CASE-STUDIES ON ELECTROCUTION INCIDENCES IN NIGERIA

– EXPLORING TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS

Submitted By:
Engr. Paul I. Audu (MNSE)
Pauma Engineering Consultants
Plot 4 Omakoji Street, Ungwar Boro
Kaduna – KADUNA STATE, NIGERIA

GENERAL CONSIDERATION

Abstract
This paper is the first of Six parts with five case-studies, touching real-live issues on
Electrical Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution in Nigeria. The first part makes
a general evaluation of Electric Shock and Electrocution phenomenon. In this consideration,
we take a close look at the concept of electricity, its purpose and consequence of mal-
operation. We will take a close look on the characteristics and associated parameters vis-à-
vis its impact on human interaction, with a view to establishing the root-cause of electrical
accidents and effective steps established to mitigate the negative consequences. This effort
is tied to the concept of Electromagnetic Fields induction resulting from fields generated
under fault conditions, Broken Conductor Incidences, Direct Contact with exposed
power-lines, as well as Clearances and Conductor Spacing.

Parts 2-6 of this paper will deal with the Nigerian situation as a case study, considering
various incidences reported in recent time and evaluating them on their own merit, against
the background of issues considered in part 1. We will attempt to explore honest and lasting
technical solutions that can greatly reduce, if not totally eliminate this menace

Introduction:
Electrocution is death caused by electric shock, electric current passing through the body
with a path to ground (or ‗earth‘). The word is derived from "electro" and "execution", but it
is also used for accidental death. The word is also sometimes used to describe non-fatal
injuries due to electricity.

Electricity is an invisible phenomenon created by the movement of electrons in a conductor.

An electric current can be compared to the water flowing through a hose. The pressure
inside the hose, or the force with which the water flows, is the Potential or voltage (V) in
electricity. The hose‘s discharge, or the amount of water flowing, is like current intensity,
measured in amperes (A). Friction along the hose‘s inner wall is similar to resistance (Ω).
Quantum of Energy or Power is the product of Potential Difference between two points of
High (‗Source‘) and Low (‗Zero‘) potential with Current Intensity, and is expressed in watts.

To better understand electricity, we must consider what happens at the atomic level. In this
regard, we must consider the two main sources of electricity production. Electricity of
electrochemical origin is generated through a chemical reaction that triggers a movement
of electrons from the negative to the positive terminal of a medium (such as battery). This
type of current is called Direct Current (or DC). Electricity of electromagnetic origin is
generated by the movement of electrons that is triggered when a magnet travels inside a
coil of metal wire. In this instance, electrons move back and forth between atoms, as the
magnet alternately pushes electrons together and pulls them away from one another. This
type of current is called Alternating Current (or AC). Magnetism is responsible for
generating over 99% of all the electric power used in the world.

The electrons of certain materials, such as copper, aluminum and other metals, can easily
leave their orbit; these materials are called conductors. The electrons of other substances,
like ceramics, cannot escape from their orbit; they are called insulators.

1.0 Phenomenon of Electric Shock and Electrocution:

To adequately address the problem of electrocution and proffer effective technical and
lasting solution, the phenomenon of electric shock and electrocution need to be
exhaustively investigated. This is what we set out to do in this section.

The flow of electricity occurs between two poles (positive and negative for DC or Live and
Neutral for AC). The Negative and Neutral in both cases are known as electrical ground
potential, and they are practically connected to ground (or earth mass) both at source and
point of utilization. This is illustrated in the basic circuit below.

FIGURE 1: FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity always takes the shortest path to reach the ground. A Short Circuit occurs
when conductors of Live and Ground Potential are incidentally connected together without
a load, or when a load of very low Resistance not commensurate with Source Potential is
connected between Live and Ground (analogous to a pipe of very tiny orifice or diameter is
connected to a source of very high water pressure). When a person gets an electric shock,
their body becomes that shortest route. Why? The body is made up of approximately
70% water, and water, like metal, is an excellent conductor of electricity. Tree
branches can also conduct electricity because they have liquid, or sap, inside. Even low-
voltage current can be lethal or very harmful to humans. However, in most cases,
electricity-related accidents can be avoided. It‘s simply a matter of taking the right
precautions. An illustration of this phenomenon is shown in figure 2 below.

VICTIM

FIGURE 2: ELECTRIC SHOCK PHENOMENON

An Electric Shock does not occur if there is no current flow, and current flows occur
between points of high and low potential or two points of differential potentials (like phase-
to-phase). What intercepts this current flow is an insulator, and air in a vacuum is one of
the best insulators, which implies that there must be minimum gaps maintained when we
operate from either high or low potential.

Electric shock is the physiological reaction or injury caused by electric current passing
through the (human) body. Typically, the expression is used to describe an injurious
exposure to electricity. It occurs upon contact of a (human) body part with any source of
electricity that causes a sufficient current through the skin, muscles, or hair.

Very small currents can be imperceptible. Larger current passing through the body may
make it impossible for a shock victim to let go of an energized object. Still larger currents
can cause fibrillation of the heart and damage to tissues.
Electrical injuries consist of four main types: electrocution (fatal), electric shock, burns,
and falls caused as a result of contact with electrical energy.

Electrocution results when a human is exposed to a lethal amount of electrical energy. To

determine how contact with an electrical source occurs, characteristics of the electrical
source before the time of the incident must be evaluated (pre-event). For death to occur,
the human body must become part of an active electrical circuit having a current
capable of over stimulating the nervous system or causing damage to internal organs. The
extent of injuries received depends on the current‘s magnitude (measured in Amps), the
pathway of the current through the body, and the duration of current flow through the body
(event). The resulting damage to the human body and the emergency medical treatment
ultimately determine the outcome of the energy exchange (post-event).

Electrical injuries may occur in various ways: direct contact with electrical energy, injuries
that occur when electricity arcs (an arc is a flow of electrons through a gas, such as air) to a
victim at ground potential (supplying an alternative path to ground), flash burns from the
heat generated by an electrical arc, and flame burns from the ignition of clothing or other
combustible, nonelectrical materials. Direct contact and arcing injuries produce similar
effects.

Burns at the point of contact with electrical energy can be caused by arcing to the skin,
heating at the point of contact by a high resistance contact, or higher voltage currents.
Contact with a source of electrical energy can cause external as well as internal burns.
Exposure to higher voltages will normally result in burns at the sites where the electrical
current enters and exits the human body. High voltage contact burns may display only small
superficial injury; however, the danger of these deep burns destroying tissue
subcutaneously exists. It is also possible to have a low-voltage electrocution without visible
marks to the body of the victim.

Flash burns and flame burns are actually thermal burns. In these situations, electrical
current does not flow through the victim and injuries are often confined to the skin. Contact
with electrical current could cause a muscular contraction or a startle reaction that could be
hazardous if it leads to a fall from elevation (ladder, aerial bucket, etc.) or contact with
dangerous equipment.

