PHYSICAL

EDUCATION
HANDBOOK

SE ATON / SCHMOTTLACH
McMANAMA / CLAYTON
LEIBEE / MESSERSMITH
METRIC AND ENGLISH
EQUIVALENTS

LENGTH
1 millimeter (mm) = 0.04 inch
1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters = 4 inch

foot (ft) = 30 centimeters

1 inch (in) = 2 .5 centimeters

DJSTANCE
1 meter (m)
incnes
= 3 feet =
1 kilometer (km) :f^ n meters =
1.000
:

0.62 mile
-3 1.1 yards
mile (mi)
1
= 1.6 kilometers

WEIGHT
1 gram (g) = 0.035 ounces
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds
1 ounce (oz) = 28 grams
1 pound (lb) = 0.45 kilogram

BOSTON
PUBLIC
LIBRARY
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
HANDBOOK

Life is —
a series of games games of finding answers,
finding amusement, persuading people, winning friends,
raising families, and performing rituals. Some persons
relish the game of life and enjoy all the sub-games to the
hilt. Others play them grimly, with their eyes fixed on the

scoreboard, too much concerned with staying ahead to

enjoy the game.

DON ROBINSON (Phi Delta Kappan)

 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012

http://archive.org/details/physicaleducatioOOdonc
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
HANDBOOK
EIGHTH EDITION

DON CASH SEATON

Late Chairman, Department of Health,
Physical Education, and Recreation,
University of Kentucky

NEIL SCHMOTTLACH
Professor of Physical Education,
Ball State University

JERRE L. McMANAMA
Assistant Professor of Physical Education,
Ball State University

IRENE A. CLAYTON
Former Director of Physical Education,
Bryn Mawr College

HOWARD C. LEIBEE
Late Professor of Physical Education,
The University of Michigan

LLOYD L. MESSERSMITH
Late Professor of Physical Education,
Southern Methodist University

PRENTICE HALL, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

PUADI CQTO\A/N RRANr.H I iRRAKV

 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Physical education handbook / Don Cash Seaton . . . [et al.].

— 8th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-13-663097-9. —
ISBN 0-13-666900-X (pbk.)
1. Physical education and training — Study and teaching.
I. Don Cash,
Seaton, (date).
GV361.P49 1992
796'.07— dc20 91-24567
CIP

1X
REF
Acquisitions Editor: Ted Bolen
Editorial Supervision: Margaret Antonini
Interior Design: Hilda Tauber
Cover Designer: Ben Santora
Prepress Buyer: Herb Klein
Manufacturing Buyer: Patrice Fraccio
Editorial Assistant: Diane Schaible

Cover Photographs: Basketball players, David Johnson; Runners,

Brian Drake; Cyclists, Dave Black; Skiers, Lori Peek all —
SportsChrome. Swimmer, David Lissy Focus on Sports. —

©1992, 1983, 1974, 1969, 1965, 1959, 1954, 1951

by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
A Simon & Schuster Company
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

reproduced, in any form or by any means,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

10 987654321
ISBN D-13-bbbTDD-X PBK

ISBN Q-13-bk,3LH7-T

Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London

Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney
Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto
Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi
Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo
Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore
Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro
This edition is dedicated
to the many people who would enjoy
a lifetime of active participation.
CONTENTS

PREFACE xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv

1 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION 1

Historical Aspects 2
Sociological Aspects 5
Mechanical Aspects 8
Psychological Aspects 15

Objectives and Programs 23

2 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS 26

3 ARCHERY 37

4 BADMINTON 46

5 BASKETBALL 68

6 BOWLING 87

VII
viii CONTENTS

7 CYCLING 97

8 DANCE 106
Folk Dance 107
Modern Dance 109
Social Dance 115

Square Dance 118

9 FENCING 123

10 FIELD HOCKEY 134

11 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG 148

12 GOLF 160

13 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 178

14 HANDBALL AND RACQUETBALL 201

15 ORIENTEERING 210

16 RECREATIONAL SPORTS 219

Angling 219
Horseshoes 224
Pickle-Ball 228
Shuffleboard 233
Table Tennis 236
 CONTENTS ix

17 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY 242

18 SOCCER 254

19 SOFTBALL 279

20 SPEEDBALL 294

21 SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE 303

22 TEAM HANDBALL 318

23 TENNIS 328

24 TRACK AND FIELD 345

25 VOLLEYBALL 359

26 WEIGHT TRAINING 375

27 WRESTLING 393

APPENDICES:
A. Sources of Rules 412

B. How Conduct Tournaments

to 415

C. Athletic Field and Court Diagrams 418

D. Sources of Audio-Visual Materials 424

E. Selected national Health Objectives
for the Year 2000 427

PREFACE
Teachers, recreational leaders, volunteer scout
trainers, and similar personnel are often called upon
to "start the ball rolling" or to teach an activity with
which they are not completely familiar. Many in-
structors have only a few specializations and it
would take them too long to master all the present
offerings in physical education. Some activities, too,
are more familiar to men than to women, and vice
versa. Yet with the changes brought about by Title
IX and laws regarding participation by special popu-
lations, today's teaching personnel must be able to
give instruction in a great variety of activities. This
is particularly true of individual and team sports
such as golf, orienteering, cycling, speedball, flag
football, field hockey, and soccer.
To meet these needs, the Physical Education
Handbook, 8th edition, has been written to serve as a
teaching and reference tool for several types of peo-
ple: physical educators, student teachers, recre-
ational leaders, sports enthusiasts, physical
education majors, and all high school and college
students who are interested in sports activities and
physical fitness.
Previous users of the Handbook will find that a
couple of activities have been dropped and three new
activities have been added: swimming, pickle-ball,
and speedball. In deciding which activities to in-
clude, we relied on a survey of previous users who
expressed their needs. All the activities chapters
have been revised where necessary and updated
with new illustrations and the latest rules. Hints for
special populations have been expanded and refined
with the addition of suggested audio- visual mate-
rials.
In order to derive maximum utility from the
Handbook, it is essential to begin with a careful
study of the two introductory chapters. Chapter 1
covers four basic areas: (a) the historical develop-
ment of physical education and sport, (b) the socio-
"
logical aspects, the mechanical (movement)
(c)
aspects, and (d) the psychological aspects. Chapter 2
explains the principles and benefits of physical fit-
ness programs, and gives suggestions relative to
clothing, nutrition, and fitness workouts. These in-
troductory chapters constitute the backbone and
sinews of this manual; they provide both meaningful
principles necessary for understanding and the prac-
tical suggestions needed in applying these principles
to effective teaching and learning.
Format of the Activity Chapters
At the head of each chapter is a list of objectives
highlighting its main concepts and features. These
objectives are written in instructional terms to help
the teacher in evaluating learner progress. The ac-
tivities chapters open with a discussion of the nature
and purpose of the specific activity and then present
information regarding rules, equipment, playing
field dimensions, organizational setups, and much
more. A section called "Suggested Learning Se-
—
quence" outlines the teaching progression begin-
—
ner to intermediate that is normally used in most
schools. Although this section is highly recom-
mended, the order may be varied to meet program
and teacher needs, so long as concepts are properly
interrelated and not fragmented.
The "Skills and Techniques" sections are de-
signed for the beginner-to-intermediate levels of
skill development (more advanced skills are often
covered in selected references). Skill analysis is
given in the form of "Learning Cues," while the
"Practice Suggestions" offer specific aids to the
teacher in formulating drills and planning lessons.
Other features include playing strategies, safety
considerations, and terminology associated with the
specific activity. A new section has been added to
each chapter, where appropriate, called "Modifica-
XI
XII PREFACE
tions for Special Populations," outlining suggestions
for modifying skills or activities to meet special
needs. At the end of each chapter is a list of selected
references, including books, periodicals, and audio-
visual materials to supplement the material found in
the chapter.
Modifications for Special Populations
A new section has been added to each chapter,
where appropriate, outlining suggestions for modify-
ing skills or activities to meet special needs. These
modifications are intended for general applications
and are not suggested for specific disabilities and/
or handicapping conditions. Considerations for
adapted physical education require more detail in
preparation and implementation and are beyond the
scope of this book. The new section is divided into
the following three categories:
—
Orthopedically Impaired wheelchair users,
crutch and cane users, e.g., spinal cord injuries,
spina bifida; low mobility, e.g., cerebral palsy,
amputations; poor muscular strength and en-
durance, e.g., muscular dystrophy, obesity.
Mentally Impaired— mild (IQ 53+); moderate
(IQ 36-52).
Sensory Impaired — blind and visually im-
paired with visual acuity ranging from 20/200
(legally blind) to total blindness. Deaf and hard
of hearing ranging from slight (27-40 db loss) to
profound (91 db+ loss).
The following are some general considerations
for modifying activities for special populations:
Balance
1. Keep the student at a low level, e.g., concentrate
on wide base and low center of gravity.
2. Provide the student with support devices during
ambulation, e.g., guide ropes, broom handles. If
assistance is provided by a peer teacher, concen-
trate on support at the hips to allow freedom of
arm swing.
3. Stress good body position with head and trunk
as erect as possible.
Agility
1. Promote movement in activities but concentrate
on controlled movement. Do not allow the stu-
dents to move too fast and out of control.
2. Moving forward and backward in a straight line
should be accomplished before asking the stu-
dent to move in a circular path.
Coordination
1. Remember that as the teacher you have control
over the size, shape, distance, and color of ob-
jects involved in an activity; select them wisely.
2. Accuracy tasks can frustrate certain special pop-
ulations, e.g., athetoid cerebral palsy; keep these
tasks to a minimum.
3. Modify striking implements to provide a larger
striking surface, e.g., paddles instead of baseball
bats.
4. Tether objects to be struck or thrown, to avoid
wasted time recovering them. Elastic straps
from fabric stores work great for tethering balls
to walkers or wheelchairs.
5. Make sure to use safety items, e.g., helmets,
where needed.
Planning the Lesson
The following suggestions are offered to assist
the instructor, recreational leader, or student
teacher in planning a lesson or a unit of instruction.
1. Determine your goal. What would you like the
learner to achieve at the conclusion of the lesson
2.
or unit of instruction?
Determine the population of your group. What
are their ages, sex, characteristics (social, physi-
cal, emotional, mental)? What is their previous
skill background in the activity or type of activ-
ity to be taught? What skills must they possess
to begin their lesson?
3. Determine the content (skills, knowledge, strat-
egy, etc. based on the type of population repre-
)
sented.
4. Determine the lesson or unit objectives based on
the lesson or unit content. Unit objectives will be
broader whereas the lesson objective will be
more specific.
5. Determine in what sequence the learning mate-
rial may be presented most effectively. The
"Suggested Learning Sequence" given in each
activity of the Handbook is a good order to fol-
low; or it can be altered to suit your needs and
style of instruction.
6. Determine the instructional equipment and sup-
plies (bats, balls, etc.) you will require.
7. Determine whether to supplement the lessons
with audio-visuals, and select appropriate mate-
rials (see Appendix D).
8. Determine the evaluation plan for assessing (a)
performance skill achievement and (b) mastery
of instructional material.
Use of Audio-Visual Aids
Many visual aids are available in the physical
activity area; the alert teacher will want to take ad-
vantage of these aids to increase teaching effective-
ness. Many sporting organizations and professional
organizations have produced audio-visual materials
for a wide range of physical activities. The sources
Appendix D of this Handbook should enable
listed in
any teacher to select appropriate materials. Before
using any visual aids, however, you are urged to

read the guidelines given at the head of Appendix D.
A wise use of audio-visual materials will enrich and
improve most instructional programs. The following
guidelines are essential to consider as you plan to in-
tegrate audio-visual materials with your lesson.
1. Always preview the audio-visual aid before class
use in order to become familiar with the mate-
rial and to make sure it is appropriate for the
lesson being taught.
2. Prepare the class in advance by pointing out the
features that students should watch for and in-
dicating how the aid will help them in the les-
son.
3. After showing the aid, provide an opportunity
for class discussion in order to clarify points and
to emphasize important parts.
4. It is often advisable to view the film a second
time. Some instructors find it helpful to show a
film as an introduction to an activity and to re-
screen it after students have had an opportunity
to practice the activity or particular techniques.
There is usually more interest in the second
screening because the activity is now more
meaningful to the students.
5. Be sure to provide a satisfactory room for view-
ing projected audio-visual aids. The effective-
ness of a motion picture, for example, may be
lost if students cannot see the picture easily or
hear the commentary.
6. Provide students with the means of evaluating
the contribution of the visual aid.
PREFACE XIII
7. Be sure you know how to operate the projection
equipment and always have things in readiness
when the class arrives.
Coeducational Teaching
With a few exceptions, all activities described in
this Handbook can be used in a coeducational set-
ting. Specific ways to modify activities and rules in
order to play on a coeducational basis are outlined in
some of the chapters.
Use of the Appendices
In using this manual, we hope you will not over-
look the valuable reference materials contained in
the appendices. Appendix A lists sources of official
rules by type of activity. Appendix B gives the spe-
cifics on how to conduct tournaments. Appendix C
shows diagrams of athletic fields and playing courts.
Appendix D provides guidelines on the use of audio-
visual materials and a list of sources of such mate-
rials. Appendix E outlines several national health
objectives for the year 2000, as formulated by the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Whether you use the book for administering a
program, planning a unit or lesson, directing a recre-
ational activity, or for your own personal use, we
hope this 8th edition will meet your needs and bring
healthful enjoyment to all.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are indebted to the following professors and in- Dr. Warren Vander Hill, Ball State University
structorswho graciously contributed their knowl- Angling
edge and expertise to this revised edition:
Karen Fitzpatrick, Ball State University
Field Hockey
Dr. Marvin Gray, Ball State University
Historical Aspects of Physical Education Terry Hitchcock, Muncie Central High School
Handball and Racquetball
Dr. Arno Wittig,Ball State University
Psychological Aspects of Physical Education Jerry Rushton, Ball State University
Orienteering; Track and Field
Dr. Gale Gehlsen, Ball State University
Mechanical Aspects of Physical Education Dr. Marilyn Buck, Ball State University
Softball
Dr. Leonard Kaminsky, Ball State University
Physical Fitness Programs Scott B. Perelman, University of Kansas
Tennis
John Wingfield, Ball State University
Swimming Dr. David Pearson, Ball State University
Weight Training
Dr. Sung-Jae Park, Ball State University
Archery; Team Handball Dr. Charles Simonian, Ohio State University
Fencing
William Nichols, Ball State University
Badminton; Wrestling We also thank the following people for their valuable
assistance:
Debbie Powers, Ball State University
Basketball William Richards, Head Tennis Coach, Ball State
University, for his assistance on the Tennis
Sharon Burgess-Troxell, Ball State University
chapter.
Cycling
Anna Shunck, Ball State University, for sugges-
Terry Whitt, Chicago State University tions on the Handball and Racquetball chapter.
Dance (Folk, Square, Social, Modern)
Sam Alford, Chairman, Physical Education Depart-
Dr. Barbara Curcio, Ball State University
ment, Chrysler High School, New Castle, Indiana,
Fencing
for use of the weight room and for providing stu-
Penny Justin, Ball State University dents for photographs.
Gymnastics The high school and college students who gave will-
Dale Scrivnor, Ball State University ingly of their time to pose for photographs.
Golf Donna Rider, Institute for Wellness, Ball State Uni-
Dr. Ron Davis, Ball State University versity, Muncie, Indiana, for the many hours
Modifications for Special Populations spent typing and preparing the manuscript.

xv
xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Hilda Tauber, Prentice Hall, whose creative genius, Margaret Antontni, Prentice Hall, whose sharp eye
sharp eye, and questioning mind helped to organ- helped guide us through the final revisions.
ize the eighth edition of the HANDBOOK into a
workable form.
PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
HANDBOOK
 UNDERSTANDING
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Historical Aspects
Sociological Aspects
Mechanical Aspects
Psychological Aspects
Objectives and Programs

NATURE AND PURPOSE
What is physical education? Let's begin by saying
what it is not. Physical education ("fizz ed" or "p.e."
or "gym") does not mean punishing fitness and con-
ditioning exercises ("no pain, no gain"), even at
times inflicted as a form of punishment ("Give me 20
push-ups!"). Physical education is not merely free
play or recreational time when no instruction need
occur, nor is it a non-intellectual activity with no
claim to a place in formal education.
Physical education, when planned and taught
properly, is "education through the physical." That
is, the activity serves as a medium through which a
total learning experience takes place. Do you recall
the first time you ever got up on water skis, or jogged
a mile or two, or first rode a bicycle? If you have been
successful at some relatively difficult and strenuous
physical feat, what happened to your self-esteem as
a result? In all likelihood your achievement created a
more positive outlook of yourself. In addition, you
may have been encouraged to try other types of ac-
tivities. Researchers have determined that such ex-
periences improve our total being. In other words,
physical activity not only improves our physical
health, but it enhances our emotional outlook, and
even stimulates our intellectual activity and ability.
In short, it improves our "wellness" in that it im-
proves us totally.
Physical education focuses on the teaching of
skills, the acquisition of knowledge, and the develop-
ment of attitudes through movement. Most public

FIGURE 1-1 Some skills provide a lifetime of pleasurable activity.

 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
schools, colleges, and universities recognize the im-
portance of physical education by making it a part of
the curriculum. School physical education and well-
ness programs provide each person with various op-
portunities —
from the assessment of fitness levels
and the appropriate activities that will help over-
come personal weaknesses to the acquisition of life-
time fitness-type activities. Physical education
remains a vital part of the total process of education
that utilizes games, sports, aquatics, dance, and
other vigorous activities to help the individual
acheive the goals of education.
In Chapter 1 we will examine four important
aspects of physical education, sport, and recreational
activities: historical, sociological, mechanical, and
psychological. This material provides the necessary
background for understanding physical education as
it relates to wellness. At the end of the chapter we
outline specific objectives and discuss school pro-
grams.
HISTORICAL ASPECTS
History is much more than a description of what
happened One of the best justifications
in the past.
for studying history was given by the British states-
man Sir Winston Churchill, who is credited with
"the farther backward you can see, the farther for-
ward you can see." By understanding how physical
education and sport programs developed, you can
more readily comprehend contemporary events and
be better able to anticipate new trends in physical
education, sport, and wellness. In this chapter the
terms "wellness," "physical education," and "sport"
will be used frequently and while their meaning is
generally related, they do have subtle differences
which will be clarified later.
SPORT IN EARLIER CIVILIZATIONS
Primitive Cultures
During primitive times people were forced to en-
gage in vigorous physical activities in order to sur-
vive. They hunted and fished for food and clothing
and had to be alert against constant danger. For pre-
historic people, movement was essential to staying
alive. Running was considered an admirable physi-
cal trait, and those who were skillful at it were con-
sidered valuable members of the group. If some
historical accounts are correct, the ability of some
runners to cover long distances as couriers or to
avoid capture was outstanding by even today's stan-
dards.
The Greeks
The first recognized culture in which sport
played a significant role was Greece. Greeks saw
sports participation, particularly in individual activ-
ities, as an important part of a young man's educa-
tional experience. The most popular activities
consisted of boxing, wrestling, and track (which in-
cluded the five-event pentathlon consisting of the
discus, javelin, long jump, stade race, and wrestling).
Track was the most prominent sport, and the 200-
meter run or "stade" was probably the best-known
event. At the peak of the Greek culture, sport partici-
pation was considered to be a noble and worthwhile
endeavor, and this philosophy of sport was followed
later in other cultures, including the United States.
The Romans
While sport was popular in Rome, spectating
was emphasized over individual participation. The
violent chariot races and brutal gladiatorial bouts
were very popular and were sometimes sponsored by
politicians in order to gain favor among the unem-
ployed masses who migrated to Rome during diffi-
cult economic periods. The difference in sport
philosophies between the Greeks and the Romans
provides an interesting contrast. The Greeks be-
lieved in individual participation to benefit one's ed-
ucation whereas the Romans used more violent
forms of sport to amuse and satisfy spectators.
Which philosophy do you believe best depicts that of
contemporary American intercollegiate and profes-
sional sport? Are we heading for a decline like Rome
or do we favor the Greek system of individual partici-
pation for educational purposes?
EARLY AMERICAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SPORT
In general, the Pilgrims who came to America dis-
couraged sport and play activities as a waste of time
and the work of the devil. The Protestant work ethic
held that only hard work would develop the ideals of
thriftiness, morality, and purity. In many cases,
especially in Colonial New England, people who took
part in sports and games, particularly on the Sab-
bath, were subject to arrest. Most sporting activities
were utilitarian in that they served some particular
life-giving function. For example, hunting and fish-
ing were survival pursuits; few people, if any,
thought of them as sporting or recreational activi-
ties. Some recreational sports did exist however,
among the most popular being bowling, horse racing,
skating, and various forms of ball games. The village
tavern was the frequent scene of other less approved
activities such as card playing, darts, and various

games of chance, all of which were usually asso-
ciated with gambling.
EARLY GYMNASTICS PROGRAMS
The Battle of the Systems
The first organized physical education programs
that were introduced into American schools follow-
ing the Civil War emphasized various culturally
based gymnastics systems. These programs, which
reflected the nationalistic philosophies of their na-
tive homelands, featured formal movement (some-
times referred to as "formal gymnastics") performed
on various types of gymnastics equipment. Among
the best known was the German system, or "heavy
gymnastics," which stressed exercise routines on
heavy nonmovable equipment performed with a
background of patriotic music. Another popular form
of exercise was the Swedish system, known as "light
gymnastics," which emphasized graceful routines
and more rhythmic activities sometimes performed
with a lilting piano accompaniment.
As these programs gained prominence in the
schools, some educators began to question the appro-
priateness of play-type activities in an educational
setting. Critics insisted that schools were a place for
the serious pursuit of scholarly activities such as
mathematics, the sciences, languages, and religion.
Those who favored the gymnastics programs in the
schools maintained it was necessary for urban
youngsters to exercise since they were faced with
growing leisure time on their hands. Furthermore,
they contended that it served as a way for young men
to reduce their surplus energy and help keep them
out of trouble. This philosophical debate over the ap-
propriateness of physical activity in the schools and
which gymnastics system could best achieve the
most desirable results became known as the "Battle
of the Systems."
Gradually the gymnastics systems faded in pop-
ularity due to their structured nature which lacked
spontaneity and were replaced by an informal sys-
tem of sports and games based loosely on the English
system (a philosophical view that sports participa-
tion by amateur athletes has inherent educational
benefits), but more closely associated with our natu-
ral instinct for play and movement. This concept was
generally referred to as the "new physical education"
and was promoted by leaders as an alternative based
on acceptable educational objectives. As a result of
the new movement, curricular offerings in physical
education now began to include lifetime fitness and
recreational pursuits as well as sport activities.
Gradually, the term "physical education" began to
refer to planned public school programs related to
the development of motor skills, physical fitness, so-
cial attributes, and knowledge through instruction
in various games, sports, and dance activities.
HISTORICAL ASPECTS
DEVELOPMENT OF AMATEUR AND COLLEGIATE
SPORTS
During the 19th century, participation in amateur
sport was limited primarily to the members of well-
to-do families who belonged to the exclusive country
clubs generally located along the East Coast. Sports
such as tennis, golf, swimming, cricket, and track
were most popular. Young men usually competed be-
cause it was believed this would help them become
"gentlemen" and contribute to developing the neces-
sary physical and social skills for future success.
Young women occasionally took part in some of the
less vigorous sports because it was feared that stren-
uous participation might result in an injury, particu-
larly to the reproductive organs. Furthermore,
women who participated in sports were expected to
maintain their femininity at all times in order to
make themselves more attractive to an eligible gen-
tleman. Typically, formally-dressed women partici-
pated passively in sports such as archery, croquet,
and tennis doubles, with the emphasis on the activ-
ity's social aspects. As the sons and daughters of the
well-to-do left home to attend college, they took with
them their desire to participate in various sports.
Typically, during the latter part of the 19th century,
universities were segregated by gender. At the men's
universities, sports such as baseball, football, and
later basketball, began to emerge where they rapidly
became the focal point of many programs. Football
aroused the most controversy due to the number of
injuries and deaths that occurred from its brutal
style of play. At the women's colleges, female physi-
cal educators maintained strict control over the
growth of women's sports with activities being lim-
ited to field or sport days where the focus was on the
development of social skills through modest partici-
pation in selected sports and games.
Equal Opportunities for Women
The gender separation pattern generally per-
sisted until the 1960's, when changed societal norms
gradually led to acceptance of girls and women into
competitive sports. With this came the development
of regulatory groups such as the Association of Inter-
collegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW), which sup-
ported athletic competition for women. Later, the
passage of Title IX of the 1972 Educational Amend-
ments Act by the federal government mandated that
by 1975, all institutions of higher education receiv-
ing federal funding had to provide programs where
females could receive an equal physical education
and athletic participation opportunities. This law re-
sulted in sweeping changes since it held that women
could not be excluded from physical education or
athletic programs on the basis of gender. Since that
time, the upsurge of female participation in sport
has been tremendous and, with the demise of the
 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AIAW, the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) became the major governing body for
women's intercollegiate athletics. In most locales, fe-
male students enjoy the same competitive and par-
ticipation rights and privileges as do the male
students. There is no verifiable scientific evidence
that the previously held fears have made women
athletes more masculine, damaged their reproduc-
tive systems, or otherwise had any negative physio-
logical or psychological effects on them. This has
essentially put to rest the original notion that
women athletes were too frail to stand the rigors of
sport competition. Perhaps the major form of gender
discrimination today is the number of males coach-
ing women's teams and male athletic directors in
influential leadership positions associated with
women's athletic programs.
Opportunities for Handicapped Youth
A second significant historical event occurred in
1975, with the passage of the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142).
This law gave every handicapped child the opportu-
nity to be integrated into the regular physical educa-
tion program, whenever appropriate. Programs had
to be modified to meet the needs of the handicapped
students who were now being "mainstreamed" into
the regular classes. In effect, this law requires that
all teachers must be prepared to work with handi-
capped youngsters and that virtually no one should
be denied an opportunity to participate in a physical
education or sports program.
FUTURE TRENDS
As we near the 21st century, it is clear that sport
and recreational pursuits, and particularly fitness-
wellness activities, will maintain their popularity.
We will continue to see participation in a broader
range of recreational activities such as hiking, back-
packing, cross-country skiing, and variations of
aquatic sports. And, in spite of fluctuations in the
supply and price of gas, participation in a variety of
motorized sports will continue. The love of motor ve-
hicles remains strong, and Americans will be reluc-
tant to give up motor sports entirely.
Further technological sophistication has re-
sulted in a form of video sports in which the sights
and sounds are simulated, yet remarkably realistic,
as the player experiences such thrills as landing a jet
on an aircraft carrier, piloting a spaceship, or driv-
ing a race car. Other forms of effect include flying a
stunt plane, riding a roller coaster, and taking a sub-
marine ride. According to the promoters, the experi-
ence virtually eliminates the possibilities of injury,
death, or potential lawsuit. The drawback to such
games is that they are passive, nonvigorous forms of
diversion offering practically no fitness or wellness
benefits. Nevertheless, they appear to be a part of
the future.
Satellite communications systems will continue
to develop the capacity for international sport audi-
ences. Baseball and basketball are already played
throughout much of the world, and soccer continues
its rapid growth in the United States. Longer sport
seasons will be the norm as new professional fran-
chises will locate in mild climates or play in domed
stadiums. More and more roofed stadiums will have
retractable domes which can be opened when the
weather permits. A new variety of natural grass has
been developed which will grow in domed facilities
and should be an advantage in reducing the inci-
dence of turf-related injuries.
Furthermore, we can look for true world champi-
onships, due to professional team sponsorships mov-
ing away from the geographical concept and toward
the multi-national corporation. Many professional
teams will be located throughout the European and
American continents as well as in some of the Pacific
rim countries. How about a World Series played be-
tween the IBM Yankees and the Tokyo Giants? Or
the Super Bowl being decided between the Mexico
City Aztecs and the Royal Dutch Shell Rams? But
perhaps by the time we enter the 21st Century, the
World Series and the Super Bowl will have waned in
popularity. Soccer is expected to continue its growth
due to the international influence in this country.
Furthermore, it is a relatively inexpensive, injury-
free sport in which one of any physical size may par-
ticipate.
SUMMARY
We have seen that sport participation was originally
necessary for survival. Some countries began to use
formalized gymnastics systems to promote nationa-
listic support. Later physical education and sport
grew in popularity as a medium through which edu-
cation might occur. While this viewpoint has been
disputed, the "new physical education" concept
began to grow in popularity since it reflected peo-
ples' natural desire to participate in sport, games,
and dance. More recently, federal laws mandated
that women and the handicapped could not be de-
nied their right to participate in physical education
classes. The future will see technological develop-
ment and international expansion being influential
in the growth of physical education and sport as we
move into the 21st century.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Betts, J.R. America's Sporting Heritage: 1850-1950. Read-
ing, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1974.

Hackensmith, C.W. History of Physical Education and
Sport. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1966.
Rader, Benjamin G. American Sports. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990.
Zeigler, E.F. History of Physical Education and Sport.
glewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979.
SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Sport is an important part of America's culture. It
creates newspaper headlines, holds our attention on
television, produces countless millions of dollars an-
nually, and even influences international relations.
Moreover, millions of people of all ages and abilities
participate in a vast array of recreational and sport
activities. Sport sociologists refer to this as the per-
vasiveness of sport. This means we can rarely escape
participating, watching, talking or reading about
sport in our society. Because sport permeates vir-
tually every aspect of our culture, whether social, po-
litical, legal, economic, or educational, it is only nat-
ural that we should examine more closely selected
parts of this phenomenon that is so influential in
many lives.
Sport events reflect many of the same character-
istics we observe in our daily lives and may thus be
described as a microcosm of society. For example,
both sport and society are concerned with material
things such as salaries and benefits. And if discrimi-
nation toward women and minorities exists in sport,
it exists also in society. The same may be said of un-
healthy forms of competition, unequal distribution of
power (such as the coach or leader having complete
control over a team or a group of workers), inci-
dences of violence, and so on.
AFRICAN AMERICANS IN SPORTS
The traditional American view has been that sport
was one of the few areas where racial discrimination
did not exist. Success in sports was generally be-
lieved to be based on one's athletic performance and
not on ethnic background or socio-economic status.
Indeed the relatively low percentage of black or Afri-
can Americans in this country (12 to 14 percent) con-
trasts sharply with the disproportionately higher
percentage of black athletes found in intercollegiate
and professional basketball and football, and to some
extent, baseball.
Despite the impressive number of participants,
however, some scholars maintain that the African
Americans' sport involvement is not free from racial
prejudice. Perhaps the most outspoken of this group
SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
is Dr. Harry Edwards, sociologist at the University
of California, Berkeley. He is among those who
argues that high school and collegiate African Amer-
ican athletes virtually ignore their educational de-
En- velopment and devote countless hours to honing
their athletic skills. Many of those athletes believe
this will lead to a college athletic scholarship, which
in turn, will result in a multi-million dollar profes-
sional contract with a hero status and lifelong finan-
cial security. The fact is that a pitifully small
number attain success because the competition is
fierce.Furthermore, the possibility of a career-end-
ing injury or just plain bad luck can dash one's hopes
in an instant. All too soon the vast majority find
themselves back where they started with little edu-
cation or marketable skills. Sports fans do not see
the thousands of shattered dreams and broken
hearts of the cast-off athletes whom Edwards refers
to as "more bodies under the bridge." Spectators see
only those who are giving "high fives" and shouting
"Hi Mom!" in front of the TV camera after having
just scored the winning touchdown. The idea that
sport serves as a way to riches is a myth, for only a
select few make it in a typically brief career.
While some progress is being made by athletic
governing agencies, academic abuse persists at the
public school and collegiate levels because athletes
are sometimes encouraged to enroll in carefully se-
lected courses solely in order to keep them eligible.
Clearly, a careful balance must be maintained in
order to develop marketable skills with a solid edu-
cational background for those high school and colle-
giate athletes who see themselves as future stars.
INTERNATIONAL SPORTS
As world travel becomes more common and interna-
tional communication systems become more ad-
vanced, Americans are getting increased first-hand
information about sports from other countries. We
tend to think that the Super Bowl and World Series
are major international events. While they may be
growing in international popularity, they pale in
comparison with the global attention of the World
Cup soccer matches or the nearly month-long Tour
de France cycling race, considered by many to be the
world's most grueling athletic event.
In Canada and the Scandinavian countries
hockey, skiing, and ice skating are very popular. In
the Latin American countries soccer and baseball
capture a great deal of attention. Some of the Far
Eastern countries, such as Thailand, India, and Ma-
laysia, consider badminton a major sport, second
only to soccer. Volleyball is promoted widely in Rus-
sia as well as in China and Japan. Baseball is the
Japanese national sport. In China, table tennis and
basketball are among the most popular activities. In
 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Mexico and Spain, bullfighting and jai alai are na- THE NEED FOR RECREATION
tional pastimes. As we become more aware of the
traditions and customs of other lands, we better un- In the past few years there has been a growing
derstand and appreciate how important a role sport awareness of the social implications of wellness,
plays throughout the world. physical fitness, and sport activities. A nation's atti-
tude toward its recreational and leisure time pur-
suits reveals a great deal about its lifestyle and
cultural patterns. The type of sports that are popular
reflect many socially related factors such as tradi-
The Olympic Games
tion, religious beliefs, geographical location, and eco-
Among the widely-known international competi- nomic status. Earlier we discussed how recreational
tions are the Asian Games, the Pan American pursuits were discouraged, but as time passed edu-
Games, the British Empire and Commonwealth cational leaders began to call attention to the bene-
Games, the World Maccabee Games, and the World fits of recreation and sport participation. Both the
University Games. But the oldest and most popular medical and physical education professions cited
are the Olympic Games, first held in 776 B.C. at many of the physiological benefits of regular exer-
Olympia, Greece. They probably occurred every four cise. Social scientists and psychologists pointed out
years thereafter until A.D. 394 when the Roman the advantages of acceptable leisure time pursuits
Christian emperor Theodosius abolished the Games from the standpoint of social development and psy-
as sinful because they were traditionally held in chological enhancement. And, contrary to the earlier
honor of the Greek pagan gods. belief, there was a gradual acceptance that meaning-
The Modern Games were revived in 1896 by the ful leisure time activity could actually improve one's
Frenchman Baron Pierre de Coubertin, who believed working efficiency.
they could serve as an instrument for peace and Changing economic conditions and lifestyles fur-
goodwill. It was his desire that the Modern Olympics ther supported the concept that leisure time activity
be conducted in a spirit of fair play, free of political could be beneficial. As our society shifted from an
interference, and honor the achievements of athletes agricultural to a more urban setting, manual out-
from around the world. door farm work gave way to the indoor factory as-
In many respects de Coubertin's ideals have not
been realized, for the Olympic Games have been em-
broiled with many problems. Political disputes, some
of which have resulted in boycotts, terrorist attacks,
and the subsequent loss of life have marred the
Games. There have also been disagreements over
the amateur status of the athletes. And the Olympic
Games have become so expensive to sponsor that
many countries can no longer consider hosting the
event.
Two major changes have occurred since the 1984
Games in Los Angeles which may help diffuse some
of the problems. The first is the concept of corporate
sponsorship, introduced at the 1984 Games, where-
by various companies agreed to underwrite certain
expenses. For example, one such company, McDon-
ald's Restaurants, supported the construction of the
aquatic facility, and hundreds of other companies
made financial contributions in return for the privi-
lege of having their products labeled "The Official
Olympic . . .
."

