DAVANAGERE UNIVERSITY

(As per the NEP 2020 Syllabus For all Under Graduates courses of
I Sem B.Com/BBA/BVA/II Sem BA/B.Sc./BCA/BSW Under
Davanagere University)

ABILITY ENHANCEMENT COMPULSORY COURSE (AECC)

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

By

Dr. M. PRADEEP NATHU

Lecturer Department of Environmental Science
Government First Grade College, Harihara-577601

2022
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 DAVANAGERE UNIVERSITY
ABILITY ENHANCEMENT COMPULSORY COURSE (AECC)
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

SYLLABUS

UNITS CONTENT HOURS

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 2
Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies Scope
and importance; Concept of sustainability and sustainable
development.
UNIT 2 ECOSYSTEMS 6
What is an ecosystem? Structure and function of
ecosystem; Energy flow in an ecosystem: food chains, food
webs and ecological succession. Case studies of the
following ecosystems:
a) Forest ecosystem,
b) Grassland ecosystem,
c) Desert ecosystem,
Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans,
estuaries)
UNIT 3 NATURAL RESOURCES: RENEWABLE AND NON- 8
RENEWABLE RESOURCES
Land resources and land-use change; Land degradation,
soil
Erosion and desertification.
Deforestation: Causes and impacts due to mining, dam
building on environment, forests, biodiversity and tribal
populations.
Water: Use and over-exploitation of surface and ground
water, floods, droughts, conflicts over water (international
& inter-state).
Energy resources: Renewable and non-renewable energy
sources, use of alternate energy sources, growing energy
needs, case studies.
UNIT 4 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 8
Levels of biological diversity: Genetic, species and
ecosystem diversity; Biogeographic zones of India;
Biodiversity patterns and global biodiversity hot spots.
India as a mega-biodiversity nation; Endangered and
endemic species of India. Threats to biodiversity: Habitat
loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts, biological
invasions; Conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and Ex-situ
conservation of biodiversity. Ecosystem and biodiversity

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 services: Ecological, economic, social, ethical, aesthetic and
Informational value.
UNIT 5 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 8
Environmental pollution: types, causes, effects and
controls; Air, water, soil and noise pollution, Nuclear
hazards and human health risks Solid waste management,
Control measures of urban and industrial waste Pollution
case studies.
UNIT 6 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES & PRACTICES 7
Climate change, global warming, ozone layer depletion,
acid
rain and impacts on human communities and agriculture.
Environment Laws: Environment Protection Act; Air
(Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act; Water (Prevention
and control of Pollution) Act; Wildlife Protection Act;
Forest
Conservation Act. International agreements: Montreal and
Kyoto protocols and Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD). Nature reserves, tribal populations and rights, and
human wildlife conflicts in Indian context
UNIT 7 HUMAN COMMUNITIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 6
Human population growth: Impacts on environment,
human health and welfare. Resettlement and rehabilitation
of project affected persons; case studies. Disaster
management: floods, earthquake, cyclones and landslides.
Environmental movements: Chipko, Silent valley, Bishnois
of Rajasthan Environmental ethics: Role of Indian and
other religions and cultures in environmental conservation
Environmental communication and public awareness, case
studies (e.g., CNG vehicles in Delhi).
UNIT 8 FIELD WORK 5

EXAM TYPE: DESCRIPTIVE

INTERNAL MARKS: 40

SEMESTER EXAM: 60

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 QUESTION PAPER PATTERN
Semester B.Sc. Degree Examination,
(CBCS Scheme-NEP Syllabus)
Environmental Science
Paper ..............
Paper Code...........
Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks;
60Note: All parts are compulsory

SECTION-A

Answer any FIVE of the following (2x5=10)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
SECTION-B

Answer any TWO of the following questions (2×10=20)

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
SECTION-C

Answer any ONE of the following question (1×15=15)

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 UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Environment
The word ‗environment‘ is derived from the old French word ‗environer‘ –
which means to ‗surround, enclose, and encircle‘. Environment refers to an
aggregate of conditions or surroundings in which living beings such as humans,
animals, and plants live or survive and non-living things exist. All living beings
including man and their environment are mutually reactive, affecting each other in a
number of ways. It is generally equated with nature wherein physical components of
the planet earth such as earth, air, water, etc. support and affect life in the biosphere.
The term 'environment' is widely used and has a broad range of definitions,
meanings and interpretations. What does the term 'environment' mean? In popular
usage, for some people, the term 'environment' means, simply, 'nature': in other
words, the natural landscape together with all of its non-human features,
characteristics and processes. To those people, the environment is often closely
related to notions of wilderness and of pristine landscapes that have not been
influenced - or, at least, that have been imperceptibly influenced - by human
activities. However, for other people, the term 'environment' includes human
elements to some extent.
In scientific manner environment means interaction of biotic and Abiotic factors
present in surrounding. Biotic factors describes a living component of an ecosystem;
for example organisms, such as plants and animals. Abiotic factors refer to all the
non-living components like physical conditions (temperature, pH, humidity,
salinity, sunlight, etc.) and chemical agents (different gases and mineral nutrients
present in the air, water, soil, etc.) in an environment.
Environmental components
The four major components of environment include lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere and biosphere, corresponding to rocks, water, air and life respectively.
Lithosphere is the outermost layer of earth called crust, which is made of different
minerals. Its depth can reach up to 100 kilometers and is found on both land
(terrestrial crust) and oceans (oceanic crust). The main component of lithosphere is
earth‘s tectonic plates.
Lithosphere refers to the rigid and outermost shell on Earth. The composition of it is
the crust and the portion of the upper mantle. We can distinguish the crust and
upper and mantle on the basis of chemistry and mineralogy. In other words, it
includes the crust and the uppermost mantle that constitutes the hard and rigid
outer layer of our planet Earth. The uppermost part of the lithosphere which
chemically reacts to the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere through the soil-
forming process is known as the pedosphere. The crust of the earth is not a
homogenous substance. In other words, it has got different layers of rocks which
include sedimentary rocks on the top, then there are granitic and metamorphic rocks
in the middle and finally, at the bottom, there are basaltic rocks.

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Hydrosphere comprises of all forms of water bodies on earth including oceans, seas,
rivers, lakes, ponds, streams etc. It covers 70% of earth‘s surface. 97.5% of water
found on Earth is in the oceans in the form of salt water. Only 2.5 % of water on
Earth is freshwater. Out of this, 30.8% is available as groundwater and 68.9% is in
frozen forms as in glaciers. Amount of 0.3% is available in rivers, reservoirs and
lakes and is easily accessible to man.
Atmosphere is gaseous layer enveloping the Earth. The atmosphere with oxygen in
abundance is unique to Earth and sustains life. It mainly comprises 78.08% nitrogen,
20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.038% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen, helium,
and noble gases. The amount of water vapor present is variable.
Earth‘s atmosphere has five major and several secondary layers. From lowest to
highest, the major layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere and exosphere.
Troposphere- Earth‘s troposphere extends from Earth‘s surface to, on average,
about 12 kilometers (7.5 miles) in height, with its height lower at Earth‘s poles and
higher at the equator. Yet this very shallow layer is tasked with holding all the air
plants need for photosynthesis and animals need to breathe, and also contains about
99 percent of all water vapor and aerosols (minute solid or liquid particles
suspended in the atmosphere). In the troposphere, temperatures typically go down
the higher you go, since most of the heat found in the troposphere is generated by
the transfer of energy from Earth‘s surface. The troposphere is the densest
atmospheric layer, compressed by the weight of the rest of the atmosphere above it.
Most of Earth‘s weather happens here, and almost all clouds that are generated by
weather are found here, with the exception of cumulonimbus thunder clouds, whose
tops can rise into the lowest parts of the neighboring stratosphere. Most aviation
takes place here, including in the transition region between the troposphere and the
stratosphere.

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Stratosphere- Located between approximately 12 and 50 kilometers (7.5 and 31
miles) above Earth‘s surface, the stratosphere is perhaps best known as home to
Earth‘s ozone layer, which protects us from the Sun‘s harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Because of that UV radiation, the higher up you go into the stratosphere, the warmer
temperatures become. The stratosphere is nearly cloud- and weather-free, but polar
stratospheric clouds are sometimes present in its lowest, coldest altitudes. It‘s also
the highest part of the atmosphere that jet planes can reach.
Mesosphere- Located between about 50 and 80 kilometers (31 and 50 miles) above
Earth‘s surface, the mesosphere gets progressively colder with altitude. In fact, the
top of this layer is the coldest place found within the Earth system, with an average
temperature of about minus 85 degrees Celsius (minus 120 degrees Fahrenheit). The
very scarce water vapor present at the top of the mesosphere forms noctilucent
clouds, the highest clouds in Earth‘s atmosphere, which can be seen by the naked
eye under certain conditions and at certain times of day. Most meteors burn up in
this atmospheric layer. Sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft can reach the
mesosphere.
Thermosphere- Located between about 80 and 700 kilometers (50 and 440 miles)
above Earth‘s surface is the thermosphere, whose lowest part contains the
ionosphere. In this layer, temperatures increase with altitude due to the very low
density of molecules found here. It is both cloud- and water vapor-free. The aurora
borealis and aurora australis are sometimes seen here. The International Space
Station orbits in the thermosphere.
Exosphere- Located between about 700 and 10,000 kilometers (440 and 6,200 miles)
above Earth‘s surface, the exosphere is the highest layer of Earth‘s atmosphere and,
at its top, merges with the solar wind. Molecules found here are of extremely low
density, so this layer doesn‘t behave like a gas, and particles here escape into space.
While there‘s no weather at all in the exosphere, the aurora borealis and aurora
australis are sometimes seen in its lowest part. Most Earth satellites orbit in the
exosphere.

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Biosphere refers to all the regions on Earth where life exists. The ecosystems that
support life could be in soil, air, water or land. The term Biosphere was coined by
Geologist Edward Suess who used this term for place on Earth where life can be
found. Biosphere refers to the sum total of all living matter, the biomass or biota. It
extends from the polar ice caps to the equator, with each region harboring some life
form suitable to the conditions there.

Types of Environment
The classification of the environment broadly divides it into two categories – Natural
and Manmade environment.
Natural Environment
Natural environment is the terrestrial environment that is a creation of complex
natural and environmental conditions. Although it arose independently of
humankind, it is the complement of direct interaction between nature and human
society. Natural environment revolves around the subjects of climatology, geology,
biogeography, etc. They are direct aspects of how human society conceptualizes the
geography of the Earth. Natural environment is also called a geographical
environment as it interacts with nature. The earth surface, rivers, mountains, deserts,
land, water, oceans, volcanoes, etc.
Man-made or artificial Environment
Man cannot directly live in the geographical environment, so he creates some of his
environmental conditions to adjust to it. This is a man-made or human-made

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environment, a human creation. A man-made environment is also called a social
environment.

Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies Scope and importance

Environmental Study is a vast subject to be studied upon. It has all the aspects of
various subjects such as anthropology, science, social science, statistics, economics,
computers, geology, health, and sociology. It illustrates the multi-sectoral and multi-
dimensional study in various fields. It also educates us about the Physical, Social,
Cultural, and Biological aspects. It brings our natural environment and human
impacts altogether. It is a multidisciplinary approach that deals with every issue that
affects an organism. It covers the impacts of environmental science and social
aspects of the environment as well.

Scope of environmental studies

The scope of Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies consists of various
aspects such as biological, cultural, social, and physical. It is also related to other
subjects such as science, geography, economics, statistics, health, technology,
population, and ecology.
Biological aspects – This is one of the most essential aspects of environmental
studies. It is the solution of an organism, or a population, or a community to changes
in its environment. Human beings, plants, animals, microorganisms, birds, insets are
all included in the biological aspects.
Cultural aspects – The environment gives knowledge about different customs, laws, dresses,
values, and religious beliefs. They all are included under cultural aspects. Environmental
studies help us in understanding these diverse aspects.
Physical aspects – The environment which is shaped by human activities are considered as
physical aspects, for example, bridges, roads, buildings, industries, etc. Apart from them,
natural resources such as land, air, water, minerals, vegetation, landforms like hills, oceans,
mountains, forests, etc.
Social aspects – It illustrates the standard of living, tastes, preferences, educational
status, and etiquettes of individuals living in society. Environmental Studies give
acquaintance about people who have linguistic, cultural, and educational differences
in societies.

Importance of environmental studies

Environmental Studies is essential as it helps us to understand our surrounding
environment and natural phenomena. Numerous points provide us the importance
of the Multidisciplinary nature of Environmental Studies.
They are:
1. It helps in gaining knowledge about the current environmental issues. It provides
us with the necessary skills to obtain solutions for various environmental issues such
as pollution, global warming, and climate change.

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2. It helps in maintaining the ecological balance through fundamental knowledge of
environmental systems and processes.
3. It provides us information about the changes in the environment due to
anthropogenic factors. It also provides us the skills for analyzing different
environmental systems and changes in the environment because of human activities.
4. It aims to preserve and protect biodiversity. It makes us familiar with the various
species of flora and fauna. It provides us with different ways to preserve and protect
them.
5. It provides us the consciousness about our duties towards the environment. It
additionally educates us about the various environmental issues which need to be
resolved at a faster pace. Environmental issues such as conservation of energy, toxic
emissions, water conservation, proper disposal of wastes, rising global temperature,
and many more are also explained to us by environmental studies.
6. Various more issues such as the depletion of natural resources, growing human
population, rising numbers of natural calamities, for instance, earthquakes,
tsunamis, floods, drought, are all serious concerns that need to be taken seriously.
EVS makes us understand the harmful and drastic effects of these issues on the
environment, and humans as well.
7. By studying Environmental Studies, people can explore and connect with their
natural and surrounding environment. It helps people in developing their insights
for understanding human processes, natural phenomena, and various changes in the
environment.

