it comes in contact with a live internal
conductor at the point of insulator breakdown.
The more common sources of electric shock are refrigerators and electric fans.
Defective and poorly maintained electrical device will generate electrical leak.
This leak passes all over the conductive materials of the device and if someone touches
the device he will receive electric shock.
Below are the common causes of electrical injuries/accidents:
(a) touching of live parts
(b) short circuit
(c) inadequate guarding
(d) overloading
(e) breaking of connections
When the electric current has sufficient potential difference to overcome the body’s
resistance, it results in shock burns or even death. Although potential difference determines
whether the body’s resistances will be overcome, the damaging factor in electrical shock is the
current flow.
Factors affecting electric shock

1. Amount of current that flows through the human body. The amount of current that
flows to the body depends on:
 Voltage of the circuit. According to Ohms Law, voltage is directly proportional to
the current. A higher voltage means a higher amount of current.
 Insulating quality
2. The path the current takes through the body affects the degree of injury. A small
current that passes from one hand to the other hand through the heart is capable of causing
severe injury or death. However, there have been cases where larger currents caused an arm or
leg to burn off without going through the vital organs of the body. In many such cases the
person was not killed; had the same current passed through the vital organs of the body, the
person easily could have been electrocuted.
3. Duration of current flow. The longer the current flows through the body, the more
devastating the result can be. That is the reason why immediate action should be taken to free
co-workers when they are shocked or burned by electricity.
Actions to Take
Shut off the electrical current if the victim is still in contact with the energized circuit.
While you do this, have someone else call for help. If you cannot quickly get to the electrical
disconnect to turn off the current, pry the victim from the circuit with something that does not
conduct electricity such as a dry wood broom stick.
Do not touch the victim yourself if he or she is still in contact with an electrical circuit!
You will become a victim of electrical shock.
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4. Type of electric energy involved. There are two kinds of electrical energy:
 Alternating current (AC) - the flow of electric charge whose magnitude and
direction changes periodically. This can cause a person to maintain an involuntary grip on the
live metal or conductor and prolong the current flow.
 Direct current (DC) – the flow of electric charge that does not change direction
5. Body condition. Personal sensitivity to electric shock varies with age, sex, heart condition,
etc.
An electrical current passing through the body can cause severe injury or death by:
 Contracting the chest muscles, resulting in breathing difficulty and death due to
asphyxiation.
 Affecting the central nervous system, resulting in malfunction of vital body function
such as respiration
 Interference with the normal rhythm of the heart beat, resulting in Ventricular
Fibrillation which is defined as “very rapid uncoordinated contractions of the ventricles of the
heart resulting in loss of synchronization between heartbeat and pulse beat.” Once ventricular
fibrillation occurs, it will continue and death will ensue within a few minutes.
 Electricity may also affect the heart muscle, resulting in severe heart muscle
contraction and cessation of heart action.
 Heat generated when current overcomes tissue resistance may cause destruction of
the body tissues.
The severity of an electric shock is the product of the current value and the time it flows
through the body Based on the research of Charles F. Dalziel, professor at the University of
California, the effects of alternating current (60Hz) on the human body are generally accepted
to be as follows:
Table 5.3 Effect of Current on the Human Body
 Let go current – the maximum current that a person can tolerate when holding a
conductor and can still free himself/herself by muscular stimulation.
 Ventricular fibrillation – most death by electric shock are caused by ventricular
fibrillation. It is a condition wherein the heart will not pulse regularly causing the heart to cease
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functioning. Once this occurs, the victim will be dead in a few minutes even if the electric
source is interrupted.
 Even small amounts of current can cause minor shock sensations and result to
secondary accidents.
Source: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/electrical.html
There are four main types of injuries caused by electric currents – electrocution
(fatal), electric shock, burns, and falls. These injuries can happen in various ways:
 direct contact with the electrical energy.
 when the electricity arcs (jumps) through a gas (such as air) to a person who is
grounded (that would provide an alternative route to the ground for the electricity).
 thermal burns including flash burns from heat generated by an electric arc, and flame
burns from materials that catch fire from heating or ignition by electric currents. High voltage
contact burns can burn internal tissues while leaving only very small injuries on the outside of
the skin.
 muscle contractions, or a startle reaction, can cause a person to fall from a ladder,
scaffold or aerial bucket. The fall can cause serious injuries.
Electric shock prevention

(a) Use of grounding system
Grounding or earthing is any means of absorbing any leakage current and
making it flow directly to earth by using an electrical conductor. It is a process of
connecting metal parts/casing of the electrical equipment to earth through grounding
wires. The voltage exists on the metal casing and earth resistance. Grounding means
safety. There are two types of grounding:
(1) System Grounding – means grounding the neutral point iron terminal of electrical
circuits on power transformer of electrical system;
(2) Equipment Grounding – grounding of a non-charged metal part of electrical
equipment.
(b) Use Double Insulating Materials
Insulating materials have extremely high resistance values, virtually to prevent
flow of electric current through it. The principle of insulation is used when work must
to be carried out near un-insulated live parts. Work on un-insulated parts are carried out
by using protective devices such as insulating stands, mats or screens, or rubber
insulating gloves to protect workers from electric shock.
(c) Use Appropriate Disconnecting Means
(1) Fuse
A fuse is essentially a strip of metal that melts at a pre-determined value
of current flow, and therefore cuts off the current to that circuit. In the event of
abnormal conditions such as faults or when excess current flows, the fuse would
blow and protect the circuit or apparatus from further damage. In effective and
safe operation, the fuse should be placed in a live conductor and never in the
neutral conductor. Otherwise, even with the fuse blown or removed, parts of the
circuit such as switches or terminals will be affected. Over-fusing means using
a fuse rating higher than that of the circuit it is meant to protect. This is
dangerous because in the event of a fault, a current may flow to earth without
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blowing the fuse, endangering workers and the circuit or equipment concerned.
It could also result in overheating of the cable carrying the excessive current,
with the risk of fire.
(2) Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker has several advantages for excess current circuit
protection. The principle of the operation is that excess current flow is detected
electromagnetically and the mechanism of the breaker automatically trips and
cuts off electric supply to the circuit it protects.
(3) Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
Majority of electric shock injuries occur when the body acts as
conductor between line and earth. Protection against such shocks is provided by
the inclusion of a current sensitive earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) in the
supply line. ELCB may detect both over-current and earth leakage currents and
thereby give very good circuit protection.
(d) Proper Maintenance of Portable Power Tools

The necessity to use flexible cables to supply electricity to the tools introduces
hazards. Such cables are often misused and abused resulting in damaged insulation and
broken or exposed conductors. The tool itself could also become charged with
electricity due to a fault. Constant care and adequate maintenance and storage are
essential to safe use.
Causes of electrical fire
The more frequent causes of electrical fires may be listed under three general classes
namely, arcs, sparks and overheating. An arc is produced when an electric circuit carrying a
current is interrupted, either intentionally – by a knife switch or accidentally – where a contact
at a terminal becomes loose. The intensity of the arc depends, to a great extent, on the current
and voltage of the circuit. The temperature of the electric arc is very high and any combustible
materials in its vicinity may be ignited by the heat.
An electric arc may not only ignite combustible materials in its vicinity such as the
insulating covering of the conductor, but it may also fuse the metal with the conductor. Hot
sparks from burning combustible material and hot metal are thrown about, and may set fire to
other combustible materials.
When an electric conductor carries a current, heat is generated in direct proportion to
the resistance of the conductor and to the square of the current. The resistance of conductors is
used to convey current to the location where it is used, or to convey it through the windings of
a piece of apparatus, except in resistance devices and heaters.
Hazardous Locations
Hazardous locations are areas where explosive or flammable gases or vapors,

combustible dust, or ignitable fibers are present or likely to become present. Such materials
can ignite as a result of electrical causes only if two conditions co-exist:
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1. The proportion of the flammable substance to oxygen must permit ignition and the
mixture must be present in a sufficient quantity to provide an ignitable atmosphere in the
vicinity of electrical equipment.
2. An electric arc, flame escaping from an ignited substance in an enclosure, heat from
an electric heater, or their source, must be present at a temperature equal to or greater than the
ignition point of the flammable mixture.
Classification of Hazardous Locations
Class I – locations where flammable gases or vapors are present or likely to become
present.
Class II – applies to combustible dusts.
Class III – locations are those where easily ignitable dust such as textile fibers are
present but not likely to be suspended in the air in sufficient concentration to
produce an easily ignitable atmosphere.
Explosion Proof Apparatus - A device enclosed in a case that is capable
of:
 withstanding an explosion of a specified gas or vapor that may
occur within it
 preventing the ignition of a specified gas or vapor outside the
enclosure that may be caused by sparks, flashes or explosion of the gas or vapor inside
the apparatus.
Safe Practices and Procedures

The following are the simple rules when working with electricity:
1. Always assume that a circuit is energized.
2. Use the appropriate instrument for testing circuits.
3. Use protective devices (ELCB, fuse, rubber mats, etc.).
4. Use personal protective equipment (rubber gloves, boots, safety devices).
5. Inspect tools, power cords, and electrical fittings for damage or wear prior to each
use. Repair or replace damaged equipment immediately.
6. Use warning signs and isolate dangerous areas.
7. Observe proper maintenance schedules of electrical equipment, loads and wires.
8. Always tape cords to walls or floors when necessary. Nails and staples can damage
cords causing fire and shock hazards.
9. Use cords or equipment rated for the level of amperage or wattage that you are using.
10. Always use the correct size fuse. Replacing a fuse with one of a larger size can
cause excessive currents in the wiring and possibly start a fire.
11. Conduct regular electrical inspections for the electrical circuit.
12. Be aware that unusually warm or hot outlets may be a sign that unsafe wiring
conditions exists. Unplug any cords to these outlets and do not use until a qualified electrician
has checked the wiring.
13. Place halogen lights away from combustible materials such as cloths or curtains.
Halogen lamps can become very hot and may be a fire hazard. Risk of electric shock is greater
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in areas that are wet or damp. Install Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs) as they will
interrupt the electrical circuit before a current sufficient to cause death or serious injury occurs.
14. Make sure that exposed receptacle boxes are made of non-conductive materials.
15. Know where the breakers and boxes are located in case of an emergency.
16. Label all circuit breakers and fuse boxes clearly. Each switch should be positively
identified as to what outlet or appliance it is for.
17. Do not use outlets or cords with exposed wiring.
18. Do not use power tools when protective guards are removed.
19. Do not block access to circuit breakers or fuse boxes.
20. Do not touch a person or electrical apparatus in the event of an electrical accident.
Always disconnect the current first.
21. Ensure that only qualified personnel work on any part of an electrical circuit or
equipment/apparatus.
22. Always replace a fuse with the same kind and rating. Never bridge a fuse using
metal wires or nails, etc.
23. Make sure that there is someone to look after you whenever you work with any part
of the electrical circuit.
24. Observe lock-out/tag-out (LOTO). Always lock safety switches and place tags
before working on a circuit. Before energizing a circuit, ensure all personnel are clear of the
circuit or the equipment concerned.
25. Ensure that temporary electrical installations do not create new hazards.
26. Always use ladders made of wood or other non-conductive materials when working
with or near electricity or power lines.
27. Adhere to strictly established regulations of the Philippine Electrical Code.
Tips for working with power tools:

 Switch tools OFF before connecting them to a power supply.
 Disconnect power supply before making adjustments.
 Ensure tools are properly grounded or double-insulated. The grounded tool must have
an approved 3-wire cord with a 3-prong plug. This plug should be plugged in a properly
grounded 3-pole outlet.
 Test all tools for effective grounding with a continuity tester or a ground fault circuit
interrupter (GFCI) before use.
 Do not bypass the switch and operate the tools by connecting and disconnecting the
power cord.
 Do not use electrical tools in wet conditions or damp locations unless tool is
connected to a GFCI.
 Do not clean tools with flammable or toxic solvents.
 Do not operate tools in an area containing explosive vapors or gases.
Tips for working with power cords:

 Keep power cords clear of tools during use.
 Suspend power cords over aisles or work areas to eliminate stumbling or tripping
hazards.
 Replace open front plugs with dead front plugs. Dead front plugs are sealed and
present less danger of shock or short circuit.
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 Do not use light duty power cords.

 Do not carry electrical tools by the power cord.
 Do not tie power cords in tight knots. Knots can cause short circuits and shocks.
Loop the cords or use a twist lock plug.
A Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) - works by detecting any loss of

electrical current in a circuit. When a loss is detected, the GFCI turns the electricity off before
severe injuries or electrocution can occur. A painful shock may occur during the time that it
takes for the GFCI to cut off the electricity so it is important to use the GFCI as an extra
protective measure rather than a replacement for safe work practices.
GFCI wall outlets can be installed in place of standard outlets to protect against
electrocution for just that outlet, or a series of outlets in the same branch. A GFCI circuit
breaker can be installed on circuit breaker electrical panels to protect an entire branch circuit.
Plug-in GFCIs can be plugged into wall outlets where appliances will be used.
Test the GFCI monthly. First plug a "night light" or lamp into the GFCI-protected wall
outlet (the light should be turned on), then press the "TEST" button on the GFCI. If the GFCI
is working properly, the light should go out. If not, have the GFCI repaired or replaced. Reset
the GFCI to restore power. If the "RESET" button pops out but the light does not go out, the
GFCI has been improperly wired and does not offer shock protection at that wall outlet. Contact
a qualified electrician to correct any wiring errors.
Sample checklist for basic electrical safety:

Inspect Cords and Plugs
 Check power cords and plugs daily. Discard if worn or damaged. Have any cord that
feels more than comfortably warm checked by an electrician.
Eliminate Octopus Connections

 Do not plug several power cords into one outlet.
 Pull the plug, not the cord.
 Do not disconnect power supply by pulling or jerking the cord from the outlet.
Pulling the cord causes wear and may cause a shock.
Never Break OFF the Third Prong on a Plug

 Replace broken 3-prong plugs and make sure the third prong is properly grounded.
Never Use Extension Cords as Permanent Wiring

 Use extension cords only to temporarily supply power to an area that does not have
a power outlet.
 Keep power cords away from heat, water and oil. They can damage the insulation
and cause a shock.
 Do not allow vehicles to pass over unprotected power cords. Cords should be put in
conduit or protected by placing planks alongside them.
PROGRESS CHECK:
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A. Multiple Choice Questions:

1. What is the minimum distance workers must maintain between conductive materials and
overhead power lines up to 50 kV.
a. 10 ft b. 20 ft c. 30 ft d. As far as possible
2. Working with electricity makes a worker how many more times likely to be killed than from
any other kind of accident?
a. 50 b. 5 c. 10 d. 20
3. High pollution can cause cracking and damage integrity of rubber insulating gloves.
a. True b. False
4. Which one of these statements is true?
a. You should only take a plug apart whilst wearing PPE
b. You should only take a plug apart if you are trained to do so
c. You should only take a plug apart alongside a supervisor
d. You should never take a plug apart
5. Which of these can be used as insulating live-line tools for electrical protection?
a. Shotgun sticks b. Switchsticks c. Hotsticks d. All of the above
6. Only ___________________ workers can repair exposed electrical equipment.
a. insulated b. protected by PPE c. qualified and trained d.
unqualified
7. Gloves used for electrical protection must be electrically tested every…
a. 3 months b. 6 months c. 12 months d. Never
8. Why are rubber insulating gloves filled with air?
a. To conduct air-test b. To make them lighter c. To see how they expand d. None
9. Which of these is not an appropriate PPE for electrical power industry?
a. Flame-resistant clothing b. Safety glasses c. Hard hats d. None
10. OSHA requires the testing of a volt meter after a voltage test on voltage above______.
a. 120v b. 208v c. 277v d. 600v
11. _____ all electrical equipment before use.
a. Clean b. Inspect c. Label d. Organize
12. Specially designed PPE for electrical work includes _____ insulating gloves, matting,
blankets, and covers.
a. Plastic b. Rubber c. Steel d. Wood
13. _____ is the flow of electrons around a circuit.
a. Current b. Electricity c. Power d. Voltage
14. Electrical hazards include shock, electrical arcs and blasts, and _____ or faulty equipment.
a. Broken b. Double-insulated c. Polished d. Secure
15. ____ tools are encased in plastic and prevent the user from getting electrocuted if the tool
develops a short circuit.
a. Corded b. Double-insulated c. Green colored d. Grounded
B. Application:
1. How much electricity is enough to cause death?
It depends entirely on the amount of current flowing thru the body. At 10 milli-amperes,
the body experiences involuntary grip or the person cannot let go of the conducting material.
At 20 mA, the body may already experience ventricular fibrillation leading to death.
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2. Why do birds standing on high-tension wires do not get electrocuted?

In order for an animal or person be electrocuted, the electricity should have electric
current path within the body or a closed circuit path for the electricity. The bird happens to be
standing only on the wire without causing itself to create a circuit path.
3. What can you say about the practice of replacing a busted fuse with any type of conductive
material to continue the electrical supply?
The fuse is a protective device to prevent overload. Replacing it with other than the
rated fuse with another type of conductor will defeat its purpose for protection. This practice
will create the overload to the circuit that will cause damage to the electrical installation and in
worst cases cause fire.
4. What is the purpose of the third conductor of common plugs/third hole in other outlets?
How come it is okay to only use the two holes or remove the third wire?
It is actually required for these kinds of electrical systems to have a ground wire or the
third wire. This wire or conductor is for the ground electrical path. The ground electrical path
is for the protection of the user or the equipment itself. Removing the wire/conductor may
cause damage to the equipment or cause electrical shock to the user.
WEEK NO. 7
TOPIC:
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- MACHINE SAFETY
OBJECTIVES:
Recognize the principles of machine guarding

Identify areas where machine guards are needed
Enumerate the types of machine guards
Differentiate a lock-out from tag-out
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/machinel.html
http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter02.html
http://www.amasci.com/miscon/whatis.html
CONTENTS:
A machine is a tool used to make work easier. It is basically an assemblage of parts

that transmit forces, motion and energy in a predetermined manner. Simple machines are
mechanical devices that change the direction or magnitude of a force. They are the "building
blocks" of which the more complicated machines or compound machines are made.
The Industrial Revolution
It was only during the industrial revolution that modern machines were used
extensively. Prior to this, all operations were manually done. The start of the 18th century
marked the start of the industrial revolution. Modern machines were conceptualized and
created. These enabled factories to produce goods faster, but at the same time lead to poor
working conditions and a lot of accidents, giving rise to a growing concern for machine safety.
Machine safety covers 4 basic areas: adjustment and repair, servicing and maintenance, moving
parts and point of operation.
Hazardous mechanical motions and actions

The important aspect of machine safety – the basic types of hazardous mechanical
motions and actions.
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These include the movement of rotating members, reciprocating arms, moving belts,
meshing gears, cutting teeth, and any other part that impacts or shears. These different types of
hazardous mechanical motions and actions are present in varying combinations in nearly all
machines and recognizing them is the first step toward protecting workers from the dangers
they present.
Motions
- Rotating
- Reciprocating
- Transversing
Rotating
Rotating motion can be dangerous - even smooth, slowly rotating shafts can catch
clothing, and through mere skin contact force an arm or hand into a dangerous position. Injuries
due to contact with rotating parts can be severe.
Collars, couplings, cams, clutches, flywheels, shaft ends, spindles, meshing gears, and
horizontal or vertical shafting are some examples of common rotating mechanisms which may
be hazardous. The danger increases when projections such as set screws, bolts, nicks, abrasions,
and projecting keys or set screws are exposed on rotating parts.
Nip Points
In-running nip point (or points
where parts of the hand, body or clothes can
get caught in-between) hazards, are caused
by the rotating parts of machinery. There are
three main types of in-running nips.
- Parts rotating in opposite directions
- Nip points between rotating and

tangentially moving parts. Some examples
are: the point of contact between a power
transmission belt and its pulley, a chain and a sprocket, and a rack and
pinion.
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- Nip points between rotating and fixed parts which create a shearing, crushing, or
abrading action. Examples are: spoked hand wheels or flywheels, screw conveyors, or the
periphery of an abrasive wheel and an incorrectly adjusted work rest.
Reciprocating
Reciprocating motions may be hazardous because during the back-and-forth or up-and-
down motion, a worker may be struck by or caught between a moving and a stationary part.
Traversing
Transverse motion (movement in a straight, continuous line) creates a hazard because

a worker may be struck or caught in a pinch or shear point by the moving part.
Mechanical Actions
Cutting
The danger of cutting action exists at the point of operation where

finger, arm and body injuries can occur and where flying chips or scrap
material can strike the head, particularly in the area of the eyes or face. Such
hazards are present at the point of operation in cutting wood, metal, or other
materials.
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Examples of mechanisms involving cutting hazards include band saws, circular saws, boring
or drilling machines, turning machines (lathes), or milling machines.
Punching
Punching action results when power is applied to a slide (ram) for the
purpose of blanking, drawing, or stamping metal or other materials. The
danger of this type of action occurs at the point of operation where stock is
inserted, held, and withdrawn by hand.
Typical machines used for punching operations are power presses
Shearing
Shearing action involves applying power to a slide or knife in order
to trim or shear metal or other materials. A hazard occurs at the point of
operation where stock is actually inserted, held, and withdrawn.
Examples of machines used for shearing operations are
mechanically, hydraulically, or pneumatically powered shears.
Bending
Bending action results when power is applied to a slide in order to
draw or stamp metal or other materials. A hazard occurs at the point of
operation where stock is inserted, held, and withdrawn.
Equipment that uses bending action includes power presses, press
brakes, and tubing benders.
Areas where machine guarding are necessary
Dangerous moving parts in three

basic areas require safeguarding:
The point of operation: that point

where work is performed on the material,
such as cutting, shaping, boring, or
forming of stock.
Power transmission apparatus: all
components of the mechanical system
which transmit energy to the part of the machine performing the work. These components
include flywheels, pulleys, belts, connecting rods, couplings, cams, spindles, chains, cranks,
and gears.
Other moving parts: all parts of the machine which moves while the machine is
working. These can include reciprocating, rotating, and transverse moving parts, as well as feed
mechanism and auxiliary parts of the machine.
In general, any machine part, function, or process which may cause injury must be
guarded.
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Importance of machine safety