A second change involves the question of ama-

teur status. Historically, Olympic athletic eligibility
held strictly to the amateur code, but gradually those
standards have been relaxed and professional ath-
letes have been allowed to participate. Currently,
any amateur or professional athlete is eligible to par-
ticipate in the Olympic Games. Whether these
changes will work toward the potential promise of
promoting international goodwill and understand- FIGURE 1-2 Cross-country skiing provides a sharp test of
ing remains to be seen. endurance.

sembly line and sedentary office jobs. Technology
took over, and jobs became routine and monotonous
with little chance for self-expression. As the growing
cities became more crowded, a major concern was the
fatigue, tension, and stress, which undermined the
physical and mental health of many citizens. Gradu-
ally, however, along with improved working con-
ditions and salaries, people began to see the
importance of recreational pursuits as a way to relax
and unwind, and to restore themselves physically,
mentally, and emotionally.
As various technological improvements such — ized sports are among those sports that can suffer
as computers —
make much of our work faster and
more efficient, the work day and work week are
shrinking. In some parts of the country, the four-
day, forty-hour work week is standard. The mid-
week, half-day or one-day break and extended
vacations are also becoming more common. While we
may seem busier than ever, most people are able to
complete their routine work tasks much faster.
Whether or not we actually have more leisure time is
open to dispute among recreation and play scholars.
Perhaps a more serious question is the extent to
which we can appropriately use what leisure time we
have. Some social scientists and philosophers believe
that the way in which we use our time is the final
test of a civilization. Since we are living longer than
ever, it is important now to develop the habit of par-
ticipating in fulfilling leisure-time activities so you
can continue to enjoy them later in life.
While some activities are more vigorous than
others, virtually any form of regular moderate forms
of exercise can be beneficial. The benefits of recre-
ational activities go beyond the purely physical.
Even if your work is satisfying, you cannot perform
at an efficient level indefinitely. Recreation offers a
needed change from the work routine, an opportu-
nity to relax, to be uplifted, to be "re-created," so you
can return to work physically and mentally restored.
Recreation makes a major contribution to our physi-
cal, psychological, and mental stability that is
greatly needed today.
Sport and Television
No discussion on sport sociology would be com-
plete without mentioning the influence of television
on the popularity of sports in our culture. More than
any other form of communication, television has
been responsible for bringing sports into our homes,
serving both as a form of entertainment and instruc-
tion. Recently, not only has cable television become
an important factor in sports broadcasting, but in-
novations such as the instant replay, slow motion,
reverse angle, and "chalk board" explanations,
enhance popularity among viewers. Some sports
have undergone some rule modifications (tennis tie-
breaks, moving the hash marks in football, sudden
death, and stroke scoring in golf), in order to accom-
SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
modate the viewing public. Starting times, no matter
how inconvenient for the athletes or the spectators
at the contest, are established to attract the highest
possible television viewing audience.
Some sports by their very nature do not fare well
as a televised activity. The hockey puck is difficult to
see on television and its continuous action makes it
difficult to air commercials; consequently, the sport
is more difficult to sell to prospective sponsors. Base-
ball does not lend itself well to telecasting due to its
large playing area, and golf, skiing, and some motor-
because the viewer cannot get a realistic perception
of the activity. There are some signs that the viewing
public has been oversaturated with televised profes-
sional football and that sport may have seen its best
years. Professional basketball appears to have a
bright future and is naturally suited to television
with its relatively confined playing area and natural
breaks for commercials. Likewise, soccer faces a
bright future, but its non-stop action is not suitable
for the necessary commercial breaks in television.
While sports on television may promote an inac-
tive lifestyle, there are signs that we are moving in
the direction of active participation. Each year more
people are taking part in such sport and recreational
activities as fitness walking, swimming, racquetball,
tennis, golf, skiing, camping, and backpacking, to
mention just a few. Both trends seem to be operating
—
simultaneously toward the spectating, inactive
lifestyle on one hand and toward the participating,
active lifestyle on the other. While something may be
gained from watching someone else perform an ac-
tivity (such as learning more about the game and ap-
preciating the athlete's skill level), it is generally
agreed that active participation offers more total
benefits. One of the important ideas you can learn is
that an active lifestyle can return healthful benefits
many times over.
WELLNESS
term "wellness" has
Thus far in this chapter, the
been used with physical education,
in conjunction
sport, and recreation. More than any other fitness-
related term, wellness is "in" for the '90's. Most au-
thorities agree that the current interest in fitness is
not a fad. Some call it a fitness renaissance ... a re-
But the concept goes
birth or renewal of fitness.
beyond commonly accepted views of fitness and
health. Historically, fitness occasionally referred to
"getting back into shape" after neglecting one's body.
And health was traditionally viewed merely as the
absence of disease. In other words, if you were not
sick, you were healthy. In order to stay healthy, peo-
ple all too often expected everything of their doctor
and virtually nothing of themselves.
 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Research done by health educators and members
of allied medical professions have amassed a consid-
erable amount of scientific evidence that this philos-
ophy is no longer acceptable. Wellness refers to a
proactive (taking action) view of health in which one
strives to develop a total lifestyle that results in a
positive physical, mental, emotional, social, spiri-
tual, and occupational state of being. The main fea-
ture of wellness is that to achieve it, you must work
—
toward it it will not just happen. In the wellness
concept, you take responsibility for your personal
well-being by pursuing a dynamic course of action to
alter your lifestyle. The wellness philosophy refers to
— —
your entire being designated as holistic and all
parts of that being are parallel and interrelated. This
means we are concerned not only about exercise and
fitness, but smoking, alcohol and drug usage, stress
control, eating habits, and safety. Living a wellness
lifestyle does require an effort, but it can be a joyous
effort!
FUTURE SOCIOLOGICAL SPORT TRENDS
All socially-related factors point to the idea that
sport will also constitute an important part of our
lifestyles. Furthermore, the problems with sport will
also constitute a microcosm of society's problems.
Slowly, as the African American's social status im-
proves, and as more professions become available,
the focus on athletics as "a way out" will become a
less desirable goal. The Latin American will likely
succeed the African American in focusing on athletic
competition with the sports of choice being soccer,
baseball, basketball, and boxing. This will have an
important positive impact on soccer growth in this
country.
International sport will continue its prominence,
and more professional and collegiate teams will
enter this level of competition. The Olympic Games
will maintain its role as the most popular form of in-
ternational competition. Ironically the Olympics will
continue to be plagued with political problems for
that very reason. Those wishing to make a political
statement will take advantage of that prominence
and attempt to use the Olympic forum to enlist sup-
port for their causes.
The benefits of recreational activity will con-
tinue to be pointed out despite the fact that televised
sports may continue to serve as an alluring deterrent
to the active lifestyle. The wellness concept will be-
come the primary focus of the '90's.
SUMMARY
We have pointed out how sport is pervasive and rep-
resents a microcosm of society. Pervasiveness refers
to the notion that sport is an important aspect in all
phases of our culture. Microcosm refers to the fact
that within sport there exists similar types of socie-
tal issues. While the African American athlete is
quite prominent in selected sports, this does not nec-
essarily indicate that sport is free from discrimina-
tion. It would appear that the Latin American will
become the main minority group involved in sport
participation. International sport will increase in
popularity and will continue to be a setting for politi-
cal dispute. The popularity of televised sport will
continue, although some sports may decline in popu-
larity. While televised sports may serve as a deter-
rent to an active lifestyle, it is important that we
learn fulfilling recreational activities for benefit to
our total health.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Black Athletic Superiority: Fact or Fiction? Program on
NBC Television, New York, NY, April, 1989.
Coakley, J. Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies. St.
Louis: Times Mirror/Mosby Co., 1990.
Curry, T.J. and Jiobu, R.M. Sports, a Social Perspective.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1984.
de Grazia, S. Of Time, Work and Leisure. New York: Twen-
tieth Century Fund, 1962.
Edwards, H. Speech on Sport and Race. DePauw Univer-
sity, Greencastle, IN, 1988.
Eitzen, D.S. and Sage, G.H. Sociology of North American
Sport. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1986.
Smith, R.A. Sports and Freedom: The Rise ofBig-Time Col-
lege Athletics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
MECHANICAL ASPECTS
This section examines selected positions and move-
ments found in everyday and sport activities such as
standing, sitting, walking, lifting, carrying, pulling,
pushing, running, jumping, throwing, catching, and
striking. Discussion will focus on the mechanical
aspects related to basic movement skills. The pres-
entation is divided into two sections: the first part
deals with static and semistatic activities for which
balance considerations are the main concern; the
second part describes dynamic activities which are
dependent on force considerations.
BALANCE CONSIDERATIONS
Basic to all both ordinary and sports-
activity,
7
related, is an understanding of how the body main-
tains a balanced position. The degree of stability or
balance a body possesses depends upon several fac-
tors including: (a) the area of the base of support, (b)

the height of the center of gravity, and (c) the prox-
imity of the center of gravity within the supporting
base.
A balanced position is defined as a position
wherein the center of gravity is placed over the sup-
port base. The center of gravity is the point around
which the body balances in all directions. The base of
support includes not only the feet in contact with the
ground but also the area between the feet. If the
center of gravity is placed outside the supporting
base, balance is destroyed and downward motion re-
sults. Balance can be regained by reestablishing the
support under the center of gravity. Locomotion,
therefore, is accomplished by a continuous process of
placing the center of gravity outside the base, thus
losing balance and then regaining balance by placing
the foot under the center of gravity.
The area of the base of support is an important
stability factor. As the area of the base increases,
balance increases. When standing in a side stride
position, one has a greater degree of balance than in
the feet together position. A side stride position in-
creases balance in a lateral direction; a forward
stride position increases balance in an anterior-
posterior direction.
The degree of balance is also influenced by the
height of the center of gravity: a low center of gravity
increases balance, and a high center of gravity de-
creases balance. In athletic situations, an increase in
balance is often accomplished by bending the knees
to lower the height of the center of gravity.
If the center of gravity falls over the middle of
the supporting base, equal balance on all sides of the
body is established. However, if the center of gravity
is placed over the back edge of the base, the degree of
balance increases toward the front of the body and
FIGURE 1-3 In (A) and (C)
and (D) the alignment is unbalanced.
MECHANICAL ASPECTS
decreases toward the back edge of the supporting
base. In other words, as the horizontal distance from
the center of gravity to the front edge of the support
increases, balance increases. To stop quickly and
maintain balance, the center of gravity should be
moved to the back edge of the supporting base. To
move quickly in the forward direction, the center of
gravity should be placed toward the front edge of the
base. This allows the balance to be destroyed very
quickly because the center of gravity only has to be
moved a short distance to be outside the supporting
base.
Standing
Standing posture varies among individuals and
is by such factors as health including men-
affected (
tal attitude), body build, and occupation. Although
there is no single description of good standing pos-
ture, proper body alignment is an essential element.
The body is not one solid mass, but is composed of a
series of segments. Each segment is connected to the
next segment by joints which are held together by
muscle tendons and ligaments. If the segments of
the trunk are stacked so that the line of gravity
passes directly through the center of each segment,
less stress will be placed upon the muscles and liga-
ments. There is little stress on the muscles and liga-
ments because the segments are perfectly balanced
one over the other. Therefore, a good standing posi-
tion is one in which each body segment is centered
over the segment immediately below it (see Figure
1-3).
In the standing position with perfect alignment,
a straight line should pass through the ear lobe,
each segment is balanced above the segment below. In (B)

10 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
center of shoulder joint, slightly behind the hip joint-
ing, slightly in front of the center of the knee joint
and in front of the ankle joint. The total picture of
the best standing posture shows shallow curves of
the upper and lower back, a slight tilt forward-
upward of the pelvis to help decrease the curve of the
lower back, the head back and the chin comfortably
down, the abdominal wall flattened, the chest lifted
and the shoulders relaxed and back. This posture is
not only mechanically sound but also attractive in
appearance.
In good standing position, the feet are usually
placed parallel, four to six inches apart. Although
some authorities consider a toeing-out position to be
normal, those who advocate the parallel position ap-
pear to have sounder reasons. In this latter position,
the base is firm in both forward-backward and lat-
eral directions as compared with the weaker trian-
gular foot position (smaller base> resulting from the
toeing-out position. The parallel foot position also
places less strain on the leg muscles, and the body
weight can be transferred along the entire longitu-
dinal arch of the foot.
Sitting
On the average, individuals spend over 60 per-
cent of their waking hours in a sitting position. As in
the standing position, body alignment and balance
are the two essential considerations in sitting and in
the act of getting into and out of a chair.
In preparing to sit down, stand near and in front
of the chair. This is necessary so that in the act of
sitting, the trunk and upper body will move in an al-
most erect position with the leg muscles controlling
the action. As the body is lowered, the trunk should
bend slightly forward from the hip joint. This will
keep the center of gravity over the supporting base.
The body weight should first be placed on the front
edge of the chair, thus establishing a new base of
support, and then pushed back in the seat (chain.
When sitting on a straight chair, full use should
be made of the chair seat and the chair lower back
for support. Sit with the buttocks well back into the
seat with the body against the back of the chair. The
upper torso should rest slightly against the upper
back of the chair. Good body segment alignment, as
in standing, is the major criteria for sitting.
To get up from the chair, reverse the order for
sitting down. Place one leg in front of the other, slide
forward, bend the trunk forward from the hips.
When the center of gravity is over the feet, lift the
body upward.
Lifting and Carrying
Considerations of balance and body alignment
also apply in lifting and earning. Keeping an
aligned position will avoid strain and stress on mus-
cles and joints.
>
WTien lifting an object from below, stand close to
it,place one foot slightly in front of the other, keep-
ing the back straight, the ankles, knees and hips
flexed. In this position the entire body remains over
the center of the supporting base. To straighten up.
the strong leg muscles (not the weak back muscles
are used to lift the body and object to the erect posi-
tion.
During lifting, the weight of the object alters the
location of the body's center of gravity. The object is
momentarily a part of the body and tends to move
the body's center of gravity in the direction of the ob-
ject. Therefore, a wider supporting base is required.
A weight carried on one side of the body should
be carried close to the body with only a slight shift of
the center of gravity. If the weight must be carried
away from the body, raising the arm on the opposite
side will move the center of gravity back toward the
middle of the base. A weight carried in front of the
body necessitates a backward shift of the center of
gravity. The shift should be only enough to keep the
center of gravity over the base. The most economical
way to carry a load is on top of the head, directly in
line with the body.
Pushing and Pulling
Many pushing and
pulling tasks are not strenu-
ous, but several involve the application of consider-
able force and make economy of effort and avoidance
of strain prime considerations. The more nearly the
body segments are aligned to apply the force of ei-
ther pushing or pulling and the better the base over
which the body moves, the easier the task. The
height and weight of the object to be pushed or
pulled determine the amount the body's center of
gravity must be lowered. To push a heavy object, the
hands should be placed in line with the object's
center of gravity. The body should be in line with the
arms. If the object tends to tip. the position of the
hands must be lowered.
In pulling, the body should be inclined in the di-
rection of motion. In this position the body exerts its
force most economically by using the strong leg mus-
cles. The
force should be applied as nearly as possi-
ble the direction of the desired movement.
in
Whenever the force is applied at an angle to the line
of movement, only the component of the force in the
direction of movement is effective in accomplishing
the desired result.
FORCE CONSIDERATIONS
All locomotor tasks (running, jumping, skipping,
etc. propel the body by applying a force against the
I
ground. The force that actually moves the body is a

reaction force (ground reaction force) which is react-
ing to the muscular force applied to the ground in ac-
cordance with Newton's Third Law: for every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction. The greater
the force pushing against the ground, the greater
will be the reaction force pushing the body forward.
Therefore, the key to increasing the vertical ground
reaction force and thus increasing the speed of move-
ment is the development of explosive leg movements.
Explosive leg movements provide the body with a
positive acceleration. This positive acceleration is
directly proportional to increased ground reaction
forces (Newton's Second Law).
The direction in which the force is applied is an-
other factor that contributes to speed and efficiency
of locomotion. In almost all locomotor tasks (except
some forms of hopping and jumping), the muscular
force is applied to the ground in a backward-down-
ward direction; the reaction force results then in a
forward and upward direction. The upward (vertical)
component is effective in lifting and supporting the
body against the pull of gravity; the forward (hori-
zontal) force component results in the forward move-
ment of the body. If the body can apply only a limited
amount of force and if the force is exerted in two di-
rections, then it is better to divide the force une-
qually, putting more force in the desired direction. In
running and walking, where the vertical force is
greater than the horizontal, the body appears to
bounce upward with each step. A greater horizontal
force provides more speed in the horizontal direc-
tion, giving the motion an appearance of smooth-
ness. An increase in the forward lean allows the body
to pull more backward than upward, thus increasing
the horizontal force component.
In some locomotor activities (walking, skipping,
galloping, and sliding), the forward foot strikes the
ground well ahead of the body's center of gravity.
This action exerts a backward and upward reaction
force against the body. The backward component of
this force provides a resisting action to the body's
forward momentum and makes it possible to stop the
forward progress. This retarding force component
remains in action to a lessening degree until the foot
is directly under the center of gravity. From this
point until the foot leaves the ground, the propelling
forward-upward reaction force is invoked.
Friction, a force which opposes motion, tends to
influence the ground reaction force. In order to move
the body forward, there must be sufficient friction
between the foot and the ground to invoke the
ground reaction force. Everyone knows that it is eas-
ier to walk or run on a hard, solid surface than on
a slippery surface or on a surface which gives. In the
latter situation, the foot slides backward against
the surface or the surface moves, thereby reducing
the ground reaction force. That is why rubber-soled
shoes or cleats are used in athletics, to provide ade-
quate friction, thereby assuring the best possible
ground reaction force.
MECHANICAL ASPECTS 11
FIGURE 1-4 (A) Backward component or
pushing force, (B) downward component of
pushing force, (C) forward component of
reaction force, (D) upward component of
reaction force.
Walking
Walking is the process of locomotion in which the
body weight is transferred from one forward swing-
ing leg and foot to the other. It differs from other lo-
comotor tasks in that at no time is there lack of
contact with the floor. The outstanding characteris-
tic of the walk is the period of double support. For
clarity the walk will be described in terms of leg ac-
tion and arm swing.
Leg Action. From the double support position
with one leg in front of the other, the back leg moves
backward until it breaks contact with the ground.
Then the knee and the hip begin to bend, starting
the forward swing of the leg. The leg moves in the
shape of an arc more or less. When the approximate
midpoint of the arc is reached, there is more flexion
of the knee and hip to permit clearance from the
ground. The leg is then extended and the heel con-
tacts the floor. As the heel of the swinging leg
touches the floor, the leg extends; the body then
shifts forward, and the cycle is repeated.
In ideal foot placement the toes are pointed
straight ahead. This provides the best possible posi-
tion to apply force in a direction opposite the desired
movement. A toeing-in or a toeing-out position not
only places undue stress on the ankle and knee joints
but also is less efficient because the force is applied
at an angle to the foot.
Arm Swing. In walking, the arms hang re-
laxed at the sides and swing forward and backward
in opposition to the leg movement. This oppositional
action occurs in all movements and is controlled at
the reflex level of the nervous system. It is possible
12 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
to interfere with this reflex through conscious con-
trol of movement. However, it is not desirable to do
so because this oppositional action of the arms and
shoulder girdle counterbalance the rotation of the
hips, and the resultant forces are applied straight
ahead.
In efficient walking, the heel should first contact
the ground (toes pointed straight ahead), the body
weight should be transferred to the outer border of
the foot and then the ball, followed by a push off
from the toes. Foot placement is considered best
when the inner border of each foot falls closely
(within one to two inches) along an imaginary line.
Care should be taken not to cross this line in a weav-
ing motion.
In summary, a natural walk is one in which the
arms and legs swing easily although the length of
the stride and the frequency of steps taken will vary
with the individual. The essential factors causing
this variation are the individual's height, particu-
larly the leg length, and speed of walking. An in-
crease in walking speed is accomplished by either an
increase in the stride length 'distance covered per
stride) or an increase in the frequency of steps or
both. In most people the stride length is increased
until a given acceleration, at which time stride
length is decreased and the stride frequency in-
creases.
There should be little up and down bouncing
movement of the body caused by the vertical force
component. Increased walking speed is also accom-
panied by an increased body inclination. Horizontal
movement is facilitated by this position because ia>
the body is more in line with the driving leg, (b) the
center of gravity is shifted forward to the front edge
of the supporting base and gravity is used to assist in
overcoming the body's inertia, and <c> the stride
length is increased from the center of gravity to the
release.
Running
Running, like walking, is a locomotor task in
which the body weight is transferred from one for-
ward swinging foot to the other. Running differs
from walking, however, in that there is a short pe-
riod of non-support (no contact with the ground),
whereas in walking there is always contact with the
ground. Running is generally divided into three
phases: (a) recovery phase, (b) support phase, and (c)
driving phase.
The recovery phase starts the instant the rear or
driving leg leaves the ground and ends when the
same leg has moved forward and again contacts the
ground beneath the individual's center of gravity. As
the foot leaves the ground (the beginning of the re-
covery phase), the hip begins its forward movement
and the lower leg folds up toward the upper leg. As
the speed of running increases, there is a greater
tendency for the heel to kick up toward the buttock.
This kick-up action is not a fault as it was once
thought. The kick-up shortens the lever of the leg
and permits the swinging leg a smaller moment of
inertia. The advantage of the small moment of iner-
tia is that it can be moved very quickly without a
great deal of muscular force.
As the leg continues forward in the recovery
phase, the height to which the knee is lifted depends
upon the running speed. The lift is highest in sprint-
ing and lowest in jogging. The forward swinging leg
reaches its highest point as the rear leg completes its
full extension. After reaching the limit of its forward
swing, the recovery leg (front leg) reverses its direc-
tion and moves the foot first forward and then down-
ward. The recovery phase is completed as the foot
strikes the ground. Several factors must be consid-
ered in the foot striking. First the foot should be
placed under the center of gravity and moving back-
ward at moment of contact. This positioning of the
foot enables upward and forward ground reaction
forces to be invoked. Overstriding is characterized by
the foot contacting the ground in front of the center
of gravity and by the forward movement of the foot
at contact. The foot should be moving backward at
the time of contact in order to invoke the forward
ground reaction force. The contact of the foot in front
of the center of gravity tends to create a backward
driving force or blocking action which will determine
the running momentum.
The support phase of running begins with the
landing of the forward foot and ends when the center
of gravity passes in front of the supporting foot. As
the foot contacts the ground, the knee bends to ab-
sorb the shock of landing which is the first function
of the support phase. The second function of the sup-
port phase is to arrest the body against the force of
gravity. The final function of this phase is to move
the body to a position for an effective driving phase.
The driving phase begins as the supporting
—
phase ends as the foot leaves the ground. In this
phase, the body is propelled forward by exerting
muscular leg force against the ground and behind
the center of gravity. As the body progresses for-
ward, the heel is lifted, the knee extends, and finally
the ankle and toe extend well behind the body. Fail-
ure to obtain complete extension of the driving leg is
a very common characteristic of the poor runner.
Arms. In running, the upper body (shoulders
and arms) moves in opposition to the leg action in
order to balance the rotation effect of the leg swing
on the trunk. The upper arms move relatively
straight backward and forward. However, the lower
arms move in a slight cross body direction in front
but do not cross an imaginary vertical plane bisect-
ing the body into right and left halves.
In sprinting, the elbows tend to be bent at an
angle of approximately 90 degrees. This angle in-
creases as the hand swings in front of the body and

decreases as the hand passes the hip to the rear. The
smaller moment of inertia (small lever arm) allows
the arms to be moved very rapidly. The amount of
bend in the arms decreases as the running speed de-
creases. The distance that the arms are carried away
from the side of the body (lateral distance) seems to
be dependent on the width of the hips. The heavier
the hips in relation to the arms, the farther from the
body the arms must be carried. The hands are
usually carried in a relaxed, cupped position.
Body Lean. When the rate of acceleration of a
runner the greatest, the forward lean of the trunk
is
is the greatest. Thus a sprinter has a tremendous
lean at the start of a race. From the instant the
sprinter starts to reach top speed, the rate of acceler-
ation is gradually diminished and the forward lean
becomes less and less. The body lean at a uniform
rate of speed is nearly erect. This slight lean is neces-
sary in order to maintain balance; i.e., to keep the
body from rotation or falling forward.
Stride Length-Stride Frequency. The
speed at which a runner moves depends upon two
factors: (a) the stride length and (b) the stride fre-
quency. The stride length is the horizontal distance
translated from the toe of one foot to the toe of the
other foot. The frequency is the number of strides
taken per unit of time. If a runner has a stride length
of 2 meters per stride and a frequency of 3 strides
per second, the running speed (distance per time)
equals 6 meters per second. Any increase or decrease
of these two elements will cause a corresponding
change in the running speed. Biomechanics research
over the past decade indicates that stride length is
the major running speed factor at speeds from 3 to 6
m/s. At running speeds from 6 m/s to 11 m/s, stride
length levels off and stride frequency becomes the
important speed factor. The skilled runner has the
ability to produce larger forces against the ground in
a short period of time. Explosive leg strength is
needed to produce large forces in a short period of
time.
Jumping, Hopping, Leaping
The jump, hop, or leap are all forms of locomo-
tion which involve projecting the body into the air.
The hop is defined as any movement involving a
takeoff and landing on the same foot. In the leap,
there is a takeoff from one foot and a landing on the
other foot. For the jump, the takeoff is from one foot
or both feet, and the landing is on both feet simulta-
neously. Many sports skills involve a form of jump-
ing, hopping, and/or leaping.
The essential factors to be considered in jump-
ing, hopping, and leaping are: (a) initial force, (b)
angle of takeoff, and (c) gravity.
In preparing to jump, hop, or leap, the legs bend
in preparation for the strong, explosive leg action.
MECHANICAL ASPECTS 13
The depth of the bend of the legs (or crouch) depends
upon the strength of the leg muscles and the nature
of the sport skill. A deep crouch requires a great, deal
of leg strength and a long period of time to lift the
body. Therefore, in most situations the crouch
should never form a 90-degree angle at the knee. The
angles between 65 and 90 degrees tend to produce
the best jumps.
The initial force is produced by the explosive leg
action pushing down against the ground. In accord-
ance with Newton's Third Law, an equal and oppo-
siteground reaction force is produced which pushes
the body into the air. The height reached by the
body's center of gravity is proportional to the magni-
tude of the vertical ground reaction forces at take off.
An arm swing in an upward direction produces an
increase in the ground reaction forces and a transfer
of momentum.
If the purpose of the jump, hop, or leap is to move
the body upward as far as possible (i.e., a vertical
jump), all force should be applied straight down
against the ground with the center of gravity directly
over the feet. This will produce a ground reaction
force with only a vertical component, and all ener-
gies are used to lift the body vertically. If however,
the purpose of the task is to propel the body forward
and upward, the force should be applied against the
ground at an angle. The forward lean of the body and
the arm swing forward contributed to this angle of
projection. When the takeoff force is applied at a 45-
degree angle, half of the ground reaction force is
used to move the body upward and half is used to
move the body forward. A higher angle of pushoff,
for example 70 degrees, provides a greater vertical
force than horizontal; a lower angle, for example 30
degrees, provides greater horizontal motion and less
vertical motion. Thus the angle of takeoff is depend-
ent upon the goal of the skill.
Once the body is projected into the air, gravity
will slow its vertical velocity and bring the body back
to earth. The height that a body will achieve is de-
pendent only on the magnitude of the ground reac-
tion force and the angle of application. An angle of
projection of 90 degrees will provide the greatest
amount of time in the air because all available force
is in a direction to resist gravity. Any other angle di-
vides the ground reaction force vertically and hori-
zontally, producing less time in the air.
Any movement in the airborne phase of a jump,
hop, or leap will create an equal and opposite reac-
tion. However, it is possible to create a momentary
pause at the high point of a jump by lowering the po-
sition of the center of gravity within the body. This
may be achieved by lowering the arms or bending
the legs at the top of the jump.
In landing from a jump, hop, or leap the force
must be absorbed in order to avoid injury. A force
can be absorbed by its gradual slowing over the
greatest possible time and distance (i.e., giving with
14 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
the Therefore, all joints of the legs must "give"
force).
in sequence as contact with the ground is made, in
order to absorb the force.
Catching
Catching is a skill that requires the body to stop
the momentum of a moving object. The mechanical
considerations are (a) absorbing the force over the
greatest possible distance; i.e., "give" and (b) absorb-
ing the force over the greatest possible surface area.
The absorption of the force over the greatest pos-
sible distance involves exerting a force on the object
in the opposite direction of the moving object. This
can be accomplished by first, moving in line with the
oncoming object; second, reaching out as far as possi-
ble to meet the object; and third, contacting and
slowly allowing the object to move toward the body.
A step taken in the direction of the oncoming object
not only increases balance but also, for an increase
in the distance and time, permits the object's velocity
to be reduced.
For balls that are to be caught above the waist.
the thumbs of both hands should be placed together
and the fingers pointed upward. For objects to be
caught below waist level, the little fingers should be
placed together and pointed downward. These posi-
tions are important in order to avoid injury and to
present the largest possible surface area. In base-
ball, the padded glove increases the area over which
the force is received.
Throwing
Throwing an object involves the transfer of mo-
mentum from the body to the object. An object held
in the hand acquires the speed and direction of the
hand and, when released, continues to move at this
velocity and in the same direction until acted upon
by other forces, such as gravity and air resistance. Of
primary concern are the methods for developing
speed and controlling the direction of the hand.
The faster the hand is moving when a ball is re-
leased, the greater the speed of the throw. The speed
of hand movement can be increased by increasing
the period of time the ball is moving in the direction
of the throw —
in other words, increasing the length
of the backswing. To increase the backswing: (a) turn
the side opposite the throwing arm toward the direc-
tion of the throw, (b) rotate the body away from the
direction of the throw, and (c) place the feet in a
stride position with the foot opposite the throwing
arm forward.
An essential factor to throwing velocity is the
length of the external lever arm or the perpendicular
distance from the axis of rotation to the throwing
hand. Holding the ball in the finger tips and holding
the arm farther away from the body are two ways to
increase the lever arm.
The sum of the force
total effective force is the
produced by the muscle groups contributing to
all
the action. The contributing body parts brought into
action in timed sequence provide more speed. The
sequence is: step, rotate, throw. The step should be
taken in the direction of the throw. The rotation
refers to the rotation of the trunk, and the throw
refers to the forward arm swing. Any movement of
the body in the direction of the throw adds to the ve-
locity of the throw. A run up or hop preceding the
throw gives the body added momentum which is
transferred to the thrown object. Follow through, a
gradual reduction of the body's momentum, is essen-
tial to avoid injury and to insure maximum transfer
of momentum to the object.
In addition to the speed of release, such factors
as angle of release, air resistance, gravity, height of
release, and spin will affect the distance an object
can be thrown. For example, top spin on a ball will
cause a ball to have a shorter period of flight. When
throwing for distance, the ball must be released at
an angle no greater than 45 degrees. The greater the
distance the ball is released, above the ground, the
lower the projectile angle should be. The angle of re-
lease should also be decreased when throwing
against high air resistance.
Striking
As in throwing, the effectiveness of striking is
judged terms of the speed, distance and direction
in
of the stuck object. All the factors that apply to a
thrown ball apply similarly to striking. Momentum
must be developed in the body, transferred to the
hand and then to the implement held in the hand (or
foot as in kicking) and then transferred to the ball or
object.
The speed which can be developed by the strik-
ing implement depends upon: (a) the length of the
striking implement, (b> the mass of the striking im-
plement and the mass of the ball, (c the velocity of
)
the striking implement and the ball, (d) the firmness
of the striking implement and the point of contact
between the striking implement and the struck ob-
ject at the time of contact.
A longer striking implement will provide a
longer lever arm which will increase the struck ob-
ject's velocity. The longer the implement the faster
the distal end of the object will travel and more ve-
locity will be imparted to the ball. However, the
longer lever is more difficult to control. In many
cases choking up on the striking implement will in-
crease control but decrease the optimal velocity of
the struck object.
The heavier the striking implement, up to the
point of loss of movement speed, the greater the mo-
mentum transfer possible. If a bat, for example, is so
heavy that the speed of the swing is reduced, the re-
sulting momentum will be decreased rather than in-

creased by weight. The opposite is true of the struck
object, the lighter the object being struck, the greater
the resultant velocity.
The firmer the striking surface, the greater the
force imparted to the struck object. The striking im-
plement must not be allowed to "give" at the moment
of contact. Any loosening of the grip or lack of a firm
wrist at contact will absorb and reduce the magni-
tude of the imparted force. If a flat open hand is used
to strike a ball, as in volleyball, some of the force
being transferred to the ball will be absorbed by the
hand. The hand, constructed of many small bones
and muscles, cannot be kept completely firm and ab-
sorbs some of the forces at contact. The use of a
closed hand, or heel of the hand, provides a firmer
striking surface.
The more nearly the ball is contacted in line
itscenter of gravity, the greater the force transferred
to the ball in the desired direction.Any force applied
at a distance from the object's center of gravity will
create an angular force (spin) in addition to a re-
duced linear force. The angle at which the ball leaves
the striking surface also depends upon the angle at
which it hits the surface of the striking implement.
The ball will generally rebound at an angle equal
and opposite to the one with which it strikes the im-
plement surface (the angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of reflection).
In addition to the above factors, successful strik-
ing movements like throwing movements depend on
the length of the backswing, number of contributing
muscles, correct sequence of muscular contraction,
weight shift, and follow through. Each factor con-
tributes significantly to optimal striking ability.
The above mechanical aspects section was in-
tended to provide an overview of movement biome-
chanics. For additional information, the reader
should explore the selected references in the interre-
lated fields of anatomy, kinesiology, and biome-
chanics that are listed in the bibliography.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Adrian, M.J. and Cooper., J.M. The Biomechanics of
Human Movement. Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark Press,
Inc., 1989.
Enoka, R.M. Neuromechanical Basis of Kinesiology. Cham-
paign, IL: Human Kinetics Books, 1988.
Gowitzke, B.A., and Milner, M. Scientific Bases of Human
Movement. 3rd ed., Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wil-
kins, 1984.
Hay, J.G. The Biomechanics of Sports Techniques. 3rd
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1985.
Hay, J. and Reid, J.G. Anatomy, Mechanics and Human
Motion. 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1988.
Kreighbaum, E. and Barthels, K.M. Biomechanics. 3rd
New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1990.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS 75
Rasch, P.J. Kinesiology and Applied Anatomy. 7th ed.,
Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1989.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Psychology isthe study of behavior and cognitive
processes. As such, it is concerned with all aspects of
physical and mental behavior. There are many areas
of study in psychology, but in this HANDBOOK we
concentrate on principles that are most relevant for
teachers and coaches, particularly those concerning
motivation, learning, personality, and social interac-
with tions.
MOTIVATION
Whatever behavior is being studied, one important
consideration is the motivation prompting it. Moti-
vation is any condition that energizes, guides, and
sustains responding. Motives may be unlearned,
such as hunger or thirst, or learned, such as the de-
sire for friendship or for accomplishment.
Needs and Drives. Psychologists view needs
as the physiological or psychological deficits a per-
son experiences; drives are the states resulting from
needs. Motives are often viewed as the product of
needs and drives.
Physiological needs include hunger or thirst,
need for air, or need for relief from pain. Teachers
and coaches may not be concerned with the first two,
but the latter two provide good illustrations of prob-
lems that may prove important. For example, teach-
ing swimming may be very difficult if the learner
has a strong fear of suffocation and refuses to put his
or her head in the water. And many runners experi-
ence painful "stitches" and simply stop practicing.
Psychological deficits may be more difficult to
identify. If not expressed by the learner, it may be
extremely hard for the instructor to realize the type
of achievement "needed" and the resultant drive pro-
duced. For example, research has shown that key
reasons for children's participation in sports include
wanting to achieve improvement in skills and abil-
ity, have fun, and enjoy the social and sportsman-
ship aspects of the events. If the instructor believes
that the children's primary desire is to win, the
wrong kinds of achievements may be stressed and
ed., rewarded. Taking part in sports often is prompted by
a desire to be "part of the group" for people of all
ages. If the instructor fails to support this, an impor-
tant psychological motive may not be satisfied. Chil-
dren or adults who do not experience satisfaction
ed., may be likely to leave the learning (sport) situation
and not return.