Concept of sustainability and sustainable development

Environment and economy are interdependent and need each other. Hence,
development that ignores its repercussions on the environment will destroy the
environment that sustains life forms. What is needed is sustainable development:
development that will allow all future generations to have a potential average
quality of life that is at least as high as that which is being enjoyed by the current
generation. The concept of sustainable development was emphasized by the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), which defined it
as: ‗Development that meets the need of the present generation without
compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs‘. Read the
definition again. You will notice that the term ‗need‘ and the phrase ‗future
generations‘ in the definition are the catch phrases. The use of the concept ‗needs‘ in
the definition is linked to distribution of resources. The seminal report—Our
Common Future—that gave the above definition explained sustainable development
as ‗meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to satisfy their
aspirations for a better life‘. Meeting the needs of all requires redistributing
resources and is hence a moral issue. Edward Barbier defined sustainable
development as one which is directly concerned with increasing the material
standard of living of the poor at the grass root level — this can be quantitatively

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measured in terms of increased income, real income, educational services, health
care, sanitation, water supply etc. In more specific terms, sustainable development
aims at decreasing the absolute poverty of the poor by providing lasting and secure
livelihoods that minimise resource depletion, environmental degradation, cultural
disruption and social instability. Sustainable development is, in this sense, a
development that meets the basic needs of all, particularly the poor majority, for
employment, food, energy, water, housing, and ensures growth of agriculture,
manufacturing, power and services to meet these needs

Strategies for sustainable development

1. Use of Non-conventional Sources of Energy
India, as you know, is hugely dependent on thermal and hydro power plants to
meet its power needs. Both of these have adverse environmental impacts. Thermal
power plants emit large quantities of carbon dioxide which is a green house gas. It
also produces fly ash which, if not used properly, can cause pollution of water
bodies, land and other components of the environment. Hydroelectric projects
inundate forests and interfere with the natural flow of water in catchment areas and
the river basins. Wind power and solar rays are good examples of conventional. In
recent years, some efforts are being taken to tap these energy resources. Collect the
details of one such unit set up in your area if any, and discuss in the class.
2. LPG, Gobar Gas in Rural Areas
Households in rural areas generally use wood, dung cake or other biomass as fuel.
This practice has several adverse implications like deforestation, reduction in green
cover, wastage of cattle dung and air pollution. To rectify the situation, subsidised
LPG is being provided. In addition, gobar gas plants are being provided through
easy loans and subsidy. As far as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is concerned, it is a
clean fuel — it reduces household pollution to a large extent. Also, energy wastage is
minimised. For the gobar gas plant to function, cattle dung is fed to the plant and
gas is produced which is used as fuel while the slurry which is left over is a very
good organic fertiliser and soil conditioner.
3.CNG in Urban Areas:
In Delhi, the use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as fuel in public transport
system has significantly lowered air pollution and the air has become cleaner. In the
last few years many other Indian cities also began to use CNG.
4. Wind Power
In areas where speed of wind is usually high, wind mills can provide electricity
without any adverse impact on the environment. Wind turbines move with the wind
and electricity is generated. No doubt, the initial cost is high. But the benefits are
such that the high cost gets easily absorbed.
5. Solar Power through Photovoltaic Cells
India is naturally endowed with a large quantity of solar energy in the form of
sunlight. We use it in different ways. For example, we dry our clothes, grains, other

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agricultural products as well as various items made for daily use. We also use
sunlight to warm ourselves in winter. Plants use solar energy to perform
photosynthesis. Now, with the help of photovoltaic cells, solar energy can be
converted into electricity. These cells use special kind of materials to capture solar
energy and then convert the energy into electricity.
6. Bio composting
In our quest to increase agricultural production during the last five decades or so,
we almost totally neglected the use of compost and completely switched over to
chemical fertilizers. The result is that large tracts of productive land have been
adversely affected, water bodies including ground water system have suffered due
to chemical contamination and demand for irrigation has been going up year after
year. Farmers, in large numbers all over the country, have again started using
compost made from organic wastes of different types. In certain parts of the country,
cattle are maintained only because they produce dung which is an important
fertiliser and soil conditioner. Earthworms can convert organic matter into compost
faster than the normal composting process. This process is now being widely used.
Indirectly, the civic authorities are benefited too as they have to dispose reduced
quantity of waste.
Conclusion- Economic development, which aimed at increasing the production of
goods and services to meet the needs of a rising population, puts greater pressure on
the environment. In the initial stages of development, the demand for environmental
resources was less than that of supply. Now the world is faced with increased
demand for environmental resources but their supply is limited due to overuse and
misuse. Sustainable development aims at promoting the kind of development that
minimises environmental problems and meets the needs of the present generation
without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.

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 UNIT 2 ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem, the complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and all
their interrelationships in a particular unit of space. An ecosystem can be visualized
as a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surrounding physical environment. Ecosystem varies greatly in
size from a small pond to a large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire
biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a composite of all local ecosystems on Earth.
Classification of Ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystem
An ecosystem which is located in a body of water is known as an aquatic ecosystem.
The nature and characteristics of the communities of living or biotic organisms and
non-living or abiotic factors which interact with and interrelate to one another are
determined by the aquatic surroundings of their environment they are dependent
upon.
Aquatic ecosystem can be broadly classified into Marine Ecosystem and Freshwater
Ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
These ecosystems are the biggest of all ecosystems as all oceans and their parts are
included in them. They contain salt marshes, intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons,
mangroves, coral reefs, the deep sea, and the sea floor.
Marine ecosystem has a unique flora and fauna, and supports a vast kingdom of
species. These ecosystems are essential for the overall health of both marine and
terrestrial environments.
Salt marshes, sea grass meadows, and mangrove forests are among the most
productive ecosystem. Coral reef provides food and shelter to the highest number of
marine inhabitants in the world. Marine ecosystem has a large biodiversity.

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Freshwater Ecosystem
Freshwater ecosystem includes lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds. Lakes are large
bodies of freshwater surrounded by land.
Plants and algae are important to freshwater ecosystem because they provide
oxygen through photosynthesis and food for animals in this ecosystem. Estuaries
house plant life with the unique adaptation of being able to survive in fresh and
salty environments. Mangroves and pickle weed are examples of estuarine plants.
Many animals live in freshwater ecosystem. Freshwater ecosystem is very important
for people as they provide them water for drinking, energy and transportation,
recreation, etc.
Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are those ecosystems that exist on land. Water may be present
in a terrestrial ecosystem but these ecosystems are primarily situated on land. These
ecosystems are of different types such as forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem,
grassland and mountain ecosystems.
Terrestrial ecosystems are distinguished from aquatic ecosystems by the lower
availability of water and the consequent importance of water as a limiting factor.
These are characterized by greater temperature fluctuations on both diurnal and
seasonal basis, than in aquatic ecosystems in similar climates.
Availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems
because the atmosphere is more transparent on land than in water. Differences in
temperature and light in terrestrial ecosystems reflect a completely different flora
and fauna.
Structure of ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the organisms and
physical features of environment including the amount and distribution of nutrients
in a particular habitat. It also provides information regarding the range of climatic
conditions prevailing in the area. From the structure point of view, all ecosystems
consist of the following basic components:
1. Biotic components
2. Abiotic components
1. Biotic Components:
The biotic components include all living organisms present in the environmental
system. The Biotic components of an ecosystem can be described under the
following three heads:

1. Producers (Autotrophic components),

2. Consumers, and
3. Decomposers or reducers and transformers

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Producers (Autotrophic elements):
The producers are the autotrophic elements—chiefly green plants. They use radiant
energy of sun in photosynthetic process whereby carbon dioxide is assimilated and
the light energy is converted into chemical energy. The chemical energy is actually
locked up in the energy rich carbon compounds. Oxygen is evolved as by-product in
the photosynthesis.
This is used in respiration by all living things. Algae and other hydrophytes of a
pond, grasses of the field, and trees of the forests are examples of producers.
Chemosynthetic bacteria and carotenoid bearing purple bacteria that also assimilate
CO2 with the energy of sunlight but only in the presence of organic compounds also
belong to this category.
Consumers:
Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by
producers are called consumers. Under this category are included all kinds of
animals that are found in an ecosystem.
There are different classes or categories of consumers, such as:
(a) Consumers of the first order or primary consumers,
(b) Consumers of the second order or secondary consumers,
(c) Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers, and
(d) Parasites, scavengers and saprobes.
(a) Primary consumers:
These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on producers
or green plants. Insects, rodents, rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat are some of the
common herbivores in the terrestrial ecosystem, and small crustaceans, molluscs, etc.
in the aquatic habitat.
(b) Secondary consumers:
These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals and the
omnivores are the animals that are adapted to consume herbivores as well as plants
as their food. Examples of secondary consumers are sparrow, crow, fox, wolves,
dogs, cats, snakes, etc.
(c) Tertiary consumers:
These are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores and
herbivores. Lions, tigers, hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary or top
consumers.
(d) Besides different classes of consumers, the parasites, scavengers and saprobes
are also included in the consumers. The parasitic plants and animals utilize the
living tissues of different plants and animals. The scavengers and saprobes utilize
dead remains of animals and plants as their food.
Decomposers and transformers:
Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the ecosystem and they
are fungi and bacteria. Decomposers attack the dead remains of producers and
consumers and degrade the complex organic substances into simpler compounds.

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The simple organic matters are then attacked by another kind of bacteria, the
transformers which change these organic compounds into the inorganic forms that
are suitable for reuse by producers or green plants. The decomposers and
transformers play very important role in maintaining the dynamic nature of
ecosystems.
2. Abiotic Components:
Ecological relationships are manifested in physicochemical environment. Abiotic
component of ecosystem includes basic inorganic elements and compounds, such as
soil, water, oxygen, calcium carbonates, phosphates and a variety of organic
compounds (by-products of organic activities or death).
It also includes such physical factors and ingredients as moisture, wind currents and
solar radiation. Radiant energy of sun is the only significant energy source for any
ecosystem. The amount of non-living components, such as carbon, phosphorus,
nitrogen, etc. that are present at any given time is known as standing state or
standing quantity.
Functions of ecosystem
1. Food circulation in the ecosystem
Food chain
Food chain is a linear sequence of organisms which starts from producer organisms
and ends with decomposer species. Food web is a connection of multiple food
chains. Food chain follows a single path whereas food web follows multiple paths.
From the food chain, we get to know how organisms are connected with each other.
Food chain and food web form an integral part of the ecosystem.
A food chain shows a single pathway from the producers to the consumers and how
the energy flows in this pathway. In the animal kingdom, food travels around
different levels. To understand a food chain better, let us take a look at the terrestrial
ecosystem.
Example for Food chain in Ecosystem
The sun is the source of energy, which is the initial energy source. This is used by the
producers or plants to create their own food, through photosynthesis and grow.
Next in this chain is another organism, which is the consumer that eats this food,
taking up that energy. The primary consumers are the organisms that consume the
primary producers. In a terrestrial ecosystem, it could be a herbivore like a cow or a
goat or it could even be a man. When a goat is consumed by man, he becomes the
secondary consumer.

Producer—– Primary Consumer —– Secondary or territory consumer

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Food web
A food web consists of all the food chains in a single ecosystem. Each living thing in
an ecosystem is part of multiple food chains. ... All of the interconnected and
overlapping food chains in an ecosystem make up a food web. Trophic Levels.
Organisms in food webs are grouped into categories called trophic levels.

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Energy flow in Ecosystem
Energy has been defined as the capacity to do work. Energy exists in two forms
potential and kinetic.
Potential energy is the energy at rest {i.e., stored energy) capable of performing
work. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion (free energy). It results in work
performance at the expense of potential energy. Conversion of potential energy into
kinetic energy involves the imparting of motion.
The source of energy required by all living organisms is the chemical energy of their
food. The chemical energy is obtained by the conversion of the radiant energy of
sun.
The radiant energy is in the form of electromagnetic waves which are released from
the sun during the transmutation of hydrogen to helium. The chemical energy stored
in the food of living organisms is converted into potential energy by the
arrangement of the constituent atoms of food in a particular manner. In any
ecosystem there should be unidirectional flow of energy.
Living organisms can use energy in two forms radiant and fixed energy. Radiant
energy is in the form of electromagnetic waves, such as light. Fixed energy is
potential chemical energy bound in various organic substances which can be broken
down in order to release their energy content.
Organisms that can fix radiant energy utilizing inorganic substances to produce
organic molecules are called autotrophs. Organisms that cannot obtain energy from
abiotic source but depend on energy-rich organic molecules synthesized by
autotrophs are called heterotrophs. Those which obtain energy from living
organisms are called consumers and those which obtain energy from dead
organisms are called decomposers

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When the light energy falls on the green surfaces of plants, a part of it is transformed
into chemical energy which is stored in various organic products in the plants. When
the herbivores consume plants as food and convert chemical energy accumulated in
plant products into kinetic energy, degradation of energy will occur through its
conversion into heat. When herbivores are consumed by carnivores of the first order
(secondary consumers) further degradation will occur. Similarly, when primary
carnivores are consumed by top carnivores, again energy will be degraded.
Trophic level:
The producers and consumers in ecosystem can be arranged into several feeding
groups, each known as trophic level (feeding level). In any ecosystem, producers
represent the first trophic level, herbivores present the second trophic level, primary
carnivores represent the third trophic level and top carnivores represent the last
level.
Ecosystem Productivity
Productivity refers to the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem, usually
expressed in units of mass per volume (unit surface) per unit of time, such as grams
per square meter per day (g m−2 d−1).
Primary productivity:
It is defined as the rate of which radiant energy is stored by the producers, most of
which are photosynthetic, and to a much lesser extent the chemosynthetic
microorganisms.
Secondary productivity
It is the rate of energy storage at consumer‘s levels-herbivores, carnivores and
decomposers. Consumers tend to utilize already produced food materials in their
respiration and also converts the food matter to different tissues by an overall
process.

Biogeochemical Cycle
The natural pathway through which essential elements in living matters undergoes
circulation is known as a biogeochemical cycle. The natural elements in the
biogeochemical cycles flow from abiotic (non-living) components to biotic (living)
components.
Biogeochemical, as a term, refers to three aspects in each cycle. Those aspects are
biological, geological and chemical.
Importance of Biogeochemical Cycle
Biogeochemical cycles help in the regulation of natural elements that are necessary
for living beings, by channelling through physical and biological phenomenon. It
acts as a recycling procedure in nature.

Types of Biogeochemical Cycles

Water cycle
Water cycle relates to the movement through various stages such as –
Evaporation
Condensation
Precipitation

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Infiltration
Run-off
Water is indispensable for life‘s existence, and ocean plays a vital role in the cycle.
Atmospheric water vapour causes precipitation for which evaporation from water
surface is critical. Water cycle also plays a critical role in weather, pressure and
temperature in environment.

Carbon cycle
Carbon moves from atmosphere to living organisms and back again to the
atmosphere. Plants are taken as the starting point of carbon cycle. The main stages in
carbon cycle are – photosynthesis, respiration, combustion and decomposition.
Oxygen cycle
Oxygen cycle is the movement of oxygen through atmosphere, biosphere and
lithosphere. It is released through the process of photolysis. The main steps of the
cycle include photosynthesis and respiration and further repetition.
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is essential for life form owing to its presence in nucleic acids and proteins.
Plants absorb nitrogen through microbial transformations. The main steps involved
in the cycle –
Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen assimilation
Ammonification
Nitrification
De-nitrification
Sulphur cycle
Sulphur, which is present mainly as a component of amino acid, may be found in
soil as proteins. It is eventually absorbed by plants as sulphates, through a host of
microbial transformations.
The sulphur proteins convert into hydrogen sulphide (H2S) which is further broken
down into sulphur in reaction with oxygen. With bacterial action, it becomes
sulphate to be absorbed by plants.
Phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus mainly passes through hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. It is
essential for both animal and plant growth. However, it gradually depletes in soil. In
comparison to the carbon cycle, the phosphorus cycle does not pass through the
atmosphere.

Ecological succession
Ecological succession is a sequence of changes that occur in an ecological system
over time.‖ The gradual and progressive growth of a species in any given area with
respect to its changing surroundings is called ecological succession. It is an
anticipated change that beholds the biotic components being an inevitable part of
them in the environment.

Ecological succession aims at reaching the equilibrium in the ecological system. This
is achieved by a community called the climax community. To attain this point of

21
equilibrium constant change (increase or decrease) in the number of species is
observed.
The area in which the order of communities undergoes a specific change is called
sere. Each changing community is therefore called a seral community. All
communities around us have undergone ecological succession ever since their
existence was identified. Evolution thus is a simultaneously occurring process along
with ecological succession. Also, the initiation of life on earth can be considered to
be a result of this succession process.
Any area where life started from scratch by succession is termed to have been gone
under a process called primary succession. If on the other hand, if life begins at a
place that has lost all its existing life forms then the process is called secondary
succession.
Primary succession is a gradual and low process because in this case, life starts from
nothing. Secondary succession is a faster process because life has already been
supported in these conditions earlier.
1. Primary Succession
Primary succession is the succession that begins in lifeless areas such as the regions
devoid of soil or barren lands where the soil is unable to sustain life. When the
planet was first formed there was no soil on earth. The earth was only made up of
rocks. These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded to form soil.
This is a process called erosion. The soil then becomes the foundation of plant life.
These plants help in the persistence of different animals and progress from primary
succession to the climax community. If the primary ecosystem is destroyed,
secondary succession takes place.
2. Secondary Succession
Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets wiped out. For e.g., a
climax community gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the devastation.
This is known as secondary ecological succession. Small plants emerge first,
followed by larger plants. The tall trees block the sunlight and change the structure
of the organisms below the canopy. Finally, the climax community comes into
action.
3. Cyclic Succession
The change in the structure of an ecological system on a cyclic basis is called cyclic
succession. There are some plants that stay dormant for most of the year but emerge
all at once. This can cause structural variations in the ecosystem.
4. Seral Community
―A seral community is a transitional stage of ecological succession progressing in the
direction of the climax community.‖ A seral community is substituted by the
succeeding community. It consists of simple food webs and food chains. It exhibits a
very low degree of diversity. The individuals are less in number and the nutrients
are also less.