Voltages over 600 volts can rupture human skin, greatly reducing the resistance of the
human body, allowing more current to flow and causing greater damage to internal organs.
The most common high voltages are transmission voltages (typically over 132,000 volts)
and distribution medium voltages (typically 3,300 – 33,000volts).
Shocks can be caused by direct or indirect contact. Contact with an exposed conductive
part under fault conditions is called indirect contact.

The minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type (AC or DC) as well as
frequency for AC. A person can feel at least 1 mA (rms) of AC at 50/60 Hz, while at least 5
mA for DC. At around 10 milliamperes, AC current passing through the arm of a 68kilogram
(150 lb) human can cause powerful muscle contractions; the victim is unable to voluntarily
control muscles and cannot release an electrified object. This is known as the "let go
threshold" and is a criterion for shock hazard in electrical regulations.

Estimated effects of 60 Hz AC currents which pass through the chest are shown in Table 1.

When current greater than the 16 mA ―let go current‖ passes through the forearm, it
stimulates involuntary contraction of both flexor and extensor muscles. When the stronger
flexors dominate, victims may be unable to release the energized object they have grasped
as long as the current flows. If current exceeding 20 mA continues to pass through the
chest for an extended time, death could occur from respiratory paralysis. Currents of 100
mA or more, up to 2 Amps, may cause ventricular fibrillation, probably the most common
cause of death from electric shock.
Ventricular fibrillation is the uneven pumping of the heart due to the uncoordinated,
asynchronous contraction of the ventricular muscle fibers of the heart that leads quickly to
death from lack of oxygen to the brain.

The presence of moisture from environmental conditions such as standing water,

wet clothing, high humidity, or perspiration increases the possibility of a low-voltage
electrocution. The level of current passing through the human body is directly related to
the resistance of its path through the body. Under dry conditions, the resistance offered by
the human body may be as high as 100,000 Ohms. Wet or broken skin may drop the body‘s
resistance to 1,000 Ohms. The following illustrations of Ohm‘s law demonstrates how
moisture affects low-voltage electrocutions:
  Under dry conditions,
Current=Volts/Ohms = 120/100,000 = 1 mA, (a barely perceptible level of
current).
 Under wet conditions,
Current=Volts/Ohms = 120/1,000 = 120 mA, (sufficient current to cause
ventricular fibrillation).

Wet conditions are common during low-voltage electrocutions.

High-voltage electrical energy quickly breaks down human skin, reducing the human body‘s
resistance to 500 Ohms. Once the skin is punctured, the lowered resistance results in
massive current flow, measured in Amps. Again, Ohm‘s law is used to demonstrate the
action:

For example,
 At 1,000 volts,
Current = Volts/Ohms = 1000/500 = 2 Amps.

This can cause cardiac standstill and serious damage to internal organs.

Currents more than 30 mA of AC (rms, 50/60 Hz), or 300 – 500 mA of DC can cause
fibrillation.

A domestic power supply voltage (110 or 230 V), 50 or 60 Hz alternating current

(AC) through the chest for a fraction of a second may induce ventricular fibrillation at
currents as low as 30 mA. With direct current (DC), 300 to 500 mA is required. If the
current has a direct pathway to the heart (e.g., via a cardiac catheter or other kind of
electrode), a much lower current of less than 1 mA (AC or DC) can cause fibrillation.

1.1 Point of entry

 Macroshock: Current across intact skin and through the body. Current from
arm to arm, or between an arm and a foot, is likely to traverse the heart,
therefore it is much more dangerous than current between a leg and the
ground. This type of shock by definition must pass into the body through the
skin.

 Microshock: Very small current source with a pathway directly connected to

the heart tissue. The shock is required to be administered from inside the skin,
directly to the heart i.e. a pacemaker lead, or a guide wire, conductive catheter
etc. connected to a source of current. This is a largely theoretical hazard as
modern devices used in these situations include protections against such
currents.
1.2 Lethality of electric shock

The lethality of an electric shock is dependent on several variables. The voltage necessary
for electrocution depends on the current through the body and the duration of the current.
Ohm's law states that the current drawn depends on the resistance of the body. The
resistance of human skin varies from person to person and fluctuates between different
times of day. As noted earlier in this write-up, the National Institute for Occupation Safety &
Health (NIOSH) states "Under dry conditions, the resistance offered by the human
body may be as high as 100,000 Ohms. Wet or broken skin may drop the body's
resistance to 1,000 Ohms," adding that "high voltage electrical energy quickly breaks
down human skin, reducing the human body's resistance to 500 Ohms."

In summary, Electric shock can result to fatality (or electrocution) if current greater than the
16 mA ―let go current‖ passes through the forearm, and stimulates involuntary contraction of
both flexor and extensor muscles. It has been stated earlier that if it is high enough, it can
cause tissue damage or fibrillation which leads to cardiac arrest, and more than 30
mA of AC (rms, 50/60 Hz) or 300 – 500 mA of DC can cause fibrillation. Death
caused by an electric shock is called electrocution.

The International Electro-technical Commission (IEC) gives the following values for the total
body impedance of a hand to hand circuit (table 2) for dry skin, large contact areas, 50 Hz
AC currents (the columns contain the distribution of the impedance in the population
percentile; for example at 100 V 50% of the population had an impedance of 1875Ω or
less):
Table 2: Voltage-current characteristic of human skin

The voltage-current characteristic of human skin is nonlinear and depends on many

factors such as intensity, duration, history, and frequency of the electrical stimulus.
Sweat gland activity, temperature, and individual variation also influence the voltage-
current characteristic of skin. In addition to nonlinearity, skin impedance exhibits
asymmetric and time varying properties. These properties can be modeled with
reasonable accuracy. Resistance measurements made at low voltage using a
standard ohmmeter do not accurately represent the impedance of human skin over a
significant range of conditions.
For sinusoidal electrical stimulation less than 10 volts, the skin voltage-current
characteristic is quasi-linear. Over time, electrical characteristics can become
nonlinear. The time required varies from seconds to minutes, depending on stimulus,
electrode placement, and individual characteristics.

Between 10 volts and about 30 volts, skin exhibits nonlinear but symmetric electrical
characteristics. Above 20 volts, electrical characteristics are both nonlinear and
symmetric. Skin conductance can increase by several orders of magnitude in
milliseconds. This should not be confused with dielectric breakdown, which occurs at
hundreds of volts. For these reasons, current flow cannot be accurately calculated
by simply applying Ohm's law using a fixed resistance model.

The comparison between the dangers of alternating current at typical power transmission
frequencies (i.e., 50 or 60 Hz), and direct current has been a subject of debate ever since
the War of Currents in the 1880s. Animal experiments conducted during this time
suggested that alternating current was about twice as dangerous as direct current per unit
of current flow (or per unit of applied voltage).