76 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Level of Motivation. Regardless of the type
of motive being investigated, psychologists have
tried to find ways to express the strength of the mo-
tive. This sometimes accomplished by measuring
is
deprivation, that is, how much time has passed since
last satisfying the motive. A baseball player in an 0-
for-24 slump would be thought to have experienced
considerable deprivation and be likely to have a high
level of motivation to get a hit.
Another quite common way of investigating the
level of motivation is to use standardized tests.
versions exist, some attempting to identify current
motive states and others concentrating on what are
thought of as enduring traits. For example, state
anxiety is thought to be the prevailing level of anxi-
ety being experienced as a result of conditions exist-
ing in the environment at the moment. By contrast,
trait anxiety is thought of as a more permanent
characteristic of an individual, a general way of re-
sponding in many As an illus-
different situations.
tration, recent research has shown that some players
are actually more anxious in intra-team qualifying
matches than when participating in conference
championships. This form of state anxiety would be
very important for a coach to identify.
Psychologists have studied the relationships be-
tween the level of motivation and the resultant per-
formance. For many years, the results illustrated in
Figure 1-5 were thought to represent the most com-
mon findings, often called the "inverted-U curve."
Performance was thought to be best at moderate
levels of motivation, with poorer performance ex-
pected when motive levels were low (laziness, for ex-
ample) or too high ("choking ").
More recently, psychologists have modified their
beliefs about level of motivation, finding that each
individual may have a best level of motivation for
him or her. Based on the work of Russian psycholo-
gist Yuri Hanin, psychologists interested in sport be-
haviors now often talk about the zone of optimal
difficult task
good
PERFORMANCE
poor
very medium
low
LEVEL OF MOTIVATION
FIGURE 1-5
)
functioning <ZOF>. The ZOF theory proposes that
each person will perform best at a motivation level
that matches individual characteristics; that is,
while many people will show best performance when
experiencing moderate levels of motivation, others
will do equally well when highly aroused or when in
a very relaxed or passive state. According to this
theory, coaches who previously accepted the concept
that all players should be "psyched up" before a com-
petition should modify that concept to recognize that
Many each player may need individualized consideration.
Functional Autonomy. Functional autonomy
where a response is first made to
refers to a situation
satisfy some external motivating condition, but after
being repeated a number of times, comes to be mo-
tivating in and of itself. One example of functional
autonomy found in physical education is that of
jogging. Very few joggers start to jog because they
really like it, rather, they are trying to get in shape,
lose weight, quit smoking, or obey doctor's orders.
Yet many joggers come to appreciate the jogging just
for its own sake. Indeed, kept from exercising by bad
weather, travel, job pressures, or other reasons, avid
joggers often feel very deprived.
i Note: A number of studies have found that a vig-
orous bout of exercise is followed by improved mood
state, the "feeling good" reaction to a work-out.
While there are some questions as to whether such
reactions can be experienced by all and questions re-
garding the causality of the mood state change, this
phenomenon is one that teachers and coaches should
recognize as a possibility.
Conflict. One other aspect of the study of mo-
tivation is that of conflict, a situation where two or
more incompatible motives are operating at the
same time. Resolving any conflict usually involves
choosing a response that satisfies the strongest of
the motives. Continuing with the jogging example
mentioned above, the beginning jogger may experi-
ence significant conflict as he or she starts. Starting
to exercise has the positive value of getting in shape,
but possible negative values such as experiencing
some pain or having to change one's daily schedule.
Not starting has the positive values of maintaining a
comfort level and not experiencing the pain, but the
negative value of getting more and more out of
shape. Obviously, teachers or exercise instructors
will want to try to strengthen the motives and rein-
force those aspects that lead the person to resolve
such a conflict by choosing the exercise alternative.
LEARNING
Assuming a person is motivated to attempt some be-
very
havior, teachers and coaches must then facilitate
high
learning the behavior properly. Learning is defined
as a relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience. This definition does

not negate the importance of physical development.
Physical growth often is a necessary condition for
learning to take place, but physical growth alone is
not sufficient. Experience must also occur.
Learning-Performance Distinction. Per-
formance is the actual behavior shown by the person.
It must be recognized that what is observed does not
necessarily reveal what has been learned. For exam-
ple, a tennis player may have learned how to hit a
"cut shot," but not be confronted with a situation
that requires such a response. The observable per-
formance would not show the learning.
A variation of the concern with performance has
been the choice of process, or how a response is made,
versus product, or what result turns out. This debate
often is expressed as "That's not the right way to do
that!" versus "But it works!" Teachers and coaches
constantly are confronted with this concern. It is aw-
fully hard to tell a player with a .375 batting average
that "putting the foot in the bucket" is poor form.
The product is successful, even though the process is
not ideal.
Effects of Practice. Some people are able to
realize the effects of poor form. Recently, one quite
successful professional golfer decided that he needed
to "rebuild" his swing in order to become even more
successful. He sought a new teacher, changed his
practice pattern, accomplished the swing changes,
and found himself winning four major champion-
ships in the space of three years.
Many students and athletes grow up believing
that "practice makes perfect." This is an inaccurate
statement unless the response being performed is
perfect or is being modified constantly tc approach
perfection. Instructors should recognize that a more
appropriate viewpoint is that "practice makes per-
manent." As with the golfer, the instructor's task is
to try to help any student-athlete make permanent
the very best response possible.
REINFORCEMENT
The condition that satisfies a motive is called a rein-
forcer.Although often thought of as reward, psychol-
ogists use the term reinforcement in a broader sense,
defining it as any condition that increases or main-
tains the strength of a response.
Positive Reinforcement. The conditions usu-
ally described asrewards are called positive rein-
forcements, events, which when present, increase or
maintain the strength of the response. These may
include anything from a few words of praise to
stickers pasted on a football helmet.
Negative Reinforcement. Another form of
reinforcement is called negative reinforcement, when
the removal or absence of some stimulus increases or
maintains the strength of a response. The unpleas-
ant condition being removed is called an aversive
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS 17
stimulus. Negative reinforcement is not punishment.
Punishment occurs when a response leads to an aver-
sive stimulus while negative reinforcement occurs
when the aversive stimulus does not occur or is
stopped.
Teachers and coaches often use negative rein-
forcement as well as punishers. Particularly good re-
sponses are reinforced by the removal of some
unpleasant condition, for example, cancelling the
laps to be run at the end of class or practice. On the
other hand, if the responses have been especially
poor, adding laps to the end of the class or practice
represents punishment.
Extinction, Counterconditioning, and
Spontaneous Recovery. When a response is no
longer followed by a reinforcer, the response tends to
become weaker. Extinction is both the procedure of
no longer presenting the reinforcement and the re-
sult of this process, that is, the weakening of the re-
sponse strength. When a replacement response is
desired in the same stimulus situation, countercon-
—
ditioning reinforcing a substitute response —
is
often employed. Interestingly, sometimes there will
be a reappearance of an extinguished response after
a period of rest has followed the extinction proce-
dure. This is called spontaneous recovery of the re-
sponse and occurs when stimulus conditions provoke
the response, although there is no reinforcement
present.
All three of these principles should be familiar to
instructors. For example, many young children learn
to throw ineffectively, placing forward the foot on the
same side of the body as the throwing hand. An in-
structor hoping to change this pattern may have to
devote quite a bit of time to praising an appropriate
response (counterconditioning) and extinguishing
(not reinforcing) the less efficient pattern. Despite
this instruction, sometimes after children have been
away from class or competition for some time, the in-
efficient form may reappear. Just why this sponta-
neous recovery occurs is not understood. Regardless,
instructors must realize that if it does, additional
practice such as that described above will be neces-
sary.
Partial Reinforcement Effect. One condi-
tion that works against extinction is partial rein-
forcement; that is, when a response is followed by
reinforcement only part of the time. The result of
partial reinforcement is called the partial reinforce-
ment effect (PRE). Responses learned under partial
reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than
responses learned under continuous reinforcement.
This works to the advantage of the coach or
teacher if the response is a productive or efficient
one. However, an inefficient response such as the
throwing response mentioned above will work some
of the time. In such cases, eliminating the response
may be quite difficult. This points to the need for ef-
fective instruction for motor responses very early in
18 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

a child's life. When appropriate response patterns

can be trained, they can become very resistant to ex-
tinction and probably will be maintained throughout
life. On the other hand, lack of instruction or poor in-

struction may allow inefficient or inappropriate re-

sponses to be learned that will work against the
pleasures and successes that could be experienced.

SHAPING

One of the most common ways of using reinforce-

ment to improve athletic performance is to shape the
preferred response. Shaping is defined as reinforcing
closer and closer approximations of a desired behav-
ior, example, when teaching a young soccer
for
player tomake an instep kick. To begin, the player is
encouraged whenever contact with the ball is made
on the instep rather than the toe. Step-by- step, in-
creasing proficiency is reinforced so that eventually
the player can use either foot to make accurate, ap-
propriate-speed kicks with a still or moving ball.
Modeling. Modeling occurs when a person ob-
serves the behavior of another, then performs some
or all of that observed response. The instructor
teaching the instep kick first demonstrates how it is
done. The person learning then tries to imitate what FIGURE 1-6 Modeling is an important instructional principle.
has been seen. If combined with shaping, the in-
structor reinforces each imitation that gets closer to
the ultimately desired performance. because you didn't follow the superstition" attitude
Another concern in modeling is vicarious learn- can be extremely destructive, while in reality, it is
ing, which occurs when the learner observes both the completely false.
response and the consequences of that response. For
example, this is shown when the learner imitates the
form of an expert archer who consistently hits the ATTENTION
bullseye. In some cases, observing an unsuccessful
response may instruct a student as to avoid making Almost any sport or activity environment has many
an ineffectual response. For example, if a companion aspects of stimulation. Response acquisition may de-
attempts to cast a fishing line while standing too pend on the person's attention to the stimuli that are
close to a tree and snags the line, the observer learns important for correct learning.
to avoid that response without actually having to A popular way of conceptualizing attention in
perform it. sport situations has been proposed by Robert Ni-
deffer, who suggests that attention can be viewed as
1
Superstitious Responding. Occasionally, a
response is followed by a reinforcement that is not having both width and direction. Width refers to
contingent upon the response being made, but the whether the athlete must focus in a broad or narrow
athlete comes to believe there is a contingency. The manner, while direction refers to having either an
result, called superstitious responding because of internal or external focus. Combining these two di-
this inaccurate belief, is repetition of the response mensions, sport activities can then be viewed as:
pattern. Unfortunately, infrequent response-rein- broad-internal, such as the responsibilities of a
forcement sequences, although not contingent rela- coach who must pay attention to all aspects of what
tionships, are enough to sustain the superstition, the team is doing and make decisions accordingly;
illustrating the partial reinforcement effect. broad-external, such as when a quarterback is trying
While many superstitions may be harmless, to pick out a receiver among the many players on the
such as putting a sock on the left foot before putting field; narrow-internal, such as is required by the
one on the right foot when dressing for a game, the kind of focus used by weightlifters; and narrow-ex-
teacher or coach must guard against circumstances
where the person believes a superstition so deeply 1
R.M. Nideffer, A
Test of Attentional and Interpersonal
that failure to satisfy the conditions produces an at- Style (1976K Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34,
titude of complete defeatism. The "now we can't win, 394-404.

ternal, such as the responses required of a successful
golfer.
Analysis of each physical activity or sport might
help teachers and coaches instill appropriate atten-
tional focus into players. For example, a golfer dis-
tracted by shadows or sounds while putting could be
taught to focus only on the line of the putt and other
relevant external cues. Eventually, the goal would be
to reach a level of habitual responding where attend-
ing to the necessary and appropriate cues is done in
a manner that makes correct responding automatic.
Generalization and Discrimination. At-
tention may be
influenced by stimulus generalization
— responding not only to the original stimulus, but
to other similar stimuli —
and discrimination (or dif-
ferentiation), when the response is made to one stim-
ulus, but not made to other stimuli that are judged to
be dissimilar. Downhill skiing provides examples of
both principles. The novice skier may judge all snow
conditions to be the same, that is, generalize that all
slopes have "snow." The more experienced skier may
discriminate among the several different types of
snow that can be encountered and adjust responses
accordingly.
OTHER GENERAL ACQUISITION PRINCIPLES
While many factors such as those mentioned above
influence acquisition, there are a number of other
variables that affect learning. This section presents
some that seem most appropriate for physical educa-
tion.
Overlearning. Overlearning is associated with
the "practice makes permanent" concept. If some cri-
terion is used to decide when learning has occurred,
overlearning refers to the amount of time or number
of trials spent practicingbeyond that criterion level.
Even the shortstop and second baseman seemingly
if
have mastered the double play pivot, repeated prac-
tice will ensure the learning.
Transfer of Training. When task acquisition
is by some previous learning, transfer of
affected
training has taken place. Teachers should strive for
positive transfer, that is, when learning one task fa-
cilitates the acquisition of another. The throwing
motion mentioned earlier provides a good example of
positive transfer. The opposite hand-foot require-
ment can be transferred from throwing a ball to
serving a volleyball, serving in tennis, or rolling a
bowling ball. Some situations generate negative
transfer, when already knowing one task interferes
with the acquisition of a second. Something that
seems as simple as learning the rules regarding out-
of-bounds illustrates how negative transfer can
occur. In baseball, tennis, soccer, and a number of
other sports, on the line is inbounds. The ball must
be completely beyond the line to be out-cf-bounds.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS 19
But in football or basketball, on the line is out-of-
bounds. Obviously, learning in one case may be det-
rimental to learning the same type of rule for some
other sport. To further complicate the matter, some
judgments involve how much over the line, as when a
referee in wrestling must make a decision as to
whether most of the body has or has not crossed the
boundary line.
should be noted that there will be some in-
It
stances where no transfer takes place, either positive
or negative, thus one task has no bearing upon an-
other.
Knowledge of Results. Also called feedback,
knowledge of results is the information about success
or failure a person receives after performing some
response. In general, knowledge of results facilitates
acquisition of a response, especially if it is provided
immediately after the response is made rather than
delayed.
Many motor tasks provide knowledge of results
automatically. If a person tries a new type of turn
while skiing and falls, there is immediate feedback
about the response. Other circumstances require the
feedback provided by a coach or instructor (an out-
side observer) such as comments about position on
the playing area or time elapsed for a particular dis-
tance.
Apopular way to provide feedback information
in classrooms and athletic situations is the use of
film or videotape. One advantage of this type of feed-
back is that it can be used repeatedly, allowing the
learner the certainty of understanding the point
being made.
Distribution of Practice. A summary of re-
search supports the finding that holding relatively
short practice periods and distributing them over
some period of time will produce the best acquisition
of a response. This is often called distributed prac-
tice, as opposed to massed practice where practice pe-
riods are bunched together. (Note: The concern here
is with acquiring a response; longer practice periods
for already-learned responses may be necessary to
obtain desired conditioning levels.)
Many teachers and coaches take advantage of
distributed practice by scheduling a variety of tasks
during any one session. The tasks may be repeated a
number of times over several days, but are not prac-
ticed long enough in any one session to produce bore-
dom or fatigue. Distributed practice also seems to
allow for consolidation of learning to take place dur-
ing the interim periods.
Active versus Passive Attitude. A principle
that seems to apply to almost any acquisition situa-
tion in education and athletics is that an active ap-
proach to learning will produce better acquisition
than will a passive attitude. However, it should
be recognized that the activity may be physical or
mental or both. Recent investigations in cognitive
20 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
psychology have shown that some forms of both
approaches may combine to produce improved acqui-
sition and excellent performance. For example, ath-
letes who combine active physical practice with
mental imagery, the relatively passive mental re-
hearsal of a task, often appear to benefit. Those who
create images about the response to be made and
how it will be executed frequently show considerably
improved performance when compared to athletes
who use only active practice without employing im-
agery as well.
Coaches and teachers should explore the many
possibilities that may lead to improved acquisition
and performance. An illustration would be to use a
videotape of an excellent performer as an introduc-
tion to a task (a potential modeling situation). After
viewing the tape, the learners might then try to
create mental images matching their intended per-
formance to those seen in the tape. The positive
transfer resulting from the modeling and imagery
should produce better learning and performance of
the response.
Context of Learning. Evidence indicates
that people often develop what is called state-depend-
ent learning, where the response is attached to the
physical context in which it is learned. This factor is
one that is important for both the acquisition and re-
tention of the response. "Dress rehearsal" practices
are conducted to try to satisfy this factor. Practicing
in game uniforms, on the actual playing field or
court to be used, or in other circumstances that
match the conditions that will be used when reten-
tion is actually demanded may help maximize per-
formance.
Coaches may have to allow for change of context
as well. A recent popular movie showed the coach
measuring the height of the basket and the distance
from the basket to the free-throw line in order to
prove to his team that the court on which they would
later play was the same as those in arenas with
smaller seating capacities where they had previously
played.
RETENTION AND FORGETTING
Of major concern to instructors in all areas is
whether responses that have been learned will be re-
tained or forgotten. Retention is the storage of learn-
ing over some period of time, often called the
retention interval. Forgetting refers to the loss of re-
tention, or the inability to retrieve a response from
storage. It should be noted that we must always
measure retention in some manner, not forgetting.
Forgetting is only inferred from what appears to not
be retained.
Storage. Storage, or the maintenance of a
memory over the retention interval, has several
forms. All are well illustrated by the life-long activity
of bicycling. Stimuli encountered while riding may
be kept briefly in sensory storage, when information
is held in an unprocessed form for several seconds or
less. These might include such things as the visual
scene, the sound of a car's horn, or the kinesthetic
sensations produced by the seating position on the
bicycle. Some stimuli may be incorporated into
short-term storage, where information is given some
initial processing then may be further processed or
simply discarded. For example, the rider may be
given directions and hold these in memory only long
enough to execute them, or may further process that
information into long-term storage, where informa-
tion is encoded, rehearsed, or treated in some man-
ner so that retention extends over some longer
period of time. Long-term storage may last a life-
time, and the rider may always remember the appro-
priate way to follow the route. Of course, the act of
riding the bicycle itself is good evidence for life-long,
long-term storage of a series of responses. It has
often been said that once one learns to ride a bicycle,
the responses are never forgotten. Much evidence
exists to indicate this is correct.
Athletics provide comparable examples —
in foot-
ball there are many sensory stimuli that must be
evaluated, short-term storage of the play that has
just been called which when used is then temporar-
ily discarded, and long-term storage of all the plays
and formations to be used over the course of a game
or a season.
Failure to Retrieve. The two most common
explanations for failure to retrieve information from
storage are: (a) a person is given the wrong cue to ini-
tiate the retrieval; (b) the cue is correct, but some
other, interfering response is produced instead. As
an example of inappropriate retrieval cues, consider
the dance instructor who asks her young students to
"start with the pattern you learned last Friday." If
they practiced two different dances at the last ses-
sion, the students may be unable to make the correct
response. They have not forgotten the dances, but
are confused by the retrieval cues given.
Interference suggests that retention of one re-
sponse conflicts or interferes with the retention of
some other response. This may be previous learning
interfering with the retention of something learned
later (often called proactive interference) or later
learning interfering with something learned before
(called retroactive interference). In either case, more
than one stored response can be elicited by the re-
trieval cue and, if the inappropriate response is
given, forgetting will seem to have occurred. Profes-
sional football players traded from one team to an-
other sometimes show the confusion associated with
interference when they run or block incorrectly be-
cause the numbering system used by their previous
team differs from the more recent one. The old learn-
ing interferes with the newly acquired learning and
makes it appear that forgetting has occurred.

PROBLEM SOLVING IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
The Problem Solving Sequence. Problem
solving, that establishing a goal and then seeking
is,
ways to achieve that goal, is typified by a fairly com-
mon sequence of events. The five steps are 1 recog-
( )
nizing there is a problem, (2) defining the problem
accurately, (3) producing hypotheses about the prob-
lem's solution, (4) testing the hypotheses, and (5) se-
lecting the best solution.
Recognition that a problem exists may be a
major step in initiating problem solving because, log-
ically, lack of understanding stops the sequence be-
fore it gets started. For example, not realizing the
rules of a game are misunderstood means the prob-
lem is not recognized and the game continues to be
played incorrectly. If recognition occurs, defining the
problem accurately requires identifying the most rel-
evant concepts. When rules are misunderstood, dis-
covering which are not grasped is essential if they
are to be learned properly.
Once the areas to be worked on have been identi-
fied, hypotheses about how to resolve the problem
can be generated. Generating as many solutions as
possible before testing any or making judgments
about any of the approaches may help to guarantee
that the best possible solution will be found. For ex-
ample, the teacher or coach may suggest holding
rules classes, giving a rule book to each student or
player, showing videotapes depicting the rules, or
taking participants to a contest where the rules are
being enforced properly. Each of these possible solu-
tions might be suggested before any evaluation or
decision was made.
Testing means that each hypothesis is either
confirmed or discontinued. If disconfirmed, it is dis-
carded as unworkable. If confirmed, the solution
should be compared to any other confirmed ones to
determine which is most acceptable. Taking the stu-
dents to a contest might be an acceptable hypothesis,
but prohibitively expensive when compared to rent-
ing a videotape. The latter solution would be more
likely to be adopted.
Variables Affecting Problem Solving. The
reader is invited to review earlier sections of this
chapter and try to develop applications of the princi-
ples presented to a problem-solving situation. To il-
lustrate the complexity of problem solving and how
many variables may be important, consider the
coach or teacher trying to teach novice swimmers to
make a flip-turn. The heightened motivation level
generated by submersion and disorientation may re-
duce performance effectiveness considerably. Re-
peated practice almost certainly will be needed. The
teacher may use modeling as one solution and use
the principles of shaping as well. Knowledge of re-
sults will show how a well-executed flip-turn reduces
the turn-around time required at the end of the pool.
Finally, interference may exist in the form of other
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS 21
rolling-motion activities or other turns the swim-
mers have learned previously. What may seem to be
a fairly simple goal to achieve may actually be rather
complicated and require thorough study before ini-
tiating a practice plan.
PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL CONCERNS
IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
While it is beyond the scope of the HANDBOOK to
consider personality variables or social interactions
in great detail, it should be recognized that the char-
acteristics of each individual and the ways in which
individuals interact will have pronounced effects on
the behaviors seen in athletic situations. The study
of personality considers the characteristics of each
person individually, while social psychology studies
the behavior of an individual within the group set-
ting.
Personality. Personality, the enduring char-
acteristics that represent a person's behavior, de-
velops from the combined effects of environmental
and hereditary influences. Aspects of personality
that have been studied in relation to sport and physi-
cal activity include anxiety, aggression, gender role
mood states, and so-
orientation, racial differences,
Concern has been with every level of partic-
ciability.
ipant, from the beginning child to the elite adult
athlete.
Many of the topics overlap with those already
discussed; for example, several researchers have de-
voted substantial study to the attributes of people
who participate in high-risk sports such as hang-
gliding and parachuting. These people plainly oper-
ate at motivation levels unlike the typical person,
and studies have identified them as being high in
need for achievement, dominance, and courage,
while low in need for order. They are often described
as sensation-seeking or stress-seeking individuals,
ones who appreciate high levels of arousal.
William Morgan and his associates have studied
the mood states of elite athletes from a number of
sports. Using a test called the Profile of Mood States
(POMS), Morgan has found that, in general, out-
standing athletes show what he calls the "Iceberg
2
Profile." Scores on the tension, anger, depression,
fatigue, and confusion scales of the POMS
are lower
than average, while scores on the vigor scale are con-
siderably higher.
These examples illustrate the kinds of personal-
ity research being done in sport psychology. Charac-
teristics are identified that appear to distinguish the
type of person who will succeed in particular sport
situations. Teachers and coaches should realize that
personality variables may have pronounced influ-
ence on the activities chosen and the performance
2
W.P. Morgan, Test of Champions: The Iceberg Profile
(1986K Psychology Today, 14(2), 92-102, 108.
22 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

success of potential participants. They are encour- ment. Coaches may need to evaluate competitive
aged to explore these possibilities more thoroughly anxiety before establishing contest strategies.
through additional study. Cooperation refers to working with or helping
Social Interaction. Many recreational pur- someone else in hopes of achieving some mutual
goal. Both competition and cooperation often are fos-
suits, games, and organized sports involve the par-
tered by sport or game situations. In many cases,
ticipation of more than one person at the same time.
this refers to cooperation with teammates, but coop-
Social interaction, how people interact and what ef-
eration with officials, opponents, or even spectators
fects these interactions have on their behaviors, is of
major importance in many sport circumstances. The
may be a part of the sport or game situation.
phenomena of social facilitation and social interfer-
One problem coaches or teachers often face is the
competition versus cooperation dilemma. The person
ence refer to the effects the presence of an audience
or crowd may have upon performance and provide
who has a high level of competitive motivation may
find it difficult to cooperate with others, even though
good illustrations of social interaction.
cooperation would facilitate pursuit of the goal de-
Social facilitation means
that the presence of
sired. In effect, what the person experiences can be
others tends to make performance better than when
described as a social conflict, when two incompatible
others are not present; social interference refers to
social motives are experienced at the same time. An
situations where the presence of others tends to
make performance poorer than when others are not example of this occurs when a player wishes to be a
starter and must compete against teammates for the
present. Obvious examples of these phenomena
starting positions available, yet is required to coop-
occur when performance is required in front of a
erate by the very nature of the game. Convincing
class or when a crowd is present for an athletic con-
players that both competition and cooperation are
test.
possible simultaneously in such situations is diffi-
In general, studies have shown that social facili-
cult. Because social motives such as achievement
tation is most likely to occur when the response to be
performed
and friendship can be extremely powerful and create
is one that has been well learned. Social
social conflict circumstances, instructors are cau-
interference occurs more frequently with relatively
tioned to evaluate such possibilities when working
new responses. Again, teachers or coaches who un-
with their athletes.
derstand these results can try to establish conditions
that create facilitation and avoid interference. The
implied reinforcement of social facilitation or pun-
ishment of social interference can be expected to af- SUMMARY
fect later performances.
This brief look at psychological principles is suffi-
Social Expectations. Social expectations may cient to indicate the need for coaches and teachers to
influence a person's behavior, especially when the be aware of the many variables that may affect per-
behavior appears to occur in order to satisfy some formance. The references listed below will help the
previously expressed expectation. Instructors should reader explore in more detail those areas that are of
be particularly careful to avoid repetitive demeaning particular interest.
remarks when dealing with behaviors that are easily
changed. Comments such as "You'll never get it
right" become the expectation and yield inadequate SELECTED REFERENCES
performances. Teachers and coaches must also guard
against peer group ridicule, which can produce the Butt, D.S., Psychology of Sport: The Behavior, Motivation,
same kind of effect. Correspondingly, establishing Personality, and Performance of Athletes, 2nd ed. New
positive expectations often will generate improved York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1987. A comprehen-
performance. The "You're getting better. I know sive review of theory, research, and practice, with spe-
you'll get it soon" attitude can be expected to produce cial emphasis on consulting and other "how to" topics.

improved responding. Cox, R.H., Sport Psychology: Concepts and Applications,

2nd ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1990. A thorough
Competition and Cooperation. Competition compilation of the basic topics of sport psychology.
is the attempt to do better than someone else. Com-
LeUnes, A.D., and Nation, JR., Sport Psychology: An In-
petition often requires a positive attitude, whether
troduction, Nelson-Hall Inc., 1989. A comprehensive text
the someone else involved is another person or the that presents theory, research, and application in sport
previous accomplishments of the person competing. psychology.
Research indicates that a successful competitor Martens, R., Coaches Guide to Sport Psychology, Human
strives for and expects accomplishments that an un- Kinetics Publishers, 1987. Complete guidelines for im-
successful competitor does not. Additionally, studies plementing a psychological skills training program for
have shown that anxiety about competition varies as coaches.
a function of many variables including perceived Martens, R., Vealey, S., and Burton, D., Competitive Anxi-
threat, level of motivation, or gender role endorse- ety in Sport, Human Kinetics Publishers, 1990. A review

of the research using a particular measuring instru-
ment, together with suggestions for future investiga-
tions.
Orlick, T., Psyching for Sport:Mental Training for Athletes
and Coaches Training Manual to Psyching for Sport,
Human Kinetics Publishers, 1987. Techniques for devel-
oping the psychological skills needed for sport competi-
tion; a package for applied sport psychology courses.
Journals
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. Human Kinetics
Publishers, Box 5076, Champaign, IL 61825-5076. In
addition to a wide variety of papers, includes book re-
views, commentaries, and a digest of related works
found in other publications.
Other journals likely to contain work related to sport
psychology include The Sport Psychologist, Journal of
Motor Behavior, Perceptual and Motor Skills, Journal of
Teaching in Physical Education, Journal of Sport
Science, Journal of Applied Psychology, The Physician
and Sports Medicine, Research Quarterly, and Interna-
tional Journal of Sport Psychology.
OBJECTIVES AND PROGRAMS
The well-planned physical education program has
the potential to contribute in a number of ways to all
phases of your educational development. Physical
education's contribution is unique since it offers
movement as the primary medium through which
the educational process may occur.
OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Physical educators are in general agreement that a
sound course will comprise the following three objec-
tives:
1. Psychomotor Objectives. This refers to
the dual role of skill improvement and fitness devel-
opment that you should experience as a result of
your participation in a physical education or well-
ness course. For example, if you are taking a swim-
ming course, skill improvement would refer to your
ability to become a more proficient swimmer as a re-
sult of planned class instruction and directed prac-
tice in that skill. Fitness development would refer to
improvement in some of the commonly accepted fit-
ness measures as a result of your class participation.
In swimming class, you might notice how much more
easily you can perform the as a result of your
skill
class experiences. This may
be an indication that
your cardiorespiratory system is adapting to the
stress placed on it by the exertion from activity. It
could also mean that your stroke technique has im-
proved (skill development), and you are now moving
OBJECTIVES AND PROGRAMS 23
your body through the water more efficiently. What-
ever the reason, both are desirable traits and consti-
tute an important achievement for you and what
physical education is all about. Of course, the same
argument could be used for any other course you
might be taking, whether soccer, fitness walking,
dance, racquetball, etc.
2. Cognitive Objective. This refers to the
accumulation of knowledge as well as the ability to
think and interpret that knowledge. In a fitness
walking class, for example, you might become in-
volved in working with times in determining pace
per mile walked. You will undoubtedly become in-
volved in computing your target heart rate (as well
as why this is important), which could include the
correct way to determine your resting and maximum
pulse rates. Closely associated with that is the mat-
ter of cardiac anatomy and physiology which might
get you involved with appropriate nutrition and diet
for a healthy heart. Nutritional study opens up other
areas of exploration such as the metric system in un-
derstanding the amount of sodium or fat contained
in a certain food product. Furthermore, we may be
motivated to be a more well-informed consumer
when we shop. Other possibilities in a class such as
this might be appropriate walking shoe selection,
proper clothing for hot or cold weather walking,
warm-up and cool-down, appropriate times of the
day to walk to avoid high air pollution levels, and so
forth.
3. Affective Objective. This objective deals
with the development of traits such as the individ-
ual's values, appreciations, attitudes,and interests.
How might the affective objective be applied to an
activity such as tennis, for example? Perhaps the
most obvious example would deal with the matter of
calling your opponent's shots as they land in your
half of the court. For someone who does not have a
background in the racket sports, this responsibility
can be quite awesome. But it goes beyond that rela-
tively obvious task. It could involve learning the im-
portance of being the type of opponent or partner
who makes playing tennis a pleasant experience as
you play the game enthusiastically and to the best of
your ability regardless of the conditions. You compli-
ment others on their outstanding play. While you
play competitively, your standard of conduct is
within both the written word and the spirit of the
rules. As a result of participating in tennis, you ac-
quire habits of loyalty, cooperation, initiative, self-
control and courtesy. You demonstrate a concept of
fair play as it relates to others.
SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS
Sound programs of physical education provide a sys-
tematic progression of movement experiences for the
students as they develop and mature. Federal legis-
24 UNDERSTANDING PHYSICAL EDUCATION
lation mandates that learning experiences must be
equally available to both genders (Title IX) as well as
the disabled student (Public Law 94-142). These two
laws were discussed previously in the Historical
Aspects section of this chapter.
Elementary School. Programs of physical ed-
ucation at this level should provide a wide range of
learning experiences for the youngsters. Unfortu-
nately, good programs in the elementary schools are
frequently lacking in quality, and one of the major
concerns within the profession is the inactive life-
style that many grade school youngsters now follow.
Programs in the lower elementary grades should in-
clude large muscle, vigorous activity featuring such
locomotor skills as walking, running, jumping, hop-
ping, skipping, galloping, and leaping. Nonlocomotor
skills such as bending, twisting, reaching, lifting,
turning, lowering, and raising also characterize good
programs. These movement skills can be incorpo-
rated in programs of dance, movement exploration,
movement education, stunts and tumbling, rhyth-
mics, fitness and wellness activities, and aquatics.
These activities emphasize key elements such as
self-expression, cooperation, coordination, body
awareness in a variety of mediums, creativity,
strength, endurance, flexibility, agility, balance, and
spatial awareness. As the children move into the
upper elementary grade levels, the emphasis should
focus more on manipulative-type skill development.
Children are taught the basic elements of a variety
of physical activities, such as soccer, gymnastics,
dance, swimming, fitness and wellness activities.
The child's need to excel and compete can also be de-
veloped through the thoughtful planning of move-
ment experiences. Sound programs of physical
education at the elementary school level are crucial
in developing a positive attitude toward an active,
healthful lifestyle.
Middle School. Programs at this level should
continue to emphasize the soundness in planning
and instruction that characterized the elementary
school physical education experience. Skill develop-
ment at this level is more advanced and a broader
range of activities are involved. Because this period
is an age of rapid physical and social growth, chal-
lenging activities that provide an opportunity for the
development of interpersonal relationships should
be offered. Emphasis on team sports will enhance
the development of social skills as would such coedu-
cational activities as gymnastics and track and field.
Furthermore, the inclusion of such fitness-wellness
activities as swimming, jogging, cycling, and
rhythms would make a significant contribution to
the middle school youngster's educational develop-
ment.
Senior High School. At this level, sound
physical education programs are designed to answer
the how and why of an activity. Attempts are made
to design learning experiences that will help the stu-
dents gain an understanding of mechanical princi-
ples and the effects of exercise on the body. It is also
important that they understand concepts that deal
with the role of physical education, sport and well-
ness in society and to make valued judgments about
their own well-being. Interpersonal skill develop-
ment can continue through participating in competi-
tive activities and taking part in a wide variety of
lifetime skills such as golf, tennis, fitness and well-
ness activities, aquatics, etc.
EXTRACURRICULAR PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SPORT PROGRAMS
Aside from the instructional program in physical ed-
ucation, there are other opportunities for participa-
tion in selected sports on a more competitive level.
Normally, such programs begin at the middle school
level and extend through the college experience.
Intramural Sports. This program consists of
individuals or teams from within a public school or
college competing with others from the same school.
The type of program offered can cover a complete
range of activities from distance running and wres-
tling to bridge and archery. Intramural sports
programs are voluntary, and the play is usually
scheduled in the late afternoon or evening. Normally
participants are not on a varsity team or they do not
participate in the same intramural sport in which
they are a varsity athlete. On college campuses,
teams may come from fraternities, sororities, resi-
dence halls, other housing units, classes, clubs, etc.
Unfortunately, due to a lack of funds, trained leader-
ship, and adequate facilities, most high school intra-
mural sports programs are not too strong.
Sports Clubs. This program consists of teams
organized primarily at the collegiate level which
compete in a variety of sports on an intercollegiate
basis. Some club activities might include volleyball,
rugby, softball, lacrosse, weightlifting, bowling, sail-
ing, and ice hockey. While sports clubs' policy may
vary, they usually receive the same type of univer-
sity support as the varsity teams with one exception:
its members do not receive varsity awards. Gener-
ally, sports clubs may have less strict eligibility reg-
ulations (some permit graduate students to play),
and they may be funded in various ways such as
through a student activities office or the athletic de-
partment. They are usually required to have some
type of faculty sponsorship although there is usually
more student leadership than on varsity teams.
Sports clubs provide an excellent way for students to
train in a particular sport and compete on a varsity-
like level.
Interscholastic and Intercollegiate Ath-
letics. Sometimes referred to as "varsity sports" (a
shortened version of the word "university"), this pro-
gram is an American educational tradition and is

well established as a part of our culture. Interscho-
lastic athletics refer to the public school programs
where athletes leave the school to compete with a
similarly organized team at either a host school or
neutral location. Intercollegiate athletics is the same
program, functioning in the same general fashion at
the college or university level.
Varsity programs are found at all educational
levels and are usually characterized by dedicated
leadership, high levels of organizationally skilled
participants, and an emphasis on competition. Un-
fortunately, such programs sometimes focus on a few
skilled performers who in fact, represent only a
small percentage of the student body. The educa-
tional value of such programs has been debated since
their inception during the latter part of the 19th cen-
tury. With appropriate leadership that supports a
program of broad participation with the students' in-
terests foremost, interscholastic and intercollegiate
athletics have a great deal to offer as rich educa-
tional experiences. All too often, they do not achieve
those objectives.
FUTURE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
While fitness, sport, and wellness activities are very
popular, physical education, as we have described it
in this chapter, struggles for acceptance. Currently,
in all states, it is a public school course requirement;
otherwise, it might well be dropped or offered on an
elective basis. At the college and university level, re-
quired physical education is frequently offered on an
elective basis. It appears the future of physical edu-
cation will be enhanced if it can be offered as a
course integrated with fitness and wellness-type
concepts. Otherwise, the future may indeed be dim.
We have already addressed some aspects of the
future of sport. In many areas of the country, inter-
OBJECTIVES AND PROGRAMS 25
scholastic sports do not attract the following they
once did. This may be attributed to the increased ex-
pense in sponsoring such activities, the high rate of
injuries in some sports with the implicit legal ramifi-
cations, and the number of other pursuits now avail-
able to teenagers. In those areas, however, where
sports constitute an important part of the cultural
heritage of a community, they fulfill an important
psychological need for those involved not the least of
(
which are the fans), and will likely remain firmly in
place in those locations at both the high school or
university level.
SUMMARY
Physical education is much more than just fitness
and exercise or the psychomotor objective. While
these are important objectives, the well-planned pro-
gram has more to offer through the cognitive and af-
fective objectives. Sound programs can take place
from kindergarten through college, and various ex-
tracurricular sport-related activities, with sound
leadership, can make a valuable contribution to your
education. Such experiences can truly enhance your
sense of wellness.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Bucher, C, and Wuest, D. Foundations of Physical Educa-
tion and Sport. St. Louis: Times Mirror /Mosby Co.,
1987.
Robbins, G., Powers, D., and Burgess-Troxell. A Wellness
Way of Life. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers,
1991.
Siedentop, D. Introduction to Physical Education, Fitness
and Sport. Toronto: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1990.
 2 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS
THIS CHAPTER DISCUSSES:
Skill-related versus health-related physical fitness.
The need for and benefits of physical fitness.
Components of the preexercise program screening.
The principles of exercise training.
Exercise for weight (fat) loss.
Supplemental training programs (interval and circuit training).