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Causes of Ecological Succession
Some important causes may be defined as below:
Climatic Causes: these can be rainfall, temperature variations, humidity, gas
composition, etc.
Biotic Causes: the organisms in a community compete to thrive for existence. Some
of them are lost in the process while some new ones are incorporated.
External Causes: soil conditions are affected by the process of migration, invasion,
and competition amongst various species.

Case study of Ecosystem

Forest ecosystem
A forest ecosystem is a functional unit or a system which comprises of soil, trees,
insects, animals, birds, and man as its interacting units. A forest is a large and
complex ecosystem and hence has greater species diversity. Also, it is much more
stable and resistant to the detrimental changes as compared to the small ecosystems
such as wetlands and grasslands. A forest ecosystem, similar to any other ecosystem,
also comprises of abiotic and biotic components. Abiotic components refer to
inorganic materials like air, water, and soil. Biotic components include producers,
consumers, and decomposers. These components interact with each other in an
ecosystem and thus, this interaction among them makes it self-sustainable.
Structural Features of the Forest Ecosystem
The two main structural features of a forest ecosystem are:
Species composition: It refers to the identification and enumeration of the plant and
animal species of a forest ecosystem.
Stratification: It refers to the vertical distribution of different species which occupy
different levels in the forest ecosystem. Every organism occupies a place in an
ecosystem on the basis of source of nutrition. For example, in a forest ecosystem,
trees occupy the top level, shrubs occupy the second and the herbs and grasses
occupy the bottom level. Components of a Forest Ecosystem
The function of a forest ecosystem are as follows:
1. Productivity
The basic requirement for any ecosystem to function and sustain is the constant
input of solar energy. Plants are also the producers in a forest ecosystem.
There are two types of productivity in a forest ecosystem, primary and secondary.
Primary productivity means the rate of capture of solar energy or biomass
production per unit area over a period of time by the plants during photosynthesis.
It is further divided into Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) and Net Primary
Productivity (NPP). GPP of an ecosystem is the rate of capture of solar energy or the
total production of biomass. However, plants also use a significant amount of GPP in
respiration. Thus, NPP is the amount of biomass left after the utilization by plants or
the producers. We can hence say that NPP is the amount which is available for the

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consumption to herbivores and decomposers. Secondary productivity means the rate
of absorption of food energy by the consumers.
2. Decomposition
Decomposition is an extremely oxygen-requiring process. In the process of
decomposition, decomposers convert the complex organic compounds of detritus
into inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, water and nutrients.
Detritus is the remains of the dead plant such as leaves, bark, flowers and also the
dead remains of the animals including their faecal matter. The steps involved in the
process of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and
mineralization. In the process of fragmentation, detritivores break down the detritus
into smaller particles. In the process of leaching, water-soluble inorganic nutrients
descend down into the soil and settle as unavailable salts.
Under the process of catabolism, bacterial and fungal enzymes reduce detritus into
simpler inorganic substances. Humification and mineralization processes take place
during the decomposition of soil and not detritus.
The process of humification leads to the accumulation of humus which undergoes
decomposition at a very slow rate. In the process of mineralization, the humus gets
further degraded by microbes and inorganic nutrients are released.
3. Energy flow
Energy flows in a single direction. Firstly, plants capture solar energy and then,
transfer the food to decomposers. Organisms of different trophic levels are
connected to each other for food or energy relationship and thus form a food chain.
Energy Pyramid is always upright because energy flows from one trophic level to
the next trophic level and in this process, some energy is always lost as heat at each
step.
4. Nutrient Cycling
Nutrient cycling refers to the storage and movement of nutrient elements through
the various components of the ecosystem. There are two types of Nutrient cycling,
gaseous and sedimentary. For Gaseous cycle (i.e. nitrogen, carbon), atmosphere or
hydrosphere is the reservoir whereas for the sedimentary cycle (i.e. phosphorus)
Earth‘s crust is the reservoir.
Advantage of Forest Ecosystem
Forest ecosystem support life on earth. It maintains quality of water and air, the
basic essentials of existence of life. Stability in soil is possible by trees, enables the
land based plants and animals to live. From their biodiversity grows wealth in the
form of food, medicines, essential for human health. It acts as Carbon sinks
absorbing Carbon dioxide and keeps global warning at body. Forests influence
climate and educe extremes of temperature. They conserve soil and regulate
moisture and stream flow. It prevents soil erosion and floods. Forests also supply
raw materials to so many industries like pulp-paper, news print, saw milling,
matches, and medicinal herbs. It is the source of wood for use in houses construction
and fuel wood. Forests help in main export items like teak, paper, paper boards,

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natural resins, seeds obtained from forests. Forests also source of revenue to the
Government in the form of royalty, from leases of forest products. It also provides
employment to a large many people.
Grass Land Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and
other herbaceous (non-woody) plants. It is also called transitional landscape because
grassland ecosystems are dominated by the grass with few or no trees in the area
where there is not enough for a forest and too much of a forest.
Components of Grassland Ecosystem
The components of the Grassland Ecosystem are discussed below:
1. Abiotic Components: These are non-living thing components consist of carbon,
hydrogen, sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorous etc.

2. Biotic Components: These are living components and its sub-components are
discussed below-

(I) Producers: The primary producers of food are the grasses such as Aristida,
Cynodon, Digitaria, Desmodium, Setaria etc. If herbs and shrubs are present, they
also contribute to the primary production of food.
(II) Consumers: The consumers in a grassland ecosystem are of three levels.

(a) Primary consumers: These feed directly from the grasses (grazing) and include
herbivores such as Cows, Buffaloes, Goats, Rabbits, Mouse etc. and also insects,
termites, centipede, millipedes etc.

(b) Secondary consumers: These consumers are the carnivorous animals such as
snakes, lizard, jackal, foxes, frogs etc. which feed on the primary consumers.

(c) Tertiary consumers: Hawk, Eagles and vultures constitute the tertiary consumer
in the grassland ecosystem which preys upon the secondary and primary consumer.

(III) Decomposers: The organic matter of the grassland is decomposed by the

microbes like actinomycetes, fungi (Mucor, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Penincillium, and
Cladosporium), aerobic and anaerobic soil bacteria etc. They release the minerals
back into the soil thus making the soil fertile.
Functions of the Grassland Ecosystem
The primary function of an ecosystem is productivity. The producers fix the solar
energy and produce the complex organic matter with the help of minerals. It
provides forage for livestock, protection and conservation of soil and water
resources, furnishing a habitat for wildlife, both flora and fauna and (contribution to
the attractiveness of the landscape. The functional aspects of the Grassland can be
studied by two means:

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1. Food Chain in an ecosystem: There is an important feature of the ecosystem that
one level of an organism serves as food for another level of the organism. A series is
formed which is known as Food Chain. In an ecosystem, the food chain does not
follow the linear pattern, but an organism may feed upon more than one organism in
the same food chain or upon organisms of different food chains. Thus interconnected
food chain system is formed known as a food web.
2. Nutrient cycle in an ecosystem: For any ecosystem to be successful, it is important
that the constituent materials move in a cyclic manner. The producers (green plant)
takes up the mineral elements from the soil and air, convert them into organic form
and after passing through the different trophic levels, are again returned to the soil
and air.

Aquatic ecosystem
The aquatic ecosystem definition states it is a water-based environment, wherein,
living organisms interact with both physical and chemical features of the
environment. These living creatures whose food, shelter, reproduction and other
essential activities depend in a water-based environment are known as aquatic
organisms.
Some of the most common aquatic organisms are – nekton, plankton and benthos.
Additionally, lakes, oceans, ponds, rivers, swamps, coral reefs, wetlands, etc. are a
few popular aquatic ecosystem examples.

Marine Water Ecosystem

This particular ecosystem is the largest aquatic ecosystem and covers over 70% of the
earth‘s total surface. This ecosystem is relatively more concentrated in terms of
salinity.
Nonetheless, the body of aquatic organisms is well-adjusted to saline water, and
they may find it challenging to survive in freshwater. These following categories
comprise the marine ecosystem.
Ocean Ecosystem
Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean and the Southern Ocean
are the five major oceans on earth. Notably, the Pacific Ocean is the largest and
deepest of these five, while Atlantic is the second largest in terms of size. Also, the
Southern Ocean harbors the largest population of Krill among them.
Other than that, the oceans serve as home to aquatic organisms like – turtles,
crustaceans, plankton, corals, shellfish, blue whale, shark, tube worms, reptiles, etc..

Estuaries
Typically, it is the meeting point of a sea and rivers, which makes the water slightly
more saline when compared to freshwater and more diluted when compared to the
marine ecosystem.

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Biologically, estuaries are considered to be productive as it stimulate primary
production and trap plant nutrients. Some examples of estuaries include – tidal
marshes, river mouth, and coastal bay.

Freshwater Ecosystem
This aquatic ecosystem covers less than 1% of the earth‘s surface and is broadly
divided into – wetlands, lentic and lotic ecosystems.
Swamps and Wetlands
These are marshy areas which are often covered in water and harbour a variety of
flora and fauna. Wetlands are known to be a home of water lilies, marshes, swamps,
Northern Pikes, dragonflies, Green Heron, etc.
Lentic Ecosystems
It includes standing water bodies like ponds and lakes and is a home to both floating
and rooted plants, algae and invertebrates. Salamander, frogs, water snakes and
alligators are commonly found in lentic ecosystems.
Lotic Ecosystems
These aquatic ecosystems are characterised by rapid flowing water moving in one
direction. They are a hub of a wide variety of insects like beetles, mayflies and
stoneflies, among others. Also, it harbours species like river dolphins, beavers, otters,
eel, minnow and trout.
Functions of Aquatic Ecosystem
Facilitates recycling of nutrients
Helps to purify water
Recharges groundwater
Is a habitat for aquatic flora and flora
Mitigates flood

Desert Ecosystem
Earth is the only planet where life is possible and comprises of an atmosphere,
ecosystem and various land formations that are necessary for the survival. Earth is
70% covered by water and remaining part is covered by land. 1/5th of the earth‘s
land is covered with deserts. Every continent on this earth has a desert and every
desert has its own ecosystem which is known as Desert ecosystem.
When we hear the word ‗desert‘ the very first thing that strikes our minds is a big
barren, abandoned and dry land without plants covered with sand. A desert can be
hot and cold both.
Desert is one of the most dried land areas on this planet that receives very little
precipitation annually. It is a land with very less rainfall throughout the year
measured less than 50 cm a year.
Structure and Function:
The different components of a desert ecosystem are:
(A) Abiotic Component

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The abiotic component includes the nutrients present in the soil and the aerial
environment. The characteristic feature of the abiotic component is lack of or-ganic
matter in the soil and scarcity of water.
(B) Biotic Component
The various biotic components representing three functional groups are:
(a) Producer organisms
The producers are mainly shrubs or bushes, some grasses and a few trees.
Surprisingly, there are many species of plants that survive in the desert. Most of
them are succulents, which mean they store water. Others have seeds that lay
dormant until a rain awakens them. Regardless, these plants find a way to get water
and protect themselves from the heat.
(b) Consumers
These include animals such as insects and reptiles. Besides them, some rodents, birds
and some mammalian vertebrates are also found. Desert mammals, Desert Birds,
Desert Reptiles, Desert Insects and Arachnids.
(c) Decomposers
Due to poor vegetation the amount of dead organic matter is very less. As a result
the decomposers are very few. The common decomposers are some bacte-ria and
fungi, most of which are thermophile.

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 UNIT 3: NATURAL RESOURCES: RENEWABLE AND NON-
RENEWABLE RESOURCES
Natural resources are naturally occurring materials that are useful to man or could
be useful under conceivable technological, economic or social circumstances or
supplies drawn from the earth, supplies such as food, building and clothing
materials, fertilizers, metals, water and geothermal power.
Based on the availability are two types of natural resources:
Renewable: resources that are available in infinite quantity and can be used
repeatedly are called renewable resources. Example: Forest, wind, water, etc.
Non-Renewable: resources that are limited in abundance due to their non-
renewable nature and whose availability may run out in the future are called non-
renewable resources. Examples include fossil fuels, minerals, etc.
A renewable resource is one that can be used repeatedly and does not run out
because it is naturally replaced. Examples of renewable resources include solar,
wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass energy.
Energy resources
Energy resources are all forms of fuels used in the modern world, either for heating,
generation of electrical energy, or for other forms of energy conversion processes.
Energy resources can be roughly classified in three categories: renewable, fossil, and
nuclear.
Fossil energy resources are obtained from dead plant and animal deposits created
over the long history of the planet. These resources are vast, but limited, and are not
renewable. Until recently fossil fuels have provided for the majority of humanity‘s
energy demands. These resources mainly include coal, oil, and natural gas.
Energy crises in India
The energy crisis is the concern that the world‘s demands on the limited natural
resources that are used to power industrial society are diminishing as the demand
rises. These natural resources are in limited supply. While they do occur naturally, it
can take hundreds of thousands of years to replenish the stores.
Governments and concerned individuals are working together to make the use of
renewable resources a priority and to lessen the irresponsible use of natural supplies
through increased conservation.
Causes
1. Overconsumption
The energy crisis is a result of many different strains on our natural resources, not
just one. There is a strain on fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and coal due to
overconsumption – which then, in turn, can put a strain on our water and oxygen
resources by causing pollution.

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2. Overpopulation
Another cause of the crisis has been a steady increase in the world‘s population and
its demands for fuel and products. No matter what type of food or products you
choose to use – from fair trade and organic to those made from petroleum products
in a sweatshop – not one of them is made or transported without a significant drain
on our energy resources.
3. Poor Infrastructure
Aging infrastructure of power generating equipment is yet another reason for
energy shortage. Most of the energy-producing firms keep on using outdated
equipment that restricts the production of energy. It is the responsibility of utilities
to keep on upgrading the infrastructure and set a high standard of performance.
4. Unexplored Renewable Energy Options
Renewable energy still remains unused in most of the countries. Most of the energy
comes from non-renewable sources like coal. It, therefore, remains the top choice to
produce energy.
Unless we give renewable energy a serious thought, the problem of energy crisis
cannot be solved. Renewable energy sources can reduce our dependence on fossil
fuels and also helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
5. Delay in Commissioning of Power Plants
In a few countries, there is a significant delay in the commissioning of new power
plants that can fill the gap between demand and supply of energy. The result is that
old plants come under huge stress to meet the daily demand for power. When
supply doesn‘t match demand, it results in load-shedding and breakdown.
6. Wastage of Energy
In most parts of the world, people do not realize the importance of conserving
energy. It is only limited to books, the internet, newspaper ads, lip service, and
seminars. Unless we give it a serious thought, things are not going to change
anytime sooner.

Land resources- Land degradation

The term ―land resources‖ encompasses the physical, biotic, environmental,
infrastructural and socio-economic components of a natural land unit, including
surface and near-surface freshwater resources important for management. The
interaction between the components of land resources is vital for determining the
productivity and sustainability of agro-ecosystems.
Land use change is a process by which human activities transform the natural
landscape, referring to how land has been used, usually emphasizing the functional
role of land for economic activities. Land use changes are often nonlinear and might
trigger feedbacks to the system, stress living conditions, and threaten people with
vulnerability.