Why it is necessary to have safety program for machine operations? Because, we know
that machines can cause:
- severe accidents
- loss of trained and skilled employee/s
- loss of production
- damage to equipment
- incurring training cost for new employee/s
- overtime cost
- possible litigation
- accident investigation
Machines can also cause:

- lost time expense
- cost of machine down time
- cost of machine damage and repairs
- lost time due to time spent on accident investigation and other statutory requirements
- loss of production
Types of machine guards

Preventing access
Fixed enclosing guards
If the hazard is on a part of the machinery which does not require access, it
should be permanently guarded with fixed enclosing guards.
Preventing dangerous motions

When frequent access is required, physical guarding at the
hazard is sometimes too restrictive for part loading or adjustment.
In this situation, a device is required to prevent dangerous motion
while allowing unrestricted access by sensing the presence of the
operator and sending a stop signal.
Movable guards with interlocking switches

If access is required in a hazardous area of a machine, an operator can be
protected by an inter-lock with the power source which ensures that whenever the guard
door is not closed, the power is switched off.
Two hand controls
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There are other ways of preventing access while the machine is in a dangerous
condition. The use of two hand controls (also referred to as bi-manual controls) is
common in certain types of machinery. Two start buttons have to be operated at the
same time to run the machine. This ensures that both hands of the operator are in a safe
position and therefore cannot be in the hazard area.
Pullback Devices
These are mechanical devices attached to the operator's hands and connected to
the moving portion of the die. If properly adjusted, it withdraws the operator's hands if
they are inadvertently within the point of operation as the dies close.
Photoelectric light curtain

These devices emit a “curtain” of harmless infrared light beams in front of the
hazard area. When any of the beams are blocked, the light curtain control circuit sends
a stop signal to the guarded machine.
Light curtains are extremely versatile and can guard areas many
meters wide. By using mirrors, light beams can be diverted all
around the corners to enclose a machine.
There are many applications ranging from totally enclosing
perimeter guards for industrial robots, to point of access guards for
certain types of presses.
Safety mats
These devices are used to guard a floor area around a machine. Interconnected
mats are laid around the hazard area and any pressure will cause the mat controller unit
to send a stop signal to the guarded machine.
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Pressure-sensitive mats are often used within an enclosed area containing

several machines (e.g., flexible manufacturing or robotics cells). When access into the
cell is required (example: for setting or robot “teaching”), dangerous motion can be
prevented if the operator stays within the safe area.
Pressure-sensitive edges
These devices are flexible edging strips which can be fixed to the edge of a
moving part such as a machine table or powered door where there is a risk of crushing
or shearing hazard. If the moving part strikes the operator (or vice versa), the flexible
sensitive edge is depressed and will send a stop signal to the power source.
Emergency stops
Wherever there is a danger of an operator getting into trouble on a
machine there must be a facility for fast access to an emergency stop device.
The usual way of providing this is in the form of a mushroom headed
push-button which the operator strikes in the event of an emergency. The
emergency stops must be strategically placed, in sufficient quantity around the
machine to ensure that there is always one in reach at the occurrence of hazard.
Grab-wire switches
For machinery such as conveyors etc., it is often more convenient and

effective to use a grab wire device along the hazard area. These devices use a
steel wire rope connected to latching pull switches so that pulling on the rope
will operate the switch and cut off the machine power.
Telescopic trip switches
19

Other variations include telescopic antenna switches where deflection of

the antenna causes the switch to cut off the machine power. These devices are
more commonly used as trip devices on machinery such as pillar drills. The
switch is mounted on the drill and the antenna is extended down next to the drill
bit. In the event that the operator becomes entangled with the drill, he will be
pulled onto the antenna thus operating the switch.
Robotics application
This depends on the nature of the machine and the hazard.
Requirements of effective safeguards (Rule 1200)
Must prevent contact

Safeguards should prevent human contact with any potentially harmful machine
part. The prevention extends to machine operators and any other person who might
come in contact with the hazard.
Must be secured and durable
Safeguards should be attached so that they are secured Workers should not be
able to render them ineffective by tampering with or disabling them. This is critical
because removing safeguards to speed-up production is a common practice. Safeguards
must also be durable enough to withstand the rigors of the workplace because worn-out
safeguards can’t protect workers properly.
Must provide protection against falling objects
Objects falling into moving machine mechanisms increase the risk of accidents,
property damage, and injury. Objects that fall on a moving part can be thrown out,
creating dangerous projectile. Therefore, safeguards must do more than just prevent
human contact. They must also shield the moving parts of machines from falling
objects.
Must not create new hazards
Safeguards should overcome the hazards in question without creating new ones.
A safeguard with a sharp edge, unfinished surface or protruding bolts introduces new
hazards while protecting against the old.
Must not create interference
Safeguards can interfere with the progress of work if they are not properly
designed. Such safeguards are likely to be disregarded or disabled by workers due to
the pressure of production deadlines.
Must allow safe maintenance
Safeguards should be designed to allow the more frequently performed
maintenance tasks (e.g., lubrication) to be accomplished without removal of guards. For
20

example, locating the oil reservoir outside the guard with a line running to the
lubrication point will allow for daily maintenance without removing the guard.
The Hierarchy of Measures
Each measure must be considered according to the hierarchy below. This may result in
a combination of measures being used.
1. Fixed Enclosing Guards - If access to dangerous parts is not required, the solution is
to protect them by some type of fixed enclosing guard.
2. Movable (interlocked) guards or protection devices (e.g., light curtains, presence
sensing mats, etc.) - If access is required, things get a little more difficult. It will be necessary
to ensure that access can only be permitted while the machine is safe. Protective measures such
as interlocked guard doors and/ or trip systems will be required. The choice of protective device
or system should be based on the operating characteristics of the machine.
3. Protection appliances (e.g., jigs, holders, push sticks, etc) - These are used often in
conjunction with guards to feed a work piece while keeping the operator’s body away from the
danger zone.
4. Information, instruction, training and supervision - It is important that operators have
the necessary training in safe working methods for a machine. However, this does not mean
that measures (a), (b) or (c) can be omitted. It is not enough to merely tell an operator that
he/she must not go near dangerous parts (as an alternative to guarding them). Operators must
be trained on the hazards of their work and how to use and maintain the safety devices as well
as give safety reminders to make them aware all the time.
5. Personal Protective Equipment - In addition to the above measures, it may also be
necessary for the operator to use equipment like special gloves, goggles, etc. The machinery
designer should specify what sort of equipment is required. The use of personal protective
equipment is not the primary safeguarding method but should complement the measures shown
above.
The protective device must be appropriate for the type of work being undertaken.
Lock-out/Tag-out System
Another aspect of machine safety is during maintenance work and
servicing. The lock-out/tag-out system is effective for preventing accidents
during maintenance works.
It is a method that is especially designed to protect against the
unexpected startup of a machine that is supposed to be turned off. This is
important because statistics indicate that six percent of all workplace
fatalities are caused by the unexpected activation of machines while they are
being serviced, cleaned, or otherwise maintained. The Lock-out/Tag-out System is designed to
protect against the unexpected startup of machine that is supposed to be "OFF" or an
unexpected release of energy (hazardous energy).
The “Fatal Five” Main Causes of Maintenance Injuries:

 Failure to stop equipment
 Failure to disconnect from power source
 Failure to dissipate (bleed, neutralize) residual energy
21

 Accidental restarting of equipment

 Failure to clear work areas before restarting
Hazardous Energy Sources Found in the Workplace

- Electrical - sudden turning on of power source or stored energy in capacitors
- Mechanical
- Thermal - such as steam or due to chemical reaction
- Potential - stored energy that may be due to gravity, hydraulics, pneumatics, vacuum
or springs
Types of Lock-out Devices

- Plug Locks
- Ball Valve Lock-out
- Gate Valve Lock-out
- Group Lock-out Hasp
- Electrical
- Hydraulic, pneumatic, and other pressurized systems
Lock-out Procedure
- Alert the operator(s) that power is being disconnected.
- Preparation for Shutdown
- Equipment Shutdown
- Equipment Isolation
- Application of Lock-out Devices
- Control of Stored Energy
- Equipment Isolation-Verification
Removal of Lock-out
- Ensure equipment is safe to operate
- Safeguard all employees
- Remove lock-out/tag-out devices. Except in emergencies, each device must be
removed by the person who placed it.
- Last person to take off lock
- Follow checklist
To observe proper LOTO procedures, most firms maintain some forms of
documentation.
PROGRESS CHECK:
Multiple Choice:
1. The following is (are) are generally provided with limit switch to prevent motion beyond
preset limit
a. Hoists b. Conveyors c. Machine Tables d. All of the above
2. The following is (are) used as safety device(s) in machines
a. Fail safe b. Safety interlocks c. Limit switches d. All of the above
22