It is sometimes suggested that human lethality is most common with alternating current at
100-250 volts. Shocks above 2,700 volts are often fatal, with those above 11,000 volts
being usually fatal. Shocks with voltages over 40,000 volts are almost invariably fatal.

The Log-log graph of the effect of alternating current I of duration T passing from left hand
to feet as defined in IEC publication 604791is illustrated in figure 3.

FIGURE 3: GRAPH OF ELECTRIC CURRENT Vs TIME

1.2.1 Factors in Lethality of electric shock

The lethality of an electric shock is dependent on several variables:

 Current. The higher the current, the more likely it is lethal. Since current is
proportional to voltage when resistance is fixed (ohm's law), high voltage is an
indirect risk for producing higher currents.

 Duration. The longer the duration, the more likely it is lethal—safety switches may
limit time of current flow

 Pathway. If current flows through the heart muscle, it is more likely to be lethal. If the
current passes through the chest or head, there is an increased chance of death.
From a main circuit or power distribution panel the damage is more likely to be
internal, leading to cardiac arrest.

 High voltage (over about 600 volts). In addition to greater current flow, high voltage
may cause dielectric breakdown at the skin, thus lowering skin resistance and
allowing further increased current flow.

 Frequency, which is an issue in causing cardiac arrest or muscular spasms. Very

high frequency electric current causes tissue burning, but does not penetrate the
body far enough to cause cardiac arrest (as applied in electro-surgery). The cardiac
tissue has a chronaxie (response time) of about 3 milliseconds, so electricity at
frequencies of higher than about 333 Hz requires more current to cause fibrillation
than is required at lower frequencies.

2.0 Protection requirements

IEC (IEC 60364, IEC 60479 series, IEC 61008, IEC 61009 and IEC 60947-2) requires
certain degrees of ingress protection against direct contact. Indirect contact protections can
be achieved by earthed equi-potential bonding and automatic disconnection of supply by
using fuses for example.

When a current exceeding 30 mA passes through a part of a human body, the person
concerned is in serious danger if the current is not interrupted in a very short time.

The protection of persons against electric shock in LV installations must be provided in

conformity with appropriate national standards statutory regulations, codes of practice,
official guides and circulars etc as indicated in the IEC references above.

To effectively address the subject of protection against shock, we must, of necessity, revert
back to our earlier discussions on shock current path illustrated in figure 2.

As we have already learned, electricity requires a complete path (circuit) to continuously

flow. This is why the shock received from static electricity is only a momentary jolt: the flow
of electrons is necessarily brief when static charges are equalized between two objects.
Shocks of self limited duration like this are rarely hazardous.

Without two contact points on the body for current to enter and exit, respectively,
there is no hazard of shock. This is why birds can safely rest on high voltage power lines
without getting shocked: they make contact with the circuit at only one point. This is the
principle used in live-line maintenance as illustrated in figure 4.

In order for electrons to flow through a conductor, there must be a voltage present to
motivate them. Voltage, as you should recall, is always relative between two points. There
is no such thing as voltage "on" or "at" a single point in the circuit, and so the bird
contacting a single point in the above circuit has no voltage applied across its body to
establish a current through it. Yes, even though they rest on two feet, both feet are touching
the same wire, making them electrically common.

FIGURE 4: PHENOMENON OF SINGLE-POINT CONTACT ON LIVE-LINE

Electrically speaking, both of the bird's feet touch the same point, hence there is no voltage
between them to motivate current through the bird's body.

Unlike birds, people are usually standing on the ground when they contact a "live" wire.
Many times, one side of a power system will be intentionally connected to earth ground,
and so the person touching a single wire is actually making contact between two points in
the circuit (the wire and earth ground) as illustrated in figure 5:

FIGURE 5: ILLUSTRATION OF RETURN PATH THROUGH HUMAN CONTACT

A few questions usually arise at this point in the mind of the reader:

 If the presence of a ground point in the circuit provides an easy point of contact for
someone to get shocked, why have it in the circuit at all? Wouldn't a groundless
circuit be safer?

 The person getting shocked probably isn't barefooted. If rubber and fabric are
insulating materials, then why aren't their shoes protecting them by preventing a
circuit from forming?

 How good of a conductor can dirt be? If you can get shocked by current through the
earth, why not use the earth as a conductor in our power circuits?

2.1 The Essence of Grounding

In answer to the first question, the presence of an intentional "grounding" point in an electric
circuit is intended to ensure that one side of it is safe to come in contact with. Note that if
our victim in the above diagram were to touch the bottom side of the resistor, nothing would
happen even though their feet would still be contacting ground (see figure 6):

FIGURE 6: MAN AT GROUND POTENTIAL

Because the bottom side of the circuit is firmly connected to ground through the grounding
point on the lower left of the circuit, the lower conductor of the circuit is made electrically
common with earth ground. Since there can be no voltage between electrically common
points, there will be no voltage applied across the person contacting the lower wire, and
they will not receive a shock. For the same reason, the wire connecting the circuit to the
grounding rod/plates is usually left bare (no insulation), so that any metal object it brushes
up against will similarly be electrically common with the earth.

Circuit grounding ensures that at least one point in the circuit will be safe to touch. But what
about leaving a circuit completely ungrounded? Wouldn't that make any person touching
just a single wire as safe as the bird sitting on just one? Ideally, yes. Practically, no.
Observe what happens with no ground at all (Figure 7):

FIGURE 7: EFFECT OF NON-GROUNDED SYSTEMS

Despite the fact that the person's feet are still contacting ground, any single point in the
circuit should be safe to touch. Since there is no complete path (circuit) formed through the
person's body from the bottom side of the voltage source to the top, there is no way for a
current to be established through the person. However, this could all change with an
accidental ground, such as a tree branch touching a power line and providing connection to
earth ground ( Refer to figure 8):

FIGURE 8: EFFECT OF GROUND FAULT ON NON-GROUNDED SYSTEMS

Such an accidental connection between a power system conductor and the earth (ground)
is called a ground fault. Ground faults may be caused by many things, including dirt buildup
on power line insulators (creating a dirty water path for current from the conductor to the
pole, and to the ground, when it rains), ground water infiltration in buried power line
conductors, and birds landing on power lines, bridging the line to the pole with their wings.
Given the many causes of ground faults, they tend to be unpredictable. In the case of trees,
no one can guarantee which wire their branches might touch. If a tree were to brush up
against the top wire in the circuit, it would make the top wire safe to touch and the bottom
one dangerous just the opposite of the previous scenario where the tree contacts the
bottom wire (Figure 9):

With a tree branch contacting the top wire, that wire becomes the grounded conductor in
the circuit, electrically common with earth ground. Therefore, there is no voltage between
that wire and ground, but full (high) voltage between the bottom wire and ground. As
mentioned previously, tree branches are only one potential source of ground faults in a
power system. Consider an ungrounded power system with no trees in contact, but this
time with two people touching single wires (Figure 10):

FIGURE 9: TRANSFER OF GROUND POTENTIAL ON NON-GROUNDED SYSTEMS

FIGURE 10: MULTIPLE LIVE POTENTIALS ON NON-GROUNDED SYSTEMS

With each person standing on the ground, contacting different points in the circuit, a path
for shock current is made through one person, through the earth, and through the other
person. Even though each person thinks they're safe in only touching a single point in the
circuit, their combined actions create a deadly scenario. In effect, one person acts as the
ground fault which makes it unsafe for the other person. This is exactly why ungrounded
power systems are dangerous: the voltage between any point in the circuit and ground
(earth) is unpredictable, because a ground fault could appear at any point in the circuit at
any time. The only character guaranteed to be safe in these scenarios is the bird, who has
no connection to earth ground at all! By firmly connecting a designated point in the circuit to
earth ground ("grounding" the circuit), at least safety can be assured at that one point. This
is more assurance of safety than having no ground connection at all.