If ten people were asked to define physical fitness, it 4. Body Composition — the relative proportion of
would not be surprising to get ten different answers body fat to fat-free body tissues (muscle, bone,
that are all partially correct. This variation occurs organs);
because physical fitness can be categorized into two 5. Flexibility —
the ability to move a body part
types —
skill-related and health-related —
with each fluidly through a complete range of motion
type having various components. Skill-related physi- about a joint.
cal fitness includes: power, speed, agility, balance,
The focus of this chapter will be on health-re-
coordination, and reaction time. Prior to 1980, the
lated physical fitness programs, specifically related
majority of physical education programs evaluated
to the cardiorespiratory endurance and body compo-
primarily the skill-related components of physical
sition components (muscular strength, muscular en-
fitness by using a battery of tests that included: sit-
durance, and flexibility training will be discussed in
ups, pull-ups, shuttle run, 50-yard dash, softball
later chapters). Information concerning the need for
throw, and 600-yard run/walk. However, beginning
and benefits of health-related physical fitness will be
in 1980, the American Alliance for Health, Physical
presented. This will be followed by concerns for pre-
Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD)
exercise screening and then specific types of training
began using a health-related physical fitness test programs will be presented.
that included: a one-mile run/walk, skinfold meas-
urements, sit and reach measurement, and a sit-up
1
test. In 1988, AAHPERD added a pull-up test to the CURRENT PHYSICAL FITNESS CHARACTERISTICS
2
assessment as part of their Physical Best program.
Health-related fitness includes the following five
The mechanization of many American industries in
components: the early through mid-twentieth century decreased
1. —
Cardiorespiratory Endurance the ability of the the occupational activity level of many individuals.
heart, respiratory and circulatory systems to As the technology explosion continued, the automa-
supply oxygen and nutrients to, and to remove tion of products for home and recreation further de-
waste products from, the working muscles; creased the activity levels of Americans. This has led
2. —
Muscular Strength the ability of the muscles to to a substantial number of unfit Americans.
exert a force to move an object or to develop ten- Youth. Data from the National Children and
sion to resist the movement of an object; 3
Youth Fitness Study II (NCYFS) conducted in the
3. —
Muscular Endurance the ability of a muscle to mid-1980's revealed that a majority of the youth in
sustain repeated contractions or to maintain a the United States have low levels of physical fitness.
submaximal contraction; Some specific findings were: that only 50 percent of
the youth exercise at appropriate frequency, inten-
sity, and duration to stimulate cardiorespiratory en-
1
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recre-
ation and Dance: AAHPERD Health-Related Physical Fitness Test
Manual. Washington, D.C., AAHPERD, 1980.
2 3
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recre- J.G. Ross and R.R. Pate. The National Children and Youth
ation and Dance: AAHPERD Physical Best Manual. 1990 Associa- Fitness Study II: A Summary of Findings, J. of Physical Educ.
tion Drive, Reston, VA, AAHPERD, 1988. Recreation and Dance, Nov. /Dec: 66-70, 1987.

26
 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS 27

durance, and this was supported by the finding that TABLE 2-1 Physiological Effects of Training
50 percent or less of the children tested could run one
mile in less than ten minutes; obesity (triceps skin-
At Rest Increase Decrease No Change
fold > 85th percentile) increased 54 percent (6- to 11-
year olds) and 39 percent (12- to 17-year olds) and During Rest and/or Submaximal Exercise
superobesity (triceps skinfold > 95th percentile) in-
creased 98 percent (6- to 11-year olds) and 64 percent Lactic acid accumulation X
(12- to 17-year olds) from 1965 to 1980. 4 Poor per- Heart rate X
formances were also recorded for boys in flexibility Stroke volume X
and for girls in muscular strength and endurance. Cardiac output X
Adults. The National Health Interview Survey V0 2 X
in 1985, collected the following information concern- Fat utilization X
ing the exercise habits of adults in the United States: Ventilatory efficiency X
28 percent were completely sedentary, 31 percent Carbohydrate utilization X
were irregularly active, 34 percent were active (but
During Maximal Exercise
were not exercising at appropriate frequency, inten-
sity, and duration to stimulate cardiorespiratory en- Lactic acid accumulation X
durance), and only 7 percent were meeting criteria Heart rate X oi X
5
for appropriate physical activity. Approximately Stroke volume X
one-third to one-half of adult Americans (depending Cardiac output X
on the criteria used) are overweight or obese. 6 V0 2 X
Consequences. The
lack of physical fitness Ventilatory efficiency X
has been associated with a number of health prob-
Other Changes
lems. The term hypokinetic disease, meaning "a con-
dition related to, or caused by, a lack of regular X
7
Body Fat
physical activity," has been used to describe this Serum cholesterol X
problem. Specific diseases and health problems as- Serum triglycerides X
sociated with inactivity are: coronary heart disease, Serum high-density lipo- X
cancer, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, obesity, and proteins
low back pain /injury. Coronary heart disease (CHD) Serum low-density lipo- X
is the leading cause of death in the United States, ac-
proteins
counting for 36 percent of all deaths. Cancer is the Resting metabolic rate X or X
second leading cause, accounting for 22 percent of all
deaths. Two of the three primary risk factors for
CHD are associated with physical inactivity. The allow the individual to function more efficiently
prevalence rate of these two (smoking being the when faced with everyday demands and stresses and
third) in adult Americans is: 25 percent for high also allow the individual to take on more total work.
total cholesterol O240 mg/dL); and approximately Physical fitness can be generically described as the
33 percent for high blood pressure 0140/90 mmHg). ability to perform daily activities without undue fa-
Another health-related factor associated with physi- tigue.
cal inactivity is low back pain, with approximately
70 to 80 percent suffering from this malady. Physiological Adaptations

The on the cardio-

beneficial effects of exercise
vascular system are very evident. heart, whichThe
BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
in essence is a muscular pump, becomes stronger

A regular exercise program will result in numerous

and more efficient. Cardiac output, the amount of
blood pumped from the heart each minute, is a prod-
physiological adaptations. A
summary of some of the
uct of stroke volume and heart rate. The heart
physiological changes that occur with aerobic exer-
adapts to regular aerobic exercise training by in-
cise training is provided in Table 2-1. These changes
creasing the amount of blood it pumps with each
4
beat (stroke volume), thus becoming a stronger,
S.L. Gortmaker, et al., Increasing Pediatric Obesity in the
more effective pump. Consequently, at submaximal
United States. Am J Dis Child, 141:535-540, 1987.
5
C.J. Casperson, et al., Status of the 1990 Physical Fitness
workloads the heart does not have to beat as often,
—
and Exercise Objectives Evidence From NHIS 1985. Pub Health thus reducing the demand on the heart. One can eas-
Rep, 101:587-592, 1986. ily recognize this training effect by simply monitor-
6
W.J. Miller and T. Stephens, The Prevalence of Overweight ing the decrease in resting heart rate or the heart
and Obesity in Britain, Canada and the United States. Am J Pub
rate during a fixed submaximal work task. The body
Health, 77:38-41, 1987.
7
D.K. Miller and T.E. Allen, Fitness: A Lifetime Commitment. also responds by increasing the total blood volume
4th ed. (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1990), p. 3. and the hemoglobin content in the blood. These two
 28 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS
adaptations allow the individual to deliver more
blood and more oxygen to the working muscles dur-
ing exercise.
Changes also take place within the muscles
themselves. Basically, the "metabolic machinery" of
the muscle cell is built up so that it can produce more
energy. The muscle can extract more oxygen from
the blood, and the enhanced circulation through the
muscle helps to remove the additional waste prod-
ucts produced.
The physiological measure of these adaptations
is that of maximal oxygen consumption V0 2 max).
I
This is also termed the individual's maximal aerobic
power or the functional capacity i.e. the maximal
<
.
ability of the body to produce energy and thus per-
form work). Factors such as muscle fiber type make-
up (determined by genetics) and pre-training V0 2
max level will determine the potential to improve
one's maximal aerobic power; however, improve-
ments in the range of 20 to 30 percent are possible
following three months of appropriate aerobic train-
ing. Training will also increase the individual's "an-
aerobic threshold," the point in metabolism where
lactic acid begins to accumulate in the blood. Lactic
acid accumulation, with the resultant decrease in
muscle and blood pH. is a key factor associated with
fatigue. Increasing the anaerobic threshold allows
the individual to work at a higher absolute submaxi-
mal workload without fatiguing.
Regular aerobic exercise training can also im-
prove an overfat individual's body composition.
Through training, the muscles and bones are stimu-
lated which helps the body maintain muscle tissue
and increase the integrity of bone. At the same time
the increased energy expenditure of training pro-
motes the loss of body fat stores. Exercise for weight
loss will be discussed in more detail later in this
chapter.
Blood lipids and hypertension are also favorably
changed after regular aerobic exercise training.
Total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein <LDlA and
especially triglycerides may all decrease, and high-
density lipoprotein iHDL> can increase following
training. The lipoproteins serve as carriers of lipids
•fats' in blood and have been found to play a major
role in the process of developing fatty deposits in
walls of blood vessels. Basically. LDL is used to
transport cholesterol from the liver to various tis-
sues in the body to serve important purposes, such
as structure of cell membranes. In excess. LDL can
promote the development of atherosclerotic plaques
within the coronary blood vessels. HDL's. on the
other hand, function to transport unneeded choles-
terol from the tissues to the liver. Thus. HDL's can
prevent the build-up of fatty deposits in the blood
vessels. It should be noted that recent evidence sug-
gests that only individuals with unfavorably high
total cholesterol and/or low HDL see marked im-
provement in these lipid concentrations following
aerobic training. Training can also help reduce blood
pressure in those with borderline hypertension.
Thus, the risk of coronary heart disease can be re-
duced by improving physical fitness.
Reduced Mortality. Evidence is mounting
that physically fit individuals or those who are regu-
larly active have a reduced death rate from coronary
heart disease compared to the unfit and inactive
population. The most recent findings from the Aero-
bic's Research Institute reported that the largest re-
duction in coronary heart disease deaths, as well as
deaths from all causes, was between the lowest fit-
ness category and those in the moderate fitness cate-
8
gory. This suggests that one does not have to be a
"marathon runner" to obtain these benefits, in fact,
those who regularly participate in a moderately vig-
orous aerobic exercise training program receive the
greatest benefit.
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL VALUES
Regular exercise affects not only the body but the
mental and emotional states as well. Exercise can
rve as an outlet for pent-up emotions through so-
cially accepted channels. Stress, anxiety, and de-
pression may be relieved by exercise, without the ills
and side effects of mood-altering drugs. Physically
fit individuals speak of their enhanced mental
acuity, mental energy, concentration, and feelings of
well-being. These feelings have been documented in
several studies. In addition, physically fit individ-
uals have an enhanced self-image, a definite sign of
excellent mental health.
The late President Kennedy, an exponent of the
strenuous life, summed it up in this way:
Physical fitness is not only one of the most impor-
tant keys to a healthy body, it is the basis of dynamic
and creative intellectual activity. The relationship of
the body and the activities of the mind is subtle and
complex. Much is not yet understood, but we do
know what the Greeks knew: that intelligence and
skill can only function at the peak of their capacity
when the body is healthy and strong: that hardy
spirits and tough minds usually inhabit sound
bodies.
In this sense, physical fitness the basis of all
is
the activities of our society. And the body grows
if
soft and inactive, if we fail to encourage physical de-
velopment and prowess, we undermine our ca-
will
pacity for thought, for work, and for the use of those
skills vital to an expanding and complex America.
Thus, the physical fitness of our citizens is a vital
prerequisite to America's realization of its full poten-
8
S.N. Blair, et. al.. Physical Fitness and All-Cause Mortal-
ity: A
Prospective Study of Healthv Men and Women. JAMA,
262:2395-2401. 1989.
 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS 29

tialas a nation, and to the opportunity of each indi- EXERCISE PROGRAMMING

vidual citizen to make full and fruitful use of his
capabilities. Regardless of the type of training to be used, all ex-
ercise training sessions should have the same basic
structure of beginning with a warm-up period, pro-
PRE-EXERCISE SCREENING ceeding with the specific type of training, and finish-
ing with a cool-down period. The purpose of the
Although exercise a safe activity for most individ-
is warm-up is to prepare the body for the training ses-
uals, for some it should be avoided (at least tempo- sion by gradually increasing the heart rate and blood
rarily), and for others some special considerations circulation to the active musculature. Walking, cal-
may need to be followed. In order to identify those isthenic type of exercises, and stretching are appro-
who may have an unfavorable response to exercise, priate warm-up activities. Although documentation
some simple procedures should be followed prior to is lacking, manybelieve that warm-up activities
beginning the physical activity. An essential proce- serve a preventative function against injury.
dure to use is a health history questionnaire which The cool-down helps restore the body to its pre-
asks for items that could present problems dur- exercise condition. Initially the cool-down consists of
ing exercise (example: heart problems, diabetes, walking, which is then followed by stretching exer-
asthma, etc.). Many of these questionnaires have cises. It is believed that the cool-down is the optimal
been published and most can use a closed answer, time for making flexibility improvements since the
check-off type response format. However, one can muscles are warm and the joints are most supple. Al-
construct their own questionnaire to fit their specific though many flexibility exercises are available, a
program needs. basic routine would include: neck rotations, arm
A second step which is advisable, especially if pull-overs, side stretches, one-legged sit and reach,
concerns arise during the health history review, is a hip and knee flexion, and ankle rotation (Figures 2-1
medical examination. This step becomes mandatory to 2-6).
if programs are being designed for previously seden-
tary adults.
Finally, an assessment of the individual's cur-
rent level of fitness should be made prior to begin-
ning the training program. This allows designing
the program to meet the individual's weaknesses
and to provide an evaluation of the effectiveness of
the training program. As mentioned previously,
AAHPERD recommends a battery of tests to assess
cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and
endurance, body composition, and flexibility of
school-aged children in the Physical Best program.
Alternative tests of cardiorespiratory endurance for
college-aged students are a 1.5 mile run, a step test,
and a submaximal cycle test. Likewise, muscular
strength can be assessed by weight lifting tests. It
should be noted that muscular strength, muscular FIGURE 2-1 Neck rotations.

endurance, and flexibility are specific to the muscle

groups and joints being moved. Thus no one test can
give an overall, total body measure of these compo-
nents of fitness. A more complete fitness assessment
of these components would include tests of various
muscle groups and joints throughout the body.
When programs are being designed for adults,
the guidelines established by the American College
of Sports Medicine should be followed for screening
9
individuals. Depending on age and health status,
recommendations are provided for the need for a
physical exam and exercise testing prior to begin-
ning an exercise program.

9
American College of Sport Medicine. Guidelines for Exercise
Testing and Prescription. 4th ed. (Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger,
1991). FIGURE 2-2 Arm pull-overs.
 FIGURE 2-3 Side stretches

FIGURE 2-4 One-legged sit and reach.

FIGURE 2-5 Hip and knee flexion.

30
 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS 31

FIGURE 2-6 Ankle rotations.

When designing the training session of the pro- tensity for a 15-year old would be calculated as fol-
gram, the basic principles of specificity and overload, lows:
as well as individualization should be employed. The
principle of specificity states that adaptations to (220 - 1 5) X .75 = 1 54 bpm - (220 15)X.85 =
training will be specific to the muscle groups 174 bpm
trained, the specific movement patterns and speed of
contractions used, and to the metabolic energy sys- Itshould be noted that the aged-predicted maximal
tems stressed. This principle is most applicable to heart may vary between ± 15 beats per minute, in
training for sport; however, it is also important to some individuals, from the actual maximal heart
consider when evaluating improvements in physical rate.
fitness. For example, c} cling, jogging, and swimming To monitor the intensity of the exercise session,
are all appropriate activities to condition the car- the individual should momentarily stop the exercise
diorespiratory systems. However, the one mile run/ (after at least fiveminutes of activity) and immedi-
walk test will only accurately reflect cardio- ately count the pulse rate. It is advisable to keep
respiratory improvements for those in a jogging pro- walking or walk in place during this time. The pulse
gram. Those in a cycling or swimming program can be palpated using the index and middle fingers
would have their cardiorespiratory endurance un- at either the radial artery on the wrist or at one of
derestimated with such a test. The overload princi- the carotid arteries on either side of the neck (Figure
ple means that in order for a muscle or system to 2-7). Some precautions need to be followed if the ca-
adapt, it must be stressed beyond a level that it is rotid artery is used. First, it is important to palpate
normally accustomed to. The American College of only on one side of the neck (i.e., do not put the
Sports Medicine has established guidelines for ap- thumb on one side of the neck and the fingers on the
plying the training overload, which are applicable to other side). Also, the individual should not press too
individuals of all ages. Overload is derived by manip- hard to palpate the carotid artery as a reflex lower-
ulating the following factors: intensity, duration,
and frequency.
Intensity. Intensity refers to the percentage of
the maximal capabilities that are being required for
the activity. Research has established that for car-
diorespiratory improvements, an intensity level of at
least approximately 50 percent of V0 2 max must be
achieved (note: severely deconditioned individuals
will make improvements at lower intensities). Addi-
tional improvements are achieved through intensi-
ties up to 85 percent of V0 2 max, with optimal
improvements being in the range of 70 to 80 percent.
This intensity can be monitored by palpating a pulse
rate during the exercise session. Pulse rates of ap-
proximately 75 to 85 percent of maximum are the
equivalent of 70 to 80 percent of V0 2 max. Maximal
heart rate can be measured during a maximal exer-
cise test; however, an estimate can be made from the
formula of 220 — age. For example, the training in- FIGURE 2-7 Radial and carotid pulse palpitation.
32 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS

ing of the heart rate could occur. The pulse count is
taken for a ten-second count (start the count with
zero), and the training range can be determined by
dividing the training heart rate by 6 (examples: 154
+ 6 = 26; 174 •*- 6 = 29). The pulse should also be
monitored at the end of the training session. Exer-
cising within the training heart rate range will pro-
duce optimal physiological adaptations. Highly
motivated individuals sometimes have a tendency to
train above the training heart rate range (i.e., the
feeling that if some is good, then more must be bet-
ter); however, this should be discouraged as the ad-
ditional benefits are relatively small and the risk for
injury increases at these high intensities.
Duration. The duration of the program is the
amount of time spent in the training part of the exer-
cise session (not including warm-up and cool-down
time). The minimum duration necessary to stimu-
late physiological adaptations is 20 minutes, with
further increases seen through 60 minutes of activ-
ity. The recommended duration range
viduals is 30 to 40 minutes.
Frequency. The frequency of the training pro-
gram refers to how often the training should take
place, usually described in terms of days per week.
Training needs to be performed at least three days
per week to derive physiological benefits. Further
increases are seen with more frequent training; how-
ever, health-related physical fitness training
for
more than five days per week is of little value. In
fact, the body needs rest time between training ses-
sions to make the adaptations. Training six to seven
days per week increases the individual's risk for in-
jury. It should be noted that these "off" days do not
have to be totally sedentary, indeed alternative types
of physical activities and recreation should be en-
couraged.
Individualization. Intensity, duration, and
frequency of training are interrelated. This allows
the capability of designing an exercise program to
meet the individual's physical capabilities and psy-
chological perceptions of the comfort of the exercise
program. Also, factors such as availability of facili-
ties, work or school schedules, weather, and medical
restrictions can influence the exercise training pro-
gram. To be effective, regular exercise must become
an integral part of one's lifestyle.
If an intensity level of 75 to 85 percent HR max
is found to be undesirably strenuous, the training
program can be modified by reducing the intensity
level to 65 to 75 percent and either increasing the
duration by five to ten minutes per session or the
frequency by one day per week.
Individualization can also take place by consid-
ering the type of exercise being utilized for the train-
for most indi- ing. Aerobic exercise types are those that use the
large muscle groups (i.e., legs or arms and legs) in a
rhythmical, dynamic fashion. Activities such as
walking, jogging, swimming, cycling, rowing, and
cross-country skiing are examples of aerobic exercise
types.
A consideration is the need to begin an ex-
final
ercise program
at the reduced intensity and duration
and to progress slowly. As one becomes acquainted
with the exercise program structure and techniques
used, he or she can gradually increase the intensity
and duration of the training session. This helps to
reduce injuries at the beginning of the program and
also increases the individual's self confidence. Table
2-2 represents an example of a start-up walk/jog pro-

TABLE 2-2 Two-week Walking/Jogging Program

WALKING PROGRAM
Mon. Tues. Thur. Fri.

First Week Walk 20 min. Walk 20 min. Walk 24 min. Walk 24 min.
Second Week Walk 28 min. Walk 28 min. Walk 32 min. Walk 32 min.

JOG-WALK PROGRAM
Mon. and Tues. Thur. and Fri.

First Week Walk 20 min. Walk 17 min.

Jog /walk Va, V2, V2, V2 Jog /walk V2, V2, V2, V2, V2, V2
Walk 10 min. Walk 10 min.
Second Week Walk 15 min. Walk 12 min.
Jog /walk V2, V2, V2, V2, V2, V2, V2, V2, V2 Jog/walk V2, V2, V2, V2, V2, V2

Walk 10 min. Walk 10 min.

*Note: V2 = 110 yds. or 30 to 45 sec. Individual should alternate on the Jog/Walk routine- -i.e.. Jog V2, Walk V2, Jog •
i. etc

JOGGING PROGRAM
Mon. Tues. Thur. Fri.

First Week Jog 2 miles Jog 4 miles Jog 3 miles Jog 5 miles
Second Week Jog 3 miles Jog 4 miles Jog 2 miles Jog 5 miles
 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS 33

gram. Dr. Bud Getchell, the founder of the Adult TABLE 2-3 Energy Requirements of Various Activities
Fitness Program at Ball State University, has devel-
oped protocols for beginning and progressing in pro- kcal/m in.
grams of walking, running, cycling, and swimming. 10
Recreational Activities. A question that Activity 123 1b. 150 1b.

often is asked is if one can use recreational activities

Aquatic Games 7.2 8.7
for training. In general, one should "get in shape to
play the game, not play the game to get in shape."
Archery 3.6 4.4
However, once an acceptable level of physical fitness
Badminton 5.4 6.6
is obtained, recreational activities can be useful as a
Basketball 7.7 9.4
supplement to the training program to maintain the
Bicycling 5.6 6.8
desired level. Table 2-3 shows the caloric equivalents
Bowling 3.7 4.0
of different recreational activities as well as the
Canoeing 2.5 3.0
standard aerobic training modes for comparison pur-
Cycling 10 mile/hour 6.5 7.0
poses. Recreational activities can provide the neces-
Football:Touch/Flag 5.4 6.0
sary variety to the training program to make the
Golf (walking) 4.8 5.8
long-term commitment to regular exercise solid.
Handball 7.8 9.5
Exercise for Weight Loss. As mentioned pre- Hiking 5.5 6.3
viously, from a third to a half of adult Americans are
Racquetball 7.8 9.5
overweight or obese. Body weight is determined by Running 12 min/mile 8.1 9.9
the balance between energy intake and energy ex- 11 min/mile 8.7 10.7
penditure (Figure 2-8). If intake exceeds expen- 10 min/mile 9.5 11.6
diture, weight will increase, and if expenditure ex-
9 min/mile 10.3 12.7
ceeds intake, weight will decrease. Although energy 8 min/mile 11.6 14.2
intake is easy to quantify and regulate (increase or 7 min/mile 13.1 16.0
decrease food intake), energy expenditure is more 6 min/mile 15.1 18.5
difficult to understand since the body can become
Skiing: Cross-
more or less energy conservative, depending on how country 13.7 15.1
it responds to different stresses.
Skiing: Downhill 8.7 10.0
The goal for weight loss programs is the loss of Soccer 7.8 9.5
excess body fat. Weight can be lost if energy intake is Softball 3.6 4.7
decreased (dieting), if energy expenditure is in- Swimming 7.2 8.7
creased (principally by increased physical activity), Table Tennis 3.8 4.6
or by both dieting and exercising. Intervention pro- Tennis 6.1 7.4
grams for obesity have not been very successful, as Volleyball 2.8 3.4
most have concentrated only on the energy intake
side of the body weight balance equation. The major-
ity of diet programs require substantial caloric re- Note: A heavier person (150 vs. 123 lb.) must do more work to transport his/
her body weight, thus requiring more energy
strictions that are actually counterproductive to
long-term weight loss as they result in a decrease in
resting metabolic rate (the largest component of
daily energy expenditure). The more successful ENERGY INTAKE ENERGY EXPENDITURE
weight loss programs use the "exchange" principle
for reducing calorie intake. They recommend that Resting Metabolic Rate
Food
individuals exchange their intake of much of the Physical Activity
dietary fat, which has 9 kcal/gm, for complex carbo- Beverages
Thermic Effect of Food
hydrates (fruits and vegetables), which have only 4
kcal/gm. This essentially reduces the energy intake
but still allows the individual to consume normal
quantities of food. Successful programs also realize
that energy expenditure must be increased for long-
term maintenance with weight loss. The types of ac- FIGURE 2-8 Body weight balance.
tivities used does not really matter; what is im-
portant is that the total amount of physical activity
actually serves two purposes: (1) it results in an in-
be increased. The increased physical activity level
crease in caloric expenditure due directly to the ac-
tivity; and (2) it maintains or may slightly increase
the resting metabolic rate.
10
Bud Getchell, The Fitness Book. (Indianapolis: Benchmark Estimates of how much weight should be lost can
Press, Inc., 1987). be made from the following equation:
34 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS
= Fat-free body weight
Desired Body Weight
1 - (desired body fat
Note that this equation requires knowledge of the in-
dividual's body fat percentage and also what percent
is a normal or desired body fat. For example, con-
sider a 200 lb. man with a 25 percent body fat and a
goal of 15 percent body fat. The desired body weight
would be calculated as follows:
200(1 -25 -MOO) 150 1b.
175.5
1 -(15 -MOO) 0.85
Thus, this individual would need to lose 23.5 of fat to
achieve his desired body composition. Since one
pound of fat holds 3,500 kcals, 82,250 kcals must be
expended to achieve the desired goal. At first glance
this may seem like an insurmountable task. How-
ever, success in weight (fat) loss programs is
achieved by using the long-haul approach. For exam-
ple, say this man exchanged one-third of his 133 gm
of daily fat intake for carbohydrates; this would re-
sult in a daily decrease of 220 kcal/day [44 gm/
day X (9 — 4 kcal/gm)]. Additionally, he began a
four-day /week exercise program and expended 300
kcal/session (approximately 2.5 miles of walking or
jogging) and increased his daily activity level to ex-
pend an additional 100 kcal/day. Over a week he
would have burned an additional 3,440 kcal or ap-
proximately the equivalent of 1 lb. of fat. Thus, it
would take him about half a year to attain his goal;
however, during this time he likely developed
style dietary and exercise habits which will make
long-term maintenance of his desired body weight
much more likely. Additionally, the exercise training
program would also improve total physical fitness.
Note that the maximal safe rate of weight loss is 1 to
2 lb. per week. Losing weight more rapidly will in-
volve losing fat-free weight and decreasing resting
metabolic rate.
CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
Essentially the only piece of specialized clothing re-
quired for aerobic training is proper footwear. Good
exercise shoes provide adequate support and cush-
ioning to protect the feet and reduce the shock of the
foot strike to the rest of the body good shoes can (
take on a force of approximately three times the body
weight). The running/walking shoe industry has
gone high-tech with literally hundreds of different
shoes available with variable features (outsole, mid-
sole, heel counter, upper, foxing, toe box). One
should shop for the shoes at a reputable dealer who
has personnel that can explain t e various features
1
of the different types of shoes an thus assist in se-
I regular aerobic training with one or two interval
lecting the most appropriate shoe for the individual's
needs.
In general, exercise clothing should be light-
% -r- 1 00) weight and should fit loosely. Fashionable exercise
clothing has become very popular; however, care has
to be taken to assure that the clothing is breathable
and allows moisture to evaporate from the skin. Sea-
sons will dictate how much to wear. In warm, humid
weather it is important to expose as much body sur-
face area as possible to allow sweat the opportunity
to evaporate and thus help keep body temperature
down. In cold weather, layering lightweight clothing
is most advantageous since this allows removal of a
1b.
layer for two" as the body heat production increases.
In extremely cold conditions, protection of the ex-
tremities is a must. A hat that covers the ears and ei-
ther gloves or mittens are needed. Additionally,
some individuals find using a breathing filter-type
mask helpful to moisturize the cold, dry air.
One myth related to exercise clothing is that
rubberized sweat suits are helpful for exercise and
weight loss programs. It is true that one can lose a
substantial amount of weight in an exercise session
if a rubberized suit is worn. However, the weight lost
is from body water, not body fat, and thus is quickly
regained. Not only are these suits ineffective for re-
ducing excess body fat, but they are also potentially
dangerous as dehydration can cause body tempera-
ture to rise to dangerous levels.
Exercise equipment sales have been tremendous
in recent years as claims that particular machines
provide the "best" workout in the shortest period of
time. Technological advances have allowed computer
life- aided features such as monitors for heart rate, esti-
mations of caloric expenditure, and interval type
training sessions to be a part of some of these exer-
cise devices. Indeed many of these exercise machines
can make the exercise session more enjoyable by
adding some variety to the workout. However, the
individual must still perform the work (i.e., same
specificity and overload principles apply to achieve
i
the physiological benefits. The other factor to con-
sider is the expense of much of this equipment. Indi-
viduals should be counseled to test thoroughly a
piece of equipment before purchasing it. Too often an
individual purchases a piece of exercise equipment
for home and only uses it for a short period of time
before it is moved into a closet or out to the garage
for storage.
SUPPLEMENTARY TRAINING
Once the major cardiorespiratory adaptations have
been made, some individuals like to modify their
training program for maintenance of the adapta-
tions. A modification used is to supplement their
training sessions a week. Interval training involves
doing repeated cycles of high intensity exercise fol-
 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS 35

lowed by a brief recovery period. This type of train- All parts of thebody which have a function, if used in
ing is used widely in athletics and can produce moderation and exercised in labors in which each is
excellent fitness benefits. The principal advantage of accustomed, become thereby healthy, well-developed
this type of training is that it allows high quality and age more slowly, but if unused and left idle they
training stimulus in a relatively short duration. For become liable to disease, defective in growth, and age
12
quickly.
aerobic training, work intervals of .25, .5, and/or .75
miles are recommended, with a work: recovery ratio
of 1:1 (i.e., if the work interval is 2 minutes, the re-
covery time is 2 minutes). These distances are run at TERMINOLOGY
a pace faster than the average time for that distance
from the best time the individual can run a mile (ex- Aerobic training Exercise training performed at an inten-
ample: if the best mile time is 8 minutes, the average sity, duration, and frequency that stimulates adap-
.25 mile time is 2 minutes, thus the interval training tations of the aerobic energy system and the cardio-
pace for the .25 mile interval run would be less than respiratory systems of the body.
2 minutes). A complete description of interval train- Body composition The evaluation of the components of
ing is beyond the scope of this chapter. 11 the body (ex. w ater,
r
muscle, bone, fat) with the deter-
Circuit training involves a series of exercises de- mination of percentage of body fat the most common.
signed to improve muscular endurance and muscu- Calorie A unit of energy.
lar strength that are completed within a set time Cool-down A group of activities including walking, calis-
frame. The individual moves quickly between each thenics, and flexibility exercises performed following
exercise station and then begins the next type of ex- the exercise training session to gradually return the
ercise. Some stations may involve aerobic exercise body to its resting state.
such as stationary cycling, running, rope skipping. Duration The amount of time spent in one exercise train-
These types of programs are useful ways to add some ing session.
variety to the exercise program if it is becoming Exchange principle A diet modification that substitutes
"stale" and also assure that the muscular strength foods of lower caloric value, mainly high carbohydrate
and endurance components of fitness are stimulated. foods, for foods of higher caloric value (i.e., foods of
A typical circuit could involve two sets of the follow- high fat content).
ing exercise stations (one minute per station): Frequency The number of training sessions performed in
a fixed period of time, usually one week.
Intensity The percentage of maximal capabilities that are
being utilized (e.g. percentage of maximal heart rate).
Station Activity Interval training Exercise training sessions that are char-
1 jumping jacks acterized by alternating periods of vigorous exercise
2 bicep curls (work interval) with periods of relief (low intensity ex-
3 modified sit-ups ercise or rest interval).
4 bench press Lipids Substances that are not soluble in water. The
5 running in place most important blood lipids include cholesterol and
6 leg press triglyceride.
7 stationary cycling Lipoproteins A compound formed by combining choles-
8 tricep curls terol and protein to allow the cholesterol to be soluble
9 rope skipping or bench stepping in fluid and thus transported in the blood.
10 leg curls Overload An exercise training principle that states that
adaptations to training will only take place when the
activity stresses the body's systems beyond what it is
It is important to remember that appropriate normally accustomed to.

program structure of beginning with a warm-up and Specificity An exercise training principle that states that
finishing with a cool-down period also applies to adaptations to training are specific to the muscle
these supplemental types of training. groups utilized, the speed of contractions performed,
the movement patterns employed, and the energy sys-
tems required to power the activity.
CONCLUSION V0 2 The volume of oxygen consumed, used as an indirect
measure of energy expenditure.
A quote attributable to Hippocrates sums up the Warm-up A group of activities including walking, calis-
value of physical fitness: thenics, and flexibility exercises performed prior to

11
For more information on designing interval training work-
outs, see E.L. Fox, Sports Physiology. New York: CBS College Pub- 12
A.G. Wallace, Fitness, Health, and Longevity — A Question
lishing, 1984, pp. 378-380. of Cause and Effect. Inside Track, 583, 1986.
36 PHYSICAL FITNESS PROGRAMS

the exercise training session to prepare the body for Katch, F.L. and McArdle, W.D. Nutrition, Weight Control,
vigorous physical activity. and Exercise, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1988.
Pollock, M.L. and Wilmore, J.H. Exercise in Health and
Disease,2nd ed. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1990.
SELECTED REFERENCES Powers, S.K. and Howley, E.T. Exercise Physiology: Theory
and Application to Fitness and Performance. Dubuque,
American College of Sports Medicine. Resource Manual for IA: W.B. Brown Publishers, 1990.
Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. Phila- Prentice, W.E. and Bucher, C.A. Fitness for College and
delphia: Lea & Febiger, 1988. Life, 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Year Book, 1991.
 2

ARCHERY
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Identify and demonstrate the ten basic steps of shooting in target archery.
Identify and demonstrate terms related to the bow and arrow.
Understand the basic terminology associated with target archery.
Identify and describe the rules associated with target archery.
Identify and observe the necessary safety precautions.