3. When performing maintenance on equipment:

a. Remove all jewelry b. Tuck in loose clothing c. Use proper personal protective
equipment
d. All of the above
4. Personal protective equipment:
a. Should be with employees at all times
b. Are only needed on construction and some modernization jobs
c. Should never be replaced
d. Can be traded with other employees freely
5. The number one cause of lost work time and on the job fatalities is:
a. Falls from heights
b. Back sprains from improper lifting
c. Motor vehicle incidents
d. Burns from welding
5. When work must be performed in areas accessible to the public:
a. Be sure to make a public announcement
b. Install proper barricades/barriers
c. Try to be neatly dressed in company-approved uniform
d. Complete work in the hours that the building is closed
6. Machine guards are use to:
a. Prevent injuries. b. Protect the operator. C. Protect people in the area.
d. All of the above
7. A point of operation is:
a. A rotating machine part. b. An access port for routine maintenance.
c. The part of the machine where the stock is worked on.
d. Part of the machine's operating procedures
8. Operators should adjust any adjustable guards:
a. When the machine is set-up for the job. b. Only if a mechanic is there to help.
c. Only when the machine is being cleaned. d. While they are in the middle of a run.
9. Interlocked guards:
a. Require a key. b. Shut off the machine if they are opened.
c. Open automatically if the machine stops. d. Are battery operate
10. Damaged guards:
a. Offer enough protection. b. Need to be repaired or replaced.
c. Should be watched carefully. d. None of the above.
11. Safety trip controls:
a. Keep unauthorized personnel out of the area.
b. Are used if fixed guards would be too expensive.
c. Keep the operator from being able to reach the nip point.
d. Are triggered by the operator to shut down the machine in an emergency.
12. If a machine operation throws off chips or sparks:
a. Operators should wear safety glasses.
b. Operators may need to wear a face shield.
c. The machine should have a shield to keep the hazards from reaching the operator.
d. All of the above
13. A machine needs to be locked out when:
23

a. It is stopped during a lunch break.

b. A guard needs to be removed during major repairs.
c. Normal set-up procedures are being followed.
d. None of the above.
14. Poor machine guarding:
a. Means that the machine is not very hazardous.
b. Can give operators a false sense of security.
c. Is never possible with new machines.
d. Both a & c
15. Machine operators can add to their safety by:
a. Not wearing loose-fitting clothes and jewelry.
b. Confining long hair.
c. Cleaning up wet or oily floors around the machine.
d. All of the above.
16. Fixed guards:
a. Are permanently attached to the machine.
b. Do not need to be adjusted for different operations.
c. Are difficult to remove or bypass and act as a physical barrier between the operator and a
hazard.
d. All of the above
17. If a machine is situated so that its hazards are against a wall, or located so that people will
not have access, the risks are not minimized.
a. True b. False
18. As long as you make other provisions, it is not necessary to shut down a machine with
missing or damaged guards.
a. True b. False
19.In the event of an emergency such as machine entrapment at/on a facility/ tug, the first
person to be notified is:
a. The supervisor. b. The Safety Manager c. 911 d. None of the
above
20. Devices that limit or prevent access to the hazardous area in, on or near a machine include:
a. Presence sensing. b. Pullback. c. Restraint. d. All of the above.
WEEK NO. 8
TOPICS :
- PPE (PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT)

- INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
OBJECTIVES:
1. Distinguish the appropriate type of PPE you need in your workplace

24

2. Know the limitation of PPE

3. Develop programs to introduce PPE for your company
4. Recognize the potential occupational health hazards in the workplace.
5. Explain the process of evaluating the different hazards in the workplace through
Work Environment Measurement (WEM), including the instruments used and the standards to
be observed
6. Understand the concept of Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) and interpret their
numerical values.
Confined space – Introduction. (2002, December 20). Retrieved August 31, 2011,
from
Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety Web site:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/confinedspace_intro.html
Globally Harmonized System. (2011, June 01). Retrieved August 31, 2011, from
Indoor Air Quality. (2011, July 04). Retrieved August 31, 2011,
United States. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH®).
(2010). TLVs® and BEIs® Based on the documentation of the threshold limit values
for chemical substances and physical agents & biological exposure indices.
Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH.
Philippines. Department of Labor and Employment – Occupational Safety and Health
Center. (2010, September). Occupational Safety and Health Standards as amended.
Intramuros, Manila: DOLE-OSHC.
Websites:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/iaq_intro.html
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics
www.europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/ds/case_studies.asp?tcid=6
www.ohseinstitute.org/training/johsc/5CaseStudiesForJOHSCCourse.pdf
www.osha.gov
CONTENTS:
Defining hazards
What is a hazard? A hazard is anything that produces adverse effects on anyone.

Examples of hazards are slippery floors, falling objects, chemicals and many more. What do
you think make these occurrences hazardous? As we discussed in Unit 1, Module 3,
unsafe/unhealthy acts bring about unsafe/unhealthy conditions, causing hazards in the
workplace. Although some hazards are intrinsic in nature or force majeure, a human hand is
still behind most of the hazards we now encounter.
25

Classification of hazards
Hazards may be classified into direct, physical, chemical, biological and ergonomic.
Let us discuss each of these.
A. Direct hazards – These are very common in companies that utilize oil, water or any liquid
in the production process and in the construction industry where there are a lot of falling debris,
like small pieces of wood, nails, and hand tools.
Examples:
 Unguarded moving parts of machines
 Falling/flying particles
 Slippery floors
B. Physical hazards
1. Noise.
The following table is the allowable time a worker can stay in a work area
without hearing protection.
Allowable Exposure to Noise
8 hrs --- 90 db
4 hrs --- 95 db
2 hrs --- 100 db
1 hr --- 105 db
For an eight-hour exposure, the allowable noise level is 90 db.
2. Extreme Temperatures are of two types: extreme heat which can cause heat stroke
and extreme cold which can cause hypothermia.
3. Radiation also has two types: the ionizing radiation and the non-ionizing type.
Ionizing radiation
 Ultraviolet (UV) light or alpha particle - from the sun can be shielded
by paper
 Beta particle – can penetrate paper but not concrete. .
 Gamma ray – can penetrate concrete. This can be shielded by using
lead like in the x-ray room which is made up of sheeted lead in-between concrete
to prevent outside exposure.
Non-ionizing radiation
 radio waves, electric waves and infrared rays. An example is the
welding process which produces infrared rays that can damage the skin.
Radiation is dangerous because it cannot be detected by the five senses but it destroys
the cells and tissues of living organisms, and has long-term effects.
Three safety practices for controlling body exposure to radiation:
a. Time – the shorter the time, the lower the exposure received
b. Distance – the greater distance, the lower the exposure received
26

c. Shielding – may be lead, steel, iron or concrete
4. Extreme Pressure – These are pressures beyond the allowable levels needed by the
human body. Normal atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi, and even a small change in the
atmospheric pressure has a corresponding effect to humans. Examples of workers exposed to
extreme pressure are those involved in excavation work, scuba diving, and piloting airplanes.
5. Vibration
C. Chemical Hazards – These are substances in solid, liquid or gaseous forms known to cause
poison, fire, explosion or ill effects to health. Examples include gases, fumes, vapor, mist and
dust. These are airborne particles or airborne toxic elements that evaporate in the air and can
cause irritation, discomfort and even death.
Chemical routes of entry to the body are by inhalation, ingestion and skin absorption.
D. Biological Hazards – These are hazards caused by viruses, fungi and bacteria.
E. Ergonomic Hazards – These are caused by improper posture or postural stress.
Hazard control measures

There are three methods in controlling hazards: engineering, administrative and PPE.
Engineering method – this is the application of engineering technology to control
hazards. An example is machine guarding which prevent anyone from coming in contact with
moving parts of a machine during the operation. Other examples are installation of safety
devices like emergency stop, limit, grab-wire and photo electric switches. These prevent
accidents in case of improper work practices.
Other forms of the engineering method involve substituting hazardous substances with
less hazardous ones (substitution) and isolating hazardous process (isolation).
Administrative method – this aims to minimize the exposure of humans to workplace hazards
and employs administrative approaches such as rotation and shifting.
PPE – these are considered as the last line of defense. These devices provide limited protection
to the ones using them.
Source: Krieger, Gary R, ed. “Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry 11th
ed”. USA: National Safety Council, 1997 p.161
Program to introduce PPE
Once it is decided that personal protective equipment is going to be used, then the
following steps need to be undertaken:
1. write a policy on the usage of PPE and communicate it to employees and visitors as needed
2. select the proper type of equipment
3. implement a thorough training program
4. ensure that employees knows the correct use and maintenance of the equipment
27

5. enforce proper use and maintenance of PPE
Policy
The policy should state the need for the use of PPE. It may also contain exceptions or
limitations on the use of PPE.
Selection of Proper Equipment

After the need for personal protective equipment has been established, the next step is
to select the proper type.
In selecting the proper protector, consideration should be given to the kind and degree
of hazard. Where a choice of protectors is given and the degree of protection required is not an
important issue, worker’s comfort may be a deciding factor.
The first step in selecting PPE for respiratory protection is to contact a supplier.
Manufacturers and distributors do not just helping the selection of the most useful equipment,
but can give valuable aid in fit-sizing, cleaning, care and storage.
Proper Training
The next step is to obtain the workers complete compliance with requirements to wear
the PPE. Several factors influence compliance, among them are:
 The extent to which the personnel who must wear the equipment understand its
necessity
 The ease and comfort with which it can be used, or work with a minimum of
interference with normal work procedures
Source: Krieger, Gary R, ed. “Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry 11th
ed”. USA: National Safety Council, 1997 p.162
A training program outline may include:
 Describing hazards and/or conditions in the workplace
 Telling what can/cannot be done about them
 Explaining why certain types of PPE have been selected
 Discussing the capabilities and/or limitation of the PPE
 Demonstrating how to use, adjust or fit PPE
 Practicing using PPE
 Explaining to workers how to deal with emergencies
 Discussing how PPE will be paid for, maintained, repaired and cleaned.
Maintenance Program
All equipment must be inspected periodically before and after use. A record of all
inspections with the date, tabulated results, the recommendation of the manufacturer for the
maintenance of the device, and the repair and replacement of parts supplied by the
manufacturer of the product should be kept.
Enforcement
28