2.2 Insulating Materials and Insulation Levels

In answer to the second question, rubber-soled shoes do indeed provide some electrical
insulation to help protect someone from conducting shock current through their feet.
However, most common shoe designs are not intended to be electrically "safe," their soles
being too thin and not of the right substance. Also, any moisture, dirt, or conductive salts
from body sweat on the surface of or permeated through the soles of shoes will
compromise what little insulating value the shoe had to begin with. There are shoes
specifically made for dangerous electrical work, as well as thick rubber mats made to stand
on while working on live circuits, but these special pieces of gear must be in absolutely
clean, dry condition in order to be effective. Suffice it to say, normal footwear is not enough
to guarantee protection against electric shock from a power system.

Research conducted on contact resistance between parts of the human body and points of
contact (such as the ground) shows a wide range of figures (see table 3 data):

Table 3: Material Insulation Data

As you can see, not only is rubber a far better insulating material than leather, but the
presence of water in a porous substance such as leather greatly reduces electrical
resistance.

Therefore, the ability of an insulating material to withstand flow of electricity depends on the
resistivity of the material. Electrical resistivity (also known as resistivity, specific
electrical resistance, or volume resistivity) is an intrinsic property that quantifies how
strongly a given material opposes the flow of electric current. A low resistivity indicates a
material that readily allows the flow of electric current.

2.3 Electrical Conductivity

In answer to the third question, dirt is not a very good conductor (at least not when it's dry!).
It is too poor of a conductor to support continuous current for powering a load. However, as
discussed earlier in this write-up, it takes very little current to injure or kill a human being,
so even the poor conductivity of dirt is enough to provide a path for deadly current
when there is sufficient voltage available, as there usually is in power systems.

Ability of a material to conduct electricity depends on the electrical conductivity.

Electrical conductivity is the measure of a material's ability to accommodate the transport

of an electric charge. It is the ratio of the current density to the electric field strength or, in
more practical terms, is equivalent to the electrical conductance measured between
opposite faces of a 1-metre cube of the material under test.

Electrical conductance is an electrical phenomenon where a material contains movable

particles with electric charge (such as electrons), which can carry electricity. When a
difference of electrical potential is placed across a conductor, its movable charges flow, and
an electric current appears. A Conductor such as a metal has high conductivity, and
an insulator like glass or a vacuum has low conductivity. A semiconductor has a
conductivity that varies widely under different conditions. Electrical conductivity is
the reciprocal (or inverse) of electrical resistivity.

Some ground surfaces are better insulators than others. Asphalt, for instance, being oil-
based, has a much greater resistance than most forms of dirt or rock. Concrete, on the
other hand, tends to have fairly low resistance due to its intrinsic water and electrolyte
(conductive chemical) content.

The chart in figure 11 below gives us the idea of the relationship between Resistivity and
Conductivity of various materials (Insulating and Conducting materials)
Soil Electrical Conductivity is now used by farmers practicing precision agriculture. Soil
electrical conductivity (EC) is a measurement that correlates with soil properties that affect
crop productivity, these include:
 soil texture,
 cation exchange capacity (CEC),
 drainage conditions,
 organic matter level,
 salinity, and
 subsoil characteristics.

FIGURE 11: RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY CHART

It is, therefore, necessary to investigate:

1. How, with field verification, soil EC can be related to specific soil properties in
particular environment that affect crop yield, such as topsoil depth, pH, salt
concentrations, and available water-holding capacity can influence ease of
electrocution. This will help us to map out effective protection strategy.
 2. How Soil EC maps often visually correspond to patterns on yield maps and can help
explain potential electrocution dangers and

3. Other uses of soil EC maps (Table 1), including developing management zones,
guiding directed soil sampling, assigning variable rates of earth leakage currents,
fine tuning soil resistivity maps, improving the placement and interpretation of on-
land tests, salinity diagnosis, and planning protection remediation.

One major component used in reducing resistivity, and hence improve conductivity
is the salinity properties.

The electrical conductivity of soils varies depending on the amount of moisture held by soil
particles. Sands have a low conductivity, silts have a medium conductivity, and clays have
a high conductivity. Consequently, EC correlates strongly to soil particle size and texture.

The conductive characteristics of the various soil textures are shown in figure 12 below:

FIGURE 12:

2.3.1 Application of Soil Electrical Conductivity

The principles of Soil Electrical Conductivity can be used to detect remote leakages in the
event of a remote fault that has the potential of posing danger of electrocution in a high or
low resistance earth path to source.

Non-contact EC sensors that work on the principle of electromagnetic induction (EMI) used
for measurement of Soil Electrical Conductivity by farmers practicing precision agriculture
can now collect more detailed information about the spatial characteristics of the soil texture
than ever before. The instrument is composed of a transmitter and a receiver coil (Figure
13), usually installed at opposite ends of the unit. A sensor in the device measures the
resulting electromagnetic field that the current induces. The strength of this secondary
electromagnetic field is proportional to the soil EC.

The transmitting coil sends an electrical field into the soil and the ability to carry the electrical field is related to the soil
properties. With unit on the left, the less conductive sandy surface soil reduces the field strength as compared to the unit
on the right with more clay in the soil profile.

FIGURE 13: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION FOR THE NON-CONTACT TYPE EC SENSOR

These devices, which directly measure the voltage drop between a source and a sensor
electrode, must be mounted on a non-metallic unit to prevent interference. These sensors
are lightweight and can be mounted on poles thus making them useful for small areas.

Measurement of current in direct or indirect contact of live-lines with ground is dependent

on the soil electrical conductivity. Therefore, the knowledge of Conductivity or Resistivity
Maps will be helpful in efforts on electrocution prevention.

3.0 Electromagnetic Field

The electricity that is produced by power generating stations and used to power appliances
and other devices is different from the electrical activity in the Earth‘s core which is fairly
consistent in intensity, resulting in direct current. The electrons that move to create the
electrical current change direction regularly at a rate of 50 or 60 times per second. This is
what we call a 50 or 60-hertz alternating current, which produces alternating EMFs.