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Land degradation- Land degradation is a process in which the value of the
biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes
acting upon the land. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land
perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Natural hazards are excluded as a cause;
however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush
fires.

Causes of land degradation-

1. Deforestation:
Forests play an important role in maintaining fertility of soil by shedding their
leaves which contain many nutrients. Forests are also helpful in binding up of soil
particles with the help of roots of vegetation. Therefore, cutting о forests will affect
the soil adversely.

2. Excessive Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides:

Fertilizers are indispensable for increasing food production but their excessive use
has occasioned much concern as a possible environmental threat. Excessive use of
fertilizers is causing an imbalance in the quantity of certain nutrients in the soil. This
imbalance adversely affects the vegetation.
3. Overgrazing:
Increase in livestock population results in overexploitation of pastures. Due to this,
grass and other types of vegetation are unable to survive and grow in the area, and
lack of vegetation cover leads to soil erosion. Millions of people in Africa and Asia
raise animals on pastures and rangelands that have low carrying capacity because of
poor quality or unreliable rainfall Pastoralists and their rangelands are threatened by
overgrazing.
4. Salination:
Increase in the concentration of soluble salts in the soil is called salination. India has
about six million hectares of saline land.

5. Water-logging:
Excessive irrigation and improper drainage facility in the fields cause rise in the
ground water level. This ground water mixes with surface water used for irrigation
and creates a situation called water-logging. Ground water brings the salts of soil in
dissolved state up to the surface where they form a layer or sheet of salt after
evaporation. The term salinity is used for such a situation.
6. Desertification:
Desertification is a widespread process of land degradation in arid, semi- arid, and
dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations
and human activities.
7. Soil erosion:
Accelerated soil erosion by water and wind is the major land degradation process
and this is a consequence of changed relationship between environmental factors

31
which occur as a result of human interventions. Adverse changes in physical,
chemical or biological characteristics of the soil result in reduced fertility and soil
erosion.
8. Wasteland:
Wastelands are the lands which are economically unproductive, ecologically
unsuitable and subject to environmental deterioration.
9. Landslides:
The sudden movement of the soil and the weathered rock material down the slope
due to the force of gravity is called a landslide. Lad-slides are common in
mountainous regions especially those which are situated along the river banks or
near the coastline.
Control measures of land degradation
1. Afforestation and proper management of grazing land.
2. Control on mining activities.
3. Sheltering belts are planted for plants.
4. Law and policies
5. Adopt soil conservation method

Deforestation
Deforestation refers to the decrease in forest areas across the world that are lost for
other uses such as agricultural croplands, urbanization, or mining activities.
Deforestation causes can either be direct or indirect.
Among direct causes are:
Natural causes as hurricanes, fires, parasites and floods
Human activities as agricultural expansion, cattle breeding, timber extraction,
mining, oil extraction, dam construction and infrastructure development.
Among indirect causes are:
Insufficient political actions and governance failure as inadequate land tenure
system, corruption, wrong public administration investments
Political and socio-economic causes as population growth, military conflicts and
climatic changes
1. Cultivations and livestock farming
We should consider, infact, that with regards to the substitution of forest areas with
cultivations and livestock farms, the impact is much higher because after the
extraction of the most precious trees which are destined for timber
commercialization, forests are set on fire causing a great impact on local animals and
plants. The most disastrous year for the Amazon forest has been 1991 when over
50,000 fires where registered by aerial views or satellite images.
2. Timber extraction
Centuries-old trees are cut down to make timber or cellulose for the furniture or
paper industry. Any system employed for wood cutting causes serious damage to
the ecosystem, and these damages are amplified by construction of roads required

32
for vehicles and to trasport chopped timber to its destination. For this reason, also
many other economically unattractive trees which have an important biological and
ecological value are are cut down.
3. Firewood collection
This activity is undertaken especially by native populations, which due to recent
population growth, must provide energy sources for their survival. This
phenomenon adds to large-scale industrial timber exploitation.
4. Road Construction
Besides the construction of roads to transport timber, also dam construction and
industrial exploitation of mines contribute to massive deforestation.
5. Mining activates Mining is one of the main causes of deforestation.The
environmental impact of mining includes soil erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of
biodiversity, and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals
from mining processes.
6. Urbanization
7. Industrialization
8. Construction of dams and bridges
9. Human Population growth

Construction of Dams
Main Purposes of Dams
1. Irrigation
The primary and main purpose of constructing a dam is to store water and use it for
irrigation. The major irrigation projects, which are dependent on the dam, often help
prevent the mitigation of rural people to the cities, while giving them a higher
standard of living in their native areas.
2. Hydropower Generation
Hydropower is considered the largest renewable energy source of electricity and
clean because it does not contribute to global warming, air pollution, acid rain, or
ozone depletion. Hydropower generated by the dams is the most plentiful and most
efficient renewable energy resource, contributing to 24% of all renewable electric
energy produced all over the world.
3. Flood Prevention
Flood control is a significant purpose for many of the existing dams and continues as
the main purpose for some of the major dams of the world currently under
construction. The dams are used to effectively regulate the level of water flowing in
the river by temporarily storing the flood volume and releasing it later. Every dam
has an integrated water management plan for regulating the storage and
discharge of water into the river basin without damage. This plan helps to
impound floodwaters and then either release them under control to the river
below the dam or store or divert the water for other uses

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4. Water Supply
Dams play an important role in the water supply for domestic and industrial use.
Dams store the water and supply it during the shortage of times.
5. Inland Navigation
Dams just not only serve as an irrigational lifeline, but also provide inland
navigation throughout the heartland of the nation. The advantages of inland
navigation, however, when compared with highway and rail are the large load-
carrying capacity of each barge, the ability to handle cargo with large-dimensions
and fuel savings
6. Recreation
Dams provide prime recreational facilities such as boating, skiing, camping, picnic
areas, and boat launch facilities are all supported by dams. The large water stored
due to the construction of dams facilitates the growth of flora and fauna in the region
due to which many recreational activities such as natural history, bird watching,
landscape painting, walking, and hiking are on the rise.

Water resources
Water is a vital elixir for all living beings. Although it is a renewable resource,
scarcity of quality water is felt in many parts of the world. We need water to grow
food, keep clean, generate electricity, control fire, and last but not the least, we need
it to stay alive.

World Ocean water covers about 75 percent of the surface of the earth. Therefore, the
earth is called the water planet. Ocean water is saline and not fit for human
consumption. Fresh water is just about 2.7 percent of the total water. Global
warming and perpetuating water pollution have made a considerable part of
available freshwater unfit for human consumption.

Use of Water Resources

Water resources are used for agricultural, industrial, domestic, recreational, and
environmental activities. Majority of the uses require fresh water.
However, about 97.5 percent of water found on the earth is salt water and only 2.5
percent is fresh water. A little over two-thirds of the available fresh water is frozen in
glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining freshwater is found mainly as
groundwater and a negligible portion of it is present on the ground or in the air.

Following is a brief account of how water is used in different sectors.

Agricultural Use
Agriculture accounts for 69 percent of all water consumption basically in agricultural
economies like India. Agriculture, therefore, is the largest consumer of the Earth‘s
available freshwater.

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By 2050, the global water demand of agriculture is estimated to increase by a further
19% due to irrigational needs. Expanding irrigation needs are likely to put undue
pressure on water storage. It is still inconclusive whether further expansion of
irrigation, as well as additional water withdrawals from rivers and groundwater,
will be possible in future.
Industrial Use
Water is the lifeblood of the industry. It is used as a raw material coolant, a solvent, a
transport agent, and as a source of energy. Manufacturing industries account for a
considerable share in the total industrial water consumption. Besides, paper and
allied products, chemicals and primary metals are major industrial users of water.
Worldwide, the industry accounts for 19 percent of total consumption. In
industrialized countries, however, industries use more than half of the water
available for human use.
Domestic Use
It includes drinking, cleaning, personal hygiene, garden care, cooking, washing of
clothes, dishes, vehicles, etc. Since the end of World War II there has been a trend of
people moving out of the countryside to the ever-expanding cities. This trend has
important implications on our water resources.
Government and communities have had to start building large water-supply
systems to deliver water to new populations and industries. Of all water
consumption in the world, domestic use accounts for about 12 percent.
Use for Hydropower Generation
Electricity produced from water is hydropower. Hydropower is the leading
renewable source of electricity in the world. It accounts for about 16 percent of total
electricity generation globally. There are many opportunities for hydropower
development throughout the world.
Use for Navigation and Recreation
Navigable waterways are defined as watercourses that have been or may be used for
transport of interstate or foreign commerce. Agricultural and commercial goods are
moved on water on a large scale in a number of regions in the world.
Water is also used for recreational purposes such as boating, swimming, and
sporting activities. These uses affect the quality of water and pollute it. Highest
priority should be given to public health and drinking water quality while
permitting such activities in reservoirs, lakes, and rivers.

Floods & Draughts

Floods and droughts are two well-known natural hazards in the world. The former
is due to excess in water flow and the latter is due to scarcity of water.
The amount of rainfall received by an area varies from one place to another
depending on the location of the place. In some places it rains almost throughout the
year whereas in other places it might rain for only few days. India records most of its
rainfall in the monsoon season.

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Heavy rains lead to rise in the water level of rivers, seas, and oceans. Water gets
accumulated in the coastal areas, which results in floods. Floods bring in extensive
damage to crops, domestic animals, property and human life. During floods, many
animals get carried away by the force of water and eventually die.
On the other hand, droughts set in when a particular region goes without rain for a
long period of time. In the meantime, the soil will continuously lose groundwater by
the process of evaporation and transpiration. Since this water is not brought back to
earth in the form of rains, the soil becomes very dry.
The level of water in the ponds and rivers goes down and in some cases water
bodies get dried up completely. Ground water becomes scarce and this leads to
droughts. In drought conditions, it is very difficult to get food and fodder for the
survival. Life gets difficult and many animals perish in such conditions.
Frequent floods and droughts are mostly due to climate change and global warming.
Various environmental organizations world over are of the view that climate change
is a long-term change in weather patterns, either in average weather conditions or in
the distribution of extreme weather events

Causes of flood
Massive Rainfall
Drainage systems and the effective infrastructure design aid during heavy rains.
They help the drainage of excess water into reservoirs in an easy way. But in cases of
heavy rainfall, the systems stop working. Thus flood is caused.
Overflowing of the Rivers
The people living along the river always have a risk of life from the overflowing of
the Rivers. To prevent such a situation, a string of dams are built. However, if these
dams are not managed properly, they may cause flooding and huge damage.
Collapsed Dams
In the event of huge rainfall, the dams built begin to collapse. Thus, causing the
flood situation to become even critical for the people living around.
Snowmelt
At the time of the high melting of snow due to heavy precipitation and other factors,
the situation of flooding arises. Adopting sustainable measures for heavy
precipitation can help in dealing with the flooding situation.
Snowmelt
At the time of the high melting of snow due to heavy precipitation and other factors,
the situation of flooding arises. Adopting sustainable measures for heavy
precipitation can help in dealing with the flooding situation.
Deforestation
The cutting of trees in a reckless manner i.e. deforestation is also a major cause of
man-made flooding. Trees prevent soil erosion and also the loss of crops. The
vegetation is also enriched as a result of more and more trees. This also blocks the
massive flow of rain, thus preventing flooding.

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Climate change
The climatic changes caused due to human practices also add to the risk of flooding.
Human beings cut trees in a large number, thus affecting the process of
photosynthesis. Thus increased level of carbon-di-oxide in the atmosphere cause
changes in climate posing threats of natural disasters like floods etc.
Emission of Greenhouse Gases
The burning of fossil fuels, the industrial influences, the pollution all is depleting the
level of the ozone layer and increasing the level of greenhouse gases, becoming a
major cause of man-made flooding.

Energy Resources
Our energy resources include petroleum and petroleum products, coal, uranium
(nuclear reactions), and geothermal resources. At present, about 90 percent of the
energy needs of the United States are supplied by coal, oil, and natural gas.
Petroleum is important also in the production of plastics, asphalt, and thousands of
related products.

Fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are oil, natural gas, and coal. The general term petroleum
includes both natural gas and crude oil. Crude oil is a liquid containing
hydrocarbons (molecules made from only hydrogen and carbon) that forms in
organic‐ or fossil‐rich sediments and rocks. The hydrogen and carbon in the oil
comes from the breakdown of the organic material over time. Natural gas is a gas
that contains hydrocarbons and that usually occurs with crude oil.

Petroleum forms in marine sedimentary rocks that contain abundant organic

remains from microscopic organisms such as algae. Continental shelves contain
basins that capture thick accumulations of organic debris. This material lithifies into
a source rock that is buried by overlying sediments, and the resulting increased
pressure and temperature conditions convert the organic material into
hydrocarbons.

In response to the confining pressure, petroleum moves outward and upward along
zones of increased permeability into a reservoir rock. Reservoir rock, such as
sandstone or limestone, has the high porosity and permeability necessary to hold
large accumulations of petroleum. The petroleum migrates into a trap (either
structural or stratigraphic) in the reservoir rock. Structural traps include faults
between permeable and impermeable rocks, thrust faults, and folds such as
anticlines. For example, petroleum will collect in a porous limestone reef below the
contact with an overlying, impermeable unit such as shale, forming a pocket. A salt
dome results when a bed of rock salt is under pressure; the salt extends upward
plastically through a sedimentary sequence, disrupting the sediments and creating
open spaces that trap petroleum. Stratigraphic traps are naturally occurring changes

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in a sedimentary sequence that trap migrating oil and gas, such as a porous reef
structure in a limestone unit. A sandstone unit surrounded by shale is another
stratigraphic trap. The occurrence of oil pools in a number of traps in one area is
called an oil field.

Crude oil and gas are recovered from oil fields through a series of drilled wells. The
petroleum may rise to the surface through the well as a result of its high confining
pressure, or it may need to be pumped. Also, water or steam can be pumped into the
oil pool from the surface to increase the pressure on the oil and its viscosity. The oil
is shipped to a refinery and separated into natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, other oils,
and asphalt. A huge variety of petrochemicals produced from petroleum are used in
nearly every manufactured product we depend on today, including plastics and
synthetic rubber. As the more easily discovered oil fields are pumped dry, oil
companies have moved offshore to undertake risky and high‐cost exploration
drilling along continental shelves across the world.

With only about 5 percent of the world's population, the United States annually
consumes over a quarter of the world's total oil production. At present, the United
States has only a twenty‐five‐year supply of oil remaining and imports nearly half of
the oil it uses. Similarly, natural gas reserves in the United States are expected to be
depleted within thirty‐five years. Future sources for natural gas will include gas
trapped in coal beds.

Oil sands (tar sands) are sandstone deposits that have been cemented with tar or
asphalt (blackish, solidified residues from petroleum). Famous deposits include
those of the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, California, and the Athabasca Oil Sand
in Alberta, Canada. Oil sands are strip‐mined and processed. Venezuela also has
large reserves of oil sand. Heavy crude is a dense, viscous petroleum that flows so
slowly it is usually left behind in an oil field. Efforts are continuing to extract this
material, including pumping in steam or other solvents to make the crude less
viscous.

Oil shales are organic‐rich shale formations from which oil can be extracted. The
shale formed from muds on the bottom of large shallow lakes. Oil shales tend to be
low‐grade and difficult and costly to mine. New technologies are being used to
explore ways to extract the oil from the rock in place, including heating the rock with
microwaves to separate the oil. The United States has large oil shale resources in
Montana, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming, but at present they are not feasible to
mine. Oil shales will ultimately be exploited when the cost of finding new oil fields
gets too high.