NATURE AND PURPOSE
For the past several years, not only has interest in
archery grown tremendously throughout the world,
but many schools and colleges include archery in
their physical education programs. Consequently,
archery has become a modern sport form. In the
1972 Olympic Games held at Munich, archery ap-
peared as an Olympic event for the first time. Sev-
eral archers from the United States have captured
Olympic medals and medals from other interna-
tional competitions.
Archery is an easy-to-learn activity, and it is pos-
sible for both sexes of all ages to develop proficiency
in archery skills in a relatively short period of time.
As an individual sport, it is relatively inexpensive
and can be practiced year-round. The benefits of
archery are both physical and emotional.
EQUIPMENT
Bow weight refers to the weight in pounds re-
quired to bring a bow to full draw. The most impor-
tant factor in determining bow weight is the
individual archer's muscular strength. For the be-
ginner, it is best to start with a bow that is easier to
draw and handle rather than using "overbow." The
bow weight may be gradually increased as the
archer improves shooting technique and develops
muscular strength. Table 3-1 shows the recom-
mended bow weights according to the standards
established by the Archery Manufacturers Organi-
zation.
Arrows
Arrows are made of wood, fiberglass, or alumi-
num. The least expensive, wooden arrows, are used
by most beginning archers; glass and aluminum
arrows are used by more advanced archers. Each
type of arrow has it own advantages and disadvan-
tages, but very important that one select arrows
it is

closely matched in weight, length, and stiffness

Archery equipment as a whole is known as "tackle." (spine).
The minimum essential tackle for the beginning A beginner should start to shoot with arrows
archer includes: (1) a bow of correct length and that are two inches longer than the needed proper
weight, (2) one dozen matched arrows, (3) a finger
tab or glove, (4) an arm guard, and (5) a target. The
TABLE 3-1 Recommended Bow Weights.
selection of a proper bow and matched arrows are the
two most important steps for successful archery
practice. Under Over
20 20 25 30 35 40 40
lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs lbs
Bows
Children 6-1 X
Bows are constructed of many materials includ- Teen (girl) X X
ing wood, fiberglass, or laminated wood core and Teen (boy) X X X
fiberglass. To overcome the disadvantages of the Women X X X
wooden or fiberglass bow, a laminated (composite) Men X
bow was designed. This bow is smooth-shooting and Hunting
is not subject to changes due to weather.

37
38 ARCHERY
length in case of an overdraw. To determine the
proper length, one should place the nock of the arrow
on the center of one's chest and extend arms full
length forward, palms facing, so that the point of the
arrow extends past the fingertips. When purchasing
a bow and arrows, one should seek advice from an
expert to determine the proper bow and arrows that
fit best.
Arm Guards
Arm guards have two main functions: (1) the
most important is to protect the bow arm from the
slap of the bow string; (2) the other is to keep a long
sleeve close to the arm so it will not interfere with
the bow string. The arm guard is worn on the inside
of the forearm below the elbow, near the wrist of the
bow arm. The arm guard is usually made of leather
with elastic straps to hold the guard on the forearm.
Finger Tabs or Gloves
Friction between the fingers and the bow string
can produce not only soreness to the fingers, but it
can also have effects on proper shooting. Tabs or
gloves will protect the fingers and aid in developing
a smooth and consistent release. Many beginners
have difficulty in using finger tabs or gloves, but
with a little patience and practice one can overcome
this difficulty.
Target
A target consists of a target face, a mat, and a
stand, and ready-made targets can be purchased
from a sporting goods dealer. Schools and colleges
usually use a 48-inch target face. Target mats are
easily made from tightly compressed hay and should
measure at least 50 X 50 inches.
RULES OF TARGET ARCHERY
1. Any bow except a crossbow may be used for com-
petition.
2. Arrows should have a distinctive crest in order
each archer's arrow.
to distinguish
3. After the signal to shoot, arrows should be
nocked.
4. Arrows that fall from the bow and cannot be
reached with the bow from the shooting line are
considered to be shot.
5. Only six arrows may be shot at the designated
target; if more than six are shot, only the lowest
six scores are counted, and any arrow(s) shot at
any other target shall not be scored.
6. An archer should shoot from the longest dis-
tance first, the second longest distance next, and
so forth.
7. Scores are recorded from the highest score to the
lowest score.
8. Arrows should be retrieved only after the signal
is given.
SCORING
The scoring values of target archery are 9 points for
gold; 7 for red; 5 for blue; 3 for black; and 1 for white
rings. An arrow
that goes completely through the
target or that bounces off the target counts 7 points
regardless of the part of the target it passes or hits.
An arrow that lands on the line between two rings
counts as hitting the higher scoring ring.
All target archery rounds (competitions! are shot
at a regulation 48-inch target face unless otherwise
specified. The common target archery competitions
are the American Round, Columbia Round, Hereford
Round, York Round, Women's and Men's Metropoli-
tan Rounds, and Scholastics Round. Each competi-
tion round differs in the number of arrows and the
distance from which the arrows are shot.
For physical education classes, a modified insti-
tutional round should be implemented to enable a
round to be completed within a given time period.
For example, the Ball State Round consists of 12
ends: 4 ends each shooting from 20 yards, 25 yards,
and 30 yards, and requiring approximately sixty
minutes to complete. Each end consists of shooting 5
arrows. The scoring values of the Ball State Round
are 5 points for gold; 4 points for red; 3 for blue; 2 for
black; and 1 for white. This gives a maximum total of
300 points (5 arrows X 5 points X 12 ends = 300
points If a class period is only forty-five minutes, a
i.
round should consist of 8 ends: 4 ends from 25 yards
and 4 ends from 30 yards.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
Open space with good lighting and a proper back-
drop, well-organized lessons, and an emphasis on
safety are all important aspects of creating a success-
ful atmosphere for archery. Safety should be
stressed from the very beginning. Instructions
should include the care of the equipment (bow,
bowstring, and arrows) and the ten essential steps
for shooting described in this chapter. A good learn-
ing sequence is the following:
A. Introduction
B. Nature of the Activity
1. Archery as a sport and family recreation
2. Discussion of equipment
3. Safety
C. Skills and Techniques — Ten Basic Steps of
Shooting
 ARCHERY 39

Static Stage: Practice without arrows archer. Repetition of these ten steps will help you de-
1. Proper stance velop rhythm in shooting and help you become a sat-
2. Nocking the arrow isfied archer. The steps described below are for the
3. Setting the hook right-handed person; adjustments are required for
4. Holding the bow left-handers.
Raising the head
5.
6. Raising the unit Step 1 — Establishing a Proper Stance
Dynamic Stage: Practice with arrows The stance establishes the foundation of good
7. Drawing and anchoring archery form; the square and open stances are the
8. Aiming and holding most commonly used. For both stances, the archer
9. Releasing should spread both feet apart (approximately
10. Follow-through shoulder width) to achieve a comfortable feeling. The
Steps 7 and 8 should be practiced several times archer's weight should be equally distributed upon
before moving into steps 9 and 10. both feet, and the knees should be locked to maintain
The first shooting practice should start from 15 balance. Once you decide on a stance —
either the
yards, then 20 yards, 30 yards, and so on. —
square or open stance you should take the same
—
D. Rules and Scoring Once some proficiency in stance each time you shoot.
shooting technique has been achieved, partici- 1. Square Stance. The square stance is recom-
pants can be taught the rules governing target mended for beginning archers. In this stance,
archery and the scoring method. the archer's feet straddle the shooting line with
both feet parallel to each other, and toes line up
with the center of the target. The body should be
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES upright with head turned toward the target (see
Figure 3-1).
String the Bow 2. Open (Oblique) Stance. To assume the open
stance, the archer draws the foot closer to the
Push-pull Method
target back about 4 to 6 inches from the square
1. Take the bow handle in your left hand with the stance. At the same time, hips and shoulders
back of the bow toward you. must also turn so that the body is at about a 45-
2. Holding the left arm in front of the body and an- degree angle to the target (see Figure 3-2). The
gling the bow's upper limb toward the right, open stance is recommended for advanced
place the lower nock against the instep of the left archers.
but not touching the ground.
3.
foot,
Place the right hand on the upper limb just
Step 2 — Nocking the Arrow
below the upper loop of the bowstring; then Nocking the arrow means placing the arrow on
keeping both arms straight, pull with the left the bowstring in preparation for drawing.
hand and push with the heel of the right hand,
and slide the string into the upper nock with Learning Cues
fingers. While stringing, keep your face away
from the bow. 1. Hold the bow with the left hand and the palm of
the bow hand facing the ground.
Step-through Method

1. Hold the bow in your right hand and the string

with the other hand.
2. Place the back of the lower limb of the bow
across the ankle of your left foot.
3. Step through the bow with your right leg.
4. Place the bow handle high on your right thigh.
5. Press the upper limb of the bow forward with the
open right hand and slide the string in the nock
with the left hand. Always check both notches
for proper string insertion and alignment after
each stringing.

Shooting: The Ten Basic Steps

Archers should always follow the ten basic steps
of the shooting sequence in their proper order. Con-
sistency is very important for becoming a good FIGURE 3-1 Square stance.
 —
40 ARCHERY

fingers (index, middle, and fourth fingers) of the

archer's right hand. Hook first three fingers around
the string at the first knuckles of these fingers. Hold
the arrow lightly between index and middle fingers
but do not squeeze the arrows (Figure 3-3). Thumb
and little finger of the right hand should be touching
each other over the palm. After shooting for a while
the thumb and little finger should be relaxed. It is
important to keep the back of the right hand
straight.

Step 4 — Establishing a Bow Hold

As in all other aspects of archery, consistency is
also required in establishing a proper bow hold.
First, extend your left arm at the shoulder height to-

FIGURE 3-2 Open stance.

2. The right hand holding the shaft of the arrow,
with index finger pointing upward, slip the nock
onto the string at a 90-degree angle with the
string. Make a small mark with ink on the string
to ensure that the nocking is always done in the
same place. If a bow with the nocking point is al-
ready fixed on the string, the arrow is usually
nicked below the nocking point. After nocking,
the archer makes sure there is no gap between
the string and the throat of the nock.
Step 3 Setting the Hook
After nocking the arrow, the archer must estab-
lish a proper hook. The hook is set using three
ward the target with left hand in a "handshake" po-
sition, then place the pivot point of the bow handle
(midsection of the bow) in the "V" formed by the
thumb and index finger. Now the handle of the bow
should rest against the base of the thumb, and other
fingers should be placed lightly around the handle.
This keeps the bow from falling at release of the
arrow. Make sure that you do not grip the bow. Be-
fore releasing the arrow, the elbow of the bow arm
must be turned down to avoid slapping by the
bowstring (Figure 3-4).
Step 5 — Raising the Head
Before raising the unit (bow and arrow), the
archers head should be in a natural position turned
to look directly at the center of the target without
any tilt (Figure 3-5).

f^ A

^w ^^.

FIGURE 3-3 Setting the hook. FIGURE 3-4 The bow hold. FIGURE 3-5 Note head position.
 ARCHERY 41

Step 6 — Raising the Unit
At this point, the archer has prepared mechani-
cally for shooting by establishing a proper stance,
nocking an arrow, setting the hook, establishing the
grip, and raising the head. Now the archer is ready
to do the dynamic parts of shooting. The archer
raises the entire unit (bow with a nocked arrow) to
shoulder height. The bow is now in an upright posi-
tion facing the target, bow arm is extended toward
target, and the drawing arm is forming an extension
of the arrow. The elbow of the drawing arm is better
slightly higher than lower in relation to the arrow
(Figure 3-6).
4. Now the archer draws the bow by letting the
shoulder and back muscles do the pulling with
one smooth and deliberate motion.
5. At the full draw, the string should make contact
with the center of the nose, lips, and chin.
Learning Cues — Anchoring
1. Anchoring must be done at the same point for
each draw. This lets the arrow be drawn exactly
the same distance and place each time.
2. The index finger of the drawing hand should be
under the tip of the jawbone with the thumb re-
laxed against the neck (low anchor point).

Step 7 — Drawing and Anchoring 3. While drawing, the archer should take a deep
breath, exhale about half of the air and hold the
Drawing is the act of pulling the bowstring into rest until the arrow has been released (Figure
the shooting position, and anchoring is the point 3-7).
where the drawing hand is placed. The drawing and
the anchoring should be done with one smooth delib-
Step 8 —Aiming and Holding
erate motion. Three methods of aiming in archery are by using
a bow sight attached to the bow, by "point of aim,"
Learning Cues — Drawing and by "instinctive shooting."
1. Before drawing, keep in mind that the three 1. Shooting with a bow sight is the most accurate
fingers of the drawing hand are just hooked onto aiming technique. The archer should line up the
the string at the first knuckles. string and bow sight with the center of the tar-
2. The drawing hand should be relaxed with spe- get. If the arrow hits high, move the sight up
cial attention given to relaxing the back of the and if low, move the sight down. The sight can
hand; elbow of the drawing arm should be also be adjusted left or right.
slightly elevated. 2. Point-of-aim shooting is aiming at some spot
3. The elbow of the drawing arm should be slightly with the point of the arrow. The spot may be in
elevated. front of, on, or above the target. The selection of

FIGURE 3-6 Eyes on target, drawing arm slightly FIGURE 3-7 Anchoring.
higher than arrow.
42 ARCHERY

the aiming spot depends upon the height of the

archer, length of the arrow, and bow weight.
When shots are low, move the spot up; when
shots are high, move the spot down. String
alignment is also important and should be done
directly in front of the right eye and lined up
vertical with the bow.
3. Instinctive shooting is shooting without a sight
or point-of-aim marker. The archer's eyes are fo-
cused on the center of target and the bow arm
will adjust itself toward target. Accuracy of this
technique depends upon the archer's shooting
form, eyesight, depth perception, and kines-
thetic awareness.
4
Concentration may be the single most important
part of aiming. You should hold your breath and
relax a few seconds until the arrow is released. You
should also be aware that the sight will oscillate
while you are aiming, but make sure it oscillates
within the target center.

Step 9 — Release
Releasing the arrow should be done with uncon-
scious effort. The archer simply relaxes the entire
drawing hand and lets the string roll off the fingers
by itself. No other
parts of the body except the draw-
ing hand should be moved. During the release, the
archer must continue aiming and maintain the con- FIGURE 3-8 Release and follow-through

traction of the upper back muscles. Furthermore, the

archer should let neither the drawing hand move
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
forward nor come off the anchor position to release
the string.
Orthopedically Impaired
Step 10 — Follow-through
1. Minimal modifications are needed for the wheel-
Follow-through the act of maintaining the
is
chair user with good upper body strength and co-
body position and mental condition assumed at re-
ordination.
lease until the arrow hits the target. The bow arm is
2. Students with grasping difficulties should con-
pushed slightly forward, and the drawing hand rubs
sider commercially purchased assistive devices,
the chin as it moves back behind the archer's neck.
e.g., trigger, wrist, and mouthpiece releases.
During the act of release and follow-through, the
3. Wrist and elbow supports would also assist in
archer must continue aiming at the target center
aiming.
rather than following the flight of the arrow and
keeping the tension of the upper back muscles Fig- (

ure 3-8). Mentally Impaired

Minimal modifications are needed.

Retrieving Arrows
To retrieve an arrow from the target, place the
palm of your left hand against the target face with 1.
the arrow resting between the index and the middle
finger, and push the target face lightly. With your 2.
right hand, grasp the arrow by the shaft close to the
target and, twisting it slightly counterclockwise, pull 3.
the arrow directly backward. If the arrow goes
through the target but the fletchings (feathers) re-
main inside the mat, go to the back of the target and 4.
pull the arrow carefully forward without any twist-
ing motion.
Sensory Impaired
Blind students can be taught to feel the correct
way to notch the arrow in the bow.
Place an audio signal at the target, e.g., bell,
buzzer.
Secure a rope from the archer to the target to
provide the blind student a guide for retrieving
the arrows.
Make targets out of various textures or areas of
the target out of various textures, e.g., velcro,
sandpaper, or paper.
 ARCHERY 43

5. Deaf and hard of hearing students would require 4. Never allow anyone to retrieve arrows until all
minimal adaptations. arrows have been shot.
5. Never shoot into the air or in any direction
where it might destroy property or endanger life.
HINTS FOR IMPROVING TECHNIQUE 6. Always be sure that the area in back of the tar-
get is clear or has an adequate back stop.
Upon release, movements of certain parts of the body 7. Do not overdraw the bow.
willcause faulty arrow flights. Be aware of these 8. Be sure arrows are of the correct length and
movements so that you can avoid them. bow.
stiffness for the

1. High arrow flights are usually caused by:

9. Donot release a fully drawn bow without an
arrow.
a. Peeking (looking up to watch the arrow in
10. Obey all commands given for shooting and re-
flight)
trieving arrows.
b. Heeling the bow (putting pressure on the low 11. Always wear an arm guard and finger tab to
part of the bow handle with the low portion of
prevent injury.
the bow hand)
12. Do not wear bulky clothing or dangling jewelry
c. Body leaning backward when shooting.
d. Overdraw (pulling arrows beyond normal an- 13. No fooling around or horseplay on the shooting
chor point)
line.
2. Low arrow caused by:
flights are usually 14. Never run with arrows in your hand; when car-
a. Creeping (letting the drawing hand move for- rying arrows, keep the pile ends toward the
ward before arrow is released) ground.
b. Overhold (maintaining the hold position too 15. When you have finished shooting, stand behind
long) the other archers until the end has been com-
c. String hitting the arm guard upon release pleted.
d. Hunching the shoulder of the bow arm
3. Arrow flights to the left are usually caused by:
a. Cupping the drawing hand instead of having
TERMINOLOGY
the back of the drawing hand relaxed and
Addressing the target Standing ready to shoot with a
straight
proper shooting stance.
b. Bringing the string away from the face (anchor
Anchor point Specific location on the archer's face to
point) to release the arrow
which the index finger comes while holding and aim-
c. Improper alignment of the bow, body, or string
ing.
4. Arrows falling off the arrow rest of the bow are
Archery golf An adaptation of the game of golf to the
caused by:
sport of archery. Players shoot for the holes, and score
a. Pinching of the arrow nock with the fingers of according to the number of shots required to hit the
the drawing hand. To remedy this, the archer target.
should separate the index and middle fingers Arm guard A piece of leather or plastic that is worn on
to insure a light touch with the nock, hook the the inside of the forearm to protect the arm from the
string with the first knuckles of drawing bowstring.
fingers, and utilize back muscles to draw Arrow plate A protective piece of hard material set into
b. Tight finger tab the bow where the arrow crosses it.

c. Cupping of the drawing hand Arrow rest A small projection at the top of the bow han-
dle where the arrow rests.
Back The side of the bow away from the shooter.
SAFETY Bow arm The arm that holds the bow; this would be the
left arm for a right- handed person.
Bows and arrows are weapons capable of inflicting
Bow sight A device attached to the bow through which
serious injury and should be handled with care. Here
when aiming.
the archer sights
are some specific precautions to follow. Remember
Bow weight Designates the amount of effort (in pounds)
that the continued enjoyment of archery depends
needed to pull a bowstring a specific distance (usually
upon everyone observing these safety rules.
28 inches).
1. Always check the bow and string to see if it is Cant The act of holding the bow tilted or slightly turned
properly placed at both ends of the string notch while shooting.
before starting to shoot. Cast The distance a bow can shoot an arrow.
2. Shoot only at the target. Clout shooting A type of shooting that uses a target 48
3. Don't draw the bow when anyone is between you feet in diameter, laid on the ground at a distance of
and the target area. 180 yards for men and 140 or 120 yards for women.
44 ARCHERY

Usually 36 arrows (6 ends with 6 arrows) are shot per Roving Archery game played outdoors in which natural
round. targets (stumps, trees, bushes, etc.) are selected for
Cock feather Now called the "index feather." The feather competition.
that is set at a right angle to the arrow nock; differ- Serving The thread wrapped around the bowstring at the
ently colored than other two feathers. nocking point.
Creeping Letting the drawing hand move forward at the Shaft The long, body part of the arrow.
release. Spine The characteristic rigidity and flexibility of an
Crest The archer's identifying marks shown just below arrow.
the fletchings on the arrow. Tackle Archery equipment referred to as a whole.
Draw The act of pulling the bow string back into the an- Target face The painted front of a target, usually re-
chor position. placeable.
End A specified number of arrows shot at one time or Trajectory The path of the arrow in flight.
from one position before retrieval of arrows. Vane Plastic feather of an arrow.
Face The part of the bow facing the shooter.
Finger tab A leather flap worn on the drawing hand to
protect the fingers and provide a smooth release of the SELECTED REFERENCES
bow string.
Fletchings The feathers of the arrow, which give guid- Baier, P., Bowers, J., Fowkes, C.R.; and Schoch, S. The Na-
ance to its flight. tional Archery Association Instructors Manual. 3rd ed.
Flight shooting Shooting an arrow the farthest possible Colorado Springs, CO: National Archery Association of
distance. the United States, 1982.
Handle The grip at the midsection of the bow. Bavousett, F.L. Beginning Target Archery. College Station,
Hen feathers The two feathers that are not set at right TX: Unlimited Products, 1979.
angles to the arrow nock. See Cock feather. Bavousett. F. and Beardsley, M. Archery Lab Manual. Col-
Hold Steadily holding the arrow at full draw before re- lege Station, TX: Unlimited Products, 1979.
lease. Driscoll, M.L. Selected Archery Article. 1st ed. Reston, VA:
Instinctive shooting Aiming and shooting instinctively, American Association for Health, Physical Education
rather than using a bow sight or point-of-aim method. and Recreation, 1971.
Limbs Upper and lower parts of the bow; divided by the Hadas, L. Champions. Panorama City, CA: L.F.H. Film
handle. Production, 1980.
Nock The groove in the end of the arrow in which the Haywood, K. Teaching Archery: Steps to Success. Cham-
string is placed. paign, IL: Leisure Press, 1989.
Nocking point The point on the string at which the arrow Heath, E.G. Archery: The Modern Approach. 2nd ed. Lon-
is placed. don and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1978.
Notch The grooves of the upper and lower tips of the Henderson, A. Understanding Winning Archery. Mequon,
limbs into which the bow string is fitted. WI: In Target Communications, 1983.
Overbow Using too strong a bow that is too powerful to Keaggy, D., Sr. Power Archery. 2nd ed. Drayton Plains, MI:
pull a bowstring to proper distance. Power Archery Products, 1968.
Overdraw Drawing the bow so that the pile of the arrow Kember-Smith, John. Archery Today: Techniques and Phi-
is inside the bow. losophies in Action. North Pomfret, VT: David and
Petticoat That part of the target face outside the white Charles, 1988.
ring. Khouri, L.M. Archery for the Visually Handicapped.
Pile (point) The pointed metal tip of the arrow. Thesis: Women's College, University of North Carolina,
1961.
Pinch To squeeze the nock of the arrow.
Plucking Jerking the drawing hand laterally away from Morisawa, J.S. The Secret of the Target. New York and Lon-
don: Routledge, 1984.
the face on the release, which will cause arrow flight
to the left. McKinney, W.C. and McKinney, M. W. Archery. Dubuque,
Point-blank range The only distance from the target at LA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1985.

which the point of aim is right on the bull's eye. Patterson, W.F. Encyclopedia of Archery. New York: St.

Point-of-aim A method of aiming in which the pile of the

Martin's Press, 1984.

arrow is aligned with the target. Pszczola, L. Archery. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1976.
Quiver A receptacle for carrying or holding arrows. Richardson, M.E. Archery. New York:McKay, 1979.
Recurve bow A bow that is curved on the ends. Solier, A. and Gyorbiro, Z. Japanese Archery: Zen
in Ac-

Release The act of letting the bowstring slip off the fin- tion. New York and Toyko: Walker/Weatherhill, 1969.
gertips. Target Archery With Easton Aluminum Shafts. Van Nuys,
Round The term used to indicate shooting a designated CA: Easton Aluminum Co., 1981.
number of arrows at a designated distance or dis- Williams, J.C. Archery for Beginners. 2nd ed. Chicago:
tances. Contemporary Books, 1985.

Wise, L. Tuning Your Compound Bow. Mequon, WI: Target
Communications, 1985.
Audio-Visual Materials
Advanced Shooting Techniques. Writ. A. Henderson. Ath-
letic Institute: North Palm Beach, FL, 1978 (motion pic-
ture).
ARCHERY 45
An Invitation to Archery. Writ. A. Henderson. Athletic In-
stitute:North Palm Beach, FL, 1978 (motion picture).
Fundamentals of Archery: Basic Shooting Techniques. Writ.
A. Henderson. Athletic Institute: North Palm Beach, FL,
1978 (motion picture).
Mastering the Bow and Arrow Sports. Writ. A. Henderson.
Athletic Institute: North Palm Beach, FL, 1978 (motion
picture).
 4 BADMINTON THIS CHAPTER WILL EHABLE YOU TO:
Understand the fundamental techniques in various strokes used in the game of
badminton.
Display an understanding of basic strategy in both singles and doubles.
Identify and understand the basic rules for singles and doubles.
Understand basic terminology used in the game of badminton.

NATURE AND PURPOSE quite popular now because of their extreme lightness
and strength.
The game of badminton has been around for a The price of rackets also varies. There are "play-
number of years. Historians believe that a very simi- able" rackets that can be purchased from $20 to $35
lar game (called battledore) was played in China over (excellent for the beginner or physical education
2,000 years ago. However, badminton as it is pres- classes) and other higher quality rackets for the
ently known is believed to have originated from a "competitive" player, ranging from $45 to $150. The
game called poona that was played by English army racket can be strung with either nylon or gut. Nylon
officers stationed in India during the 17th century. string is sufficient for the beginning player as it
Badminton has steadily gained world-wide ac- usually costs less and lasts longer than gut.
ceptance as being a very fast-paced, highly skilled, In any case choosing a racket is a matter of per-
competitive game. This is substantiated by the fact sonal preference and you should use what feels com-
that badminton has now been included as a full- fortable, not what looks good.
fledged medal sport in the Olympic Games. Badmin-
ton in America is also rapidly growing in popularity.
Shuttlecock
At the beginning level it is usually possible to keep
the shuttle in play, which makes the game enjoyable The usually called shuttle
"official" shuttlecock,
and rewarding for most age groups. Singles, doubles or bird, is made from goose feathers which
are placed
or mixed doubles may be played; thus badminton is in a cork head that is leather covered. Feather shut-
an excellent coeducational activity. tles are quite expensive and can be damaged during
Although courts can be set up outdoors, competi- play very quickly. They are used primarily in high-
tive badminton is generally played indoors where level tournament competition.
the wind and elements will not affect the shuttle. Shuttles are also made of either plastic or nylon.
These shuttles last longer and are not as expensive
as the feathered bird. There are several types of
EQUIPMENT nylon or plastic birds that are very durable and ex-
cellent for class play.
The choice of equipment is important in badminton.
High-quality rackets and shuttlecocks (birds) can
have a favorable bearing on performance. When pur- BADMINTON COURT
chasing rackets and birds, buy the best you can af-
ford. The official badminton court (shown in Figures 4-1
and 4-2) is 44 feet long. The doubles court is 20 feet
wide, while the singles court is 17 feet wide. The net
Racket
is 5 feet at the center and 5 feet 1 inch at the posts. A
Badminton rackets are quite light and can be "V2 court" practice /drill arrangement is shown in
made of wood, aluminum, metal, or synthetic mate- Figure 4-3.
rial such as graphite or carbon. Synthetic rackets are Overhead clearance is an important factor in

46
 2fJ

Back boundary (base) line

BADMINTON 47
Doubles Long service line for doubles
service
area
shaded
for settingup a badminton court. Generally speaking,
right
service
Right Left 13' an overhead clearance of less than 20 feet would not
service service
court
court
be considered conducive for playing the game effec-
"short
court I

and I
tively.A clearance of at least 30 feet is required for
wide." all national and international competition.
10 '--L_

Short service line

6'6" Serving Court — Singles

I

The serving court for singles is bounded by the

44 short service line, the centerline, the singles side-
Net
line, and the back boundary line of the court. The
server must stand within this court, feet not touch-
Short service line
ing any lines, and serve diagonally over the net into
his opponent's singles service court in order to have
Singles
service
a legal serve.
area
Left
Right shaded
service
service for
court
15'6"
court "long
and
narrow."
Serving Court — Doubles
-T-8'6" The serving court for doubles is bounded by the
short service line, the centerline, the doubles side-
line, and the long service line for doubles. The server
Back boundary (base) line must stand within this court, feet not touching any
-—-
lines, and serve diagonally over the net into his op-
ponent's doubles service court in order to have a
FIGURE 4-1 Badminton playing court. Top view. legal serve.

FIGURE 4-2 Badminton court. Side Doubles side line

view.

"1
FIGURE 4-3 /2 court" practice/drill
areas. A1 practices/drills with partner
A2; B1 practices/drills with B2.

48 BADMINTON
RULES OF BADMINTON
1. Toss for serve. Before a match begins, opponents
can toss a coin, spin a racket, or toss a shuttle to
determine who shall get the choice of "serve" or
"side." If spinning a racket, identify a marking
on the racket and have one person call the mark.
If tossing a shuttle, the proper procedure is for
one person to either hit or toss the shuttle in the
air and let it land. The person towards whom the
base of the shuttle is pointing gets the choice.
2. Men's singles and all doubles games are played
to 15 points. Women's singles is played to 11
points. In a 15-point game, if the score becomes
tied at 13-13, the player/team scoring 13 points
first (the receivers) can elect to continue and fin-
ish the game to 15 points (which is termed "no
set") or, they can elect to play 5 more points
("set") to finish the game. When tied at 14-14,
the player/team scoring 14 points first can elect
to continue and finish the game to 15 points, or
they can elect to "set" the game at 3 points. In an
11-point game, if the game is tied at 9-9, the
first player scoring 9 points has the choice of ei-
ther finishing the game at 1 1 points ("no set"), or
"setting" the game at 3 points. If the game is tied
at 10-10, the choice would be either to finish the
game at 11 points or to "set" the game at 2
points.
(NOTE: A player/team does not have to win by 2
points.)
3. The serve must be delivered into the diagonal
service court and within its boundaries to be a
legal serve. Any shuttle hitting the line is in. In
singles the shuttle must land in the long, narrow
court, in doubles it must land wide
in the short,
court. In doubles, once the serve has been re-
turned, the fullcourt (20 X 44 feet) is played.
4. The server isallowed only one trial to put the
shuttle into play. The shuttle may hit the net
and land in the proper court and be legal. In sin-
gles the service is made from the right service
court whenever the server's score is an even
number (0, 2, 4, etc.). Whenever the server's
score is an odd number 1, 3, 5, etc.) the service
(
is made from the left service court. In doubles
the first serve is always started from the right
court whenever a team acquires the service from
their opponents. The server will alternate sen-
ice courts each time a point is made or until the
serve is lost. Only one "hand" is allowed the side
beginning the serve in doubles the first "inning."
Two hands are allowed each inning thereafter.
5. Matches consist of winning two out of three
games. Players must change sides of the court
after each game. The winner of the previous
game starts the serve in the next game. If a third
game is required, players will switch courts
»
again at what is considered the half-way point:
immediately after a player reaches 8 points in a
15-point game or immediately after a player
reaches 6 points in an 11-point game.
6. It is a fault (loss of service or "hand out" for the
serving side; or loss of point for the receiving
side) when:
a. Service is the shuttle is struck
illegal, i.e.,
when above the waist, or the head of the
racket is higher than the lowest finger of the
racket hand when contact is made.
b. Service or played shot lands outside the speci-
fied court, passes through or under the net, or
hits a player or obstruction outside the court.
c. If server or receiver is standing outside of the
proper court upon delivery of the serve or
balks in any way before the service. Only the
person served to may return the shuttle.
d. The server or receiver steps forward, lifts, or
drags a foot during the delivery of the serve.
e. The server misses the shuttle in attempting
to serve.
f. A player reaches over the net to contact a
shuttle. (The follow-through, however, may
break the plane of the net.)
g. A player touches the net with the racket or
any part of the body while the shuttle is
deemed to be in play.
h. A player contacts the shuttle twice in one
swing. (Referred to as a "double hit."
i. A player fails to return the shuttle to the op-
ponent's proper court. (The opposing player
cannot hit, catch, or be struck by a doubtful
shuttle and then call it "out.'i
j. On a doubles serve, the server's partner un-
sights the server (does not allow receivers to
view the service).
k. In doubles, a shuttle is hit by a player and the
player's partner successively.
1. A player prevents or hinders an opponent
from making a legal stroke where the shuttle
is followed over the net (racket follow-
through of the striker).
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
After acquiring an understanding of the basic strat-
egy, simplified rules, and court courtesies, playing
should start immediately. Specific skills will be in-
troduced as the learning sequence progresses. The
following outline includes everything that needs to
be covered, but the exact teaching sequence will vary
according to circumstances.
A. Nature of the Game
1. Demonstration or video of actual play (Na-
tional or International competition)
2. The playing court
 —

BADMINTON 49

B. The Singles Game

1. Basic strategy
2. Simplified rules and scoring
3. Court courtesies
C. Grip
1. Forehand
D. Play Games
E. Strokes
1. Overhead clear
2. Long serve
3. Short serve
F. Introduce intra-class competition
1. Ladder tournament
2. Round robin, etc.
G. Strokes (continued)
1. Smash
Block (forehand and backhand)
2.
H. Footwork and movement
1. Backcourt

2. Lateral (blocking)
3. Forecourt
I. Strokes (continued)
1. Around-the-head
a. Clears
b.Smashes
2. Overhead drop
J. Grip FIGURE 4-4 FIGURE 4-5
1. Backhand Forehand grip. Backhand grip.