Apart from the earth's gravitational pull, every force that you experience is electromagnetic
in nature. Electromagnetic force is associated with a fundamental property of matter -
electric charge.
The EMF produced is made up of two components- Electric and Magnetic Fields. An
electric field is related to voltage (measured in volts) and is generated by the presence of
electric charges (electrons). A magnetic field is generated by electric current (measured in
amperes); that is, by the movement of electrons. As soon as an appliance is turned on, it
produces a magnetic field. When it is turned off, the magnetic field disappears. Unlike
electric fields, magnetic fields are not reduced by trees, fences or buildings; the field
passes easily through these barriers.

Electric field is an idea introduced to describe electric forces. A field is something that is
defined at all points in a region of space. Examples to be considered in this unit are electric
field, electrostatic potential and magnetic field. An electric field is said to exist at a point in
space if a charged particle placed at that point experiences a force that would not be felt by
an uncharged particle. A possible explanation for such a force could be the presence of
another charged body - but that is not the only thing that can create an electric field.

The Electric Field Concept is shown in figure 14 below:

14

Any charged particle located in a region of electrostatic field experiences a force. The force
on the particle at any place is determined by the particle's charge and the value of the field:
F = qE. If the particle moves from one place to another within that region, the electrostatic
force does work on the particle and its potential energy changes. It is usually more
meaningful to talk about the potential difference (V) between two points in space than the
potential (V) at one point.

An electromagnetic field (EMF) consists of a vertical electrical wave and a horizontal

magnetic wave as shown in the diagram of figure 15.
Electrical charge is generated by voltage which can be blocked easily. When an appliance
is plugged in this charge is present, even when the appliance is turned off.

Magnetic fields are generated and magnified by electric current. They are only active when
electric charge is present. Magnetic fields are difficult to block; they can penetrate bodies,
concrete and steel.

FIGURE 15: ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FIELD ILLUSTRATED

Two wire balanced line consists of two parallel conductors are generally circular cross
section. The main type of oscillations of such a line is the wave of the electromagnetic field
of type T. The structure and dimensions are shown in Figure 16. The two-wire line is an
open line (UTP). The electromagnetic field is almost completely concentrated inside a circle
with a radius of (5-6) the D.

Electric field (EF) is linked to voltage. The higher the voltage, the higher the EF. It is
measured in Volt per meter (V/m).Magnetic field (MF) is linked to current: The stronger the
current, the higher the resulting MF. It is measured in amperes per meter (A/m) but tesla
(T), the unit of magnetic flux, is generally preferred. A direct relationship exists between
both units and it depends on the environment in which the field is moving. Practically, we
often speak of the magnetic field, in T. Magnetic fields that we usually measure are in the
order of microtesla (μT), or one millionth of Tesla.
 FIGURE 16: TWO-WIRE BALANCED LINE IN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
The phase velocity of the waves along the two-wire line T is equal to the speed of light c = 3
× 10 8 m / sec.
Wave resistance line defined by the formula:

Accuracy of the formula for D> 5d does not exceed 1%.

Attenuation of the two wire line is determined by the finite conductivity of the conductor
material.

In practice: in Figure 17a, the lamp is off but connected to a voltage source, here the 230V
electricity grid; so we can only measure EF. When the lamp is on (Fig. 17b), EF and MF
exists. The intensity of the latter depends on the intensity of the current flowing, and hence
the power of the lamp in this example.

a b

FIGURE 17: PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD

3.1 Electromagnetic Field Hazards: Detection and Prevention
To effectively contain recurring electromagnetic field hazards (and problem of
electrocution), we must take a close look at the biological impact of electromagnetic field on
man and a host of other living creatures as well as means of detecting dangerous Electric
Field Intensity and Magnetic Field Strength associated with abnormal conditions in the
power system. This will help us to evolve ways of mitigating adverse prospects of
electrocution.

The electric power that is used in our homes, offices and factories use AC, and as noted
earlier, an alternating Current does not flow steadily in one direction but alternates back and
forth. In North America, it is called 60 hertz (Hz) power while in Nigeria and Europe the
frequency of electric power is 50 hertz. This means there are electric and magnetic fields
wherever there is electric power. It also means that there are fields associated with large
and small power lines as well as wiring and lighting in our homes and offices.

The electric and magnetic fields created by power systems oscillate with the current. This
is why fields around power systems are called power-frequency or 50 hertz fields. A more
precise illustration of the electromagnetic fields from power systems around our immediate
environment is presented in figure 18.

The electricity that is produced by power generating stations and used to power Artificial
electromagnetic fields impact bodily functions through a process called resonance
causing the body‘s natural electromagnetic fields to vibrate at corrupted frequencies.
Artificial EMFs overwhelm the body‘s healthy rhythms, altering its natural processes. The
resulting distortion creates chaos within the body‘s electromagnetic fields and
communication systems. This causes physical, mental and emotional imbalance. This is
illustrated in figure 19.

FIGURE 18: POWERLINE MAGNETIC FIELD ELECTRIC FIRE HAZARD

 Magnetic fields occur wherever there is current flow, or Amperage. Magnetic fields emanate
from a source in more-or-less concentric rings. So whenever there is amperage (current
flow) magnetic fields are created (see figure 20). They emanate from the conductor in a
predictable manner. Current, like water, takes the path of least resistance through buildings
and neighborhoods. So sometimes we may inadvertently have current flowing on our
plumbing systems, phone or cable utilities, or electrical grounding system.

Interactions with Electric & Magnetic Fields The Human Electric and Magnetic Field
FIGURE 19: EFFECT OF ELECTRICMAGNETIC FIELD ON HUMAN

FIGURE 20: ILLUSTRATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES NEAR POWER LINE

An amazing fact of EMF physics is that magnetic fields can ―cancel themselves
out.‖ Modern day 3-wire or 4-wire cabling has lead to reduced ambient magnetic fields
because the Hots and Neutrals are so close together the magnetic fields mostly cancel
themselves out and cannot be measured far from the electrical cable (see figure 21).
Buildings with active Knob-and-Tube wiring generally have higher ambient magnetic fields
because of the distance between the Hot and Neutral of each circuit. This is only true when
there is a load on the circuit. The larger the distance created, the wider the ambient
magnetic field.

FIGURE 21: REDUCING AMBIENT MAGNETIC FIELDS IN WIRING

A known variable is always distance. Magnetic fields decrease in field strength with
distance from the source. Oddly, the rate of reduction with distance is not constant from
different types of sources. For instance, magnetic fields from a coil-type source, such as a
motor or transformer, drop off exponentially at a cube of the distance (1/r3), but mag-fields
from an unbalanced line source drop off proportionately with distance (1/r1). Therefore
wiring errors and ―stray current‖ sources can be much more influential than electrical
system point sources in our buildings.