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Coal is a dark‐colored sedimentary rock that contains a high percentage of organic
plant material. Coal is representative of warm, lush, swampy environments and
usually contains abundant plant fossils. Different kinds of coal result from different
degrees of compaction and depth of burial. Peat is unlithified organic material that is
solid enough to be cut into blocks and burned for fuel. Burial and increasing
pressure and temperature convert peat into a soft, brown coal called lignite.
Continued pressure results in subbituminous coal and bituminous coal, which are
soft, black, banded, and sooty. Metamorphism converts these varieties of coal into
anthracite, a hard, black, shiny form of coal that is dust free. Coal beds, or seams,
range in thickness from a few centimeters to nearly 30 meters. Coal is mined using
underground, open‐pit, and strip‐mine methods. The United States has an
impressive coal resource of nearly four trillion tons and consumes or exports about a
billion tons a year. Most of the coal in the United States is produced in Kentucky,
West Virginia, and Pennsylvania.

Coal once provided nearly all of the United States' energy needs. That figure has
dropped to less than 25 percent because of the abundance of petroleum, oil, and
natural gas and the negative environmental effects of burning coal. Coal is an
important ingredient in manufacturing steel. Oil and gas can also be produced from
coal. New, cleaner ways of using coal are being researched as the country's
petroleum reserves are being depleted.

Uranium and geothermal sources. Uranium is used to generate nuclear power. It is

found in the minerals pitchblende and carnotite, which are mined from sandstone
deposits in the western United States and Canada. Lower‐grade uranium also occurs
in organic black shales and phosphate deposits. Nuclear generators are used to
produce electricity. Nuclear power supplies about 8 percent of the United States'
energy needs.

Geothermal sources can also generate electricity but represent less than 1 percent of
the energy consumption in the United States. More geothermal power may be used
in the future, especially if deeper heat sources across the nation can be located and
exploited.

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 UNIT 4: BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
The term biodiversity (from ―biological diversity‖) refers to the variety of life on
Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems, and can encompass the evolutionary,
ecological, and cultural processes that sustain life.
Biodiversity includes not only species we consider rare, threatened, or endangered
but also every living thing—from humans to organisms we know little about, such
as microbes, fungi, and invertebrates.
At the Center for Biodiversity and Conservation, we include humans and human
cultural diversity as a part of biodiversity. We use the term ―biocultural‖ to describe
the dynamic, continually evolving and interconnected nature of people and place,
and the notion that social and biological dimensions are interrelated. This concept
recognizes that human use, knowledge, and beliefs influence, and in turn are
influenced, by the ecological systems of which human communities are a part. This
relationship makes all of biodiversity, including the species, land and seascapes, and
the cultural links to the places where we live—be right where we are or in distant
lands—important to our wellbeing as they all play a role in maintaining a diverse
and healthy planet.

Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is wide-ranging and is normally divided into three types or levels:
1. Genetic Diversity
2. Species Diversity
3. Ecological Diversity
1. Genetic Diversity
All species on Earth are somewhat related through genetic connections. And the
more closer a species is related to another, the more genetic information the two
species will share. These species will also look more similar.
The closest relations of an organism are members of its own species. Members of a
species share genes. Genes are the bits of biochemical information that partly
determine how an organism looks, behaves, and lives.
Moreover, members of a species share intricate mating behaviors. These behaviors
help them to identify each other as potential partners. Virtually every species in an
environment has a similar and closely related species in a neighboring environment
2. Species Diversity
A wide variety of species exists in an environment. And that‘s what is referred to as
species diversity. Species are the standard measure of biological diversity in light of
the fact that they are the basic units of biological classification.
The number of various species in a given ecosystem or environment is described as
Species Richness. The total number of species in the world is about 10 million.
However, only 1.75 million species have been named scientifically to date.

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3. Ecological Diversity
Ecological or ecosystem diversity is the variety of ecosystems in an area. It involves
the complex network of various species present in the ecosystems and the dynamic
interactions between them. An ecosystem is made up of organisms from several
different species living together in an environment and their connections through
the flow of nutrients, energy, and matter.

Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is important to humans for many reasons. Biodiversity is also
considered by many to have intrinsic value—that is, each species has a value and a
right to exist, whether or not it is known to have value to humans.
1. Economic—biodiversity provides humans with raw materials for consumption
and production. Many livelihoods, such as those of farmers, fishers and timber
workers, are dependent on biodiversity.
2. Ecological life support—biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that
supply oxygen, clean air and water, pollination of plants, pest control, wastewater
treatment and many ecosystem services.
3. Recreation—many recreational pursuits rely on our unique biodiversity, such as
bird watching, hiking, camping and fishing. Our tourism industry also depends on
biodiversity.
4. Cultural—the culture is closely connected to biodiversity through the expression
of identity, through spirituality and through aesthetic appreciation. Indigenous
culture has strong connections and obligations to biodiversity arising from spiritual
beliefs about animals and plants.
5. Scientific—biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic ecological data that help
us to understand the natural world and its origins.
Some of the important biodiversity supplies to humankind are:
Food crops, livestock, forestry, and fish
Medication Wild plant species have been used for medicinal purposes since before
the beginning of recorded history. For example, quinine (Used to treat malaria)
comes from the bark of the Amazonian tree Cinchona tree; digitalis from the
Foxglove plant (chronic heart trouble), and morphine from the Poppy plant (pain
relief).
Industry fibers for clothing, wood for shelter and warmth. Biodiversity may be a
source of energy (such as biomass). Other industrial products are oils, lubricants,
perfumes, fragrances, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, latexes, resins, poisons and cork
can all be derived from various plant species. Supplies from animal origin are wool,
silk, fur, leather, lubricants, waxes. Animals may also be used as a mode of
transportation.
Tourism & recreation biodiversity is a source of economical wealth for many areas,
such as many parks and forests, where wild nature and animals are a source of

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beauty and joy for many people. Ecotourism in particular, is a growing outdoor
recreational activity

Biogeographic zones of India

India is a megadiverse country. With only 2.4 per cent of the total land area of the
world, the known biological diversity of India contributes 8 per cent to the known
global biological diversity. In terms of Biogeography, India has been divided into 10
biogeographic zones as shown in the below table:
India has been divided into ten recognizable biogeographic zones as follow

Trans-Himalayan Region
It constitutes 5.6 per cent of the total geographical area, includes the high altitude,
cold and arid mountain areas of Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, North Sikkim, Lahaul
and Spiti areas of Himachal Pradesh. This zone has sparse alpine steppe vegetation
that harbours several endemic species and is a favourable habitat for the biggest
populations of wild sheep and goat in the world and other rare fauna that includes
Snow Leopard and the migratory Blacknecked Crane (Grus nigricollis). The cold dry
desert of this zone represents an extremely fragile ecosystem.
Himalayan Zone
It constitutes 6.4 per cent of the total geographical area includes some of the highest
peaks in the world. The Himalayan zone makes India one of the richest areas in
terms of habitats and species.
The alpine and sub-alpine forests, grassy meadows and moist mixed deciduous
forests provide diverse habitat for endangered species of bovids such as Bharal
(Pseudois nayaur), Ibex (Capra ibex), Markhor (Capra falconeri), Himalayan Tahr
(Hemitragus jemlabicus), and Takin (Budoreas taxicolor). Other rare and

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endangered species restricted to this zone include Hangul (Cervus eldi eldi) and
Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus) .
Indian Desert Zone
Indian Desert Zone, constituting 6.6 per cent of the total geographical area, includes
the Thar and the Kutch deserts and has large expanses of grassland that supports
several endangered species of mammals such as Wolf (Canis lupus), Caracal (Felis
caracal), Desert Cat (Felis libyca) and birds of conservation interest viz., Houbara
Bustard (Chamydotis undulate) and the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps).
Semi Arid Region
Semi-arid Region, constituting 16.6 per cent of the total geographical area, is a
transition zone between the desert and the dense forests of Western Ghats.
Peninsular India has two large regions, which are climatically semi-arid. This semi-
arid region also has several artificial and natural lakes and marshy lands.
The dominant grass and palatable shrub layer in this zone supports the highest
wildlife biomass. The cervid species of Sambar (Cervus unicolor) and Chital (Axis
axis) are restricted to the better wooded hills and moister valley areas respectively.
The Lion (Leo persica), an endangered carnivore species (restricted to a small area in
Gujarat), Caracal (Felis caracal),Jackal (Canis aureus) and Wolf (Canis lupus) are
some of the endangered species that are characteristic of this region.
Western Ghats
Constitutes 4.0 per cent of the total geographical area. It is one of the major tropical
evergreen forest regions in India and represents one of the two biodiversity ‗hot
spots‘. Western Ghats are home to viable populations of most of the vertebrate
species found in peninsular India, besides an endemic faunal element of its own.
Significant species endemic to this region include Nilgiri Langur (Presbytis jobni),
Lion Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus), Grizzled Giant Squirrel (Ratufa macroura),
Malabar Civet (Viverricula megaspila), Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus bylocrius) and
Malabar Grey Hornbill (Ocycerous griseus). The Travancore Tortoise (Indotestudo
forstem) and Cane turtle (Heosemys silvatica) are two endangered taxa restricted to
a small area in central Western Ghats.
Deccan Plateau
Deccan Plateu is India‘s largest biogeographic region making 42 per cent of the total
geographical area. It‘s a semi-arid region that falls in the rain shadow area of the
Western Ghats. This bio-geographic zone of peninsular India is by far the most
extensive zone, covering India‘s finest forests, particularly in the States of Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Odisha.
Majority of the forests are deciduous in nature but there are regions of greater
biological diversity in the hill ranges. The zone comprising of deciduous forests,
thorn forests and degraded scrubland support diverse wildlife species.
Species found in this region are Chital (Axis axis), Sambar (Cervus unicolor), Nilgai
(Boselapbus tragocamelus) and Chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis), Barking deer
(Muntiacus muntjak) and Gaur (Antilope cervicapra), Elephant (Elephas maximus)

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in Bihar-Orissa and Karnataka-Tamil Nadu belts, Wild Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in
a small area at the junction of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra and the
hard ground Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli), now restricted to a single locality in
Madhya Pradesh.
Gangetic Plain
Gangetoc plain constitutes around 10.8 per cent of the total geographical area. The
Gangetic plain is topographically homogenous for hundreds of kilometers. The
characterstic fauna of this region include Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), Elephant
(Elephas maximus), Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli),
Hog-Deer (Axis porcinus) and Hispid Hare (Carprolagus bispidus).
North East Region
North East Region constitutes 5.2 per cent of the total geographical area. This region
represents the transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese
bio-geographical regions as well as being a meeting point of the Himalayan
mountains and peninsular India. The North-East is thus the biogeographical
‗gateway‘ for much of India‘s fauna and flora and also a biodiversity hotspot
(Eastern Himalaya). Many of the species contributing to this biological diversity are
either restricted to the region itself, or to the smaller localized areas of the Khasi
Hills.
Coastal Region
Coastal region constitutes 2.5 per cent of the total geographical area with sandy
beaches, mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs and marine angiosperm pastures make
them the wealth and health zones of India. The coastline from Gujarat to
Sunderbans is estimated to be 5,423 km long. Atotal of 25 islets constitute the
Lakshadweep, which are of coral origin, and have a typical reef lagoon system, rich
in biodiversity. However, the densely populated Lakshadweep islands virtually
have no natural vegetation.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
This constitutes 0.3 per cent of the total geographical area are one of the three
tropical moist evergreen forests zones in India. The islands house an array of flora
and fauna not found elsewhere. These islands are centres of high endemism and
contain some of India‘s finest evergreen forests and support a wide diversity of
corals. In India, endemic island biodiversity is found only in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. Some of the endemic fauna of Andaman & Nicobar Islands include
Narcondam hornbill, South Andaman krait etc.

Biodiversity conservation
Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife
and natural resources such as forests and water. Through the conservation of
biodiversity and the survival of many species and habitats which are threatened due
to human activities can be ensured. There is an urgent need, not only to manage and
conserve the biotic wealth, but also restore the degraded ecosystems.

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Humans have been directly or indirectly dependent on biodiversity for sustenance to
a Considerable extent. However, increasing population pressure and developmental
activities have led to large scale depletion of the natural resources.
Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife
and natural resources such as forests and water. Through the conservation of
biodiversity and the survival of many species and habitats which are threatened due
to human activities can be ensured. There is an urgent need, not only to manage and
conserve the biotic wealth, but also restore the degraded ecosystems.
Types of Conservation: Conservation can broadly be divided into two types: 1.
In-situ conservation 2. Ex-situ conservation
In-situ Conservation:
In-situ conservation is on site conservation or the conservation of genetic resources
in natural populations of plant or animal species, such as forest genetic resources in
natural populations of tree species.

It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural

habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the
species from predators.

It is applied to conservation of agricultural biodiversity in agro forestry by farmers,

especially those using unconventional farming practices. In-situ conservation is
being done by declaring area as protected area.

1. National parks A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the
betterment of the wildlife and where activities like forestry, grazing on cultivation
are not permitted. In these parks, even private ownership rights are not allowed.
2. Wildlife Sanctuaries: A sanctuary is a protected area which is reserved for the
conservation of only animals and human activities like harvesting of timber,
collecting minor forest products and private ownership rights are allowed as long as
they do not interfere with well-being of animals. Boundaries of sanctuaries are not
well defined and controlled biotic interference is permitted, e.g., tourist activity.
3. Biosphere reserve it is a special category of protected areas where human
population also forms a part of the system. They are large protected area of usually
more than 5000 sq.km.
Ex-situ conservation
Ex situ conservation is the technique of conservation of all levels of biological
diversity outside their natural habitats through different techniques like zoo, captive
breeding, aquarium, botanical garden, and gene bank.
Ex situ conservation is the conservation of areas outside their natural habitat.
Botanical gardens, zoological parks, seed banks, cryopreservation, field gene banks,
etc. are examples of it. Both native and domesticated animals are well protected and
collected in botanic gardens, zoological parks, wildlife safari parks, arboretums, etc.
Most of these have catch breeding programs designed to restore the decreasing

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number of animals and to help the survival of the species. Gene banks are
institutions that stock viable seeds (seed banks), live plants (orchards), tissue culture
and frozen germ plasm with all genetic viability. There are two types of biodiversity
conservation; Ex Situ conservation and In Situ conservation. In situ conservation is
the conservation of living resources by maintaining them in their natural ecosystem
in which they occur. Examples; national parks, sanctuaries, natural reserves, reserves
of the biosphere, sacred grooves, etc.
Wild life Sanctuaries in India
1. Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand.
2. Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala.
3. Sundarbans National Park in West Bengal.
4. Kaziranga National Park in Assam.
5. Ranthambore National Park in Rajasthan.
6. Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh.
7. Bandipur National Park in Karnataka.
8. Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh
9. Sariska National Park, Rajasthan
10. Govind Wildlife Sanctuary in Uttarakhand
11. Nagarhole National Park, Karnataka
12. Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka
13. Silent Valley National Park, Kerala
14. Panna National Park, Madhya Pradesh
15.Dudhwa National Park, Uttar Pradesh
16. Gir National Park and Sasan Gir Sanctuary, Gujarat
17. Manas National Park, Assam

Threats to Biodiversity
1. Habitat Fragmentation
Ecosystem conversion and ecosystem degradation contribute to habitat
fragmentation. Habitat loss from exploitation of resources, agricultural conversion,
and urbanization is the largest factor contributing to the loss of biodiversity. The
consequent fragmentation of habitat results in small isolated patches of land that
cannot maintain populations of species into the future. Tweedsmuir Provincial Park,
at 974,046 hectares, is British Columbia‘s largest provincial park and is big enough to
maintain much of the composition, structure and function of biodiversity within the
protected area. However, smaller provincial parks, such as Buccaneer Bay at less
than one hectare in size, will not be able to maintain all of its original biodiversity in
isolation. Scientists report that the effect of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity
may not be fully realized for decades after habitat is degraded. Therefore, habitat
connectivity must be considered in current management practices to prevent the
devastating effects of fragmentation on biodiversity.