K. Strokes (continued)
1.Net clears (forehand and backhand)
2.Net drops (forehand and backhand) thumb and index finger. This "V" should be slightly
L. The Doubles Game to the left of center for right-handed players. Grasp
1. Basic strategy the handle lightly with fingers spread slightly. The
2. Simplified rules and scoring thumb wraps around the handle on the left side.
3. Alignments Proper thumb placement is vital for stroking profi-
a. Side-by-side (defensive) ciently.
b. Up-and-back (offensive) When not in the act of stroking the shuttle your
c. Circular rotation (combination of a and b grip should be relaxed and fairly loose. As you start
above, depending upon the situation) your stroke you will tighten your grip somewhat
just enough to maintain control of the racket. The
more forceful the shot the tighter the grip.
This same grip may be used for most backhand
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES shots. For our purposes we will vary this grip only
when stroking backhand net drops and net clears.
Many different skills and techniques must be util-
(At the beginning level, asking players to change
ized effectively to be a good, fundamentally sound
grips repeatedly during fast-paced volleys can be
badminton player. In this section we will describe quite frustrating to most students).
each stroke or skill, and give learning cues and prac-
Backhand. For backhand net drops and net
tice suggestions for each.
clearsyou will move the racket a quarter turn clock-
wise from the forehand grip, so that your thumb
moves farther behind the racket handle (Figure
The Grips
4-5).
Forehand. To acquire the proper grip for a
forehand stroke, hold the racket by the shaft in the
left hand with the face of the racket perpendicular to
Home Base — Singles
the floor and "shake hands" with the grip (Figure "Home base" is referred to as the area in the
4-4). Slide your hand down so that the fatty part court where a player would stand to best cover the
rests comfortably against the "butt" of the handle. entire court effectively. In singles it is in the center
There will be a "V" formed by the juncture of your of the court —
an equal distance to all four corners.

50 BADMINTON
After each shot is hit the player should attempt
to return to home base position as quickly as possible
and prepare for their opponent's return. If you can-
not return quickly enough prior to your opponent's
return, you should stop, ready yourself, and then
react to his or her return from wherever you are in
the court. A player should not be moving at the mo-
ment an opponent contacts the shuttle.
The Ready Position
Moving efficiently around the court during play
is of the utmost importance in badminton. Good
movement begins with a proper "ready position."
This the position, or stance, a player should as-
is
sume prior to maneuvering towards an opponent's
return shot. The feet should be spread shoulder
width apart or slightly wider, the knees slightly
bent, and your weight on the balls of your feet ready
for movement in any direction. A stagger stance with
the racket-foot forward is used by most players (Fig-
ures 4-6 and 4-7).
Footwork
footwork is extremely important in
Efficient
badminton. You must be able to get to the shuttle as
quickly as possible in order to set up for your next
stroke. Generally speaking, long strides and lunging
action should be emphasized in footwork. Using
FIGURE 4-6 Ready position. Front.
—
short steps to cover the court is time consuming and
a waste of valuable energy.
For shots close to the net. the player should
always lunge with the racket-side foot reaching to-
wards the shuttle at the moment of contact.
For lateral shots, push off with the foot that is
farthest away from the shuttle and lunge with the
other — pushing off with your right foot if you are
moving to the left.
For shots hit deep into the backcourt, backward
strides should be used. It is important to turn the
body sideways to the net when hitting the shuttle
non-racket shoulder facing the net. This will allow
full rotation of the upper body and hips in generating
power. More advanced players will use a scissors
kick (switching the legs) while in the act of striking
the shuttle. This allows them to push off with the
non-racket side leg, gaining efficiency in returning
to the home base position.
The Strokes
There are five basic groups of shots that should
be learned at the beginning level of badminton:
and drops. Each of
serves, clears, smashes, blocks,
these strokes described below, followed by a sixth
is
type: "around-the head" shots.
I. Serves
There are two basic badminton serves: the long
serve, which is hit high and deep, and the short
serve, which is hit low and short. The long serve is
used primarily in singles play, and the short serve is
used primarily in doubles play. The serving stances
and areas are the same in both singles and doubles.
A. Long Serve (high and deep). The object
of the long serve is simply to move your opponent as
far away from the net as possible. In singles play this
FIGURE 4-7 Ready position. Side.

FIGURE 4-8 Service stance.
would be to the baseline, and in doubles play
would be to the long service line for doubles.
When positioning yourself stand approximately
three to four feet behind the short service line and
close to the centerline (Figure 4-8). Face your oppo-
nent's diagonal service court, stagger your stance
(right foot behind the left if you are right-handed)
with your weight on the back foot, stand tall, and
relax (knees slightly bent).
Hold the shuttle with your fingers and thumb
wrapped gently around the feathers and cork base
when starting the service (Figure 4-9). The shuttle
FIGURE 4-9 Holding shuttle for service
delivery.
FIGURE 4-10 Holding shuttle during service delivery.
arm isflexed at approximately 90 degrees and posi-
tioned across the body towards the racket-shoulder.
When released the shuttle is "set out" and dropped
away from the body towards your racket-side. It
should not be allowed to "tumble" (flipped end-over-
end) or "waver" after it is released because these ac-
tions will cause inconsistent flight patterns. The
shuttle should be released from approximately
shoulder height (Figure 4-10).
The racket is in the backswing position with the
racket head being held higher than the racket-hand.
As you release the shuttle to start your serve, your
weight shifts forward (to your front foot), and your
racket is pulled down and through the shuttle (Fig-
ure 4-11). At the contact point your wrist snaps, and
the forearm rotates upward and forward in the direc-
tion of your serve. Contact point is about knee level.
it
FIGURE 4-11 Long serve. After the shuttle is
dropped, bring the racket downward and forward.
51
52 BADMINTON

n 2.

3.
Make sure the racket wrist is cocked as much as
possible in the backswing position, elbow fairly
close to the body.
Drop the shuttle before starting the swing.
4. Drop the shuttle in front of and to the side of
your body far enough away to force the hitting
arm to reach for it slightly.
5. Be as relaxed as possible and try to generate
maximum racket head acceleration by snapping
the wrist and rotating the forearm at point of
contact.
6. Contact shuttle at about knee height.
7. Hit the shuttle up and out.

Practice Suggestions

Get as many shuttles as possible and hit the

high, deep singles serve. You can practice serving di-
agonally if space permits, or you can practice serving
straight across the net using the V2 court practice/
play variation.
The two keys to look for are height and depth.
Hit the shuttle high enough and hit it deeply enough
to land in the back alley close to the base line. Re-
member, a long serve that is not high enough or deep
FIGURE 4-12 The follow-through position after a enough will put you in a very defensive situation.
vigorous wrist snap and rotation of the forearm.
B. Short Serve (short and low). The object
of the short serve is to force your opponent to "lift"
the shuttle. (Lifting the shuttle —
resulting most
Hips and shoulders will rotate towards the net, and often from underhand strokes —
is considered to be
the racket-arm will finish across the body (Figure defensive as it will allow the opponent an opportu-
4-12). nity to return the "lifted" shuttle downward.)
The long serve can be described as a basic under- When positioning yourself, stand approximately
hand motion with a vigorous wrist snap and forearm three to four feet behind the short service line and
rotation. close to the centerline. Face your opponent's diagonal
service court, stagger your stance right foot behind
I

Learning Cues (Figure 4-13)
1. Stand facing the receiver's court
upright, staggered serving stance.
the left if you are right-handed) with your weight on
the back leg, stand tall, and relax (knees slightly
in a relaxed,
bent).
The racket the backswing position with the
is in
racket head being held higher than the racket-hand.
As you release the shuttle to start your serve, your
weight shifts forward to your front foot and your
< >,

racket is "pushed" (rather than pulled as in the long

serve) through the shuttle (Figure 4-14). At the con-
tact point your wrist remains cocked with the
racket-arm following through forward in the direc- (

tion of your serve) —

as if pushing from behind to
guide it over the net (Figure 4-15). Contact point is
about thigh level. Minimum hip or shoulder rotation
is utilized.
The idea is to hit the shuttle so that it will stay
low and drop just behind the short service line. Be-
cause little power is needed to achieve this, the wrist
remains in the cocked position throughout the
FIGURE 4-13 Long serve. Trajectory and target zones for singles stroke. The shuttle should reach its maximum
play. height at the net and then immediately start to drop.
 BADMINTON 53

FIGURE 4-14 Short serve. After the shuttle is FIGURE 4-15 Notice the short follow-through in

dropped, bring the racket forward and push the the direction of the flight.

shuttle toward the net.

Learning Cues (Figure 4-16)

1 Stand facing the receiver's court in a relaxed,

upright, staggered serving stance.
2. Make sure the racket wrist is cocked as much as
possible in the backswing position, elbow close
to the body.
3. Drop the shuttle before starting the swing.
4. Drop the shuttle in front of and to the side of
your body.
5. Be as relaxed as possible and try to "push" the
shuttle rather than "hitting" it.
6. Contact shuttle at about thigh height.
7. Keep the shuttle as low and short as possible.

Practice Suggestions
Get as many shuttles as possible and hit the
short, low serve. You can practice serving diagonally
if space permits, or you can practice serving straight
across the net using the V2 court practice/play varia-
tion.
The two keys to look for are low clearance of the
net and short in depth. Hit the shuttle low enough,
and hit it short enough to land just past the short
service line. Remember, a short serve that is not low
enough will put you in a very defensive situation.
Return of Service: Singles. The position for
returning serves in singles is approximately four feet
FIGURE 4-16 Short serve. Trajectory and target zones for singles
and doubles play.
in back of the short service line (mid-court) and
moved slightly to your backhand side in the service
court. Your stance will be a slightly exaggerated
stagger with the non-racket leg forward (Figures
4-17 and 4-18). Stand tall with the majority of your
weight on the forward leg. Hold your racket in front
of your body about chin high.
For returning a long serve (high and deep), push
off with your forward leg and backstride to position
yourself under the oncoming shuttle. To return a
short serve (low and short), lunge forward by moving
54 BADMINTON

the singles return position. Your stance will be a

slightly exaggerated stagger with the non-racket leg
forward. Stand tall with the majority of your weight
on the forward leg. Hold your racket in front of your
body slightly higher than the position held for a nor-
mal singles return. This will allow you a quicker
contact time for short serves —
the serve that is used
most often in doubles play.
The footwork used in returning doubles long
serves is the same as that used for returning long
serves in singles.
II. Clears
Clears are used as a defensive stroke to allow
you time to return to the ready position and regroup;
and to move your opponent as far away from the net
as possible. There are two types of clears: overhead
and underhand.
A. Overhead Clear. Overhead clears are
usually taken from a backcourt position. From your
home base position, move into a position under and
slightly behind the oncoming shuttle. Prepare your
racket for the stroke by bringing it back behind the
FIGURE 4-17 Singles service return shoulders into what is called the "back scratching"
stance. Even court.
position: arm bent, elbow parallel to the floor (Fig-
ure 4-19).
With your racket shoulder now in line with the
shuttle, extend the arm to meet the shuttle at the
highest point possible (Figure 4-20). At the moment
of contact your forearm rotates outward, and the
wrist snaps quickly causing the racket head to accel-
erate and drive the shuttle upward and outward
deep into your opponent's court. The racket head will
be facing slightly upward at contact. Follow-through
with the racket arm crossing your body in the direc-
tion of your non-racket side (Figure 4-21).

Learning Cues (Figure 4-22)

1. Position yourself under and slightly behind the

dropping shuttle.
2. Prepare the racket in the "back scratching" posi-
tion.
3. As you swing upward, rotate the forearm and
extend the arm as high as possible with the
racket face pointing slightly upward.
4. At the moment of contact snap the wrist quickly.
5. Hit the shuttle high 18 to 20 feet) and deep into
(

your opponent's backcourt area.

FIGURE 4-18 Singles service return
6. Follow-through across your body.
Odd court.
stance.

Practice Suggestions

your back leg quickly to the net. As you lunge, reach
out with your racket to contact the shuttle at its
highest point.
Return of Service: Doubles. The position for
returning serves in doubles is approximately one
foot in back of the short service line and moved
slightly to your backhand side in the service court.
This position puts you much closer to the net than in
1. Straight Clears using the V2 court area. Partners
hit continuous clears to each other attempting to
get the shuttle into the back alley.
2. Crosscourt Clears. Partners hit continuous clears
diagonally to each other working on distance
and accuracy. Each partner attempts to get the
shuttle into the back alley and corner of the sin-
gles court.
 BADMINTON 55

FIGURE 4-19 Overhead clear. Backswing FIGURE 4-20 Overhead clear. Contact. FIGURE 4-21 Overhead clear. Follow-
(used for all overhead strokes). through.

3. Side Alley Clears. Partners hit continuous clears

within the side alley boundaries working on ac-
curacy and distance. Defensive clear

B. Forehand Underhand (Net) Clear. Un-

derhand clears are usually taken from a forecourt
position. When your opponent hits a drop shot into
your forecourt, or close to the net, it forces you to
"lift" the shuttle and go on the defensive. Hitting an
underhand clear in this situation will serve the same
purpose as hitting an overhead clear in a backcourt
situation. That is, it will allow you time to return to
the ready position and regroup; and, it will move
your opponent as far away from the net as possible.
As the shuttle is dropping toward your forehand
side and in the forecourt area, from the ready posi-
tion take a short first step with your non-racket leg
and then a long lunge to the shuttle with the racket FIGURE 4-22 Overhead clears. Trajectory and target zone for
singles play.
leg.
Reach for the shuttle with the wrist slightly
cocked and your racket arm in as high a position as
necessary to contact the bird at its highest point pos- through is in the direction that you intended the

sible. At the moment of contact rotate your forearm shuttle to travel (Figure 4-24).
so that the racket is uncocked explosively up and C. Backhand Underhand (Net) Clear.
through the shuttle (Figure 4-23). The follow- Change to a backhand grip. As the shuttle is drop-
56 BADMINTON

FIGURE 4-23 Forehand net clear. Contact. FIGURE 4-24 Forehand net clear. Follow-through.

FIGURE 4-25 Backhand net clear Contact. FIGURE 4-26 Backhand net clear. Follow-through.

ping toward your backhand side and in the forecourt

area, from the ready position take a short first step
with your non-racket leg and then a long lunge to the
shuttle with the racket leg.
Reach for the shuttle with the wrist slightly
cocked and your racket arm in as high a position as
necessary to contact the bird at its highest point pos-
sible. At the moment of contact rotate your forearm
so that the racket is brought explosively up and
through the shuttle (Figure 4-25). The follow-
through is in the direction that you intended the
shuttle to travel (Figure 4-26).

Learning Cues (Figure 4-27)

1. Lunge to the shuttle with your racket leg for-

ward at contact.
2. Contact the shuttle at the highest point possible.
FIGURE 4-27 Net clear. Trajectory and target zones for singles
3. Lift the shuttlewith a hard, explosive wrist ac-
play. tion.
 BADMINTON 57

4. Hit the shuttle high 18 to 20 feet) and deep into

( ily for getting the shuttle to land on your opponent's
your opponent's backcourt area.
5. Follow-through in the direction you intended the
shuttle to travel.
Practice Suggestions
Straight underhand clears using the
area.
One player
hits overhead drops from the back
alley,while the partner hits underhand clears from
the net area.
NOTE: See overhead drop "Practice Sugges-
tions" in section V: Drop Shots.
D. Attacking Clear. Attacking clears are
used primarily to drive your opponent to the back-
court (farthest point from the net) after he or she has
come very close to the net, and you think you can
"clear" the shuttle over his racket for a winner. They
are stroked similar to the clears discussed above ex-
cept that the trajectory is lower. This lower trajec-
tory will cause the shuttle to reach the floor sooner,
and in turn put your opponent in a very defensive
situation (see Figure 4-22).
III. Smashes
The smash isthe basic offensive shot in badmin-
ton. It is a very powerful stroke that is used primar-
side of th(; court as quickly as possible. However, if
the shuttle does not land on their court and end the
volley as expected, it your opponent to "lift"
will force
the shuttle— putting him or her in a very defensive
situation. The smash is a shot that can be tremen-
dously effective.
Vi court
The body position is similar to the overhead
clear stroke, with one exception: the shuttle should
be lined up ahead of your racket-shoulder (Figure
4-28), farther ahead than the contact point of the
overhead clear. By the same token the racket face
must be angling downward as compared to upward
for the overhead clear.
You should contact the shuttle at the highest
point possible. The higher you contact the shuttle,
the greater the angle down to your opponent's court.
The greater the angle, the greater the chance you
have for clearing the net. Your forearm and wrist will
rotate and snap rapidly as the shuttle is contacted.
Follow-through is similar to the overhead clear (Fig-
ure 4-29).
Unless you have an exceptionally strong smash,
this stroke should only be used when you are in the
front three-quarters of the court. Remember, smash-
ing from the back alley area forces the shuttle to fly
a greater distance to get to your opponent's side of

FIGURE 4-28 Smash. Notice that the contact

point is in front of the racket shoulder. FIGURE 4-29 Smash. Follow-through.
 )

58 BADMINTON

the court. This will allow your opponent more time to

react to your smash and increase his or her chances
of returning the shuttle with some control.

Learning Cues (Figure 4-30)

As far as preparation and motion are concerned,

the same learning cues apply to both the overhead
clear and the smash. These additional key points
apply to smashes:

1. Get into position so that contact can be made

ahead of the racket-shoulder which is farther
ahead than an overhead clear.
2. The racket face should be angling downward at
contact.
3. Sharp downward angle is just as important as
shuttle speed. FIGURE 4-31 Forehand block.

Practice Suggestions

Straight smashes using the V2 court area. One player

hits short, underhand clears while the partner re-
turns them with smashes.
NOTE: Also see "Practice Suggestions" under
Blocks, section IV.
IV. Blocks (Figures 4-31, 4-32, 4-33)
Blocks are used as a defensive stroke in response
to an opponent's smash. They are used primarily for
returning a smash in an emergency situation. How-
ever, if effectively stroked, a block can also change
your defensive situation into an offensive situation.
(An effective block will force your opponent to return
the shuttle with an underhand stroke. Hopefully,
this "lifting" action on the part of your opponent will
enable you to regain the attack.
The block shot is best accomplished by trying to
get the racket head out in front of your body and t'_
the shuttle as quickly as possible. Use the forehand FIGURE 4-32 Backhand block.

grip (Figure 4-31). There is no backswing to this

stroke, merely a slight push of the shuttle to have it
rebound from the racket and barely clear the net.

FIGURE 4-30 Smash. Trajectory and target zones for singles play. FIGURE 4-33 High body block.
 BADMINTON 59

The force of your push will depend upon the speed of

your opponent's smash. The harder the smash the
less the push. A mere rebound off of a stationary
racket face — —
from a powerful smash is often suffi-
cient enough to accomplish this stroke. The object is
to drop the shuttle over the net shallow in the oppo-
nent's forecourt.

Learning Cues (Figure 4-34)

1. Do not try to take the racket back as this stroke

does not require a backswing.
2. React as quickly as possible trying to get the
racket head out in front of your body and to the
shuttle.
3. Try to keep the shuttle low, barely clearing the FIGURE 4-34 Block. Two flight patterns and target zones for
net. blocking.
4. Do not swing at the shuttle. Merely block with a
slight push.
above, overhead drops are used to move your oppo-
nent to the forecourt; and, to force a "lifting" return
Practice Suggestions
of the shuttle. If stroked deceptively enough, over-
1. Smash and Block drill using the V2 court area. head drops can put your opponent into such an off-
One player hits a underhand clear
short, high balance position that a decent return from them
that the partner smashes. The returner at- would be extremely difficult.
tempts to block the smash and get it over the net The body position used is similar to the overhead
shallow in the forecourt. clear. The shuttle is contacted in front of the body,
2. 2-1-1 Smash and Block drill (V2 court). Player but the racket head will slow instead of accelerating
(A) hits a short, high underhand clear to start at the moment of impact. As in the smash, the racket
the drill. face must be angling downward. Follow-through is
The partner (B) overhead clears. across your body and towards the non-racket side.
(A) smashes. This shot depends to a great extent on finesse
(B) blocks. and deception. A backswing, stroke, and follow-
(A) underhand (net) clears, and the drill con- through that is similar to the clear or smash is very
tinues. vital in the disguise of this stroke. Remember, the
Sequence: underhand clear, overhead clear, shuttle is fully stroked and guided, not pushed from
smash, block, (repeat). the shoulder or tapped from a stiff, overhead, out-
3. 3-1-1 Smash and Block drill (V2 court). Use the stretched arm position.
same sequence as the 2-1-1 except add in an
extra overhead clear to this drill. Learning Cues (Figure 4-35)
Sequence: underhand clear, overhead clear,
1. Get into position so that contact can be made in
overhead clear, smash, block, (repeat).
front of the body.
V. Drop Shots
There are two types of drop shots: overhead and
underhand. Underhand drop shots are taken from
the forecourt area, often times close to the net, and
are referred to as "net drops." Overhead drops are
usually taken from the backcourt area and referred
to as simply "drops.'* Drops are used to force your op-
ponent to come to the net from his or her backcourt
position; and, to force him or her to "lift" the shuttle
for their return. They can be described as soft shots
that barely clear the net and then drop quickly into
the opponent's forecourt area — preferably in front of
the short service line.
A. Overhead Drop. Overhead drops are
usually taken from a backcourt position. The object
is to make your opponent think that you are going to
clear or smash, and then execute a soft stroke that FIGURE 4-35 Overhead drop. Trajectory and target zones for
gently drops the shuttle over the net. As stated singles play.
60 BADMINTON
2. Racket preparation has to be the same as if you
were going to clear or smash.
3. Slow the speed of the racket head just before
contacting the shuttle.
4. The racket face should be angling slightly down-
ward on impact.
5. Gently guide the shuttle over the net with your
wrist action and follow-through.
Practice Suggestions
1. Continuous straight drops using the V2 court area.
One player hits underhand clears while the
partner returns them with overhead drops.
2. 2-1 Overhead Drop drill ¥2 court). ( member, a shuttle that is lifted too hard (too high)
Player A) hits a short, high underhand clear to
< will put you in terrible trouble. A shuttle that is
start the drill.
The partner (B) overhead clears.
(A) overhead drops, and the drill continues.
Sequence: underhand clear, overhead clear,
overhead drop, (repeat).
3. 3-1 Overhead Drop drill V2 court). Use the same
< leg. With your arm and racket out in front of your
sequence as the 2-1 except add an extra over-
head clear to this drill.
Sequence: underhand clear, overhead clear,
overhead clear, overhead drop, (repeat >.
NOTE: Also see net drop "Practice Suggestions.*'
below.
B. Net Drop. Net (or underhand) drops are hit
from the forecourt area and are used to draw your
opponent close to the net after they have hit an over-
head drop from their backcourt. They are also used
to force an opponent to "lift" the shuttle.
Net drops taken on the forehand side are stroked
using the forehand grip (Figure 4-36). Net drops
taken on the backhand side are stroked using the
FIGURE 4-36 Net drop. Forehand.
backhand grip previously described (Figure 4-37).
The object is to lift slightly or push the shuttle gently
over the top of the net so that it falls below the white
tape level as quickly as possible. If stroked properly
the shuttle will fall very close to the net. This will
force your opponent to travel the greatest distance
possible from his or her present position in the court.
Getting to the shuttle quickly is of the utmost
importance. The idea is to contact the shuttle as
close to the top of the net as possible. The lower the
contact point the more "lift" you will have to put on
your shot. You would rather "push" your drop over
the net than "lift" it over. Lifting the shuttle forces
you into an uncertain defensive situation. Re-
lifted too soft (not high enough) will result in a bird
that didn't make it over the net. Pushing and guid-
ing your net drop will eliminate the uncertainty of
"lifting."
Lunge toward the shuttle with your racket-side
body and as high as necessary to contact the shuttle
at its highest point, gently push and guide the shut-
tle over the net. Have the shuttle just barely clear
the net so that your opponent will not have a chance
mash it back at you.
Learning Cues "Figure 4-38)
1. Lunge with the racket-side leg toward the shut-
tle.
2. Contact the shuttle as near the top of the net as
possible.
3. Gently push and guide the shuttle over the net.
4. Have the shuttle just barely clear the net.
FIGURE 4-37 Net drop. Backhand.
 BADMINTON 61

Practice Suggestions

1. Toss and stroke drill using the V2 court area. One

player stands on the short service line and tosses
a shuttle over the net, while the partner lunges
toward the shuttle and net drops. Tosses should
be directed to the forehand side for forehand
practice, backhand side for backhand practice.
The stroker should be in a ready position ap-
proximately two feet behind the short service
line prior to each toss.
2. Continuous net drops (V2 court). From behind the
short service line, one player puts the shuttle
into play with a short serve. Each player con-
tinues to hit net drops until a missed shot has
occurred. FIGURE 4-38 Net drop. Trajectory and target zones for singles
3. 2-1-1 Overhead Drop and Net Drop drill (V2 play.

court).
Player (A) hits an underhand clear to start the
drill.
The partner (B) overhead clears.
(A) overhead drops.
(B) net drops.
(A) underhand clears, and the drill continues.
Sequence: underhand clear, overhead clear,
overhead drop, net drop, (repeat).
4. 3-1-1 Overhead Drop and Net Drop drill (V2
court). Use the same sequence as the 2-1-1 ex-
cept add an extra overhead clear to this drill.
Sequence: underhand clear, overhead clear,
overhead clear, overhead drop, net drop, (re-
peat).

VI. Around-the-head Shots.

Around-the-head strokes are used in place of the
conventional overhead "backhand" stroke a shot—
usually considered to be weak and very defensive.
"Around-the-heads" may be used for overhead
clears, smashes, and overhead drops. If stroked
properly they can be very powerful, attacking
strokes. Although this stroke will be contacted on
your backhand (non-racket) side, your grip will be a
forehand grip.
Position yourself so that the shuttle is in align-
ment with your non-racket shoulder. The backswing
is exactly the same as in the other overhead shots
but the contact point will be over your non-racket
shoulder (Figure 4-39). There will be a bending of
the waist in the direction of the backhand side. The
racket arm is extended as fully as is necessary to
contact the shuttle at its highest point possible.
Remember, the only difference between around- FIGURE 4-39 Around-the-head. Notice that the
the-head shots and other overheads is that the shut- contact is on the backhand side of the body.
tle is contacted over the non-racket shoulder in all
"around-the-heads."
At the beginning and intermediate levels, it is PLAYING STRATEGY
suggested that around-the-head strokes be strongly
emphasized. This will not only encourage more ag- There isno set sequence of shots or strategic deci-
gressive stroking, but it will also deter players from sions that one can use to win a volley. However, with
stroking the weaker backhand shots (clears and sound fundamentals, proficient strokes, and good
drops) unnecessarily. strategy you will win many matches.
62 BADMINTON
Basically, shots made from below net level (the
white tape or what is termed "lifted." are consid-
i.
ered to be defensive, and those made from above the
net level, or stroked downward, are considered to be
offensive.
Basic Strategy
1. Force your opponent to move as far as possible to
return a shot.
2. Use attacking strokes whenever you get a
chance.
3. Return to "home base" after every shot.
4. —
Play to your opponent's weakest side generally
the backhand.
5. When in doubt, hit a high, deep clear and hope
for a weak return.
Singles Strategy
The game of singles demands a great deal of de-
termination, hustle, quick reactions, and patience.
Outsmarting your opponent using good strategy,
and outhustling him or her through mere determi-
nation is very exciting and rewarding.
Serving
1. A long serve (high and deep) to the backcourt
area near the centerline is used the majority of
the time. This serve will put your opponent as
far away from the net as possible and will force
him or her to hit a very strong return to put you
at any disadvantage whatsoever. Directing your
serve to the centerline will cut down the angle of
return.
2. A short serve can be used if your opponent is
standing too deep in his or her receiving court to
return your serve. Or. short serves can be used if
your opponent has a very effective smash from
the backcourt area, and you want to eliminate a
smash return directly off your serve.
Return of Service
1. Return serves with shots that are straight
ahead. Crosscourt shots take longer to travel
and need to be hit harder due to the extra dis-
tance they have to fly.
2. Your service return should move your opponent
out of his or her home base position.
3. Long serves are generally returned with an
overhead clear or a drop shot in the near corner.
4. Short serves are generally returned with an un-
derhand clear or a net drop (push) to the near
corner.
The Volley
1. Move your opponent to the various corners of the
court by varying your shot selection. Moving
your opponent out of his or her home base posi-
tion and to the different corners of the court will
increase your chances of forcing a weak return
and lose control of the volley.
2. Move your opponent to the various corners of the
court, in diagonal patterns if possible. Moving
your opponent diagonally forces them to travel
greater distances in covering the court.
3. Force your opponent to "lift" the shuttle as often
as possible. This will decrease your opponent's
chances for returning the shuttle with a strong
stroke and increase your chances for staying on
the attack hitting the shuttle downward
<
>.
4. Build your game on a pattern of drops and
clears. If you are patient, this pattern will even-
tually force your opponent to hit a weak return.
Then, use your smash to put the volley away.
5. Take advantage of any weakness your opponent
may have. The backhand is usually the weaker
side, so direct your shots to that side.
6. In defending a smash, block it to the opposite
side of where the smash was originated.
7. If your opponent is moving to cover an open spot
on the court when you make your shot, play the
bird to the position being vacated. The most dif-
ficult maneuver on the court is one that requires
a quick change of direction in your movement.
Retracing your steps demands the utmost agility
and speed.
8. Do not play the sidelines too close with your
shots. Give yourself about a three-foot "safety"
variance inside the sideline to reduce your
chances of hitting the shuttle out-of-bounds.
9. If late in the game, and you are trailing your op-
ponent, you might want to switch to a more con-
servative type play. Direct your shots toward the
center portion of the court. This will increase
your chances of staying in-bounds and remain-
ing "in the game." This does not. however, mean
that you should become less aggressive in your
stroking.
Doubles Strategy
It must be understood that doubles is a more
complex game than singles. It is faster paced and de-
mands considerable strategy and cohesive teamwork
for partners to be effective. It is offense oriented,
which means that attacking, energy-consuming
strokes are used most of the time. With excellently
placed strokes and long volleys, doubles can be a
very strenuous game.
Serving
1. A short serve (low and short to the "T" area
I
near corner) is used most of the time. This serve
(
will force your opponents to "lift" the shuttle and
will put them in a defensive situation directly off
the serve.
 BADMINTON 63

2. Long serves (high, but not as deep as the singles in preparation for an attacking strategy <up-
long serve) can be used to move a strong fore- and-back).
court player to the backcourt area, or they can be
The Volley
used to maneuver an opponent who has an inef-
fective smash to the backcourt. Remember, be- There are three basic alignments used for dou-
cause long serves in doubles are not allowed to bles play. These alignments are generally dependent
travel as far back into the playing court area as upon the specific situation during the game or vol-
long serves in singles play, the long serve should ley. There is a defensive alignment side by side; an
be used very sparingly in doubles. offensive alignment, up and back; or, you can use a
3. The server's partner should assume a position combination of these two alignments called circular
two feet forward of the long service line and rotation. Circular rotation depends largely upon the
straddling the centerline. This alignment is used situation your team is in 'offensive or defensive)
in preparation for an attacking strategy (up- during the point being played.
and-back). Side-by-side Alignment. This alignment is
considered to be defensive. In this alignment, each
Return of Service
partner is responsible for his or her half of the play-
1. The receiving position in doubles is slightly dif- ing court (Figure 4-40). Whenever your opponents
ferent for the receiver than in singles (see p. 54). are in control of the volley (using attacking strokes
From this doubles receiving position, short or forcing you to "lift" the shuttle), the side-by-side
serves can be played very quickly. This will, in alignment is the best strategy to use. With this
turn, increase the possibility of using attacking alignment it will be harder for your opponents to
strokes for short service returns. stroke a smash past you because you and your
2. Rush short serves. As soon as the shuttle is partner will have the court covered laterally very ef-
served, step forward with the racket-foot and at- ficiently. This alignment is also easy to understand
tempt to contact the shuttle while it is still above and learn.
the net level. Stroke the shuttle downward if A disadvantage of this alignment is that it
possible. allows for a team to play to the weaker player. It
3. Drop returns should be directed to the near would be to your advantage, if aligned in this forma-
corner. tion, to get back to an attacking (offensive) situation
4. A push shot directed to the near side alley, mid- as soon as possible. This can be accomplished by ei-
court depth, is an excellent return for a short ther blocking your opponent's smashes to the side
serve. alleys or front corners, forcing them to "lift" the
5. Return long serves with a smash. shuttle to you; or net dropping their overhead drops
6. The receiver's partner should assume a position to the front corners forcing them to "lift" and assume
two feet forward of the long service line and a defensive alignment. Remember, although the
straddling the centerline. This alignment is used side-by-side alignment is a very effective defensive

FIGURE 4-40 Doubles side-by-side alignment.