Employees need to know how the use of PPE will be enforced. Many companies have
some kind of disciplinary actions, such as unpaid time-off, and finally, termination. The
enforcement of the use of PPE is critical to a successful program.
Uses of PPE
You can check out many websites on the Internet that describe and sell various PPE.
Commonly used PPE in the workplace include: helmet, respirator, spectacles, earplugs, gloves,
safety shoes, etc. The following are the functions and uses of PPE.
1. Head Protection
A safety hat is a device that provides head protection against impact from falling objects
and protection against electrocution. Safety hats should be inspected prior to each use. Any one
of the following defects is a cause for immediate removal of the PPE from service:
 Suspension systems that show evidence of material cracking, tearing, fraying or other signs
of deterioration. Suspension should provide a minimum clearance of 1 to 1.25 in. (2.5 – 3.2
cm) between the top of the worker’s head and the inside crown of the hat.
 Any cracks or perforations of brim or shell, deformation of shell, evidence of

exposure to excessive heat, chemicals or radiation. Shells made of polymer plastics are
susceptible to damage from ultraviolet light and gradual chemical degradation. This
degradation first appears as a loss of surface gloss called chalking. With further deterioration,
the surface will begin to flake away
2. Eye Protection
A device that provides eye protection from hazards caused by:
o Flying particles
o Sparks
o Light radiation
o Splashes
o Gases
Goggles come in a number of different styles for a variety of uses such as protecting
against dust and splashes: eye cups, flexible or cushioned goggles, plastic eye shield goggles
and foundry men’s goggles.
Source: Rule 1082.02 of OSH Standards
Eye protectors must meet the following minimum requirements:

o Provide adequate protection against the particular hazards for which they are designed
o Be reasonably comfortable when worn under the designated conditions
o Fit snugly without interfering with the movements or vision of the wearer
o Be durable
o Be capable of being disinfected
o Be easily cleaned
o Be kept clean and in good condition
3. Face Shields
29

Face shields should only be used as eye and face protection in areas where splashing or
dusts, rather than impact resistance is the problem. In the case of grinding operations (plus
other operations), a face shield is only secondary protection to other protective devices, such
as safety goggles.
4. Ear Protection
Hazard:
o excessive noise - Noise exceeding 85-90 dB or more on eight hour exposure.
Examples: Ear plug

Ear muffs
Canal caps
The prevention of excessive noise exposure is the only way to avoid hearing damage.
Engineering and administrative controls must be used if acceptable sound levels are exceeded.
If such controls fail to reduce the sound levels to acceptable limits, personal hearing protection
must be used.
Earmuffs must make a perfect seal around the ear to be effective.
5. Respiratory Protection
Respiratory protection is required when engineering improvements and administrative
controls can’t eliminate risk. Engineering controls include, isolation of the source of
contaminants; design process or procedural changes, etc. Administrative controls on the other
hand include, monitoring, limiting worker exposure, training and education, etc.
Hazards:
o Mists or Vapors
o Gases
o Smoke
o Fumes
o Particulates or dust
o Insufficient oxygen supply
Types of respirators are divided into two categories:

A. Air purifying respirators
o Particulate respirators or mechanical filters - screen out dust, fog, fume, mist spray
or smoke. Such filters need to be replaced at frequent intervals.
o Chemical cartridge devices - remove contaminants by passing the tainted air through
material that traps the harmful portions. There are specific cartridges for specific contaminants.
These should be used and no substitutions should be made.
B. Air supplying devices

o Self-contained are those where the air supply is easily transportable and they protect
against toxic gases and lack of oxygen. A common example is the self-contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA), where the air tank is strapped to the wearer’s back.
30

o Supplied-air respirators get air through an air line or hose. The breathable air is
supplied by an air compressor or uncontaminated ambient air.
Air Contaminants – are divided into four types, gaseous, particulate, combination of gaseous
and particulate and oxygen deficiency.
o Gaseous contaminants include gases and vapors.
o Particulate contaminants include dust, fumes, mist, fog and smoke.
o Combination contaminants usually consist of gaseous materials and particulates
and result from operations such as paint spraying.
o Oxygen-deficient atmospheres are those that have less than 19.5 percent by volume.
They often occur in confined spaces and are considered to be immediately dangerous
to life and health.
6. Hand and Arm Protection
Hand and arm protection is required when workers’ hands are exposed to hazards such
as harmful substances that can be absorbed by the skin, severe cuts or lacerations, severe
abrasions, chemical burns, thermal burns, and temperature extremes.
Examples of hand protection
appropriate gloves
hand pads
barrier cream
sleeves (for arm protection)
Hazards:
o Pinch points
o Hot surfaces
o Chemical substances
o Sharp objects
o Electrical
Selection of hand PPE shall be based on an evaluation of the performance

characteristics of the hand protection relative to the task(s) to be performed, conditions present,
duration of use, and the hazards identified.
Gloves are often relied upon to prevent cuts, abrasions, burns, and skin contact with
chemicals that are capable of causing local or systemic effects following dermal exposure.
There is no one type of gloves that provides protection against all potential hand hazards, and
commonly available glove materials provide limited protection against many chemicals.
Therefore, it is important to select the most appropriate glove for a particular application and
to determine how long it can be worn, and whether it can be reused.
It is also important to know the performance characteristics of gloves relative to the
specific hazard anticipated; e.g., chemical hazards, cut hazards, flame hazards, etc. Before
purchasing gloves, request documentation from the manufacturer that the gloves meet the
appropriate test standard(s) for the hazard(s) anticipated.
The following is a guide to the most common types of protective work gloves and the
types of hazards they can guard against.
31

a. Metal mesh, leather or canvas gloves - Provide protection against cuts, burns, and
sustained heat.
b. Fabric and coated fabric gloves - These gloves are made of cotton or other fabric
to provide varying degrees of protection.
c. Chemical and liquid-resistant gloves - Gloves made of rubber (latex, nitrile, or
butyl), plastic, or synthetic rubber-like materials such as neoprene protect workers from burns,
irritation, and dermatitis caused by contact with oils, greases, solvents, and other chemicals.
The use of rubber gloves also reduces the risk of exposure to blood and other potentially
infectious substances.
7. Foot and Leg Protection

Hazards:
o Falling or rolling objects
o Sharp objects
o Hot surfaces
o Wet, slippery surfaces
o Electricity
Conductive Shoes protect against the buildup of static electricity or equalize the
electrical potential between personnel and the ground. These shoes should be worn only for the
specific task(s) for which they are designed, and should be removed at task completion and not
used as general purpose footwear. This type of shoes must not be used by personnel working
near exposed energized electrical circuits. Personnel must avoid wearing 100 percent silk,
wool, or nylon hose of socks with conductive hose because these materials are static producers.
Likewise, foot powders must be avoided because they are insulators and interfere with
electrical conductivity.
Electrical Hazard Safety Shoes are non-conductive and protect against open circuits of
600 volts or less under dry conditions. The insulating qualities may be compromised if the
shoes are wet, the rubber sole is worn out, or metal particles are embedded in the sole or heel.
Electrical hazard shoes are not intended for use in explosive or hazardous locations where
conductive footwear is required. This footwear should be used in conjunction with insulated
surfaces.
8. Fall Protection
Travel restraint system is an assembly composed of body belt and proper accessories
that prevent a worker in a high elevation working area from traveling to an edge where the
occurrence of fall may happen.
Fall arrest system is an assembly composed of full-body harness, safety lanyard and
proper accessories or a safety net which protect a worker after a fall by stopping the fall before
hitting the surface below.
Lifelines shall be secured above the point of operation to an anchorage or other
structural member.
32

9. Torso/ Full Body Protection must be provided for employees if they are threatened with
bodily injury of one kind or another while performing their jobs, and if engineering, work
practices, and administrative controls have failed to eliminate these hazards.
Workplace hazards that could cause bodily injury include the following:
o Intense heat
o Splashes of hot metals and other hot liquids
o Impact from tools, machinery, and other materials
o Cuts
o Hazardous chemicals
o Contact with potentially infectious materials, like blood
o Radiation
As with all protective equipment, protective clothing is available to protect against

specific hazards. Depending upon the hazards in the workplace, it may be needed to provide
the workers with one or more of the following:
o Vest
o Jacket
o Apron
o Coverall
o Surgical gowns
o Full-body suits
These protective clothing come in a variety of materials, each suited to particular

hazards. These materials include the following:
o Paper-like fiber - Disposable suits made of this material provide protection against
dust and splashes.
o Treated wool and cotton - Adapts well to changing workplace temperatures and is
comfortable as well as fire resistant.
o Duck - This closely woven fabric protects employees against cuts and bruises while
they handle heavy, sharp, or rough materials.
o Leather - Leather protective clothing is often used against dry heat and flame.
o Rubberized fabrics, neoprene, and plastics - protective clothing made from these
materials protect against certain acids and other chemicals.
Be aware that different materials will protect against different and physical hazards.
When chemical or physical hazards are present, check with the clothing manufacturer to make
sure that the material selected will provide protection from the specific chemical of physical
hazards in the workplace.
Rule 1080
Rule 1080 of the Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSHS) requires employers
to provide appropriate personal protective equipment to workers. Employers can be held liable
if they fail to furnish their workers with the necessary PPE.
1081 General Provisions:
1081.01
Every employer shall at his/her own expense furnish his/her workers with protective
equipment for the eyes, face, hands and feet, protective shields and barriers whenever necessary
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by reason of the hazardous nature of the process or environment, chemical or radiological or

other mechanical irritants or hazards capable of causing injury or impairment in the function
of any part of the body through absorption, inhalation or physical contact.
1081.02
All protective equipment shall be of approved design and construction appropriate for
the exposure and the work to be performed.
1081.03
The employer shall be responsible for the adequacy and proper maintenance of personal
protective equipment used in his workplace.
1081.04
No person shall be subjected or exposed to hazardous environmental condition without
protection.
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
Industrial hygiene is “the science and art devoted to the recognition, evaluation and
control of environmental factors or stresses arising in or from the workplace, which may cause
sickness, impaired health and well-being, or significant discomfort and inefficiency among
workers or citizens of the community.”
Source: Theory and rationale of industrial hygiene practice: Patty’s industrial hygiene
and toxicology, p. 14
Implementing industrial hygiene practices such as exposure assessment and instituting
control measures to minimize occupational accidents and diseases and their costs as well as
enhance productivity.
Industrial hygiene is interconnected with the different aspects of work – research and
development, production, medical/health, safety and management.
Recognition of occupational health hazards