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2. Exotic Species Introductions
Infestation by alien species, such as the Codling Moth, is also a major threat to BC
ecosystems. The intentional and inadvertent introductions of a wide variety of
species to ecosystems in which they do not belong have resulted in ecosystems that
differ radically in structure and function from those originally present. Exotic species
are typically introduced into ecosystems without their co-evolved predators and
parasites, which enables an alien invader to out-compete native species with similar
ecological requirements. In British Columbia, plants such as Knapweed, introduced
to arid grasslands, and Purple Loosestrife, introduced to marsh and riparian areas,
are rapidly becoming dominant plant species in their respective ecosystems. The
interactions between native species are altered or destroyed by these exotic species,
and can result in the loss of native biodiversity.
3. Pollution
Atmospheric and hydrologic pollution have far-reaching negative effects on
biodiversity. Pollution from burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas can remain
in the air as particle pollutants or fall to the ground as acid rain. Acid rain, which is
primarily composed of sulfuric and nitric acid, causes acidification of lakes, streams
and sensitive forest soils, and contributes to slower forest growth and tree damage at
high elevations. In addition, chemical pollutants such as pesticides and herbicides
leach into soils and watersheds. Some fish species, such as salmonids, require small
freshwater streams to spawn. Polluted streams result in the abandonment of
traditional spawning areas and ultimately in the loss of salmon populations. Species‘
sensitivity to pollution is variable. However, many species are vulnerable to the
indirect effects of pollution through the concentration of toxic chemicals in top
predators of food chains and disruption of predator-prey interactions.
4. Global Climate Change
Carbon dioxide released from burning fossil fuels and biomass, deforestation, and
agricultural practices contributes to greenhouse gases, which prevent heat from
escaping the earth‘s surface. With the increase in temperature expected from
increasing greenhouse gases, there will be higher levels of air pollution, greater
variability in weather patterns, and changes in the distribution of vegetation in the
landscape. Some species will not be able to adapt to these changes in the
environment and will become extinct. However, it is expected that many plant and
animal species will attempt to disperse to higher latitudes and altitudes as the
temperature increases. Therefore, any barriers in the landscape, such as highways
and urban areas that prevent movement to more hospitable environments, will
result in loss of biodiversity.
5. Corridors and Connectivity
Such threats to biodiversity may cause the extinction of many species. Maintaining
the connectivity of the landscape could offset their impacts on biodiversity. The
corridor concept proposes that refuges connected by corridors will have higher
immigration rates than isolated patches of natural habitat. This can offset extinction

47
by promoting gene flow and preventing inbreeding. Corridors composed of
naturally occurring or restored strips of land that connect large habitat patches may
facilitate the movement of species between patches, and decrease the effects of
threats to biodiversity. Habitat patches connected by corridors must always be large
enough to maintain populations of species, especially for large-bodied vertebrates.
The effectiveness of wildlife corridors depends on many corridor design parameters,
which include habitat type and structural stage, length and width, and level of
human activity in and around the corridor. Individual species require different
scales of connectivity. Some species are able to disperse in very narrow strips of
natural vegetation, such as hedgerows, whereas other species require large habitat
patches close together with very short migration distances through unsuitable
habitat. Solely retaining or enhancing narrow strips of vegetation between habitat
refuges cannot maintain biodiversity; the habitat values of the overall landscape
must be retained.
Man-wildlife conflict
Man-animal conflicts are common in various parts of the country. In India, wild
elephants probably kill far more people than tiger, leopard or lion. But, surprisingly,
human conflict involving leopard draws great amount of public attention compared
to other animals. This chapter discusses the reasons for human-animal conflict, the
critical study of human-wildlife conflict worldwide specifically in Africa, Asia, and
Europe & analyses the conflict between human & animal.
Human-wildlife conflict is fast becoming a critical threat to the survival of many
endangered species, like wild buffalo, elephants, tiger, lion, leopard etc. such
conflicts affect not only its population but also has broadened environmental
impacts on ecosystem equilibrium and biodiversity conservation. Laws are man-
made, hence there is likelihood of anthropocentric bias towards man, and rights of
wild animals often tend to be of secondary importance.
Causes
1. Road Kills
India's road network is expanding at a monstrous scale due to the expanding
economy and increase in vehicular traffic. The traffic density is growing at the rate of
ten per cent annually. Some of this road network is being expanded through
protected areas. Apart from fragmentation, roads are becoming a serious threat to
wildlife as several wild animals are killed on a daily basis by speeding vehicles.
Vehicles today travel at high speeds and this combined with poor eyesight and slow
response time of animals results in the death of innumerable wildlife
2. Livestock grazing
Livestock grazing in forests leads to human-wildlife conflict as carnivores are
attracted towards the easy prey and become direct enemies of livestock graziers.
Grazing by livestock has severely threatened our wildlife and their habitats in
various ways. The most noticeable effect is the decline of wild herbivore populations
as they have to compete with livestock for their food source. As more cattle graze

48
and nibble the natural vegetation there is less palatable biomass for wild herbivores.
As livestock eliminate palatable native plant species often unpalatable species of
plants invade the area.
3. Increase in Human population
The increasing human population has also led to an increase in requirements of
people. The settlements have also started expanding in urban and rural parts to meet
the pace of growing populations. Many settlements have come up near the
peripheries of protected areas, encroaching the forest areas and using it for their own
benefit.
4. Land use transformations
Humans encroach on clear large areas of protected forest patches for development of
agricultural and horticultural lands. They also clear the areas, for monoculture
plantations of Areca nut, Teak, etc. Developmental activities - The construction of
hydroelectric projects results in submergence of nearby forest lands and
fragmentation of habitats. The clearance of lands for mining and industries also
leads to breaking of large natural habitats into small patches.
5. Habitat fragmentation and shrinkage
All the aforesaid reasons contribute to fragmentation of large habitats and shrinking
sizes of forest patches. This makes that landscape unviable for wild animals as their
needs are not fulfilled. As a result of which they wander in nearby areas searching
for resources. In case of attack from wild animals like tiger and leopard, the village
people also lose their precious cattle like cow, sheep, goat, etc.

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 UNIT 5 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that
causes adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy,
such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either
foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
Environmental pollution is one of the most serious problems facing humanity and
other life forms on our planet today. ―Environmental pollution is defined as ―the
contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere
system to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely
affected.‖ Pollutants can be naturally occurring substances or energies, but they are
considered contaminants when in excess of natural levels. Any use of natural
resources at a rate higher than nature‘s capacity to restore itself can result in
pollution of air, water, and land. Environmental pollution is of different types
namely air, water, soil, noise and light-weight. These cause damage to the living
system. How pollution interacts with public health, environmental medicine and the
environment has undergone dramatic change.
Types of Pollution
1. Air Pollution
2. Water Pollution
3. Soil Pollution
4. Noise Pollution

1. Air Pollution
Air pollution is a mixture of solid particles and gases in the air. Car emissions,
chemicals from factories, dust, and pollen and mold spores may be suspended as
particles. Ozone, a gas, is a major part of air pollution in cities. When ozone forms air
pollution, it's also called smog. Some air pollutants are poisonous.
Primary and secondary air pollutants
The primary pollutants are ―directly‖ emitted from the processes such as fossil fuel
consumption, volcanic eruption and factories. The major primary pollutants are
Oxides of Sulphur, Oxides of Nitrogen, Oxides of Carbon, Particulate Matter,
Methane, Ammonia, Chlorofluorocarbons, Toxic metals etc.
Examples of Primary Pollutants:
1. Car exhaust, smokestacks (CO, SO2, NO)
2. Particulate material (soot, ash)
3. Toxic metals (lead, mercury)
4. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (methane, propane, CFCs, etc.)
The secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. The secondary pollutants form
when the primary pollutants react with themselves or other components of the
atmosphere. Most important secondary level Air Pollutants are Ground Level
Ozone, Smog and POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants).

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Causes of air pollution:
The burning of fossil fuels Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels
like coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles are one the major cause of air
pollution. But, their overuse is killing our environment as dangerous gases are
polluting the environment.
Burning of Fossil Fuels: The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of
sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
also results in air pollution.
Automobiles: The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc.
pollute the environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also
result in diseases among individuals.
Agricultural Activities: Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted
during agricultural activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers emit harmful
chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.
Factories and Industries: Factories and industries are the main source of carbon
monoxide, organic compounds, hydrocarbons, and chemicals. These are released
into the air degrading its quality.
Mining Activities: In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted
using large pieces of equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process
not only pollute the air but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people
living in the nearby areas.
Effects of Air Pollution:
The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:
Diseases: Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart
diseases among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few
decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia and
asthma.
Global Warming: Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in
the gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of
the earth. This increase in earth‘s temperature is known as global warming.
Acid Rain: The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides
and sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants,
become acidic, and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and plant life.
Ozone Layer Depletion:
The release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in
the
atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone
layer does
not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin
diseases and eye problems among individuals.

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Effect on Animals:
The air pollutants suspend on the water bodies and affect the aquatic life. Pollution
also
compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place.

Air Pollution Control:

Following are the measures one should adopt to control air pollution:
Avoid Using Vehicles: People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances.
Rather they should prefer public modes of transport to travel from one place to
another. This not only prevents pollution but also conserves energy.
Energy Conservation: A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity.
Therefore, do not forget to switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus,
you can save the environment at the individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices
such CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level.
Use of Energy efficient appliances: Whether at the domestic level or at the
industrial level, we must push for appliances that use energy efficiently, which result
in complete combustion of fuel, as incomplete combustion causes air pollution.
Shifting industries: Another possible solution to reduce the harmful effects of air
pollution is to shift the manufacturing plants, factories and industries to remote
areas with a low level of population.
Using Modern Techniques:
With technology making great advancements, there are now technologies available
that can help reduce the release of pollutants in the air. Air filters, scrubbers,
precipitators are just a few examples.
Shifting to Natural Gasses: Instead of using and exhausting fossil fuels, shifting to
greener options is a no-brainer. For example, using CNG (compressed natural gas)
instead of petrol or diesel is a great option.

2. Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human
activities. Water bodies include for example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and
groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants are introduced into the
natural environment.
Water pollution happens when toxic substances enter water bodies such as lakes,
rivers, oceans and so on, getting dissolved in them, lying suspended in the water or
depositing on the bed. This degrades the quality of water. Not only does this spell
disaster for aquatic ecosystems, the pollutants also seep through and reach the
groundwater, which might end up in our households as contaminated water we use
in our daily activities, including drinking.

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Causes of Water Pollution:
The causes of water pollution vary and may be both natural and anthropogenic.
However, the most common causes of water pollution are the anthropogenic ones,
including:
Agrochemicals: Agrochemicals like fertilizers (containing nitrates and phosphates)
and pesticides (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc.) washed by rain-water and
surface runoff pollute water.
Storm water runoff: Carrying various oils, petroleum products, and other
contaminants from urban and rural areas (ditches). These usually forms sheens on
the water surface.
Sewage: Emptying the drains and sewers in fresh water bodies causes water
pollution. The problem is severe in cities.
Mining activities: Mining activities involve crushing rocks that usually contain
many trace metals and sulfides. The leftover material from mining activities may
easily generate sulfuric acid in the presence of precipitation water.
Industrial Effluents: Industrial wastes containing toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis,
metallic salts, phenols, cyanides, ammonia, radioactive substances, etc., are sources
of water pollution. They also cause thermal (heat) pollution of water.
Burning of fossil fuels: the emitted ash particles usually contain toxic metals (such
as As or Pb). Burning will also add a series of oxides including carbon dioxide to air
and, respectively, water bodies.
Leaking landfills: May pollute the groundwater below the landfill with a large
variety of contaminants (whatever is stored by the landfill).
Animal waste: Contribute to the biological pollution of water streams. Think of it
this way: anything that can cause air pollution or soil pollution may also affect water
bodies and cause innumerable ecological and human health issues.

Effects of water pollution:

The effects of water pollution are varied. They include poisonous drinking water,
poisonous food animals (due to these organisms having bioaccumulated toxins from
the environment over their life spans), unbalanced river and lake ecosystems that
can no longer support full biological diversity, deforestation from acid rain, and
many other effects. These effects are, of course, specific to the various contaminants.
1.Water bodies in the vicinity of urban areas are extremely polluted. This is the result
of dumping garbage and toxic chemicals by industrial and commercial
establishments.

2.Water pollution drastically affects aquatic life. It affects their metabolism, behavior,
causes illness and eventual death. Dioxin is a chemical that causes a lot of problems
from reproduction to uncontrolled cell growth or cancer. This chemical is
bioaccumulated in fish, chicken and meat. Chemicals such as this travel up the food
chain before entering the human body.

53
3. The effect of water pollution can have a huge impact on the food chain. It disrupts
the food chain. Cadmium and lead are some toxic substances, these pollutants upon
entering the food chain through animals (fish when consumed by animals, humans)
can continue to disrupt at higher levels.

4. Humans are affected by pollution and can contract diseases such as hepatitis
through faucal matter in water sources. Poor drinking water treatment and unfit
water can always cause an outbreak of infectious diseases such as cholera etc.

5. The ecosystem can be critically affected, modified and destructured because of

water
pollution.

Control of Water Pollution:

Water pollution, to a larger extent, can be controlled by a variety of methods. Rather
than releasing sewage waste into water bodies, it is better to treat them before
discharge. Practicing this can reduce the initial toxicity and the remaining substances
can be degraded and rendered harmless by the water body itself. If the secondary
treatment of water has been carried out, then this can be reused in sanitary systems
and agricultural fields. A very special plant, the Water Hyacinth can absorb
dissolved toxic chemicals such as cadmium and other such elements. Establishing
these in regions prone to such kinds of pollutants will reduce the adverse effects to a
large extent. Some chemical methods that help in the control of water pollution are
precipitation, the ion exchange process, reverse, and coagulation. As an individual,
reusing, reducing, and recycling wherever possible will advance a long way in
overcoming the effects of water pollution.

3. Soil Pollution
Soil contamination or soil pollution as part of land degradation is caused by the
presence of xenon biotic chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil
environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or
improper disposal of waste.
Causes of Soil Pollution:
Soil pollution can be natural or due to human activity. However, it mostly boils
down to the activities of the human that causes the majority of soil pollution such as
heavy industries, or pesticides in agriculture. Industrial activities including mining,
smelting and manufacturing; domestic, livestock and municipal wastes; pesticides,
herbicides, fertilizers used in agriculture; petroleum-derived products that are
released into or break-down in the environment; fumes generated by transportation
all contribute to the problem. These include pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors,

54
hormones and biological pollutants; "e-waste" from old electronics; and the plastics
that are nowadays used in almost every human endeavor.
Natural Pollution of Soil: In some extremely rare processes, some pollutants are
naturally accumulated in soils. This can occur due to the differential deposition of
soil by the atmosphere. Another manner in which this type of soil pollution can
occur is via the transportation of soil pollutants with precipitation water.
Anthropogenic Soil Pollution: Almost all cases of soil pollution are anthropogenic
in nature. A variety of human activities can lead to the contamination of soil.
Pesticides: Before World War II, the chemical nicotine chemical present in the
tobacco plants was used as the pest controlling substance in agricultural practices.
However, DDT was found to be extremely useful for malaria control and as pest
control of many insects during World War II.
Inorganic Fertilizers:
Excessive use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers leads to acidification of soil and
contaminate the agricultural soil.
Industrial Pollution:
The incorrect way of chemical waste disposal from different types of industries can
cause contamination of soil. Human activities like this have led to acidification of
soil and contamination due to the disposal of industrial waste, heavy metals, toxic
chemicals, dumping oil and fuel, etc.
Heavy Metals:
The presence of heavy metals (such as lead and mercury, in abnormally high
concentrations) in soils can cause it to become highly toxic to human beings.
Effects of Soil Pollution:
Soil pollution affects plants, animals and humans a like. While anyone is susceptible
to soil pollution, soil pollution effects may vary based on age, general health status
and other factors, such as the type of pollutant or contaminant inhaled or ingested.
However, children are usually more susceptible to exposure to contaminants,
because they come in close contact with the soil by playing in the ground; combined
with lower thresholds for disease,( headaches, nausea, and vomiting, coughing, pain
in the chest, and wheezing) this triggers higher risks than for adults. Therefore, it is
always important to test the soil before allowing your kids to play there, especially if
you live in a highly industrialized area.
Control of Soil Pollution:
Several technologies have been developed to tackle soil remediation. Some
important
strategies followed for the decontamination of polluted soil are listed below.
1. Excavation and subsequent transportation of polluted soils to remote, uninhabited
locations.
2. Extraction of pollutants via thermal remediation – the temperature is raised in
order to force the contaminants into the vapor phase, after which they can be
collected through vapors extraction.