There can be very high and wide-spread magnetic fields whenever there is a wiring
error or stray current on an electrical line, plumbing system, data cable, or any other
metallic conductor in a building. Therefore, anytime there is a wire cut, a human contact,
ground fault or sustained short-circuit necessitating an intense electromagnetic field in the
atmosphere, endangering biological lives in that environment. This is why there is the
need in having an EMF assessment performed – even if we are not near any mega
external sources.
Electromagnetic Field Hazards can be detected and prevented in a number of ways.
Virtually all implements for detection and mitigation of abnormal conditions is
electromagnetic field based.

The first step in arresting an abnormal condition is to establish a harmless and normal
condition that can be tolerated. We must establish that an excess measurable parameter do
exist against a pre-determined reference.

The fundamental rule of protection against electric shock is provided by the document IEC
61140 which covers both electrical installations and electrical equipment.

Hazardous-live-parts shall not be accessible and accessible conductive parts shall

not be hazardous.

This requirement needs to apply under:

 Normal conditions, and
 Under a single fault condition

Various measures are adopted to protect against this hazard, and include:
 Automatic disconnection of the power supply to the connected electrical equipment
 Special arrangements such as:
o The use of class II insulation materials, or an equivalent level of insulation
o Non-conducting location, out of arm‘s reach or interposition of barriers
o Equipotential bonding
o Electrical separation by means of isolating transformers

3.2 Protection against Direct Contact

A direct contact refers to a person coming into contact with a conductor which is live in
normal circumstances (see Fig. 22a). IEC 61140 standard has renamed ―protection against
direct contact‖ with the term ―basic protection‖. The former name is at least kept for
information.

a) Direct Contact b) Indirect Contact

FIGURE 22: DIRECT AND INDIRECT CONTACTS IN ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

 The ‗Basic Protection include:
1. Protection by the insulation of live parts This protection consists of an insulation
which complies with the relevant standards (see Fig. 23). Paints, lacquers and
varnishes do not provide an adequate protection.

FIGURE 23: PROTECTION AGAINST DIRECT CONTACT BY INSULATION OF A 3-PHASE

CABLE WITH OUTER SHEATH

2. Protection by means of barriers or enclosures To be considered as providing

effective protection against direct contact hazards, these equipment must possess a
degree of protection equal to at least IP 2X or IP XXB.

An opening in an enclosure (door, front panel, drawer, etc.) must only be removable,
open or withdrawn:
 By means of a key or tool provided for this purpose, or
 After complete isolation of the live parts in the enclosure,
 With the automatic interposition of another screen removable only
with a key or a tool. The metal enclosure and all metal removable
screen must be bonded to the protective earthing conductor of the
installation.

3. Partial measures of protection Protection by means of obstacles, or by placing out

of arm‘s reach This protection is reserved only to locations to which skilled or
instructed persons only have access. The erection of this protective measure is
detailed in IEC 60364-4-41.

4. Particular measures of protection b Protection by use of extra-low voltage SELV

(Safety Extra-Low Voltage) or by limitation of the energy of discharge.

5. Incorporation of highly sensitive fast tripping devices, based on the detection of

residual currents to earth to disconnect the power supply automatically, and with
sufficient rapidity to prevent injury to, or death by electrocution, of a normally healthy
human being where direct contact is inevitable due to:
 Lack of proper maintenance
 Imprudence, carelessness
 Normal (or abnormal) wear and tear of insulation; for instance flexure and
abrasion of connecting leads
 Accidental contact
  Immersion in water, etc. A situation in which insulation is no longer effective

Standardised Residual-Current Devices, referred to as RCDs, sufficiently sensitive

for protection against direct contact are rated at 30 mA of differential current.

According to IEC 60364-4-41, additional protection by means of high sensitivity

RCDs (In ≤ 30 mA) must be provided for circuits supplying socket-outlets with a rated
current ≤ 20 A in all locations, and for circuits supplying mobile equipment with a
rated current ≤ 32 A for use outdoors.

3.3 Protection against Indirect Contact

An indirect contact refers to a person coming into contact with an exposed conductive-
part which is not normally alive, but has become alive accidentally (due to insulation failure
or some other cause).

The fault current raises the exposed-conductive-part to a voltage liable to be hazardous

which could be at the origin of a touch current through a person coming into contact with
this exposed-conductive-part (see Fig. 22b). IEC 61140 standard has renamed ―protection
against indirect contact‖ with the term ―fault protection‖. The former name is at least kept for
information.

Exposed-conductive-parts used in the manufacturing process of an electrical equipment is

separated from the live parts of the equipment by the ―basic insulation‖.Failure of the basic
insulation will result in the exposed-conductive-parts being alive.

Touching a normally dead part of an electrical equipment which has become live due to the
failure of its insulation, is referred to as an indirect contact.

Two types of potentials (Touch and Step potentials) are commonly encountered at the
vicinity of electrical power systems.

"Step voltage" is the voltage between the feet of a person standing near an energized
grounded object. It is equal to the difference in voltage, given by the voltage distribution
curve, between two points at different distances from the "electrode". A person could be at
risk of injury during a fault simply by standing near the grounding point.

"Touch voltage" is the voltage between the energized object and the feet of a person in
contact with the object. It is equal to the difference in voltage between the object and a
point some distance away. The touch potential could be nearly the full voltage across the
grounded object if that object is grounded at a point remote from the place where the
person is in contact with it. For example, a crane that was grounded to the system neutral
and that contacted an energized line would expose any person in contact with the crane or
its un-insulated load line to a touch potential nearly equal to the full fault voltage.
These are illustrated in figure 24 below and touch voltages are more common in
electrocution incidences.

FIGURE 24: STEP AND TOUCH VOLTAGE ILLUSTRATIONS

Protection against indirect contact hazards can be achieved by automatic disconnection of

the supply if the exposed-conductive-parts of equipment are properly earthed.

Two levels of protective measures exist:

 1st level: The earthing of all exposed-conductive-parts of electrical equipment in the
installation and the constitution of an equipotential bonding network.

 2nd level: Automatic disconnection of the supply of the section of the installation
concerned, in such a way that the touch-voltage/time safety requirements are
respected for any level of touch voltage Uc.

We shall concentrate on touch voltages as related to different types of earthing in our

consideration. Touch voltage Uc is the voltage existing (as the result of insulation
failure) between an exposed-conductive-part and any conductive element within
reach which is at a different (generally earth) potential.

A greater value of touch voltage can be acquired when a dangerous touch occurs between
two metallic components of the system as illustrated in figure 25. The greater the value of
Uc, the greater the rapidity of supply disconnection required to provide protection. The
highest value of Uc that can be tolerated indefinitely without danger to human beings
is 50 V CA.
 FIGURE 25: ILLUSTRATION OF THE DANGEROUS TOUCH VOLTAGE (UC)

The maximum safe duration of the values of AC touch voltages that is allowed for humans
depending on earthing type is shown on table 4.