64 BADMINTON
FIGURE 4-41 Doubles up-and-back alignment
alignment, doubles is an attacking game. Very few
points can be won directly from defensive strokes or
defensive alignments.
Up-and-back Alignment. This alignment is
considered to be offensive. In this alignment one
partner is responsible for the forecourt area (sideline
to sideline, from the net to the "T"> while his or her
partner is responsible for the midcourt and back-
court area (sideline to sideline). Both players are sit-
uated along the centerline of the court with one
player positioned at the "T" and the other positioned
approximately two feet forward of the long service
line (Figure 4-41).
Whenever your team is in control of the volley
(using attacking strokes or forcing your opponents to
"lift" the shuttle), the up-and-back alignment is the
best strategy to use. With this alignment it will be
harder for your opponents to block a smash or net
drop effectively, because one partner will have the
forecourt covered very efficiently. It will also de-
crease the effectiveness of your opponent's clears in
that your partner will have the backcourt covered.
A disadvantage of the up-and-back alignment is
that it allows for a team to pass or drive a shot down
the side alleys of the court.
The net player's (partner at the "T") responsibil-
ity is to intercept any shot by the opponents before
that shot reaches his or her partner's midcourt or
backcourt area. The net player is also responsible for
stroking the shuttle downward, net dropping, or
pushing the shuttle back over the net as quickly as
possible from the forecourt area in response to an op-
ponent's stroke. The net player should use any
stroke that will keep the opponents in a defensive
situation, or "lifting" the shuttle.
The backcourt player's responsibility is to attack
the opponents with strokes that force "lifting" re-
sponses. Smashes and overhead drops used strategi-
cally will serve this purpose. He or she should direct
these shots down the centerline or toward the side
alleys. The backcourt partner should also direct
these attacking strokes to the opponent that is the
weaker player.
Remember, the up-and-back alignment is an of-
fensive alignment and that doubles is an attacking
game. Points can be won directly from attacking
strokes with players in offensive alignments.
Combination (circular rotation). The com-
bination system combines the best of the other two
systems, using the side-by-side alignment for de-
fense and the up-and-back alignment for attacking.
This system is generally used by more advanced
players. It takes a great deal of teamwork, practice,
and playing time to use this system effectively.
The basic principles to be followed in the combi-
nation system are as follows:
1. Ifthe server serves short, the serving team will
remain in the up-and-back alignment.
Reason: A short serve forces your opponents to
"lift" the shuttle. This will, in turn,
allow the serving team to return the
shuttle with downward, attacking
strokes and keeping them in an offen-
sive situation.
2. If the server serves long, the serving team will
go to a side-by-side alignment. The server
should drop back to his or her serving side. The
partner will, in turn move to the opposite side.
Reason: A long serve allows the opponents to re-
turn the shuttle with attacking strokes
thereby putting your team in a defen-
sive situation.
 .

BADMINTON 65

3. If the receiver of the serve is served short, and PLAYING COURTESIES

he or she net drops or pushes the shuttle down-
ward back over the net, the receiving team Badminton emphasizes good sportsmanship and
should stay in an up-and-back alignment. playing courtesies. Use good judgment at all times
Reason: The receiving team, with those returns, with regard to your own behavior as well as your at-
has just forced their opponents to start titude toward your opponent. Be cordial and respect-
"lifting" the shuttle. ful. As in any sport, be a good loser as well as a
If the receiver of the serve is served short, and gracious winner. Try to maintain a positive rather
he or she clears the shuttle, the receiving team than negative attitude creating a more enjoyable
should go to a side-by-side alignment. game for all participants. Some courtesies specific to
Reason: The receiving team has been forced to badminton are:
"lift" the shuttle. They are now in a de-
1. If your opponent is unknown to you, introduce
fensive situation.
yourself and shake hands prior to the match.
If the receiver of the serve is served long, his
partner should immediately go to the "T" to play 2. The warm-up period should be gracious and un-
competitive.
the net, and the receiver should smash or over-
head drop the shuttle to force his or her oppo- 3. The server should call the score prior to each
nents to "lift." With these actions they have now serve— server's score first.
4. If in doubt about the shuttle's landing, always
assumed the up-and-back offensive alignment.
call it in favor of your opponent.
4. On any shot that gives the opponents the advan- 5. Inform your opponent of the call as quickly as
tage and opportunity to smash or overhead drop,
possible.
the team making the stroke should take up the
6. Never question your opponent's calls.
defensive side-by-side alignment. The player
7. If there is any question of your faulting, be sure
making the shot should cover the half of the to call it on yourself.
court from which the shot was made.
8. If a shuttle lands on your side and you are the
5. When reverting from a defensive alignment to receiver, pick it up and hit it back to the server
an offensive alignment, the player taking a so that he or she does not have to go out of his
backcourt stroke (attacking) that initiates the way to retrieve it.
change will stay in the backcourt "back" posi- 9. Do not smash at your opponent if the point could
tion. The partner will then move to the "up" po- be easily won by placing the shuttle elsewhere in
sition and guard the net from the "T." If the the court.
stroke that initiates the change is taken from a 10. Do not stall. Keep the play continuous.
forecourt position, the player taking that stroke 11. If you are the receiver, get ready to receive the
will move to the "up" position at the net. The serve without any hesitation.
partner will then move to the "back" position in 12. Compliment your opponent's exceptional shots.
the backcourt. 13. Do not offer playing advice to your opponents.
14. Do not, under any circumstances, throw your
racket or the shuttle in anger.
15. Always shake hands with your opponent after
Learning Cues for Doubles Strategy
the match.
1. Attack as often as possible. Hit the shuttle
downward and force your opponents to "lift" the
shuttle. MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
2. When attacking use the up-and-back alignment.
Orthopedically Impaired
3. When "lifting" the shuttle use the side-by-side
alignment. 1. See modifications discussed in Tennis and
4. Rush short serves. Attack them if possible. Handball /Racquetball
5. Smash long serves. 2. If one team (doubles) has a wheelchair student,
6. When opponents are in a defensive alignment place a standard classroom chair in the opposite
smash or overhead drop toward the centerline. court for one of the able-bodied opponents. Posi-
7. When opponents are in a defensive alignment, tion the seated students in the front court.
play to the weaker opponent.
Mentally Impaired
8. When opponents are in an offensive alignment,
direct your shots to the side alleys. See modifications discussed in Tennis, Hand-
9. When you are in a defensive alignment, revert to ball/Racquetball.
an attacking situation as soon as the chance
Sensory Impaired
arises.
10. Use clears only in emergency situations. If you 1. See modifications discussed in Tennis, Hand-
must clear, clear to the back corners. ball /Racquetball.
66 BADMINTON

2. Blind students might practice using a tethered Hand out The term used in doubles to show that one
shuttlecock. player has lost the service.
Home base The position in the center of the court from
which the player can best play any shot hit by an op-
TERMINOLOGY ponent.
Inning The time during which a player or team holds
Alley The lMj-foot-wide area on each side of the court service.
that is used for doubles. Often referred to as the "side Let The stopping of play due to some type of outside in-
alley." The point is replayed.
terference.
Around-the-head stroke An overhead stroke used when Lifting the shuttle To stroke the bird underhanded and
hitting a forehand-like overhead stroke which is on hit it upward.
the backhand side of the body. Long serve A high, deep serve landing near the long
Back alley The area between the doubles long service service line in doubles or back boundary line <base
and the baseline.
line line i
in singles.
Backcourt The back third of the court. Love The term used to indicate zero in scoring.
Backhand A stroke made on the non-racket side of the Match A series of games. In badminton, winning two out
body. of three games will win the match.
Baseline The back boundary line of the court. Match point The point which, if won by the server, makes
Bird Another name for the shuttlecock. that person the winner of the match.
Block A soft shot, used primarily in defense against a Midcourt The middle third of the court, usually consid-
smash. Intercepting an opponent's smash and return- ered to be between the short service line and the long
ing it back over the net. rvice line for doubles.
Carry Called when the shuttle stays on the racket during Net shot A shot taken near the net.
a stroke. It is legal if the racket follows the intended Non-racket side The opposite side of the hand holding
line of flight. Also referred to as a "throw." the racket.
Centerline The mid-line separating the service courts Offense The team or player that is stroking the shuttle
Clear A
high shot that goes over your opponent's head downward attacking).<

and lands close to the baseline. Overhead A motion used to strike the shuttle when it is
Combination alignment Partners play both up-and-back above the head.
and side-by-side during doubles games and/or volleys. Racket foot or leg The foot or leg on the same side as the
Crosscourt A shot hit diagonally into the opposite court. hand holding the racket.
Defense The team or player hitting the shuttle upwards Ready position The position a player assumes to be
(lifting), usually from an underhand stroke. ready to move in any direction.
Double hit An illegal shot in which the racket contacts Receiver The player to whom the shuttle is served.
the shuttle twice in one swing Second serve In doubles, the term indicates that one
Doubles service court The short, wide area to which the partner has lost the serve, and the other partner is
server must serve in doubles play. now serving.
Down-the-line shot A shot hit straight ahead — usually Server The player who puts the shuttle into play.
down the sideline. Setting Choosing how many more points to play when
Drive A
hard driven shot that travels parallel to the certain tie scores are reached.
This shot clears the net but does not go high
floor. Short serve A serve that barely clears the net and lands
enough for your opponent to smash. just beyond the short service line.
Drop A shot that just clears the net, then falls close to it. Shuttlecock (shuttle) The feathered, plastic, or nylon ob-
Face The string area of the racket. ject which is volleyed back and forth over the net.
Fault Any infraction of the rules. It results in the loss of Side Alley See Alley.
serve or in a point for the server. Side-by-side A defensive alignment used in doubles
First serve A term used in doubles play to indicate that play. Each partner is responsible for one side of the
the server isserver" during an inning.
the "first court, from the net to the back boundary line.
Foot fault Illegal position or movement of the feet by ei- Side out When a player or team loses the serve.
ther the server or receiver. Smash An overhead stroke hit downward with great ve-
Forecourt The front area of the court, usually considered locity and angle. The principal attacking stroke in
to be between the net and the short service line. badminton.
Forehand Any stroke made on the racket side of the "T" The intersection of the centerline and the short serv-
body. ice line.
Game point The point which, if won, allows the server to Underhand A stroke that is hit upward when the shuttle
win the game. has fallen below shoulder level.
Hand in The term used to indicate that the server retains Unsight Illegal position taken by the servers partner so
the serve. the receiver cannot see the shuttle as it is hit.
 BADMINTON 67

Up-and-back An offensive alignment used in doubles. Poole, J. Badminton. (Goodyear Physical Activities Series).
The "up" player is responsible for the forecourt and Glenviev, Foresman and Co., 1982.
IL: Scott,
the "back" player is responsible for the midcourt and Wadood, T. and Tan, K. Badminton Today. St. Paul, MN:
backcourt. West Publishing Co., 1990.

SELECTED REFERENCES Periodicals

Badminton U.S. A United States Badminton Association,

Annarino, A. Individualized Instructional Program in Bad- 501 W. Sixth Street, Papillion, NE 68046.
minton. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973.
World Badminton. The International Badminton Federa-
Davis, P. The Badminton Coach: A Manual for Coaches,
tion, 24 Winchcombe House, Winchcombe Street, Chel-
Teachers, and Players. New Rochelle, NY: Sportshelf,
tenham, Gloucestershire, England GL52 2NA.
1976.
Davis, P. Badminton Complete. London: Kaye and Ward,
1967, revised 1982. Films and Videos

Davis,P. Badminton, the Complete Practice Guide. London: Badminton Movies. Louisville Badminton Supply, 9411
David and Charles, 1982. Westport Road, Louisville, KY 40222.
Johnson, M.L. Badminton. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders C.B.A. Video Library. Canadian Badminton Association,
Co., 1974. 333 River Road, Toronto, Ontario M4W
1J5, Canada.
Paup, D.C. and Breen, J.L. Winning Badminton. Chicago: U.S.B A. Video Library. United States Badminton Associ-
Athletic Institute, 1984. ation, 501 W. Sixth Street, Papillion, NE 68046.
 5 BASKETBALL THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Know the playing court, equipment, and
Practice and develop skill in the
rebounding, individual offense, and individual defense.
Identify the objectives and strategies of
NATURE AND PURPOSE
Basketball is an extremely popular game, played in
all parts of the world and at every conceivable level
In America, the extremes are very evident from—
rickety backboards attached to outdoor garages to
multi-million dollar arenas that hold thousands of
spectators. Basketball can be played at a highly or-
ganized level or very spontaneously at a neighbor-
hood playground. Children can play on school teams
beginning with elementary school, continuing
through college. Highly skilled men and women can
earn basketball scholarships to play for colleges and
universities. There are amateur tournaments and
professional leagues. The United States has a men's
and women's Olympic Basketball Team. Recreation-
ally, basketball is played in the YMCA, YWCA, Boys
Club, church leagues, and community centers. It is a
vital part of school intramural programs, sometimes
even played coeducationally. Basketball presents the
opportunity to learn ball skills, coordination, agility,
and body control; participation in the game can con-
tribute toward maintenance of an individual's total
fitness. For these reasons, basketball is an attractive
physical education class activity.
This originally American sport has very broad
applications: large groups can participate at rela-
tively low cost; the game can serve for competitive as
well as recreational purposes: and it has the neces-
sary appeal to make it a popular spectator sport.
Officially, a basketball team is composed of five
players. However, in recreational play two. three, or
four players can play a game. The purpose of the
game is to score a larger total number of points than
the opponent. The score is compiled by shooting the
ball through the basket either from the field (called a
field goal or from the free-throw line called a free-
) <
throw or a foul shot). The ball is passed, thrown,
68
basic rules of basketball.
fundamentals of passing, dribbling, shooting,
team offense and defense.
bounced, batted, or rolled from one player to an-
other. A player in possession of the ball must main-
tain contact with the floor with one foot (called the
pivot foot unless the player is shooting, passing, or
I,
dribbling. Dribbling consists of a series of one-hand
taps, causing the ball to bounce on the floor. Physi-
cal contact with an opponent can result in a foul if
the contact impedes the desired movement of the
player.
EQUIPMENT
The Ball. The official ball is spherical with a
circumference of 29Vfc to 30 inches for men and 28V2
to 29 inches for women. Smaller balls are available
for younger participants. In competition, a ball of
high-grade leather is used. Less expensive balls are
made of rubber or synthetic materials.
The Basket. The basket consists of a simple
metal ring. 18 inches in inside diameter. A white-
cord net suspends from beneath the ring. The basket
is securely attached to a rigid backboard. Most back-
boards used in competition are transparent glass
and rectangular in shape. However, it is not uncom-
mon for backboards to be fan-shaped and made of
solid wood.
COURT OR FIELD OF PLAY
The playing area of basketball is called the court.
The rectangular court measures a maximum of 94
feet long and 50 feet wide, or a minimum of 74 feet
long and 42 feet wide. The baskets are suspended 10
feet above the floor at the endline of each court. The
court has three restraining circles and two free-
 BASKETBALL 69

free throw
circle

center circle

division
line

sideline

three point
fieldgoal line

FIGURE 5-1 The basketball court.

throw areas (Figure 5-1). The court can be modified Scoring and Timing
(made smaller) and the baskets lowered to accommo-
date younger participants. Basketball can be played
1. A goal is made when a live ball enters the basket
from above and remains in or passes through ex-
on half of a court if large numbers of participants
cept on a throw-in. A field goal counts three
want to play in an intramural, class, or recreational
points if the shot is made by a player situated
situation.
beyond the three-point field goal line. For a suc-
cessful three-point field goal, the player must
have one or both on the floor and be beyond
feet
BASIC RULES
the three-point line when attempting the shot.
After releasing the ball, the shooter may land on
Two or sometimes three on-the-court officials regu-
or over the line. Touching the line before the re-
late a basketball game. The game is divided into 20-
lease places the shooter in the two-point area.
minute halves for college and university teams and
8-minute quarters for high school teams. Teams
2. A goal from the field other than from the three-
point area counts two points.
composed of players younger than high school age
3. When a free throw awarded for fouls, each
is
should have 6-minute quarters. The length of the
successful free throw counts one point.
game in a recreational, class, or intramural situation
4. If a player mistakenly scores a field goal in the
can be adjusted by shortening the quarters or
opponent's basket, the goal is counted for the op-
halves, or by having "running time," wherein the
ponent.
clock does not stop on the dead balls.
5. Timeouts are restricted to a total of five. One ad-
There are slight variations of rules between high
ditional timeout may be granted each team for
school and collegiate play, as well as between the
each extra period of the game. A timeout lasts
men's and women's collegiate game. Nevertheless,
one minute and can only be requested during a
there are basic rules of basketball governing play at
dead ball or anytime by the team in possession of
any level.
the ball.
6. If the score is tied at the end of regulation time,
Players play continues an extra period. As many extra
periods are played as necessary to break the tie.
1. Even though only five players play at a time,
7. The clock stops each time an official blows the
any number of substitutions can be made at any
whistle indicating a dead ball (violation personal
dead ball during the game. Substitutes must re-
foul, out-of-bounds). The clock keeps running
port to the scorer and wait to be beckoned onto
after successful field goals.
the court by an official.
2. One of the five players is the designated floor Play
captain and may address the official on matters
of interpretation or information. Any player may 1. The ball is put into play at the beginning of the
request a timeout. game and any overtime period by a jump ball in
70 BASKETBALL

the center circle between two opponents. Each d. one free-throw plus a bonus free-throw if the
subsequent quarter or half starts with the team first one is made, when the fifth common foul
entitled to possession given the ball at the center or seventh common foul <see above: c> has oc-
division line. In jump ball situations, other than curred. This is called the bonus rule.
at the start of the game and start of extra pe- For technical fouls, the offended team is
riods, teams will alternate taking the ball out-of- awarded two free-throws as well as the ball out
bounds. The team not obtaining control of the of bounds.
initial jump ball will start the alternating proc-
ess. After each goal, the ball is put into play by
the team that did not score from the out-of- SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE— BEGINNERS
bounds area at the end of the court at which the
basket has been scored. A. Conditioning and stretching
2. A player is out-of-bounds when touching the B. Purpose of the game and general game concepts
floor on or outside the boundary line. C. Basic rules
3. The ball is out-of-bounds when it touches a D. Fundamental skills:
player who is out-of-bounds or any other person, 1. Pivoting
the floor, or any object on or outside a boundary, 2. Catching and holding the ball
or the supports or back of the backboard. 3. —
Passing chest, bounce, overhead
4. The ball is caused to go out-of-bounds by the last 4. —
Dribbling high speed, low control
player touching it before it goes out. The ball 5. —
Shooting one-handed set, layup
would be awarded out-of-bounds for a throw-in 6. Rebounding — position, jumping
by the opposing team. The ball is awarded out- E. Individual offense:
of-bounds after a violation, successful free-throw 1. Cutting — V-cut, front
or field goal, or a common foul until the bonus 2. Driving
rule goes into effect. F. Individual defense:
5. While the ball is alive, an offensive player can- 1. Basic stance and movement

not remain for more than three seconds in that 2. Guarding a player with the ball
part of the free-throw lane between the endline, 3. Guarding a player without a ball
the free-throw line, and the free-throw lane G. Team play:
lines. 1. —
Offense basic concepts on how to attack a
6. If two opponents are both firmly holding the player-to-player defense
ball, or an offensive ball handler is closely 2. —
Defense player-to-player
guarded by the defense for five seconds, a jump 3. Other—jump ball alignment, free-throw
ball is called. alignment
7. Violations include causing the ball to go out-of-
bounds, double dribbling, running with the ball,
kicking the ball (positive act), striking the ball SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE-
with the fist, interfering with the basket, illegal INTERMEDIATES
throw-in (taking more than five seconds or step-
ping on the line), and the three-second lane A. Conditioning and stretching
rule. B. Additional rules
8. —
Fouls are classified as: (a) personal involving C. Review beginners unit
pushing, charging, tripping, holding, body con- D. Intermediate skills:
tact; or (b> technical — involving delay of game, 1. Passing —
one-hand bounce, baseball
unsportsmanlike conduct, illegal entry, exces- 2. Dribbling —
crossover, reverse (spin)
sive timeouts. For personal fouls, the offender is 3. Shooting —
free throw, jump shot, layup from
charged w ith one foul; a fifth personal foul re-
r
various angles
sults in disqualification. The offended player is 4. Rebounding —
blocking out, outlet
awarded: E. Individual offense:
a. one free-throw if the foul occurred during a 1. —
Cutting backdoor (reverse)
field goal attempt and the basket was made. 2. Fakes and feints
b. two free-throws if the foul occurred during a F. Individual defense:
field goal attempt and the basket w as missed.
T
1. Defense against a player one pass away and
c. no free-throw, but the ball is awarded to the two passes away
offended player's team out-of- bounds if it was 2. Denial defense
before the fifth common team foul of the half 3. Defense against a ball handler
•in a game played in quarters) or before the G. Team play:
seventh common team foul of the half in a( 1. Offense — basic concepts on how to attack a
game played in halves). zone defense
 BASKETBALL 71

2. —
Defense combatting picks and screens, zones
3. —
Other fast break, in-bounds plays

SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES

Pivoting

Pivoting is the only legal maneuvering a player

A
standing and holding the ball is allowed. One foot
(the pivot foot) must be kept at its point of contact
with the floor, while the other foot can step in any di-
rection. A good technique for the beginner is to imag-
ine that a spike has been driven through the pivot
foot into the floor; this would afford faking move-
ments with the opposite foot, but the spike can be re-
moved only through dribbling, passing, or shooting.
Illegally moving the pivot foot or taking too many
steps while stopping constitutes "traveling." The re-
sult is a loss of possession of the ball for that team.

Passing
Good passing is necessary in order to maintain
possession of the ball and be able to move into scor-
ing position. The key to an effective offense is accu-
racy in passing and passing is the quickest way to
move the ball, thus allowing the offense to catch the
defense off balance or out of position.
Chest Pass. This pass probably the most
is
commonly used pass. The ball held in both hands,
is
the finders spread on the sides of the ball with the
thumbs behind the ball. Held about chest high with
the elbows held comfortably at the sides of the body,
the ball is released by extending the arms fully,
snapping the wrists, and stepping in the direction of
the pass. The palms should be facing downward or
slightly outward with the elbow chest high on the
follow-through. The chest pass should be received
chest high.
Bounce Pass. This pass is a short distance
pass used to avoid a deflection or interception when
a player is being closely guarded. It is executed in
the same manner as the chest pass except the ball is
bounced into the hands of the receiver. The ball
should bounce at approximately two-thirds of the
FIGURE 5-2 The overhead pass.
distance between the passer and receiver, and
should rebound waist high. This pass can also be re-
leased with one hand by stepping out with the free
foot to either side of a close defender and bouncing body weight to the front foot. The arms, which are
the ball around him. It is also possible to make this slightly bent, are brought forward sharply, with a
pass directly off of the dribble. snap of the wrists releasing the ball (Figure 5-2B).
Overhead Pass. This pass is used to pass over This pass is best utilized by a player who is taller

a defensive player, usually to a post player or a cut- than the defending opponent.
ter. The ball is held overhead with both hands, One-Hand Overhead Pass (Baseball Pass).
thumbs under the bail and fingers spread on the This pass is used most frequently to cover long
sides of the ball (Figure 5-2A). The passer steps for- distances, especially in initiating the fastbreak.
ward toward the intended receiver and transfers the When this pass is thrown with the right hand, the
72 BASKETBALL

ball is brought back to the right ear, close to the furthest from your defender to provide a high target
>

head, with the fingers well spread in back of the ball. for a pass Figure 5-3 The ball should be caught
i
>.

The left hand can steady the ball when it is in this with the pads of the fingers and brought toward the
position, ready to be thrown. The weight of the body body to protect before dribbling, passing, or shoot-
it

is shifted to the right rear foot as the ball is brought ing. If a player must stand
for a few moments in pos-
back. The weight shifts forward to the left foot as the session of the ball, it is best to step back slightly with

right arm is brought forward to release the ball. The your free foot, away from your defender, pulling the
ball is released about one foot in front of the body ball back with you. This places your body between
with the wrist snapping forward and downward. the ball and the defender for added protection.

Learning Cues for Passing Learning Cues for Catching and Holding the Ball

1. Passes should be crisp, but not too hard to catch. 1. Provide the passer with a target by holding a
2. Use a pass appropriate for the specific situation. hand up or both hands forward.
3. Take a step in the direction of the pass. 2. Move to meet passes thrown to you.
4. Weight should be balanced when passing. 3. Hands should be comfortably spread and relaxed
5. Do not "telegraph" the pass; be deceptive with when catching.
your eyes. 4. Keep elbows flexed, not stiff, enabling absorp-
6. Aim to hit your receiver between the waist and tion of the impact of the thrown ball.
shoulders. 5. Watch the ball all of the way into your hands.
7. A fake before you pass may cause your defender 6. Pull the ball in close to your body for protection.
to move, creating a better passing lane.
Whenever possible, catch with two hands to en-
8 Put as little spin as possible on the pass. sure control.
9. Pass to the side of your teammate away from the
defender.
Practice Suggestions for Passing and Catching
10 Always pass ahead of a running teammate.
11 Learn to catch and pass in one motion. 1. Stand approximately 8 feet from a wall. Execute
different passes against the wall, concentrating
on form and accuracy.
Catching and Holding the Ball
2. With a partner, stand in positions as either two
Possession of the ball is so important that receiv- guards, or as a guard and a forward. Pass back
ing and holding the ball are as essential as passing. and forth, faking before each pass and practicing
A player should attempt to catch every pass regard- deception. Add two defenders. Add a cut to the
less of how it is thrown. To help eliminate deflec- basket after each pass to receive a return pass.
tions, a player should cut sharply toward each pass 3. To practice the baseball pass, stand 30 feet from
to meet it. with the hands held out in front of the a partner. Pass back and forth. To practice this
body to provide a target and to maintain balance pass on the move, both players position them-
when moving in any direction to meet the ball. It is selves near the backboard. One player rebounds
also possible to hold one hand up in the air the hand < the ball off the board, dribbles toward the side-

FIGURE 5-3 Preparing to catch a pass against a defender.

 BASKETBALL 73

line, and releases a baseball pass to the other Variation: Add another ball. Start them in oppo-
player cutting downcourt. Add defenders. site corners.
Three-player weave: Three players start on the
endline approximately 15 feet apart. The player
in the middle has a ball. He passes to a wing and
subsequently cuts behind him. This receiver, in
turn, passes to the third player and cuts behind
him. The three players continue passing and
moving downcourt. Vary the passes. Add one,
two, or three defenders.

KEY TO MANEUVERS

cut

pass

pick or screen

dribble
®=zTTj>r — ->

FIGURE 5-6 Four-corner passing.

7. Shotgun passing: One player stands apart from

a half-circle of teammates who are arranged so
that two players are just in the peripheral vision
of the single player. Using two balls, the half-
circle players and the single player pass very
quickly back and forth.

X /X
x cxj \* /-if
\ \ if
\ \ //
FIGURE 5-4 Three-player weave.
\ \ //
\ \ /'
s \
N
\ I
//
5. Variation: Five-player weave.

X^r: -®
FIGURE 5-7 Shotgun passing.

Reaction pass drill: One partner has a ball, while

the other player stands approximately 15 feet
away with his back turned to the ball. The
player with the ball calls out the other player's
first name, followed by a pass to the player.
Upon hearing his name, the player quickly turns
and attempts to catch the ball and gain control of
it. The pass should vary, making the receiver

jump, reach, stoop, etc. to secure every pass.

X X
FIGURE 5-5 Five-player weave.
Four corner passing: With players in a box for-
mation, one player makes a long pass to the first
player in the next line. She follows her pass and
receives a shorter pass back. She hands off to the
same player and goes to the end of that line.
Continue with a long pass to the next corner.
9. Monkey in the middle: Players form a circle with
one player ("monkey") in the middle. Using one
ball and any type of pass, a player in the circle
attempts to get the ball to any other player in
the circle, other than the two players immedi-
ately adjacent to her. The "monkey" attempts to
touch, deflect, or intercept the pass, at which
time she changes place with the passer.
10. Shuttle pass drill: Form two lines in a shuttle
formation. The first player in one of the lines has
74 BASKETBALL

a ball. The first person in the opposite line de-

fends as the player attempts to pass across to the
other line. Continue passing between the two
lines with the passer each time becoming the
next defender.

Dribbling

Dribbling is slower than passing as a means of

moving the ball. Therefore it should not be over-
used. The dribble should be used only to: 1 pene- < >

trate or drive toward the basket; (2) create a better

passing lane; 3 get out of a crowd; and 4 bring the
( ) < )

ball downthe court. A good rule to remember is

never to dribble the ball when a pass can be com-
pleted successfully.
With the hand cupped, the pads of the fingers
control the direction of the ball, while the wrist and
finger flexion provide the force. The ball should be
pushed downward and slightly forward, with the
body in a crouched position. The opposite arm and
forward foot should provide protection between the
ball and the opponent. There are basically two types
of dribbles that are identifiable by observing the re-
bounding height of the ball and the proximity of the
defender. These are the high-speed dribble and the
low-control dribble.
High-Speed Dribble. The high-speed dribble
is used when a player is unguarded and moving
quickly —
leading a fastbreak, driving to the basket,
bringing the ball down the court without opposition.
The body is erect with only a slight forward crouch.
The ball rebounds between the waist and chest. The
dribbling arm pushes the ball forward and slightly to
the side of the body. A full running stride is used,
limited only by the dribbler's ability to control the
ball.
Low-Control Dribble. This dribble is used
when a player is closely guarded or in a congested
area. Both the body and the ball should be kept low
(Figure 5-8). The ball should rebound knee high and
close to the dribbling side of the body. The more fre-
quent contact with the ball allows for control and
change of direction when under pressure.
Cross-over Dribble. In order to change direc-
tions, the crossover dribble can be used. It is effec-
tive only if the defender is guarding loosely.
dribbler simply pushes the ball to the floor so that it
rebounds across in front of the body to the opposite
hand. This must be done very quickly and with only
FIGURE 5-8 Low-control dribble.
tection for the ball, but forces the dribbler to turn
away from the basket and lose visual contact with
teammates (Figure 5-9). To execute the reverse while
dribbling with the right hand: plant the left foot,
spin or pivot away from the defender, and rotate the
head quickly to the right as the right foot swings out
past the defender. Only one bounce of the ball is nec-
essary to switch the dribble from the right hand to
the left hand. The dribbler then continues dribbling
toward the left with the left hand.
Learning Cues for Dribbling
1. Keep your eyes and head up, facing the basket
and your teammates as much as possible.
2. Be able to dribble with either hand.
3. Protect the ball with your body and opposite
arm.
Control the dribble with your fingers and wrist:
not the palm.
5. Push the ball; do not slap it.
6. Keep your knees bent for balance.
7. Dribble with the right hand when dribbling to
the right, and dribble with the left hand when
dribbling to the left, especially when being
guarded.
The Practice Suggestions for Dribbling and Ball Handling
(Work to keep your head up during all dribbling and
ball handling drills.
I

one low bounce in order to avoid an interception. The 1.
shoulder opposite the dribbling hand should always
be lowered and brought forward to protect the ball.
The dribbler can now continue dribbling in the oppo- 2.
site direction.
Rotate the ball around the body, starting with
the head. Go all the way down around the legs,
and back up.
—
Rotate the ball around each ankle right and
left. Rotate the ball in a figure 8 around the

Reverse (Spin) Dribble. The reserve dribble ankles in a continuous motion.

allows a player to change directions against an oppo- 3. Dribble the ball around the legs in a figure 8.
nent who is guarding closely. It provides good pro- Keep the ball low.
 BASKETBALL 75

4. Straddle flip: With the legs shoulder width

apart, hold the ball low in front with both hands.
Flip it up slightly between your legs, bringing
your hands around behind the legs to catch the
ball before it hits the ground. Flip it up again
and bring the hands back to the front. Repeat as
quickly as you can. Variation: Start with the
—
hands alternately on the ball one in front and
one in back. Flip the ball up, alternating the
hands quickly.
5. Dribble the ball around your body while on one
knee, both knees, sitting, lying.
6. Standing two feet from a wall, tap the ball with
the right or left hand high against the wall. Vari-
ation: Tap two balls simultaneously.
7. Circle keepaway: Within the boundaries of a re-
straining circle, try to dribble and maintain pos-
session of a ball while another player attempts
to steal it. Variation: Both players have a ball,
trying to dribble and steal the other player's
ball.
8. On a half court, try to dribble and maintain pos-
session of a ball while two or three players try to
pursue and steal the ball.
9. Dribble tag: On a half court, with all players
dribbling a ball, play "tag." Variations: (a) More
than one player is "it." (b) Restrict all players to
use their nondominant hand.
10 Column dribbling drills (players at the endline
in three columns): Dribble the full length of the
court:
a. In a zigzag pattern, executing a crossover
dribble or a reverse dribble at each corner.
b. Doing a crossover, reverse, or stop on the
coach's signal.
Going around obstacles.
d. Against a defender, trying to steal the ball.

Shooting
The primary objective of the game of basketball
is toscore goals. Therefore all players should be able
to shoot. Being able to shoot a variety of shots from
varying distances increases the effectiveness of any
player.
Point of Aim. There are two targets that can
—
be used in aiming at a basket the rim, or a spot on
the backboard for a bank shot. The easiest point of
aim for a beginner is the rim of the basket, due to its
permanent position from anywhere on the floor. The
player should concentrate on dropping the ball just
beyond the front of the rim. The bank shot is typi-
cally used when a player is positioned at a 24-45 de-
gree angle on either side of the basket. A spot on the
backboard is sighted with the purpose of allowing
the ball to hit this spot and rebound into the basket.
Selecting the correct spot and judging the force to
put on the ball makes this a skill for experienced
FIGURE 5-9 Reverse (spin) dribble. players. A square box is painted on most backboards
76 BASKETBALL

forward-backward stride position with the foot

s under the shooting hand slightly forward. The
ankles, knees, and hips should be slightly flexed
with the weight easily balanced over the feet, and
the shoulders square to the basket (Figure 5-10A).
The ball is held below the chin (sighting the basket
over the ball), or above the forehead (sighting the
basket below the ball). It might be noted that the
higher the ball is held, the less chance the defense
has of blocking the shot. The ball should be held with
the fingers, never in the palms of the hands. The
shooting hand is behind and slightly under the ball

S with the fingers spread and wrist cocked (hyper-

extended). The non-shooting or guide hand is placed
on the side and slightly under the ball with fingers
spread. In executing the shot, the legs extend up-
ward while the shooting arm extends toward the
basket (Figure 5-10Bi. The wrist flexes forward,
while the guide hand comes off of the ball. The wrist
flexion releases the ball, with the fingertips coming
off last, creating a slight backspin on the ball. A
proper follow-through should have the guide hand
held high, with the palm of the shooting hand facing
the floor. The one-handed set shot is also used by
most players when shooting free-throws.
Jump Shot. The jump shot is a very effective
offensive weapon, due to its high point of release.
The initial body position and the placement of the
hands on the ball are the same as in the one-handed
set shot. The shooter jumps into the air by pushing
off with both legs. The ball is brought high above the
forehead. At the apex of the jump, the body should
be in a near-stationary, balanced position (Figure
5-11). Keeping the eyes focused on the basket, the
shooting arm is uncocked and releases the ball with
the same action as the one-handed position. Since
the force for the jump shot is supplied primarily by
the arms and wrist, the range of this shot is limited,
as compared to the set shot which incorporates leg
power as well as arm strength.
Lay-up. This shot is one of the highest per-
centage shots in the game, due to its closeness of
range. It is used when a player has received a pass
close to the basket, or has driven past the defense
near the goal. It is best executed on a diagonal in re-
lation to the basket, using the backboard to bank the
ball in. At the last dribble the ball is firmly grasped

FIGURE 5-10 One-handed set shot.

to aid in spot selection. In aiming, the brain sights
the target, computes the distance, and determines
the correct trajectory to put on the ball. It is impor-
tant for the eyes to be focused on the target before
each shot, during the release, and after the follow-
through. It is obvious why shooting demands so
much practice.
One-Handed Set Shot. This shot is used for
most long shots. The feet should be positioned in a
with the fingers of both hands, and carried above the
head. When shooting with the right hand, the take-
off should occur with the left foot, while the right
knee thrusts upward to achieve maximum height. At
the same moment, the ball is set in the shooting
hand and the left hand falls away. The shooting arm
and fingers extend upward to "lay" the ball against
the backboard. A proficient basketball player will de-
velop the ability to shoot a lay-up with either hand
—
being the dominant hand the left hand when on
the left side of the basket, the right hand when on
the right side.
 BASKETBALL 77

Learning Cues for Shooting

1. Knees should bend to help generate power and

provide balance.
2. Eyes should be focused on the target before, dur-
ing, and after the shot.
3. Fingertips should control every shot.
4. Use the backboard to bank a shot from an angle.
5. Maintain body balance; try not to lean or fall.
6. The shooting hand should follow through toward
the basket after releasing the ball.
7. Backspin on the ball is desirable.
8. Generally, a higher arc on the ball results in
greater accuracy and a better bounce off the rim
if the shot is missed.