55
3. Bioremediation or phytoremediation involves the use of microorganisms and
plants for the decontamination of soil.

4. Noise Pollution
Sound is main means of communication in many animals, including humans. A low
sound is pleasant and harmless. A loud, unpleasant or unwanted sound is called as
noise. A given sound can appear music to some and noise to others. It depends upon
loudness, duration and mood of a person. Audible range depends upon frequency
and
loudness of sound. For a person with normal hearing, frequency ranges from 20 to
20,000 Hz and loudness ranges from 0 to 120 dB. Sound is measured in decibels (dB).
A decibel value above 80 is considered to be noise pollution.
Causes of Noise Pollution
1. Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of
producing noise. Apart from that, various equipment‘s like compressors, generators,
exhaust fans, grinding mills also participate in producing noise.
2. Poor Urban Planning: In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning
also play a vital role. Congested houses, large families sharing small space, parking
lots, street noise, honking, commercial zone leads to noise pollution which disrupts
the environment of society.
3. Social Events: Noise is at its peak in most of the social events. Whether it is
marriage, parties, pub, disc or place of worship, people normally defy rules set by
the local administration and create nuisance in the area. People play songs on full
volume and dance till midnight which makes the condition of people living nearby
pretty worse.
4. Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aero planes, trains produce
heavy noise. The high noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person lose the
ability to hear properly.
5. Construction Activities: Construction activities like mining, construction of
bridges, dams, buildings, stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost every part of
the world. These construction activities have to be continued to meet the demand of
ever increasing Population. It also creates noise pollution.
6. Household Chores: We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them
extensively in our daily life. Gadgets like TV, mobile, mixer grinder, pressure cooker,
vacuum cleaners, washing machine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners are also
contributors to the amount of noise that is produced and but many times it affects
the quality of life of our neighborhood.
7. Fireworks: Firework is a common thing during various fairs, festivals and cultural
ceremonies. Apart from air pollution, the intensity of their sound creates noise
pollution.
8. Agricultural Machines: Tractors, thrashers, harvesters, tube wells, powered tillers
etc. have all made agriculture highly mechanical but at the same time highly noisy.

56
9. Defense Equipment and launching of satellites: A lot of noise pollution is added
to the atmosphere by artillery, tanks, launching of rockets, explosions, exercising of
military airplanes and shooting practices. Screams of jet engines and launching of
satellite, sonic booms have a deafening impact on the ears.
10.Miscellaneous Sources: The automobile repair shops, market places, schools,
colleges, bus stands, and railway stations etc. are other sources of noise pollution.
Effects of noise pollution
Human response to noise varies from man to man according to age and
temperament. It may vary even in the same individual from time to time because of
change in health, fatigue and other conditions (Fig). The effects of noise on human
beings are as under:-
1) Auditory effects: It includes deafness or auditory fatigue. Deafness or impaired
hearing: Prolonged exposures to noise lead to gradual deterioration of internal ear
and subsequently hearing loss or deafness. It may occur due to continuous exposure
to noise level of more than 90 dB. It may be temporary or permanent. Explosions or
other high intensity sounds can also cause immediate deafness by rupturing the ear
drums or damaging the cochlea. Many time hearing loss is attributed to occupation.
Auditory fatigue: It is defined as a temporary loss of hearing after exposure to
sound. Continuous humming sound such as whistling and buzzing in the ears.
2) Non auditory effects: These are:- Irritation and annoyance: Noise, sometimes,
leads to emotional disturbances and makes people loose their temper. It can interfere
with proper rest and sleep. Annoyance seems to increase with the loudness of the
sound.
Work efficiency: It has been observed that noise reduces the efficiency of work.
Physiological effects: It includes dilation of the pupils, paling of skin, tensing of
voluntary muscles, diminishing of gastric secretions, increase in diastolic blood
pressure and the sudden injection of adrenalins
into blood stream which increases neuromuscular tension, nervousness, irritability
and anxieties. It can adversely affect the development of unborn babies.
Other health effects: Noise is also associated with headache, giddiness, sweating,
nausea, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, disturbed sleep pattern, psychological stress.
Trouble Communicating: High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow
people to communicate freely. Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache
and disturb your emotional balance
Effect on Animals: Animals rely heavily on sounds to communicate, to find food,
avoid predators etc. Pets react more aggressively due to exposure to constant noise.
They become disoriented more easily and face many behavioral problems.
Overexposure to high intensity of noise affects the hearing ability of many animals.
Man-made noise affects mating calls and echolocation. This leads to reduction in
survival and reproduction rates. At an ecosystem level, noise pollution could lead to
migration of animals. Their migration can affect the crop production. Because many
animals such as bats pollinate bananas, peaches, agave and other cash crops.

57
Effect on non-living things: The noise booms cause cracks in walls of buildings as
well as in hills. Sonic boom can break window panes and buildings.
Control Noise pollution
1. Shut the Door when using noisy Machines
2. Use Earplugs
3. Lower the volume
4. Stay away from Noisy area
5. Follow the Limits of Noise level
6. Control Noise level near sensitive areas
7. Go Green by planning trees
8. Create Healthy noise to eliminate unwanted noise
9. Use Noise absorbents in noisy machineries
10. Use Proper Lubrication and Better maintenance
11. Notify Authorities about Disobedience of Noise Rules
12. Regularly check noise levels.

Solid Waste Management

What is Solid Waste?
Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from human
activities in residential, industrial or commercial areas. It may be categorised in three
ways. According to its: origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or
institutional) contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper etc) hazard
potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive, infectious etc).

What Is Solid Waste Management?

Solid waste management is defined as the discipline associated with control of
generation, storage, collection, transport or transfer, processing and disposal of solid
waste materials in a way that best addresses the range of public health, conservation,
economic, aesthetic, engineering, and other environmental considerations.
Types of Solid Waste
Biodegradable Biodegradable materials are substances that decompose easily
through the actions of bacteria, fungi, and other living organisms. Biodegradable
substances usually include the substances found in day-to-day usage, for instance,
food refuse, tree leaves, and grass clippings. Plant materials are usually
biodegradable materials.
Examples of Biodegradable Materials
Paper and food waste.
Human waste.
Manure.
Sewage sludge.
Hospital waste.
Slaughterhouse waste

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Dead animals and plants.
Food waste
Non-biodegradable
Non-biodegradable substances cannot be broken down by natural organisms,
therefore may act as a source of pollution. These types of wastes cannot be easily
handled. It cannot be broken down by the naturally occurring agents, and continue
existing on the surface of the earth for a large number of years. Most of the inorganic
substances are non-biodegradable. ―Recyclable waste‖ is the waste materials that can
be recycled.
Examples of Non-biodegradable Materials
Glass
Plastic
Metals
Hazardous substances
Pesticides
Fibers
Glass
E-waste
Artificial rubber
Artificial polymers

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is generally used to describe most of the non-
hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village that requires routine collection
and transport to a processing or disposal site, Sources of MSW include private
homes, commercial establishments and institutions, as well as industrial facilities.
Hazardous Wastes
Hazardous wastes are those that can cause harm to human and the environment.

Sources of Solid Wastes

1. Municipal solid wastes:
These are solid wastes from home, offices, stores, schools, hospitals, hotels etc. These
domestic solid wastes one usually, thrown in municipal garbage collecting cans or
on road side open waste lands. They are collected by municipality vehicles to certain
garbage disposal site. They are dumped over a large area of land which becomes the
breeding ground of flies and rats. Usually they are not burnt to reduce the volume
because burning would cause air pollution which is still more dangerous.
2. Industrial Solid Wastes:
Most of the toxic industrial wastes are dumped on waste lands for slow and gradual
decomposition. Some industries dump their effluents on barren land, road sides
creating very unhygenic environment for the local population. Some of the effluents
have heavy metals which pollute the ground water through seepage during the

59
monsoon season. Some heavy metals have been found slowly accumulating on
formland soils. One such most toxic heavy metal is cadmium which is present in
traces in some fertilizers.
3. Mining solid wastes:
They include mine dust, rock tailing, slack and slag. Open cast mining completely
spoil the surrounding soil. Toxic chemicals and metals present in the mining wastes
destroy vegetation and produce many deforminities in animals and human beings.
4. Fertilizers:
Chemical fertilizers increase soil fertility and gives better crop yield in lesser time.
Shortly, the land becomes saline, acidic or alkaline and looses fertility.
5. Pesticides and Biocides:
These toxic chemicals used in crop field which are not ecofriendly. They enter into
crop and then into primary and secondary consumers. Even human beings are
affected due to bio-magnification.
6. Excretory products of humans and livestock:
In underdeveloped and developing countries, the poor sanitory conditions
aggravate soil pollution. The excreta of man and animals, digested sewage sludge
used as manure pollute the soil. Several germs present in such wastes contaminate
soil, vegetables, and water bodies causing severe health hazards.
7. Electronic wastes:
The latest solid waste that has appeared in last twenty years commonly known as e-
wastes is no less harmful. Irreparable computer and electronic goods. Frequently,
more efficient and user friendly electronic items appear in the market thus
discarding the old generation equipment which simply become garbage‘s or solid
wastes.
Over half of the e-wastes generated in developed countries are exported to
developing countries where they ultimately increase the e-garbage proportions.
8. Hospital Wastes:
Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants, other harmful
chemicals and pathogenic microorganism. Such wastes require careful treatment and
disposal. The use of incinerators is crucial for disposal of hospital wastes.

Solid waste Management

1. Solid Waste Open Burning: Solid waste open burning is not the perfect method in
the present scenario.
2. Sea Dumping Process: This sea dumping process can be carried out only in
coastal cities. This is very costly procedure and not environment friendly.
3. Solid wastes sanitary landfills: Solid wastes sanitary landfills process is simple,
clean and effective. In this procedure, layers are compressed with some mechanical
equipment and covered with earth, leveled, and compacted. A deep trench of 3 to 5
m is excavated and micro-organisms act on the organic matter and degrade them. In

60
this procedure, refuse depth is generally limited to 2m. Facultative bacteria
hydrolyze complex organic matter into simpler water soluble organics
4. Incineration method: Incineration method is suitable for combustible refuse. High
operation costs and construction are involved in this procedure. This method would
be suited in crowded cities where sites for land filling are not available. It can be
used to reduce the volume of solid wastes for land filling.
5. Composting process : Composting process is similar to sanitary land-filling and it
is popular in developing countries. Decomposable organic matter is separated and
composted in this procedure. Yields are stable end products and good soil
conditioners. They can be used as a base for fertilizers.
Two methods have been used in this process:
a) Open Window Composting
b) Mechanical Composting
6. Disposal by Ploughing into the fields : Disposal by ploughing into the fields are
not commonly used. These disposals are not environment friendly in general.
7. Disposal by hog feeding: Disposal by hog feeding is not general procedure in
India. Garbage disposal into sewers including BOD and TSS increases by 20-30%.
Refuse is ground well in grinders and then fed into sewers.
8. Salvaging procedure: Materials such as metal, paper, glass, rags, certain types of
plastic and so on can be salvaged, recycled, and reused.
9. Fermentation/biological digestion: Biodegradable wastes are converted to
compost and recycling can be done whenever possible. Hazardous wastes can be
disposed using suitable methods.

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 UNIT 6 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND PRACTICES
GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is the slow increase in the average temperature of the earth‘s
atmosphere because an increased amount of the energy (heat) striking the earth from
the sun is being trapped in the atmosphere and not radiated out into space. The
earth‘s atmosphere has always acted like a greenhouse to capture the sun‘s heat,
ensuring that the earth has enjoyed temperatures that permitted the emergence of
life forms as we know them, including humans.
Effects
Ecosystems
Global warming stresses ecosystems through temperature rises, water shortages,
increased fire threats, drought, weed and pest invasions, intense storm damage and
salt invasion, just to name a few. Some of Australia‘s great natural icons, such as the
Great Barrier Reef, are already threatened.
Species
One in six species is at risk of extinction because of climate change. To survive,
plants, animals and birds confronted with climate change have two options: move or
adapt. With the speed of climate change we are experiencing already, it‘s often not
possible for a species to adapt quickly enough to keep up with its changing
environment. And with the amount of habitat destruction, moving is becoming
increasingly difficult.
Food and farming Changes to rainfall patterns, increasingly severe drought, more
frequent heat waves, flooding and extreme weather make it more difficult for
farmers to graze livestock and grow produce, reducing food availability and making
it more expensive to buy.
Water Reduced rainfall and increasingly severe droughts may lead to water
shortages.
Coastal Erosion Rising sea levels and more frequent and intense storm surges will
see more erosion of Australia's coastline, wearing away and inundating community
and residential properties.
Health Increasingly severe and frequent heat waves may lead to death and illness,
especially among the elderly. Higher temperatures and humidity could also produce
more mosquito-borne disease.
Damage to homes Increasingly severe extreme weather events like bushfires,
storms, floods, cyclones and coastal erosion, will see increased damage to homes, as
well as more costly insurance premiums.
Coral bleaching Rising temperatures and acidity within our oceans is contributing
to extreme coral bleaching events, like the 2016 event that destroyed more than one-
third of the Great Barrier Reef.

ACID RAIN
Acid rain is one of the consequences of air pollution. Gases produced from the
burning of fuels react with the oxygen in the air and water vapour, transforming into
acids that fall onto the earth's surface as rain. This acidification of the earth and
surface water has devastating effects on ecosystems and poses a serious danger to
living beings.

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 Causes: Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, natural fires, lightning and some microbial
processes release sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.
However, it is human action that causes most sulphur dioxide emissions due to the
burning of fuels in industry and power stations, as well as half of nitrogen oxide
emissions due to gases produced by motor vehicles. Likewise, although to a lesser
extent, intensive livestock farming produces ammonia from the decomposition of
organic matter. These three pollutants, which can be transported over long distances
from where they originate, oxidise in contact with the atmosphere and result in the
formation of sulphuric acid and nitric acid. These acids dissolve in water droplets in
the clouds and fall on the earth's surface as acid rain, which can also occur in the
form of snow or fog.

Effect: The pH of rain changes when combined with sulphuric acid and nitric acid,
so when it falls onto the ground or water it alters their chemical characteristics and
endangers the balance of the ecosystems. This is known as acidification of the
environment, a phenomenon that has serious effects

1. Oceans can lose biodiversity and productivity. The lowering of the pH of marine
waters harms phytoplankton, a food source for different organisms and animals,
which can modify the food chain and lead to the extinction of different marine
species.