TABLE 4: MAXIMUM SAFE DURATION OF THE ASSUMED VALUES OF AC TOUCH VOLTAGE (Sec)

The various earthing system provided for in IEC 60364 are shown in figure 26 (a-e) below.
The nature, magnitude and impact of fault currents with phase-to-ground faults are
examined.

International standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of earthing arrangements,

using the two-letter codes TN, TT, and IT.

The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-supply equipment
(generator or transformer):
"T" — Direct connection of a point with earth (Latin: terra)
"I" — No point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps via a high
impedance.
The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical device
being supplied:
"T" — Direct connection of a point with earth
"N" — Direct connection to neutral at the origin of installation, which is
connected to the earth

TN networks
In a TN earthing system, one of the points in the generator or transformer is
connected with earth, usually the star point in a three-phase system. The body of
the electrical device is connected with earth via this earth connection at the
transformer.

The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of the consumer's electrical
installation is called protective earth (PE). The conductor that connects to the star
point in a three-phase system, or that carries the return current in a single-
phase system, is called neutral (N).

Three variants of TN systems are distinguished:

 TN−S
PE and N are separate conductors that are connected together only near the
power source. This arrangement is a current standard for most residential and
industrial electric systems particularly in Europe

 TN−C
A combined PEN conductor fulfils the functions of both a PE and an N
conductor.

 TN−C−S
Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which is at some point
split up into separate PE and N lines. The combined PEN conductor typically
occurs between the substation and the entry point into the building, and
separated in the service head. In the UK, this system is also known
as protective multiple earthing (PME), because of the practice of connecting
the combined neutral-and-earth conductor to real earth at many locations, to
reduce the risk of electric shock in the event of a broken PEN conductor - with
a similar system in Australia and New Zealand being designated as multiple
earthed neutral (MEN).
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

FIGURE 26: INTERNATIONAL STANDARD IEC 60364

THREE FAMILIES OF EARTHING
CODES (TT, TN & IT)

(e)
3.3.1 Implication of Faults and Protection Provisions
The implication of phase-to-ground faults and Protection provisions are analysed as follows:
a) The TT System:
With an excellent earthing (RE 0), the earth return path is intact no matter where
the neutral breakage occurs. There is no danger to life. However, imperfect
earthing (RE ∞) spells great danger. The touch potential tends to acquire the full
service voltage of the system. This is of great worry in reference to electrocution
study.
The first and foremost preventive measure is to ensure an excellent earth continuity
path between source and load.
As a good security condition, the potential rise of the grounded conductive part must
be limited at 50 V for a fault inside the installation and at 0 V for a fault on the
network.
Protection by automatic disconnection of the supply used in TT system is by
RCD of sensitivity (Ref. IEC 60364-4-41):

Where;
RA is the resistance of the earth electrode for the installation
IΔn is the rated residual operating current of the RCD
In a typical example shown in figure 27, assuming the given conditions;

FIGURE 27: AUTOMATIC DISCONNECTION OF SUPPLY FOR TT SYSTEM

 Example (see Fig. 27):

 The resistance of the earth electrode of substation neutral Rn is 10 Ω.

 The resistance of the earth electrode of the installation RA is 20 Ω.
 The earth-fault loop current Id = 7.7 A.
 The fault voltage Uf = Id x RA = 154 V and therefore dangerous, but
IΔn = 50/20 = 2.5 A so that a standard 300 mA RCD will operate in about 30
ms without intentional time delay and will clear the fault where a fault voltage
exceeding appears on an exposed-conductive-part.

**NOTE: This is mostly used in our Medium Voltage 11/0.415KV Distribution Systems
where customers are located remote from the source and the earth continuity is
dependent on the quality of the earth resistances both at the source and remote
ends.

b) The IT System
In this type of system:
 The installation is isolated from earth, or the neutral point of its power-supply
source is connected to earth through a high impedance
 All exposed and extraneous-conductive-parts are earthed via an installation
earth electrode.

On the occurrence of a true fault to earth, referred to as a ―first fault‖, the fault current
is very low, such that the rule Id x RA ≤ 50 V is fulfilled and no dangerous fault
voltages can occur.

In practice the current Id is low, a condition that is neither dangerous to personnel,

nor harmful to the installation.

However, in this system:

 A permanent monitoring of the insulation to earth must be provided, coupled
with an alarm signal (audio and/or flashing lights, etc.) operating in the event
of a first earth fault

FIGURE 28: FAULT CURRENT PATH FOR A FIRST FAULT IN IT SYSTEM

  The rapid location and repair of a first fault is imperative if the full benefits of
the IT system are to be realised. Continuity of service is the great advantage
afforded by the system.
A typical IT system under fault condition is shown in figure 28:

During a phase to earth fault, as indicated in Figure 28 above, the current passing
through the electrode resistance RnA is the vector sum of the capacitive currents in
the two healthy phases. The voltages of the healthy phases have (because of the
fault) increased to 3 the normal phase voltage, so that the capacitive currents
increase by the same amount.

These currents are displaced, one from the other by 60°, so that when added
vectorially, this amounts to 3 x 66 mA = 198 mA, in the present example.

The fault voltage Uf is therefore equal to 198 x 5 x 10-3 = 0.99 V, which is obviously
harmless.

c) The TN System:
In this system all exposed and extraneous-conductive-parts of the installation are
connected directly to the earthed point of the power supply by protective conductors.
The way in which this direct connection is carried out depends on whether the TN-C,
TN-S, or TN-C-S method of implementing the TN principle is used. In figure F29 the
method TN-C is shown, in which the neutral conductor acts as both the Protective-
Earth and Neutral (PEN) conductor.

FIGURE 29: AUTOMATIC DISCONNECTION IN TN SYSTEM

 In all TN systems, any insulation fault to earth results in a phase to neutral short-
circuit. High fault current levels allow to use overcurrent protection but can give rise
to touch voltages exceeding 50% of the phase to neutral voltage at the fault position
during the short disconnection time.

In practice for utility distribution network, earth electrodes are normally installed at
regular intervals along the protective conductor (PE or PEN) of the network, while
the consumer is often required to install an earth electrode at the service entrance.
On large installations additional earth electrodes dispersed around the premises are
often provided, in order to reduce the touch voltage as much as possible. In high-rise
apartment blocks, all extraneous conductive parts are connected to the protective
conductor at each level. In order to ensure adequate protection, the earth-fault
current must be higher or equal to Ia

where:
Uo = nominal phase to neutral voltage
Id = the fault current
Ia = current equal to the value required to operate the protective device in
the time specified
Zs = earth-fault current loop impedance, equal to the sum of the
impedances of the source, the live phase conductors to the fault
position, the protective conductors from the fault position back to the
source
Zc = the faulty-circuit loop impedance

Note: The path through earth electrodes back to the source will have (generally)
much higher impedance values than those listed above, and need not be
considered.

**NOTE: This system is mostly used in our Medium Voltage 33/11KV Injection
Substations where the two are located in the proximity or within the same switchyard
and are interconnected with armoured cables whose sheaths are interconnected and
grounded.