A. Classification of occupational health hazards
The various environmental stresses or hazards, otherwise known as occupational health

hazards can be classified as chemical, physical, biological, or ergonomic.
1. Chemical Hazards. Occupational health hazards arise from inhaling chemical
agents in the form of vapors, gases, dusts, fumes, and mists, or by skin contact with these
materials. The degree of risk of handling a given substance depends on the magnitude and
duration of exposure.
a. Gases are substances in gaseous state are airborne at room temperature.
Examples are chlorine, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
phosgene and formaldehyde.
b. Vapor results when substances that are liquid at room temperature evaporate.
Examples are the components of organic solvents such as benzene, toluene, acetone,
and xylene.
c. Mist is a fine particles of a liquid float in air (particle size of 5 to 100 um
approximately. Examples: nitric acid and sulfuric acid.
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d. Dust is a solid harmful substances are ground, cut or crushed by mechanical

actions and fine particles float in air (particle size of about 1 to 150 um). Examples are
metal dusts and asbestos.
e. Fume is a gas (such as metal vapor) condensed in air, chemically changed

and becomes fine solid particles which float in air (particles size of about 0.1 to 1 um).
Examples are oxides generated from molten metal such as cadmium oxide, beryllium
oxide, etc.
2. Physical Hazards. Problems relating to such things as extremes of temperature,

heat stress, vibration, radiation, abnormal air pressure, illumination, noise, and vibration
are physical stresses. It is important that the employer, supervisor, and those responsible for
safety and health are on guard to these hazards due to the possible immediate or cumulative
effects on the health of the employees.
a. Extreme temperature. Extreme temperatures (extreme heat and extreme cold) affect
the amount of work that people can do and the manner in which they do it. In industry,
the problem is more often high temperatures rather than low temperatures.
The body continuously produces heat through its metabolic processes. Since the body
processes are designed to operate only within a very narrow range of temperature, the body
must dissipate this heat as rapidly as it is produced if it is to function efficiently. A sensitive
and rapidly acting set of temperature-sensing devices in the body must also control the rates of
its temperature-regulating processes.
Heat stress may be experienced by workers exposed to excessive heat arising from
work. Workers at risk of heat stress include outdoor workers and workers in hot environments
such as firefighters, bakery workers, farmers, construction workers, miners, boiler room
workers, factory workers, etc. workers aged 65 and older, those with heart disease,
hypertension or those taking medications are at a greater risk for heat stress.
The factors influencing heat stress include:
• Air Temperature - known as the ambient room temperature.
• Air Humidity - the amount of water vapor or moisture content of the air.
• Air Velocity - the rate at which air moves and is important in heat exchange
between the human body and the environment. because of its role in convective and
evaporative heat transfer. Air movement cools the body by convection, the moving air
removes the air film or the saturated air (which is formed very rapidly by evaporation
of sweat) and replaces it with a fresh air layer, capable of accepting more moisture from
the skin.
• Radiant Temperature - the thermal load of solar and infrared radiation in the human
body.
• Clothing – working clothes style/design/mode and the type of fabric can affect the
body heat temperature.
• Physical Workload - may be categorized as light, moderate, or heavy depending on
the task or job activity carried out by the worker.
• Light - work-sitting or standing to control machines.
• Light - work-sitting or standing to control machines.
• Moderate work - walking about, moderate lifting and
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pushing
• Heavy work – intense work of the extremities and trunk.
Cold stress. Workers exposed to extreme cold or work in cold environments such as
those in ice plants or refrigerated workplaces may be at risk of cold stress.
Refrigerants such as ammonia, methyl chloride and halogenated hydrocarbons used in
freezing and cold storage bring risks of poisoning and chemical burns. Ammonia and other
refrigerants such as propane, butane, ethane and ethylene, though less frequently used are
flammable and explosive chemicals. Monitoring and evaluation of these chemicals is highly
recommended when working in cold storage and refrigerating plants. (Reference: Encyclopedia
of Health and Safety).
b. Radiation
Electromagnetic waves are produced by the motion of electrically charged
particles. These waves are also called “electromagnetic radiation” because they radiate
from the electrically charged particles. They travel through empty space as well as
through air and can penetrate some other substances. Radio waves, microwaves, visible
light and X-rays are all examples of electromagnetic waves.
The electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into two at a wavelength of about
10 nm, which distinguishes NON-IONIZING RADIATION and IONIZING
RADIATION. Visible light, infrared and microwaves are types of non-ionizing
radiation. X-rays and Gamma rays are examples of ionizing radiation. The distinction
between non-ionizing and ionizing radiation is simply one of associated energy. For the
ionizing region of the electromagnetic spectrum, the energy incident upon a material is
large enough to remove an electron from an atom orbit to produce ionization, whereas
for the non-ionizing region the energy is not normally sufficient to produce ion pairs.
Types of Non-Ionizing Radiation
1. Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation
2. Infrared (IR) Radiation
3. Laser Radiation
4. Microwave Radiation
Effects of Non ionizing radiation

Ozone may be produced as a result of electrical discharges or ionization
of the air surrounding non-ionizing radiation sources, e.g. UV, high power laser,
microwave and short duration exposure in excess of a few tenths ppm can result
in discomfort (headache, dryness of mucuous membranes and throat).
c. Extreme pressure. It has been recognized as from the beginning of caisson work
(work performed in a watertight structure) that men working under pressures greater than at a
normal atmospheric one, are subject to various illnesses connected with the job. Hyperbaric
(greater than normal pressures) environments are also encountered by divers operating under
water, whether by holding the breath while diving, breathing from a self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus (SCUBA), or by breathing gas mixtures supplied by compression from the
surface.
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Occupational exposures occur in caisson or tunneling operations, where a compressed

gas environment is used to exclude water or mud and to provide support for structures. Man
can withstand large pressures due to the free access of air to the lungs, sinuses, and middle ear.
d. Inadequate illumination. The measure of the stream of light falling on a
surface is known as illumination. The key aspects of illumination include lux,
luminance, reflectance, glare and sources of lighting.
Key aspects of illumination:

 Lux - unit of measurement.
 Luminance - measure of light coming from a source
 Reflectance - ability of a surface to return light.
 Glare is caused by bright light sources which can be seen by looking in the range
from straight-ahead to 450 above the horizontal. There are two types of glare: direct and
reflected.
* Direct Glare is produced when light is positioned at the surface. It can be prevented
by correct installation of lighting fittings, installing louvers below the light source, enclosing
the lamps in bowl reflectors, and opaque or prismatic shades.
* Reflected Glare is produced when light is reflected off a shiny surface. It may be
addressed by providing indirect lighting.
Sources of light
There are two sources of light:
 Daylight, also called natural light depends on the availability at the location
and weather condition.
 Electric Light can come from:
* Incandescent lamps or bulbs
* Fluorescent lamps or tubes
* High intensity discharge or mercury
Types of Lighting
Illumination can also be viewed in terms of:
 General lighting illuminating the entire premises
 Local lighting directing light on a particular object that you are working with.
Factors in determining the quantity of light:

 Nature of work - more light will be required if one is working with small objects.
 Environment - the ability of the surrounding surfaces to reflect light.
 Eyesight of the workers - the ability of the eye to adjust rapidly to different distances
declines as people grow older
e. Excessive vibration
A body is said to vibrate when it is in an oscillating motion about a reference
point. The number of times a complete motion cycle takes place during the period of
one second is called the frequency and is measured in hertz (Hz). Vibration usually
refers to the inaudible acoustic phenomena, which are recognized by through touch and
feeling. It is a vector quantity described by both a magnitude and direction.
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Portable meters are available for vibration measurements. These usually provide
readouts that must be compared to the appropriate standards.
f. Noise or unwanted sound is a form of vibration conducted through solids, liquids, or
gases. The level of noise in an industrial operation can constitute a physical hazard to the
exposed workers. The extent of the hazard depends not only on the overall noise level but also
on the time period and frequency and type of noise to which the worker is exposed.
Types of noise
 Continuous noise is a steady state noise with negligible level fluctuations
during the period of observation.
 Intermittent noise levels shift significantly during observation.
 Impact noise consists of one or more bursts of sound energy, each lasting
less than one second.
Factors that can influence noise exposure
A number of factors can influence the effects of the noise exposure.
These include:
 variation in individual susceptibility
 the total energy of the sound
 the frequency distribution of the sound
 other characteristics of the noise exposure, such as whether it is continuous,
intermittent, or made up of a series of impacts
 the total daily duration of exposure
3. Biological Hazards. Biological hazards are any virus, bacteria, fungus, parasite, or living
organism that can cause a disease in human beings. They can be a part of the total environment
or associated with certain occupations such as medical professions, food preparation and
handling, livestock raising, etc.
Diseases transmitted from animals to humans are commonly infectious and parasitic
which can also result from exposure to contaminated water, insects, or infected people.
Biological hazards will be discussed further during the occupational health portion of this
workshop.
4. Ergonomic Hazards. “Ergonomics” literally means the customs, habits, and laws of work.
According to the International Labor Organization it is
“… The application of human biological science in conjunction with the engineering sciences
to achieve the optimum mutual adjustment of man [sic] and his [sic] work, the benefits being
measured in terms of human efficiency and well-being.”
The ergonomics approach goes beyond productivity, health, and safety. It includes
consideration of the total physiological and psychological demands of the job upon the worker.
It deals with the interaction between humans and traditional environmental elements as
atmospheric contaminants, heat, light, sound, and all tools and equipment used in the
workplace.
The human body can endure considerable discomfort and stress and can perform many
awkward and unnatural movements for a limited period of time. However, when awkward
conditions or motions are continued for prolonged periods, the physiological limitations of the
worker can be exceeded. To ensure a continued high level of performance, work systems must
be tailored to human capacities and limitations.
Examples of ergonomic hazards are:
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 Poor workplace design – cramped leg area, crowded worktable, distant work
materials
 Awkward body postures – prolonged sitting, twisted body while bending
 Repetitive movements – sewing, cutting, stamping
 Static posture – prolonged standing without motion
 Forceful motion – extreme pulling and pushing
 Manual handling – improper carrying of materials, use of pliers.
In a broad sense, the benefits that can be expected from designing work systems to
minimize ergonomic stress on workers are as follows:
 more efficient operation;
 fewer accidents;
 lower cost of operation;
 reduced training time; and
 more effective use of personnel.
5. Special Considerations:
The following items have become important OSH issues that need to be addressed by
Industrial Hygiene professionals and employers:
a. Confined space is an enclosed or a partially enclosed space. It has restricted
entrance and exit (by location, size, and means) thus, the natural airflow is limited. This
can cause accumulation of “dead” or “bad” air” and airborne contaminants. Confined
spaces are not designed, and intended for human occupancy.
Examples of confined space:

Storage tanks, sewers, boilers, manholes, tunnels, pipelines, trenches, pits, silos,
vats, utility vaults, culverts.
Hazards of confined space:
• Oxygen deficiency – air is considered oxygen deficient when the
oxygen content is less than 19.5% by volume. Oxygen level in a confined space
can decrease due to consumption or displacement by inert gases such as carbon
dioxide or nitrogen. Work processes such as welding, cutting or brazing, and
certain chemical reactions such as rusting and bacterial reaction (fermentation)
can also reduce oxygen concentration.
• Flammable/explosive atmosphere – may result from:
o Oxygen enriched atmosphere exists where oxygen in the air is greater than
21%. An oxygen enriched atmosphere will cause flammable materials such as clothing
and hair to burn violently when ignited.
o Flammable gas, vapor, or dust in proper proportion.
• Toxic atmospheres are those which contain toxic substances in concentrations that
exceed the Threshold limit Value 9TLV), as specified in the Occupational Safety and Health
Standards or the Chemical/Material Safety Data Sheet of the substance used at work.
Toxic substances in the atmosphere may come from the following:
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o Products stored in the confined space

o Work being performed in a confined space
o Areas adjacent to the confined space
• Mechanical and physical hazards

o Rotating or moving mechanical parts or energy sources can create hazards
within a confined space
o Physical factors such as extreme temperatures, noise, vibration and fatigue
o Loose materials such as fine coal, sawdust or grains can engulf or suffocate
the workers
An example of confined space with its accompanying occupational health hazards
(Source: Confined space – introduction. (2002, December 20). Retrieved August 31, 2011,
from Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety
Web site: http://www.cochs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/confinedspace_intro.html
b. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) refers to the quality of the air inside buildings as based
on the concentration of pollutants & thermal (temperature & relative humidity) conditions that
affect the health, comfort and performance of occupants.
Sources of IAQ problems:
• Ventilation system deficiencies
• Overcrowding
• Tobacco smoke
• Microbiological contamination
• Outside air pollutants
• Off gassing from materials in the office, furniture and mechanical
equipment.
• Poor housekeeping
Indoor air pollutants:
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
• Formaldehyde
• Carbon Dioxide
• Carbon Monoxide
• Nitrogen Oxides
• Sulfur Dioxide
• Ammonia
• Hydrogen Sulfide
• Dust
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Other factors affecting occupants:

• Comfort problems due to improper temperature and relative humidity
conditions
• Poor lighting
• Unacceptable noise levels
• Adverse ergonomic conditions and
• Job-related psycho-social stressors.
B. Methods of Recognizing occupational health stresses/hazards

Now that we are familiar with the classification of hazards, we can now discuss how to
identify the different hazards through a combination of the following methods:
1. Walk-through/ocular inspection – this is necessary in identifying the potential
hazards and determining the critical conditions in the workplace. It will be good to make a
checklist for inspection.
2. Review of the process involved – The identity of the chemical intermediates formed
in the course of an industrial process and the toxicological properties of these intermediates
may be difficult to establish. Undesirable chemical by-products such as carbon monoxide
resulting from the incomplete combustion of organic material may be formed.
3. Knowing the raw materials, by-products and finished products – Knowing about
the raw materials used and the nature of the products manufactured will help you determine the
specific contaminants to which workers are actually exposed. Possible impurities in raw
materials such as benzene in some solvents should be considered.
4. Gathering workers’ complaints – the actual chemicals or substances handled may
be determined by interviewing the workers. More so, their complaints can also be gathered and
assessed in the clinic record.
5. Safety Data Sheet (SDS) is a summary of important health, safety and toxicological
information on the chemical or the mixture ingredients. It should contain:
a. identification
b. hazard(s) identification
c. composition/information on ingredients
d. first-aid measures
e. fire-fighting measures
f. accidental release measures
g. handling and storage
h. exposure control/personal protection
i. physical and chemical properties
j. stability and reactivity
k. toxicological information
l. ecological information
m. disposal considerations
n. transport information
o. regulatory information
p. other information
The SDS should conform to the Globally Harmonized System (GHS) of classification
and labeling of chemicals.
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The GHS is an international standard for classifying chemicals and communicating its
hazards. It is a basis for establishing a comprehensive national chemical safety program, and a
comprehensive approach to defining and classifying hazards and communicating information
on labels and safety data sheets.
The GHS was developed in Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Brazil in 1992.
Benefits of GHS – All countries, international organizations, chemical producers, and
users of chemicals will benefit from the GHS as it will:
 enhance the protection of humans and environment
 facilitate international trade in chemicals
 reduce the need for testing and evaluation of chemicals
 assist countries and international organizations to ensure the sound
management of chemicals
Elements of GHS
a. Hazard Classification Criteria has three major hazard groups namely physical,
heath, and environmental hazards. Based on the three classifications of hazards, the
following compose the GHS criteria:
* Physical hazards – explosives, flammable gases/aerosols, oxidizing gases,
corrosive to metal, substances and mixtures which, in contact with water, emit
flammable gases, and others.
* Health hazards – acute toxicity, skin corrosion/ irritation, serious eye
damage/eye irritation, respiratory or skin sensitization, carcinogenicity, reproductive
toxicity, aspiration hazards, and others.
* Environmental hazards – hazardous to aquatic environment, hazardous to the
ozone layer, and others.
b. Hazard communication composed of Safety Data Sheet (SDS) and Labels.

GHS labels must include specific:
* signal words - warning or danger
* hazard statements - flammable liquids, fatal if swallowed
* symbols/ pictograms.
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(Source: Globally harmonized system. (2011, June 01). Retrieved August 31, 2011, from
Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety
Web site: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/ghs.html)
Evaluation of occupational stresses/hazards

A. Determining the magnitude or level of hazards using industrial hygiene equipment
through Work Environment Measurement (WEM)
Once the hazards have been recognized, it is necessary to measure the levels of the
hazards and the magnitude of workers’ exposure to them. This is done through the WEM which
employs direct measurement of hazards. WEM is conducted for the following purposes:
 determine magnitude of harmful environmental agents.
 physically check the environment through measurement.
 predict harmfulness of new facilities, raw materials, production processes and
working methods.
 monitor worker’s exposure to harmful substances.
 evaluate the effectiveness of environmental control measures adopted to
improve the workplace.
 maintain favorable environment conditions.
Types of Environmental Monitoring:

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1. Personal Monitoring – the measurement of a particular employee’s exposure to

airborne contaminants. The measuring device is placed as close as possible to the
contaminant’s entry port to the body. For example, when monitoring a toxic air contaminant,
the measuring device is placed close to the worker’s breathing zone. The data collected closely
approximates the concentration of contaminants to which the worker is exposed to.
2. Area/Environmental Sampling – Environmental sampling is the measurement of
contaminant concentration in the workroom. The measuring device is placed adjacent to the
worker’s normal workstation or at fixed locations in the work area. This kind of monitoring
does not provide a good estimate of worker’s exposure but helps to pinpoint work areas with
high or low exposure levels of contaminants.
Instruments used to measure the different hazards

Lux Meter - illumination
Psychrometer - humidity
Anemometer - air movement
Smoke Tester - air direction
Globe Thermometer - heat
Sound Level Meter - noise
3. Biological Monitoring – involves the measurement of changes in the composition

of body fluids, tissue or expired air to determine absorption of a potentially hazardous material.
Examples are measurement of lead and mercury in blood or in urine.
It is best that WEM be conducted on a regular basis. Work Environment Monitoring should be
done at least once a year.
B. Analysis of results
The collected samples from the WEM are analyzed in the laboratory. Some of the
analytical instruments used are as follows: UV-VIS Spectrophotometer for analyzing acids,
AAS for heavy metals, Gas Chromatograph for organic solvents, and X-ray Diffractometer,
Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) Spectrocopy, and Phase Contrast Microscope (PCM) for
quantitative and qualitative analysis of asbestos and silica.
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C. Comparison of measurement results with standards
Laboratory analysis results are compared with the Threshold Limit Values (TLVs).
These are exposure guidelines that have been established for airborne concentration of many
chemical compounds. Concentrations of hazards that exceed the TLVs can cause adverse
effects to humans. There are three categories of TLVs:
1. Time-Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) is the time-weighted average concentration
for a normal 8-hour workday or 40-hour workweek to which nearly all workers may be
repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse health effects.
Computation for Time Weighted Average:
Where C1…..Cn = different mass concentration obtained at different sampling time

T1…..Tn = sampling time
Where C1…..Cn = different mass concentration obtained at different sampling time
T1…..Tn = sampling time
Example: Exposure Level to Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Gas
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TWA Concentration = {(5ppm)(2 hrs) + (15ppm)(4 hrs) + (2ppm)(1 hr) + (5ppm)(1 hr)} ÷
{2hrs + 4hrs+ 1hr + 1hr}
TWA Concentration of H2S = 9.625 ppm
TLV for H2S is 10 ppm.
So, the exposure is below TLV
2. Short-Term Exposure Limit (STEL) is the maximum concentration to which

workers can be exposed continuously for 15 minutes without suffering from any of the
following:
a. Irritation
b. Chronic or irreversible tissue damage
c. Narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impair
self-rescue or materially reduce work efficiency.
3. Ceiling (TLV-C) is the concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of
the working exposure; otherwise, the exposed workers might be vulnerable to serious risks.
TLV tables
Permissible Noise Exposure
46

47

TLVs for other environmental hazards and stresses may be found in the Philippine
Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSHS) and in the ACGIH, OSHA, and NIOSH
web sites
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Notes:
 The impact of hazard exposure depends on the following:
 Nature of the material or energy involved
 Intensity of exposure
 Duration of exposure
 Individual susceptibility
 The key elements to be considered when evaluating a health hazard are:
 how much of the material in contact with the body cells is required to produce an
injury
 the probability of the material being absorbed by the body to result an injury
 rate that airborne contaminants is generated
 total time in contact
 control measures in use
 The TLV conversion equations for parts per million (ppm) to
Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSHs) Rule 1070

Rule 1070 is OSH standard for occupational health and environmental control. It has
seven (7) rules:
Rule 1071 – General Provisions
“This rule establishes TLVs for toxic and carcinogenic substances and physical agents which
may be present in the atmosphere of the work environment. TLVs refer to airborne
concentration of substances and represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all
workers may be repeatedly exposed daily without adverse effect.”
Rule 1072 – TLVs for Airborne Contaminants and Rule 1073 (Tables)
These refer to TLVs of airborne contaminants for “time weighted concentration for an
8-hour workday and a total of forty-eight 48 hours of work exposure per week.” TLVs tables
for airborne contaminants, mineral dusts, and human carcinogens are also established.
Rule 1074 – Physical Agents
This refers to TLVs for physical agents particularly noise or “sound pressure that
represents conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly
exposed without adverse effect on their ability to hear and understand normal speech.
Rule 1075 – Illumination