2. Inland waters are also acidifying at a very rapid rate, which is particularly
worrying as although only 1% of the planet's water is fresh, 40% of fish live in it.
This acidification increases the concentration of metal ions — mainly aluminium
ions — which could lead to the death of many fish, amphibians and aquatic plants in
acidified lakes. In addition, heavy metals are transported to underground waters,
which become unsuitable for consumption.

3. In forests, the low pH level of the soil and the concentration of metals such as
aluminium prevent vegetation from properly absorbing the water and nutrients it
needs. This damages roots, slows growth and makes plants weaker and more
vulnerable to diseases and pests.

4. Acid rain also affects artistic, historical and cultural heritage. In addition to
corroding metallic elements of buildings and infrastructures, it deteriorates the
external appearance of monuments. The greatest damage occurs to calcareous
constructions, such as marble, which gradually dissolve due to the effect of acids
and water.

ENVIRONMENTAL LAW

THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT, 1986

An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for matters
connected there with: WHEREAS the decisions were taken at the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm in June, 1972, in which
India participated, to take appropriate steps for the protection and improvement of
human environment; AND WHEREAS it is considered necessary further to implement
the decisions aforesaid in so far as they relate to the protection and improvement of
environment and the prevention of hazards to human beings, other living creatures,

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plants and property. It was enacted with the main objective to provide the protection
and improvement of environment and for matters connected therewith. The Act is one
of the most comprehensive legislations with a pretext to protection and improvement
of the environment. The Constitution of India also provides for the protection of the
environment. Article 48A of the Constitution specifies that the State shall endeavor to
protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the
country. Article 51 A further provides that every citizen shall protect the environment.

Objectives
As mentioned earlier, the main objective of the Act was to provide the protection and
improvement of environment and for matters connected therewith.

Other objectives of the implementation of the EPA are:

1. To implement the decisions made at the UN Conference on Human Environment

held at Stockholm in June 1972.

2. To enact a general law on the areas of environmental protection which were left
uncovered by existing laws. The existing laws were more specific in nature and
concentrated on a more specific type of pollution and specific categories of hazardous
substances rather than on general problems that chiefly caused major environmental
hazards.

3. To co-ordinate activities of the various regulatory agencies under the existing laws

4. To provide for the creation of an authority or authorities for environmental

protection

5. To provide deterrent punishment to those who endanger the human environment,

safety and health. It is the power vested in the central government that they can take
any reasonable and valid steps and measures for the purpose of the protection and
improvement of the quality of the environment. These measures are taken for the
prevention, control and abatement of environmental Pollution.

THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, for the
establishment, with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for
conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and
for matters connected therewith.

WHEREAS decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment held in Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take
appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the earth which,
among other things, include the preservation of the quality of air and control of air
pollution.
Objectives:

1. To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.

2. To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to
implement the Act.

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3. To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and
assign to the Boards functions relating to pollution.

4. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 extends to the whole of
India.
WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974
This act deals with steps important for prevention and control of water pollution. This
act is a central act that contains 8 chapters and 64 sections. The act was passed in
pursuance of clause (1) of article 252 of the Constitution. Resolutions have been passed
by all the Houses of the Legislatures of the States.

Objective:

1.This is an Act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the
maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water.

2. One of the prime objectives of this act is carrying out the purposes by assigning a set
of responsibilities, powers, and functions to the Boards for the prevention and control
of water pollution.

3. The Water Act applies in the whole the States of India.

WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972

The term wildlife is defined under section2 (37) of Wildlife Protection Act as ―Any
animal aquatic or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat.‖The act aims for
protection of wild animals, birds and plants and for matters connected therewith. The
Wildlife Protection Act contains 66 sections and six schedules.

Objectives:

1. The main objective of wildlife protection act is to protect animals and plants.

2. Prohibition on hunting of specified wild animals, birds and plants.

3. Control of trade and commerce in wildlife and wildlife products.

FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980

The act came into force on 25 October 1980. It is an Act of the Parliament of India that
was enacted for providing a higher level of protection to forests and to regulate
diversion of forest lands for non forest purposes.

Objectives:

1. The act extends to the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

2. Establishment of central and State Boards with a view to implement the Act.

3. Consent of central board is mandatory over state board.

MONTREAL PROTOCOL
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (the Montreal
Protocol) is an international agreement signed on 16th September 1987. It was designed
to stop the production and import of ozone depleting substances and reduce their
concentration in the atmosphere to help protect the earth's ozone layer. The Montreal

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Protocol sits under the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (the
Vienna Convention). The Vienna Convention was adopted in 1985 following
international discussion of scientific discoveries in the 1970s and 1980s highlighting the
adverse effect of human activity on ozone levels in the stratosphere and the discovery
of the ‗ozone hole‘. Its objectives are to promote cooperation on the adverse effects of
human activities on the ozone layer. The Montreal Protocol is widely considered as the
most successful environment protection agreement. It sets out a mandatory timetable
for the phase out of ozone depleting substances. The United Nations Industrial
Development Organization (UNIDO) became an implementing agency of the Montreal
Protocol in 1992 and is proud to be associated with its success. Since then UNIDO has
recognized the significance of meeting the global environmental challenge of ozone
depletion while observing national priorities, and of making meaningful technological
adjustments resulting in a higher standard of living.
KYOTO PROTOCOL
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex ratification
process, it entered into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192 Parties to the
Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that aimed to reduce
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and the presence of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the
atmosphere. The essential tenet of the Kyoto Protocol was that industrialized nations
needed to lessen the amount of their CO2 emissions. The Protocol was adopted in
Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when greenhouse gases were rapidly threatening our climate, life
on the earth, and the planet, itself. Today, the Kyoto Protocol lives on in other forms
and its issues are still being discussed. The Kyoto Protocol is significant because it
introduces, for the first time, legally binding greenhouse gas emission commitments for
the developed countries (this includes most of the developed countries listed in Annex
I of the UNFCCC). The commitments agreed to should, according to the Protocol, lead
to an overall global reduction of at least five per cent in 1990 levels of greenhouse gases
by 2008-2012.

CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legallybinding treaty
with three main goals: conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; fair
and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. Its
overall objective is to encourage actions, which will lead to a sustainable future. It was
adopted at the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro, in 1992. One of the CBD's greatest
achievements so far has been to generate an enormous amount of interest in
biodiversity, both in developed and developing countries. Biodiversity is now seen as a
critically important environment and development issue. The Convention sets out
general principles for action to achieve its main objectives: the conservation of
biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the equitable sharing of
benefits derived from the use of genetic resources. Over the years, the Conference of
the Parties to the Convention—the body responsible for reviewing and guiding
implementation—has adopted a number of programs of work on a range of thematic
and cross-cutting issues. The thematic issues focus on the biodiversity of particular
biomes or ecosystem types, such as marine and coastal areas, agricultural lands, dry
lands, mountains, inland waters, and so forth.

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 UNIT 7 HUMAN COMMUNITIES AND ENVIRONMENT
Concepts of animal population dynamics can be applied to human population
growth. Humans are not unique in their ability to alter their environment. For
example, beaver dams alter the stream environment where they are built. Humans,
however, have the ability to alter their environment to increase its carrying capacity,
sometimes to the detriment of other species. Earth‘s human population and their use
of resources are growing rapidly, to the extent that some worry about the ability of
Earth‘s environment to sustain its human population. Long term exponential growth
carries with it the potential risks of famine, disease, and large-scale death, as well as
social consequences of crowding such as increased crime. Human technology and
particularly our harnessing of the energy contained in fossil fuels have caused
unprecedented changes to Earth‘s environment, altering ecosystems to the point
where some may be in danger of collapse. Changes on a global scale including
depletion of the ozone layer, desertification and topsoil loss, and global climate
change are caused by human activities.

Human population growth:

Population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population.
Global human population growth amounts to around 83 million annually, or 1.1%
per year. The fundamental cause of the acceleration of growth rate for humans in the
past 200 years has been the reduced death rate due to changes in public health and
sanitation. Clean drinking water and proper disposal sewage has drastically
improved health in developed nations. Also, medical innovations such as the use of
antibiotics and vaccines have decreased the ability of infectious disease to limit
human population growth. In the past, diseases such as the bubonic plaque of the
fourteenth century killed between 30 and 60 percent of Europe‘s population and
reduced the overall world population by as many as one hundred million people.
Naturally, infectious disease continues to have an impact on human population
growth, especially in poorer nations. For example, life expectancy in sub-Saharan
Africa, which was increasing from 1950 to 1990, began to decline after 1985 largely as
a result of HIV/AIDS mortality. The reduction in life expectancy caused by
HIV/AIDS was estimated to be 7 years for 2005.
Impacts on environment, human health, and welfare:
Population is growing rapidly, far outpacing the ability of our planet to support it,
given current practices. Overpopulation is associated with negative environmental
and economic outcomes ranging from the impacts of over-farming, deforestation,
and water pollution to eutrophication and global warming.
Environment means our surroundings in which all the things, living or non living,
which includes atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), lithosphere (solid earth),
biosphere (all living organisms), and geosphere (rocks and regoliths). Numerous
factors affect our environment which includes anthropogenic activities such as
urbanization, industrialization, deforestation, overpopulation, and use of fossil fuels.

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Natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanoes, cyclones, landslide and floods can
also negatively affect the environment. Air pollution, poor management of waste,
growing water scarcity, falling groundwater tables, water pollution, preservation
and quality of forests, biodiversity loss, and land/soil degradation are some of the
major environmental issues India faces today. Its effects are felt on the natural
environment also
1. Generation of Waste:
Due to his destructive activities, man has dumped more and more waste in
environment. As the man-made waste is not transformed, it causes degradation and
the capacity of environment to absorb more waste is reduced. Further, waste leads to
air and water pollution.
2. Threat to Biodiversity:
Due to his destructive activities, man has extracted more and more minerals from
the earth. Animals have been hunted and plants have disappeared. There has been
loss of biodiversity. These have led to ecological imbalance.
3. Strain on Forests:
Man has established new housing colonies. National highways and hydropower
projects have been built and forests have been wiped out. These destructive activities
have increased and led to ecological imbalance.
4. Climatic Change:
Climatic changes are irregular due to green house gases. The thin skin of air that
surrounds the planet is being affected by human activities as never before. Urban
people are still being exposed to unaccepted levels of toxic pollutants. Further,
forests are still being degraded by acid deposition generated by faraway industries,
and greenhouse gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere.
5. Productivity:
Environmental degradation not only harms health but also reduces economic
productivity. Dirty water, inadequate sanitation, air pollution and land degradation
causes serious diseases on an enormous scale in developing countries like India.
6. Urbanization:
Rapid growth of population has led to urbanization which has adversely affected
environment. Due to population pressure, natural resources in the cities are depleted
at a fast rate due to population pressure.
7. Land Degradation:
Intensive farming and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides have led to over-
exploitation of land and water resources. These have led to land degradation in the
form of soil erosion, water logging and salination.
8. Industrialization:
Underdeveloped countries are following the policy of heavy industrialization which
is causing environmental degradation. The establishment of such industries as
fertilizers, iron and steel, chemicals and refineries have led to land, air and water
pollution.

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Welfare Programmers:
Women constitute 48 per cent of the total population of the country. They suffer
many disadvantages as compared to men in literary rates, labour participation rates
and earnings. The development of women has been receiving attention of the
Government of India from the First Plan. But it was treated as a subject of ‗welfare‘
and clubbed together with the welfare of the disadvantaged groups like destitute,
disabled, aged, etc. In 1953, the Central Social Welfare Board was set up which acts
as an Apex Body at the Centre to promote voluntary action at various levels,
especially at the grassroots, to take up welfare-related activities for women and
children. The Directive Principles of State Policy, enshrined in Part IV of the Indian
Constitution reflectsthat India is a welfare state. The Ministry of Women and Child
Development, a branch of the Government of India is an Women and Child Welfare
and Coordination of activities of other Ministries and Organization in connection
with this subject. Offers support to develop and stabilize Self Help Groups (SHGs)
and to conduct awareness programmes among rural and urban women.
Government of India launched so many welfare programmes for the holistic
development of the country. Some are Antyodaya Anna Yojna, National Gramin
Awaas Mission (formerly Indira Awas Yojna), Bharat Nirman, etc. all these
programmes are launched to alleviate the poverty and generate employment so that
economy can grow rapidly in this competitive world.
Women Welfare Programmers in India:
1. The Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY)
2. The Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY)
3. The Indira Awas Yojana (IAY):
4. The National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)
5. Under the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP)
6. Rashtriya Mahilakosh (RMK)
7. Development of women and children in Rural Areas (DWCRA):
8. Child Development Services Scheme (CDS)
9. Welfare of Street Children
Environmental movements:
Environmental movement is a type of ―social movement that involves an array of
individuals, groups and coalitions that perceive a common interest in environmental
protection and act to bring about changes in environmental policies and practices.
(Tong, Yanki 2005). The main environmental movements are Chipko Andolan, Save
the Bhagirati and Stop Tehri project committee in Uttar Pradesh, Save the Narmada
Movement (Narmada Bachao Andolan) in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, youth
organizations and tribal people in the Gandhamardan Hills whose survival is
directly threatened.
Chipko movement:
The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan, was a forest conservation movement in
India. It began in 1970s in Uttarakhand, then a part of Uttar Pradesh went on to

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become a rallying point for many future environmental movements all over the
world. In the 1970s, an organized resistance to the destruction of forests spread
throughout India and
came to be known as the Chipko movement. The name of the movement comes from
the word 'embrace', as the villagers hugged the trees, and prevented the contractors'
from felling them.Not many people know that over the last few centuries many
communities in India have helped save nature. One such is the Bishnoi community
of Rajasthan. The original ‘Chipko movement‘ was started around 260 years back in
the early part of the 18th century in Rajasthan by this community. A large group of
them from 84 villages led by a lady called Amrita Devi laid down their lives in an
effort to protect the trees from being felled on the orders of the Maharaja (King) of
Jodhpur. After this incident, the maharaja gave a strong royal decree preventing the
cutting of trees in all Bishnoi villages.
The Appiko Movement:
The Appiko Movement is trying to save the Western Ghats by spreading its roots all
over southern India. The movement's objectives can be classified into three major
areas. First, the Appiko Movement is struggling to save the remaining tropical
forests in the Western Ghats. The Appiko Movement, a movement similar to the
Chipko Movement, was launched in September 1983 by the representatives of a
Yuvak Mandali to save the Western Ghats in Southwest India. It was observed by
the representatives of the Yuvak Mandali that in areas, which were easily accessible,
there was an excessive concentration of trees reserved for felling, and there was also
excessive damage to other trees during such course of felling.
Silent Valley Movment:
Those were times when any movement, be it environment conservation, the extreme
Left, women‘s empowerment etc., all were in their infancy and had the heat and
fervour and dynamism," said K. Ajitha, former Naxalite who shook the citadels of
power in the 1970s and now leads a women‘s movement known as Anweshi. ―But as
the days passed, communalism and corruption, which was then confined to the
leadership, started getting down to the grassroots level and that explains the lack of
any coordinated effort to fight for a socio-politicoeconomic cause, though
movements are still active sparingly and only in pockets."
Bishnois of Rajasthan
In the heart of the barren Thar Desert lives a religious sect of Bishnois, who with
their compassion and faith have created a sanctuary like destination where beasts,
birds, and humans live in awe-inspiring harmony. When it comes to preservation of
flora and fauna, no devotion matches that of the Bishnois‘ community. Bishnois have
shown it time and again how dedicated they are in following the conservative
teachings of their progenitor, which, by the way, are quite simplistic and
contemporarily ecologists.

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