3.4 Application of Electromagnetic Field and Line Detectors

When faults occur, there is bound to be distortion and significant changes in the electric
and magnetic fields of such an environment. With electromagnetic sensors, such level
of changes can be measured and compared with a standard acceptable reference values.

One of such is a method of locating a fault in a multi-conductor cable. In another aspect, it

relates to a transmitter for producing an electric field around the cable of such nature that
the location of the fault may be readily determined.
Such systems ordinarily utilize at least three of the cable conductors for the purpose of
producing a field about the cable of such nature that the location of the fault can be
determined. This system is designed with a transmitter and a receiver as we saw in the
principle of non-contact electric conductivity sensor.

Another method we will consider in some details is the application of modern intelligent
electromagnetic field sensors used as fault-current indicators for the range of 6-132KV
overhead lines.
Such a sensor can be used to:
 Detects and indicates phase to ground and phase to phase (PTP) faults.
 Directional indication for phase to ground (PTG) faults.

The features include:

 Insensitivity to capacitive discharge currents and change of feeding direction.
 Internal fault counter and log.
 Multiple power-supply solutions.
 Relay output for connection to Communication devices and SCADA RTU‘s (Option)
and can be used for very fast fault interception.

A typical version is LineTroll 3500, suitable in electricity distribution networks with resistor
earthed neutral, isolated neutral as well as compensated networks (Petersen coil). It
possesses a State-of-the-art technology allowing the utilities the possibility to program the
operational parameters to suit their own demands for functionality and complexity.

For typical application, it can be pole-mounted as shown in figure 30 below:

FIGURE 30: TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF LINETROLL 3500 ON

MV DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
The indicators are placed at strategic locations along the line such as after branching points
and sectionalisers. It mounts on the pole, 4-5 meters below the conductors, by means of
screws or wrapping-bands. Live line mounting is done safely, easily and rapidly.

Upon detecting a fault on the line, the indicator gives off an intermittent red or green light-
flash (LED). One LED flashing indicating an earth-fault and both LED flashing indicating an
short-circuit fault. Xenon flash can be supplied as an option. The colours of the LED will
also indicate direction to the fault location for earth-faults.

Upon sensing an earthfault (PTG) all indicators installed on the feeder with fault both
upstream and down stream will operate. Upon sensing an short circuit fault (PTP)only
indicators installed between the feeding transformer and the fault location will operate.

Operation of the indicators in a typical distribution network during a fault situation is

illustrated in figure 31.

FIGURE 31: INDICATORS DURING A FAULT SITUATION

Sensor principle
The processor in the Indicator uses approx. 60 ms To detect the fault. It analyses the
signals and looks for a de-energised line (if programmed) before starting indication. This 3
sec. period is called verification time.

For PTP faults the sensor will require that two conditions are satisfied:
1. Line energised for more than 5 sec.
2. Current exceeding a pre-set minimum value.

For PTG fault the sensor will require that two conditions are satisfied:
 1. Line energised for more than 5 sec. Current discharge transients exceeding a pre-
set value. The indicator then makes an analyses of the current discharge transient Io
and the residual voltage. This analyses will tell indicators whether they are located
between the feeding-transformer and fault location, downstream the fault or on other
feeders connected to the same bus-bar.

2. An increase of minimum 50% in the E-field set up by the residual voltage

The principle of operation is illustrated in figure 32.

FIGURE 32: INDICATOR PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The LT 3500 can be equipped with an internal relay-card, situated in indicator bracket,
giving the possibility of four different relay-output‘s to an RTU.

The different output signals can be:

 Transient Fault in red direction
 Transient Fault in green direction
 Permanent Fault in red direction
 Permanent Fault in green direction

The relay-card also has an input for external reset from the RTU.

Compensated networks (utilizing resonant grounding) have gained popularity over the last
years in distribution networks. This is mainly due to increased focus on reliability of supply.

The arc suppression coil was invented by W. Petersen in 1916 as the result of his
pioneering work in investigating ground fault phenomena. A well-tuned Petersen-coil
compensates for the fault-current and most arcing faults become self-extinguishing.
Several methods are utilized in order to detect and locate earth-faults in compensated
networks, and are usually classified according to the components of relay input signals:

1. Fundamental frequency
2. Harmonic components
3. Transient components
4. Special methods

The two first groups use steady-state information of the faulted network, and some methods
even require pre-fault information. The third group is dealt with in this paper. The last group
includes methods that basically use steady-state information, but require control actions on
the Petersen coil (current injection or temporary detuning) which is expensive.

The discharging/recharging transients during the initiationof the fault can be used to detect
the direction to the fault in compensated and isolated networks.

Figure 33 shows a typical application:

FIGURE 33: A TYPICAL SYSTEM OF FAULT INDICATORS IN A RADIAL NETWORK

REFERENCES:

1. National Institute for Occupation Safety & Health: Worker Deaths by Electrocution
(http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/98131/), a CDC study

2. Hydro-Québec 2004, 2011, ―Electricity from the power station to the home‖
(www.hydroquebec.com).

3. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, ―Electric Shock‖(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Electric_shock).

4. Tony R. Kuphaldt (1st Dec. 2010), ―Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics -
Shock Current Path‖.

5. Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2010, ―Protection against electric shocks‖

6. Virginia Cooperative Extension (publication 442-508), ―Soil Electrical Conductivity”

7. Health Building Science (http://healthybuildingscience.com), ―Magnetic Fields – EMF

Consulting‖.

8. Ahmed Hossam-Eldin, Wael Mokhtar, Ehab Mohamed Ali, International Journal of

Electromagnetics and Applications 2012, 2(6): 151-158, ―Effect of Electromagnetic Fields
from Power Lines on Metallic Objects and Human Bodies‖.

9. M.S. Jafarpour September.2007, Switchgear Riddle No.3 Four

(https://www.facebook.com/electrical.riddles/).

10. Nortroll (DELTATRONIC Technology) February 2001, ―INTELLIGENT DIRECTIONAL

FAULT-CURRENT INDICATOR FOR 6-132kV OVERHEAD LINES‖, (www.deltatronic.com).

11. Belgian BioElectroMagnetics Group (BBEMG), ―Key points on Electricity & Fields‖.

12. Cecil L. Brownlow, Bartlesville, 0kla., assignor to Phillips Petroleum Company, a corporation
of Delaware, United States Patent Office (Patent No 2,769,868) Nov. 6, 1956. ―LINE FAULT
DETECTOR‖.

13. E. Bjerkan, T. Venseth, ―Locating Earth-Faults in Compensated Distribution Networks by

means of Fault Indicators‖.

14. Paul I. Audu, Electricity in Nigeria (EIN), September, 2016, “The Problem Of Frequent
Electrocution Incidences In Nigeria – Causes And Solution (Part 1)”
http://electricityinnigeria.com/ein-magazine.