“All places where persons work or pass or may have to work or pass in emergencies, shall be
provided during time of use with the adequate natural lighting or artificial lighting or both,
suitable for the operation and the special type of work performed.”
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Rule 1076 – General Ventilation

This is about General Ventilation that encompasses the workroom condition for air supply,
temperature, humidity, and odor. It states that:
“Suitable atmospheric conditions shall be maintained in workrooms by natural or artificial
means to avoid insufficient air supply, stagnant or vitiated air, harmful drafts, excessive heat
or cold, sudden variations in temperature, and where practicable, excessive humidity or
dryness and objectionable odors.”
Rule 1077 – Work Environment Measurement

“WEM shall mean sampling and analysis carried out in respect of the atmospheric working
environment and other fundamental elements of working environment for the purpose of
determining actual condition therein.”
It also includes the responsibility of the employer that WEM “shall be performed
periodically as may be necessary but no longer than annually.” Industrial hygiene is also
concerned with the development of corrective measures to control hazards by reducing or
eliminating the exposure. These control procedures may include:
1. Engineering controls such as substitution of harmful or toxic materials with less
dangerous ones, changing work processes, and installation of exhaust ventilation system.
2. Administrative controls such as safety and health policies and programs (i.e.: hearing
conservation program, healthy lifestyle project)
3. Provision of personal protective equipment like earplugs, face shield, and dust mask.
These control measures will be further discussed in the next module.
PROGRESS CHECK:
A Multiple Choice Questions:

1. Workers must ________ PPE before each use.
A. Categorize B. Inspect C. Tag out D. Mark
2. Eye and face protection protects workers from hazards like _________.
A. Crushing B. Falling C. Liquid chemicals D. Rolling
3. Safety glasses should be _______-approved and marked _______.
A. ANSI; Z-87 B. LOTO; W-40 C. NORM; L-20 D. ROW; Y-78
4. ________ is(are) useful in protecting workers from flash fires, flames, and electrical arcs.
A. Aprons B. Cooling garments C. Flame Retardant Clothing D. Rubber gloves
5. Safety footwear must meet standards set by ANSI and the __________.
A. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
B. International Chemical Workers Union (ICWU)
C. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
D. National Safety Commission (NSC)
6. Hard hats should be ANSI-approved and marked ______.
A. D-50 B. T-35 C. X-79 D. Z-89
7. Two ANSI hard hat classifications are ________ and _________.
A. Class E; Class G B. Class Q; Class C C. Class T; Class R D. Class W; Class Y
8. Measures workers can take to avoid hand injuries include _______________.
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A. Being careless and distracted

B. Maintaining focus and staying alert
C. Selecting the appropriate hard hat
D. Implementing an Incident Command System
9. Safety glasses should have approved ____________.
A. Nose pieces B. Side shields C. Straps D. Visors
10. Wearing the right _________________ in the right way, at the right time could save a
workers life.
A. Emergency Shutdown Device (ESD)
B. Globally Harmonized System (GHS)
C. Job Safety Analysis (JSA)
D. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
11. Personal hearing protection is generally the best control technique for excessive noise
exposure. A. true B. false
12. Thermal comfort limits are used to ensure productivity and quality of work for office
workers. A. true B. false
13. What are two of the most important departments for the industrial hygienist?
A. purchasing B. medical C. safety D. human resources
14. Which of the following is not a class of industrial hygiene certification?
A. certified safety specialist
B. industrial hygienist in training
C. occupational health and safety technologist
D. diplomat
15. Strategies for controlling occupational health hazards include all of the following, except:
A. Inspections and audits
B. Engineering controls
C Administrative controls
D. Personal Protective Equipment
16. Which of the following strategies for controlling occupational health hazards serves to
reduce or eliminate the hazard?
c. Administrative controls
d. Personal Protective Equipment
17. Which strategy may be necessary when it is not feasible to render the working environment
completely safe?
C. Administrative controls
D. Personal Protective Equipment
B. Application
1. When must PPE be provided?
Answer:
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You must provide PPE for employees if:

o Their work environment presents a hazard or is likely to present a hazard to any part
of their bodies;
o Their work processes present a hazard or are likely to present a hazard to any part of
their body;
o During their work, they might come into contact with hazardous chemicals, radiation,
or mechanical irritants;
o You are unable to eliminate their exposure or potential exposure to the hazard by
engineering, work practice, or administrative control.
2. If employees wear eyeglasses with prescription lenses, may I consider these as eye
protection?
Answer:
No. Eye glasses designed for ordinary wear do not provide the level of protection
necessary to protect against workplace hazards. Special care must be taken when choosing eye
protectors for employees who wear eyeglasses with corrective lenses such as the following:
o Prescription spectacles, with sideshields and protective lenses meeting the
requirements of the standard, that also correct the individual employee’s vision.
o Goggles that can fit comfortably over corrective eyeglasses without disturbing the
alignment of the eyeglasses.
o Goggles that incorporate corrective lenses mounted behind protective lenses.
You also must provide protective eyewear to employees who wear contact lenses and
are exposed to potential eye injury. Eye protection provided to these employees may also
incorporate corrective eyeglasses. Thus, if an employee must don eyeglasses in the event of
contact lens failure or loss, he or she will still be able to use the same protective eyewear.
3. Could employees wearing hard hats and working at elevations create a potential hazard for
the employees working below?
Answer:
To protect employees working below, you must provide chin straps for the protective
helmets worn by employees working at higher elevations such as aerial lifts or at the edge of a
pit. The chin straps should be designed to prevent the hard hats from being bumped off the
employee’s heads.
4.Is there one kind of glove that will protect against all workplace hazards?
Answer:
No. The nature of the hazard(s) and the operation to be performed will determine your
selection of gloves. The variety of potential occupational hand injuries may make selecting the
appropriate pair of gloves more difficult than choosing other protective equipment. Exercise
care in choosing gloves designed for the particular circumstances of your workplace.
52

5. Why should workers be outfitted with the more expensive industrial respirators when look
alike “nuisance masks” are available?
Answer:
Respirators filter toxic dusts and mists commonly found in industrial and manufacturing
settings, such as welding, grinding, sanding, and maintenance or repair applications.
Respirators meet minimum performance standards and the government approved agencies
certify them.
A “nuisance dust mask” on the other hand, has no approved government certification
and meets no government performance standards. Nuisance dust masks should not be used
when exposures to hazardous conditions may exist. The filtration efficiency of nuisance dust
mask is lower and the face seal around the nose and mouth is less effective than that of approved
respirators.
6. Is cotton sufficient as earplugs?
Answer:
Plain cotton does not effectively protect against occupational noise. You may, however,
choose from several products that are effective at protecting your employees’ hearing.
Appropriate hearing protectors include: single-use earplugs, pre-formed or molded earplugs,
canal caps, and earmuffs.
7. Once I have selected the specific PPE for my workers, how do I make sure they use it
properly?
Answer:
Train your workers to use the protective equipment. Teach them to know…
o Why the PPE is necessary as well as the specific hazards in their work area.
o How the equipment will provide protection to them.
o The limitations of the PPE
o How to properly put on the protective equipment
o How to identify signs of wear such as scuffed, cracked, holes, etc.
o How to clean and maintain the PPE
o The company PPE policy, rules and regulations
8. How do we evaluate noise levels in the workplace?
Answer:
First, we must study the noise pattern to be able to note the kind of noise (whether
continuous, intermittent or impact) that is generated. Then determine the number of hours of
exposure of workers. The noise reading is then compared with the permissible noise exposure
level prescribed in Table 8b of Occupational Safety and Health Standards.
9. Do we have local distributor of IH equipment?
Answer:
53

Yes. There are suppliers of IH instruments locally.
10. Do we have private companies that conduct WEM?
Answer:
Yes, there are private service providers that conduct WEM, but the OSH Standards
requires a WEM provider to be accredited.
11. How often should we conduct WEM? What are the conditions or parameters to be
measured?
Answer:
WEM shall be conducted periodically as may be necessary but not longer than annually.
As required by the OSHS, WEM shall include temperature, humidity, pressure, illumination,
noise, ventilation and concentration of substances and chemicals.
It is important to recognize environmental hazards or stresses in the workplace. The magnitude
or level of hazards can be accurately determined by using industrial hygiene equipment.
Prevention is better than cure so it is necessary to assess and evaluate these hazards.
54

Safety Management Week 6 9

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Safety Management Week 6 9

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Technological University of the Philippines Visayas

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental

College of Engineering Technology

WEEK NO. 5 & 6

1. Define the basic terms in electricity

Electricity is essential and considered as among the basic needs of

College of Engineering Technology

Electricity and water analogy

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Table 6.1 Normal resistance Values of Various Materials

Table 6.2 Human Resistance to Electric Current

Curriculum and Instructional Materials and Development Committee

College of Engineering Technology

Electric shock occurrence

Electrical shock is a common hazard encountered by people involved in the installation,

Factors affecting electric shock

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College of Engineering Technology

Electric shock prevention

College of Engineering Technology

(d) Proper Maintenance of Portable Power Tools

Causes of electrical fire

Hazardous locations are areas where explosive or flammable gases or vapors,

Curriculum and Instructional Materials and Development Committee

College of Engineering Technology

Classification of Hazardous Locations

Safe Practices and Procedures

Curriculum and Instructional Materials and Development Committee

College of Engineering Technology

Tips for working with power tools:

Tips for working with power cords:

College of Engineering Technology

 Do not use light duty power cords.

A Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) - works by detecting any loss of

Sample checklist for basic electrical safety:

Eliminate Octopus Connections

Never Break OFF the Third Prong on a Plug

Never Use Extension Cords as Permanent Wiring

Curriculum and Instructional Materials and Development Committee

College of Engineering Technology

A. Multiple Choice Questions:

Curriculum and Instructional Materials and Development Committee

College of Engineering Technology

2. Why do birds standing on high-tension wires do not get electrocuted?

Curriculum and Instructional Materials and Development Committee

College of Engineering Technology

Recognize the principles of machine guarding

A machine is a tool used to make work easier. It is basically an assemblage of parts

The Industrial Revolution

Hazardous mechanical motions and actions

Curriculum and Instructional Materials and Development Committee

College of Engineering Technology

- Nip points between rotating and

Curriculum and Instructional Materials and Development Committee

College of Engineering Technology

Transverse motion (movement in a straight, continuous line) creates a hazard because

The danger of cutting action exists at the point of operation where

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Areas where machine guarding are necessary

Dangerous moving parts in three

The point of operation: that point

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Importance of machine safety