Practice Suggestions for Shooting

1. Add shooting to various passing and dribbling

drills.
2. Column shooting drills (two lines of players fac-
ing the basket):
a. One line shoots lay-ups; the other line re-
bounds. Vary the angles for the lay-ups. Add
defensive pressure from the rebounding line.
b. Same as (a), only use jump shots or set shots.
3. Around-the-world shooting: One player shoots,
moving to a new spot after each shot, while an-
other player rebounds and quickly passes to the
shooter. Variations: (a) The passer-rebounder
applies defensive pressure on each shot, (b)
Have two rebounders and two balls, so the
shooter must move and shoot quicker.
4. Shuffle and shoot: Using two balls, a player
shuffles between two spots, picking up the ball
at each spot and shooting. Two rebounders work
at rebounding the balls and replacing them at
each spot.

1 '

3
R R

\\ •
\ ^,
^ A ^
iy
//

LJ

FIGURE 5-12 Shuffle and shoot.

One-on-one: A player passes the ball to a player

being guarded. The receiver practices various
FIGURE 5-11 Jump shot. shots against the defender. Variations: (a) The
78 BASKETBALL

receiver "posts up" to practice hook shots and

moves with her back to the basket. <bi The re-
ceiver is allowed to use the passer again if she
gets stuck.
Rebound-pass-shoot drill: Player X shoots from
one of the spots, after receiving a pass from the
passer. The rebounder rebounds and passes the
ball to the passer. In the meantime, the shooter
has moved to the next spot, ready to receive the
pass there. Use two balls to make the action
even more continuous. Vary the shooting spots
and passing angle.

FIGURE 5-14 Blocking out.

from the body. This helps to create a stable position,

FIGURE 5-13 Rebound— pass— shoot not allowing an opponent to get around. Since both
the offensive player and the defensive player want
the inside position, a player must be very aggressive
7. Follow the leader: Each player has a ball. One
in order to maintain this desired position. This
leader is designated. The leader shoots from var-
means the player that is blocking out must slide and
ious spots, while every player follows him or her.
maintain physical contact with his opponent until
8. Competitive shooting: Two teams compete
the rebound is secured.
against each other from various shooting spots.
Once the inside position is attained, the player
Variations: (a) Timed shooting, (b) Designated
must observe the ball, and anticipate how and where
number of completed shots. <c) Least number of
it will rebound off of the rim or backboard. The
misses, (d) First team to finish.
player should jump high and grasp the ball firmly
with both hands (Figure 5rl5>. On the downward
Rebounding move, after getting the ball, spread the legs and hold
the ball high and away from the opponents. If it is a
Rebounding is gaining possession of the ball
defensive rebound, pass outlet the ball away from
( >

after an unsuccessful shooting attempt. Since ap-

the basket to a teammate near the sideline, or drib-
proximately 60 percent of field goal attempts are
ble the ball out away from the basket. An offensive
missed, rebounding skill is essential to any team.
rebound should be tipped back up to the basket, shot
Rebounding is categorized as being either defensive
back up after landing on the ground or passed to a
(at your opponent's basket), or offensive (at your own
teammate in better shooting position.
team's basket). The keys to effective rebounding are
positioning, aggressiveness, and timing of the jump.
Learning Cues for Rebounding
Positioning for the rebound is called "blocking
out" or "boxing out" (Figure 5-14). The defensive 1. Work hard to attain or maintain the inside posi-
player has a distinct advantage here, already being tion closest to the basket.
closer to the basket. With anticipation and a quick 2. Do not get pushed too far under the basket or
move, however, the offensive player can gain the in- backboard.
side position. Blocking out is done by pivoting to face 3. Be aggressive.
the basket, putting the opponent behind you. It is 4. Jumping:
important here to spread the feet far apart, bend the a. Initiate the jump with the arms.
legs, lower the hips, and hold the elbows out away b. Explode off of the floor by bending the legs.
 FIGURE 5-15 Rebounding. Note the blockout by the other player.

c. Reach high with both arms extended. mately five seconds. Variation: Place a ball on
d. Time the jump in order to grasp the ball as the floor near each pair. Have each player block
high as possible, attempting to keep the ball out her opponent from their ball for 30 seconds.
on line with the forehead.
5. Go for the ball; do not let it merely fall into your
hands.
6. ball, jerking it down and
Keep a firm hold on the
away from any nearby opponents.
7. Land with feet comfortably spread and elbows
out.
8. After landing, hold the ball high to keep oppo-
nents from getting it.
9. For a defensive rebound, get the ball away from
FIGURE 5-16 Circle blockout.
the basket quickly (outlet). For an offensive re-
bound, try to get an immediate score out of it.
Three-on-three block out: With three offensive
Practice Suggestions for Rebounding players and three defensive players positioned
1. Standing 20 to from a partner, have her
25 feet
around the basket, the coach shoots the ball.
toss a ball high into the airtoward you. Jump Both teams attempt to secure the rebound. The
offensive player should shoot the ball again or
high and grasp the ball firmly with both hands,
tip it in, while the defensive player should outlet
bringing it down aggressively.
2. Standing in front of the backboard, toss the ball the ball.
high against the board. Jump and grasp the re-
bound, concentrating on good rebounding form.
Variations: (a) Execute an outlet pass after re-
bounding (defensive rebound), (b) Shoot or tip * x
the ball into the basket (offensive rebound).
\ ° 6 o )

3. Second effort drill: Stand in front of the back-

/ V
board with a partner holding a ball behind you. /
On your partner's command, jump high into the •
air as if rebounding. After you have jumped, the ^^»^\. Coach >/^^
partner tosses the ball against the board, forcing
you to spring back up immediately to rebound.
4. Circle blockout: Place a ball in the center of a re-
straining circle. Align three pairs of players
—
around the outside of the circle facing each
other (one inside player with her back to the
ball). On the whistle, the player on the inside
turns and blocks out the other player, trying to
keep her from touching the ball for approxi- FIGURE 5-17 Three-on-three blockout.

79
80 BASKETBALL
FIGURE 5-18 Jab step.
Individual Offense
To be a good basketball player, you must always
be a threat to the opponents when your team has
possession of the ball. This means being able to score
when the ball is in your hands, as well as being able
to move effectively on the floor without the ball in
order to free yourself or a teammate.
Driving. Driving is a means of getting past op-
ponents by faking them off balance, accelerating,
and dribbling hard past them. It is important to
dribble with the hand farthest from the defender
when driving. Fakes can be executed with the head,
ball, or free foot. By holding the ball close to your
body, away from the defender, a series of "jab" steps
with the free foot may lure the opponent off balance
so that you can drive (Figure 5-18). It is essential
that a player not dribble immediately after receiving
a pass. This would eliminate the fake and drive — direction.
prime individual offensive weapon.
Cutting. Cutting is sharp, angular movement
involving starting, stopping, and changes of direc-
tion, which enables a player without the ball to get
free from defenders. All cuts should be preceded by a
fake in the opposite direction. Cuts can be in front of
the defender front cut) or behind a defender reverse
( (
or backdoor cut). A V-cut is a sharp, angular cut inI
the shape of a V) used to clear an area for a pass.
All offensive movement should be purposeful
not aimless, wasted motion. An offensive player with
the ball is constantly looking for open shots, passes,
or drives. An offensive player without the ball is cut-
ting and moving to get free, or to set a screen for a
teammate. Of course, offensive team patterns or
plays are a means of regulating and structuring
every player's movement on the floor.
Individual Defense
Defense involves preventing a team from scor-
ing, or, at least, limiting the maneuvering ability of
the offensive team. Defense is as important as of-
fense, but is considered less glamorous than scoring
baskets. It requires hard work, concentration, and
determination. Body balance is the key to good de-
fense. The feet must be ready to move, preventing
leaning and reaching with the upper body. It is a
general rule (with only a few exceptions that a de-
>
fensive player should try to stay positioned between
the offensive opponent and the basket. Foot move-
ment is accomplished by sliding, keeping the feet as
close to the floor as possible to enable quick shifts in
There are two general situations to consider in
individual defense: guarding a player with the ball
(a ball handler), and guarding a plaver without the
ball.
Defense Against a Player With the Ball.
Note the fundamental defensive stance Figure 5-19)
<
of the player: weight low and evenly distributed on
the balls of the feet, head up, knees flexed, arms
flexed, hands relatively close to the body, palms up.
The eyes should be focused on the opponent's hips
rather than on the eyes or the ball. This prevents
being faked out of position. Rather than reaching
with the hands, a player should constantly be sliding
the feet to maintain good body position. The arms
should extend upward or outward from the body only
 BASKETBALL 81

FIGURE 5-19 Defensive stance.

FIGURE 5-20 Defense against players without the ball. Note the
"help" position defensive player.

to deflecta pass or a shot. The distance between the 1

defensive player and the ball handler depends on the &

quickness and shooting range of the offensive player.
Once a player stops dribbling, a very close defensive
position should be established, with arms extended /•
^ — ^
N *A/
& tS \l
y
to prevent passes or a shot. \ * A
Defense Against a Player Without the
Ball. It makes sense that a player without the ball
\l Jl/
1 /

is not an immediate scoring threat. Thus, in playing 1

defense, you must work hard to prevent your oppo- 1

1
nent from receiving the ball. This is accomplished by
keeping the player you are guarding and the ball in *•
view at all times. Also, one arm should constantly be
extended between the ball and your defender to
"deny" the pass (Figure 5-20). If your opponent is not
close enough to the ball to receive a pass, you may
FIGURE 5-21 Cutting.
have open up your body position, using your pe-
to
ripheral vision to keep the ball and your opponent in
view. This position allows you to "help out" a team-
mate who has been beaten by an offensive player. I

Again, like defending a ball handler, you try to

dictate and thwart your opponent's moves.

Practice Suggestions for individual Offense

and Defense
\ I
/
/ " N
\
A]/
J
(Either the offensive or defensive portion can be em- /
phasized.) /
/
1. Cutting: B attempts to free himself for a pass §
from A by executing V-cuts, front cuts, or re-
verse cuts (backdoors). X works to deny the pass.
2. Individual Offense: After receiving a pass from
A, B must do three offensive maneuvers en route
to the basket for a shot (Example: jab step, re-
verse dribble, head fake.) May add a defender. FIGURE 5-22 Individual offense.
82 BASKETBALL

Zigzag: Divide the court into thirds. Staying in Denial in a Box: Within a 10 to 15 foot square, X
her third of the court, the offensive player drib- must work hard to deny B from receiving a pass
bles in a zigzag pattern down the floor. The de- from A.
fensive player stays with her, practicing good
defensive form and position. Variation: The
dribbler stops her dribble en route, making the
defensive player move closer, straighten, and ex-
tend her arms.

'
FIGURE 5-25 Denial in a box.
1

PLAYING STRATEGY

/ \
1 f / Team Offense
Offensive tactics in basketball vary according to
the defensive tactics employed by the opposing team.
Thus the offensive patterns will vary in order that
the most efficient attack may be developed against
the particular defense. Generally speaking, there are
two types of offense: 1 that which is employed
( )

against the player-to-player defense, and (2) that

which is employed against the zone defense.
1 Offense Against a Player-to-Player De-
v£J
1 1

fense. The offense used against the player-to-

player defense is a combination of passing and
player movement. Even though the offense consists
of five players, it is most common for only two or
three players to work together for a shot while the
others employ decoying or rebounding roles. Against
a player-to-player defense, it only takes one defen-
sive player to falter to enable an open shot for the
1
opposing offensive player. Working together to ac-
\ /
complish this, it is possible to do a give-and-go and a
variety of screens and picks. These maneuvers em-
<x !
X ploy only two or three players and confuse the de-

o !
9 fense, putting them out of good defensive position. Of
course, individual offensive moves such as cutting
and driving may be incorporated also.
FIGURE 5-23 Zigzag These maneuvers can be incorporated into set
plays, or used spontaneously in a freelance situation.
4. Denial Defense: Both defensive players (X) work
hard to deny any pass to the player they are
guarding. A and B pass the ball back and forth
trying to get it to the Os.

FIGURE 5-24 Denial defense.

T
V X • -\
x/
r
VO

A^ >B
FIGURE 5-26 Give-and-go.
 BASKETBALL 83

Thus, five-player plays are actually a combination of

two- and three-player maneuvers.
Offense Against a Zone Defense. The of-
fense used against the zone defense is primarily one
of moving the ball with short, quick passes to force
the defensive players out of their assigned positions
in order that a good shot may be taken. The offensive
players move to positions that will force the defense
to alter their zone and thus weaken its strength.
Even if an offensive player gets past a defender, in a
zone defense there is another defender waiting to
cover. Therefore, the following principles should
guide the offense in defeating the zone defense:

1. Quick passing
2. Outside shooting
FIGURE 5-27 Pick. 3. Penetrate the zone with a dribble or a pass, then
quickly pass out to a free teammate
4. Cut through the zone, splitting two defenders
5. Overload one side of the zone with more offen-
sive players than defensive players
6. Dribble very sparingly
7. Screen a shifting defensive player

Team Defense
The Zone Defense. This style of defense calls
for the placement of the defensive players in desig-
nated areas in and around the defensive basket in
order to give a maximum protection against good
shots. The alignments are numbered. The alignment
selected must take into consideration the size, speed,
and abilities of the players, as well as the area of the
court desired to be covered. The most common zone
FIGURE 5-28 Screen. defenses are the 1-3-1, the 1-2-2, the 3-2, the 2-1-2,

K "i
\

FIGURE 5-29 1-3-1 zone defense.

84 BASKETBALL

and the 2-3. Each player in zone defense is assigned 2. Concentrate on the concepts of offense and de-
a certain area on the court to cover, and guards only fense in the earlier lessons. Allow "traveling"
that offensive player who comes into that area. The violations if it reinforces the concept of the game
defense shifts in relation to the ball, rather than in in the early stages of learning. Specific rules
relation to the position of the offensive players. The about the game will evolve as the unit continues.
zone defense is valuable in securing rebounds, in
Sensory Impaired
cutting off inside shooting against taller opponents,
and in protecting players who are tired, weak defen- 1. Try blindfolding the sighted students in class.
sively, or in foul trouble. 2. Position a student near the basket as the desig-
The Player-to-Player Defense. The princi- nated shooter in a stationary position. Rotate a
ple behind the player-to-player defense is the assign- sighted and a blind or visually impaired student
ment of each player to guard one offensive player, through that position. A shot must be taken
and thus the area element that is prominent in the from that position every two trips down the
zone defense eliminated. Instead of shifting as a
is court.
unit in relation to the position of the ball, each 3. Minimal modifications needed for the deaf and
player must follow one player all over the defensive hard of hearing.
court. This defense takes extraordinary skill, sta-
mina, and teamwork, since any free offensive player
is a scoring threat. Since the offensive team will be TERMINOLOGY
working screens, picks, and cuts to free a teammate,
the defense must communicate and have tactics to Backcourt players (Guards) Players who set up a team's
avoid such maneuvers. One such tactic involves im- offensive pattern; usually the smaller players on the
mediate on-the-floor switching of defensive assign- team or the best ball handlers.
ments if an offensive player has gotten free. Another Backdoor An offensive maneuver whereby a player cuts
tactic involves defensive players allowing room for toward the baseline to the basket, behind the de-
each other to slide through picks and screens, ena- fenders, and receives a pass for a field goal attempt.
bling them to stay with their assigned players. Baseline The endline.

The Pressing Defense. recent years,

In
Blocking out (Boxing out) A
term used to designate a
player's position under the backboard which prevents
pressing defenses have taken on great significance
an opposing player from achieving good rebounding
at all levels of basketball competition. The main ob-
position.
jectives of pressing defenses are to harass opponents
Charging Personal contact against the body of a defen-
into ball-handling errors, to force opponents into
sive opponent by a player with the ball.
changing their game strategy, and to force the offen-
Corner players (Forwards) Tall players who are responsi-
sive team to use up valuable time in bringing the
ble for the rebounding and shooting phases of the
ball down the court. The press can be administered
full-court, % court, or ¥2 court, and can incorporate
team's operation. They make up the sides of the offen-
sive set-up.
zone or player-to-player principles.
Cut A quick offensive move by a player trying to get free
for a pass.
Denial defense Aggressive individual defense where the
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
defensive player works hard to keep the offensive
player from receiving a pass.
Orthopedically Impaired
Double foul When two opponents commit personal fouls
1. Contact the National Wheelchair Basketball As- against each other at the same time. The result is a
sociation in Lexington, Kentucky for the rules of throw-in for the team entitled, as a result of the alter-
wheelchair basketball. nating jump ball process.
2. Students with grasp and release difficulties Dribble Ball movement by a player in control who throws
could practice dropping smaller balls into hoops, or taps the ball in the air or onto the floor and then
wastebaskets, buckets. touches it. The dribble ends when the dribbler touches
3. Consider utilizing commercial "Nerf Basketball" the ball with both hands simultaneously, permits it to
games for severely impaired students. come to rest while in contact with it, or loses control.
4. Establish the rule that the student using a Drive An aggressive move toward the basket by a player
wheelchair must touch the ball, e.g., pass from a with the ball.

teammate, before a shot is taken from his/her Fake (Feint) Using a deceptive move with the ball to pull

team. the defensive player out of position.

Fastbreak Moving the ball quickly downcourt in order to
Mentally Impaired
score before the defense can set up.
1. Contact Special Olympics for their manual on Field goal A basket scored from the field.

basketball rules. Freelance No structure or set plays in the offense.

 BASKETBALL 85

Free throw The privilege given a player to score one or Throw-in A method of putting the ball in play from out-
two points by unhindered shots for a goal from within of-bounds.
the free throw circle and behind the free throw line. Traveling When a player in possession of the ball within
Give-and-go A maneuver in which the offensive player bounds progresses illegally in any direction.
makes a pass to a teammate, and then immediately Violation An infraction of the rules resulting in a throw-
cuts in toward the basket for a return pass. in from out-of-bounds for the opponents.
Held ball Occurs when two opponents have one or both
hands firmly on the ball, and neither can gain posses- SELECTED REFERENCES
sion without undue roughness. The result is a throw-
in for the team entitled, as a result of the alternating AAHPERD: Basketball Skills Test Manual, AAHPERD
jump ball process. Publication, P.O. Box 704, Waldorf, MD
20604, 1984.
Inside player (Center, Post, Pivot)Most often the tallest Atkins, K. and Rainey, R. Winning Basketball Drills. West
player on the team. This player is situated near the Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Co., Inc., 1985.
basket, around the three-second lane area, and is re- Basketball Rule Book, published yearly by the National
sponsible for rebounding and close-range shooting. Federation of State High School Associations, 11724
Jump ball A method of putting the ball into play to start Plaza Circle, Box 20626, Kansas City, MO, 64195.
the game or any overtime periods by tossing it up be- Garfinkel, H. (ed.) Five-Star Basketball Drills. Grand
tween two opponents in the center circle. In jump ball Rapids, MI: Masters Press, 1987.
situations that occur (due to held ball, double foul, Harkins, H.L. Basketball's Winning Zone Offenses. Wauke-
etc.),once the game has begun teams will alternate sha, WI: MacGregor Sports Education, 1988.
taking the ball out-of-bounds. The team not obtaining Head S. and Jennings, P. and D. Basketball. Dubuque, LA:
control of the initial jump ball will start the alternat- Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1991.
ing process. Krause, J.V. and Brennan, S.J. Basketball Resource Guide.
Outlet pass A term used to designate a direct pass from a 2nd ed., Champaign, IL: Leisure Press, 1990.
rebounder to a teammate, with the main objective Murrey, B. (ed.) Individual Fundamentals. Waukesha, WI:
being the start of a fastbreak. MacGregor Sports Education, 1988.
Overtime period An extra period of playing time (5 min- Murrey, B., (ed.) Zone Defense. Waukesha, WI: MacGregor
utes in college; 3 minutes in high school) played if the Sports Education, 1987.
score is tied at the end of the regulation game. NCAA Men's and Women's Basketball Rules and Interpreta-
Personal foul A player foul which involves contact with tions, published yearly by The National Collegiate Ath-
an opponent while the ball is alive or after the ball is letic Association, P.O. Box 1906, Mission, KS, 66201.
in possession of a player for a throw-in.
—
Smith, D., and Spear, B. Basketball Multiple Offense and
Pick A special type of screen where a player stands so the Defense. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1982.
defensive player slides to make contact, freeing an of- Walker, A.L. and Donahue,J. The New Option Offense for

fensive teammate for a shot or drive. Winning Basketball. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press,
Pivot Takes place when a player who is holding the ball 1988.

steps once or more than once in any direction with the Wilkes, G. Basketball. 5th ed. (PE. Activities Series). Du-
same foot; the other foot, called the pivot foot, being buque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1984.
kept at its point of contact with the floor. Also, an- Wooden, J. Practical Modern Basketball. 2nd ed. New York:
other term for the inside player.
John Wiley and Sons, 1980.
Posting up A player cutting to the three-second lane Periodicals
area, pausing, and anticipating a pass.
The Basketball Bulletin, The National Association of Bas-
Rebound A term usually applied when the ball bounces
ketball Coaches (NABC), P.O. Box 307, Branford, CT
off the backboard or basket.
06405.
Restraining circles Three circles of six-foot radius, one
Basketball Clinic, Princeton Educational Publishers, CN
located in the center of the court and one located at
5245, Princeton, NJ 08540.
each of the free-throw lines.
Basketball Digest, Century Publishing Company, 1020
Running time Not letting the clock stop for fouls or viola- Church St., Evanston, IL 60201.
tions, usually used in a recreational situation.
Coaching Clinic, Parker Publishing Company, US High-
Screen An offensive maneuver where a player is posi- way 9W, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632.
tioned between the defender and a teammate in order Coaching Women's Basketball, published jointly by the
to free the teammate for an uncontested shot. Women's Basketball Coaches Association (WBCA) and
Switching A reversal of defensive guarding assignments. Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., Box 5076, Cham-
Technical foul A noncontact foul by a player, team, or paign, IL 61820.
coach for unsportsmanlike behavior or failure to abide National Wheelchair Basketball Association Newsletter, 110
by rules regarding submission of lineups, uniform Seaton Building, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
numbering, and substitution procedures. 40506.
Telegraphing a pass Indicating where you are going to Scholastic Coach, Scholastic, Inc., 1290 Wall St., Lynd-
pass by looking or signaling. hurst, NJ 07071.
86 BASKETBALL

Audio- Visual Materials No. 3: "Offensive Moves" — from footwork to faking,

teaches moves to make players offensive threats.
"Power Basics of Basketball." 80-minute V2" VHS tape. A
step-by-step guide to dribbling, passing, blocking, shoot-
No. 4: "Offensive —
Moves Off Dribble" power moves, re-
ing, and defensive play. Hosts are Bill Walton, Walt Haz-
verses, and change of pace moves to enhance offensive
play.
zard, and Greg Lee. Available from Video Sports, Dept.
S. 8720 Villa La Jolla Dr., Suite 1 10, La Jolla, CA 92037. No. 5: "Defense and Rebounding" — develops defensive
techniques and rebounding skills.
The following are available from The Athletic Institute,
200 Castlewood Drive, North Palm Beach, FL 64195:
(Other organizations that distribute basketball-related vi-
"Becoming a Basketball Player" by Hall Wissel. Five 20-
sual resources are listed below. Contact each organiza-
)

minute V2" VHS tapes that offer a sound program of

tion for a current listing of titles/materials:
help players develop in five key areas: ball han-
drills to
moves off the dribble, defense,
dling, shooting, offensive
AAHPERD Educational Media Sources. 1201 16th St.,
N.W., Washington, DC 20036.
and rebounding.
"Basketball in the 90's" by Lute Olson. Two 50-minute V2"
Bob Knight Basketball Aids, Inc., 1113 South High St.,
Bloomington, IN 47401.
VHS tapes that teach post and perimeter players the
right moves. Converse, 55 Fordham Road, Wilmington, MA 01887.
MacGregor Sports Education Library. 2236B Blue Mound
Basketball Series, Nos. 1-5. Each is 20-minute W VHS: Road, Waukesha, WI 53186.
No. "Ball Handling"
1: —techniques and drills for ball han- Pro Keds Lessons from Lehmann, P.O. Box 157, Riverside,
dling, passing, catching, and dribbling. NJ 08075.
No. 2: "Shooting" — focuses on all shooting skills, with National Instructional Sports Videos, P.O. Box 8188,
challenging drills. Cranston, RI 02920.
 BOWLING
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Select a proper fitting bowling ball and a pair of bowling shoes.
Bowl a game according to the official rules of the American Bowling Congress.
Practice and use the four-step approach and delivery, the straight ball, and the
hook ball.
Score a complete game using the appropriate symbols to indicate the line score.
Improve your strategy by converting spares.
Understand the terminology, observe safety rules, and utilize proper etiquette
associated with the sport.

NATURE AND PURPOSE i • *^l I

• • • \

Bowling appeals to people of all ages and is easily

adapted for special populations. Because a relatively END CUSHION
small expenditure of energy is required in bowling, it
is not an activity that lends itself to the development
of physical fitness. However, participants may bowl
for years after more strenuous activities have been ALLEY
BED
abandoned, and fortunately, any person who has a
degree of motor fitness can enjoy bowling as a life-
time sport.
The typical bowling center of today has become
an almost 24-hour enterprise. It caters to house-
wives leagues in the morning, to junior leagues in GUTTERS
the afternoon, to leagues (separate or mixed) for men 9" TO 9 '/{
WtOE
and women in the evening, and to late night-early
morning bowlers who work the second shift. Most es-
tablishments are clean and well kept, thus providing
suitable entertainment places for the whole family.
The modern game of tenpins is played on indoor
wooden lanes, 60 feet long from the foul line to the 41-
center of the number one pin, and 41 or not more -42"H
WIDE
than 42 inches wide (see Figure 6-1). The tenpins are
set up (or "spotted") in a diamond formation on pin
spots 12 inches apart, center to center (Figure 6-2A).
A regulation tenpin is 15 inches high, with a diame-
ter of 2Va inches at the base. Pins are constructed of
clear, hard maple and are usually coated with a plas-
tic They must conform to American
outer covering.
FOUL LINE
Bowling Congress specifications. The object of the
game is to roll the ball down the lane and knock
down all the pins located in the diamond formation.
The lane is bordered on either side by gutters HUNWAY NOT
LESSThANlS'
that prevent an errant ball from moving into another I

adjacent lane. It is constructed of two types of wood: ALLEY DIMENSIONS

maple, a hardwood to take the constant punishment
of the ball, and pine, a soft wood that aids in gripping FIGURE 6-1 Lane dimensions.

the ball. As shown in Figure 6-2B, a lane has several

87
88 BOWLING

bowling centers provide "house balls," and shoes

000® may be rented for a small fee. However, if you are

00© planning to become a regular bowler, it is best to own

your own equipment. Studies that have been con-

v©0 ducted indicate that men and women who own their
own equipment have higher bowling averages. Basi-
\Q
H l2 "
h-
cally, all the bowler needs is a ball, a carrying bag,
and a good pair of bowling shoes.
For a school physical education class, it would be
expensive and impractical to have bowling lanes in
the gymnasium. Several companies manufacture
bowling sets consisting of plastic bowling pins, a
plastic sheet on which to place the pins for proper
o o o o distance and placement, and a hollow rubber bowl-
o oo ing ball containing several holes so the learner can
o o
o properly fit the ball to the hand. Markings and dis-
tances can be measured and painted on the floor
with a water-based paint for easy removal. Many
techniques can be learned in the gymnasium before
proceeding to the bowling center.

Bowling Ball
Choosing a Ball. Bowling balls are made of
A hard rubber or plastic and come in a variety of colors.
A A The hard rubber ball is black and is the type of ball
A A
A A
found in most bowling centers. Although all bowling
balls are the same size, 27 inches in diameter, the
weight varies from 8 to 16 pounds. When selecting a
ball, the beginner should choose the weight that
feels most comfortable. Young junior bowlers use a
light ball, women generally use a ball that weighs 10
o o o o o o
to 13 pounds, and men usually use a ball weighing
14 to 16 pounds. The primary considerations in
making your decision should be comfort and how
well you can control the ball. If you consistently use
o o o o o o a house ball, find a ball that best fits you. House
o o o o o o
balls are marked with an identification number and
the weight; try to use the same ball each time you
B
bowl.
FIGURE 6-2 (A) Position and number of pins. Fitting the Ball. It is also important to select
(B) Lane markings. a ball equipped with holes that fit your fingers. Balls
are drilled with three holes, one for the thumb and
two for the third and fourth fingers. If you buy your
own ball, the ball is fitted to your hand span. This
markings, some of which appear to be off the lane ensures a proper fit that will allow you to handle the
(the approach area). All of the marks serve as points ball fairly easily. The holes should be large enough
of reference for the bowler. The initial sets of dots, for the fingers to slip in and out with ease. The
found in the approach area, serve as a point of refer- thumb hole should be comfortably loose. The bowler
ence for the bowler. The set of points in arrow forma- should be able to turn the ball around the thumb
tion beyond the foul line serve as a point of reference without binding, grabbing, or excessive rubbing of
for aiming the ball. the skin.
To determine the proper fit, the bowler must de-
cide the type of grip that will be used. There are
EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES three grips: the conventional, the semi-fingertip,
and the full fingertip. Advanced bowlers use the lat-
Bowling is one of the few sports that a participant tertwo grips; beginners should use the conventional
can enjoy without having to buy expensive equip- grip sinceit is the easiest to control. To determine

ment. For the recreational or occasional bowler, proper hand span for the conventional grip, place the

FIGURE 6-3 Position of fingers
three-hole ball.
thumb completely in the thumb hole, keeping the fin-
gers relaxed and spread over the finger holes. The
crease of the second joint of the two middle fingers
should extend lA inch beyond the inside edge of the
finger holes (Figure 6-3). The finger holes are cut at
a certain pitch or angle to aid the bowler in grasping
the ball.
In practice bowling sets used in most schools, the
hollow rubber ball generally comes with several
finger holes in order to accommodate the various
hand spans.
Bowling Shoes
Another important item in the bowler's list of
equipment is proper footwear. At first glance, both
shoes of a pair of bowling shoes look the same. Closer
inspection of the soles of the shoe will reveal a differ-
ence. For the right-handed bowler the left shoe
should have a leather sole to facilitate sliding at the
release point, and a rubber heel; the right shoe
should have a rubber sole with a leather tip, and a
rubber heel. For the left-handed bowler the order is
reversed. Most bowling centers have rental shoes for
both right-handed and left-handed bowlers.
For the physical education class, it is important
that students wear smooth-soled shoes which enable
sliding during the approach and release. Crepe soles
or heavy-treaded rubber soles such as used in jog-
ging shoes would be inappropriate.
Ball Bag
The and the bowler who owns
serious bowler
equipment should have a bag in which to store and
carry the ball. Bags come in a variety of materials;
those made of plastic, vinyl, or canvas are the least
expensive. Many discount department stores have
bags on sale regularly.
BOWLING 89
BASIC RULES
In league or tournament play, two contiguous lanes
are used, and the bowling of ten complete frames on
these lanes constitutes an official game. Members of
contesting teams successively and in regular order
bowl one frame on one lane and the next frame on
the other lane, so alternating frames until the game
is completed. Each player bowls two balls in each
frame. If a strike is made on the first ball, the second
ball is not rolled (except that in the tenth frame if a
strike or spare is made, the player immediately rolls
on the same lane the additional balls or ball to which
the strike or spare entitles him-.
In case of a tie game, each team bowls an extra
complete frame on the same lane in which the tenth
in
frame was bowled. The extra frame is bowled and
scored in exactly the same manner as the tenth
frame. If a tie still exists at the completion of the
first extra frame, the teams must change lanes for
the additional frames that may be required to deter-
mine the winner.
It is a foul if a bowler permits any part of his foot,
hand, or arm, while in contact with the lanes or run-
ways, to rest upon or extend beyond the foul line at
any time after the ball leaves the bowler's hands and
passes beyond the foul line. No count is made on a
foul ball, and any pins knocked down are immedi-
ately respotted. A foul ball counts as a ball bowled by
the player. If a player commits a foul which is appar-
ent to both captains, one or more members of each of
the opposing teams competing in a league or tourna-
ment on the same pair of lanes where the foul is
committed, and the foul is not seen by the foul judge
or umpire, or recorded by an automatic foul detect-
ing device, a foul shall nevertheless be declared and
so recorded.
Pinfall— Legal
Every ball delivered by the player shall count,
unless declared a dead ball. Pins must then be re-
spotted after the cause for declaring such dead ball
has been removed.
1. Pins knocked down by another pin or pins re-
bounding in play from the side partition or rear
cushion are counted as pins down.
2. If, when rolling at a full setup or in order to
make a spare, it is discovered immediately after
the ball has been delivered that one or more pins
are improperly set, although not missing, the
ball and resulting pinfall shall be counted. It is
each player's responsibility to detect any mis-
placement of pins and have the setup corrected
before he bowls.
3. Pins knocked down by a fair ball, and which re-
main lying on the lane or in the gutters, or which
lean so as to touch kickbacks or side partitions,
are termed dead wood and counted as pins down,
90 BOWLING

and must be removed before the next ball is 3. knocked down with the first ball, it
If all pins are
bowled. is and a cross (X) is marked in the
called a strike
small square in the upper right-hand corner of
the frame box. The strike will count 10 pins plus
Pinfall— Illegal
the number of pins knocked down on the next
When any of the following incidents occur, the two successive balls. A score will not be entered
ball counts as a ball rolled, but pins knocked down in the frame box until those two balls have been
shall not count. rolled.

1. When pins are knocked down or displaced by a

4. If all pins are knocked down with two balls, it is
ball which leaves the lanes before reaching the
called a spare and is indicated by a diagonal
pins.
mark (/). The spare will count 10 pins plus the
2. When a ball rebounds from the rear cushion.
number of pins knocked down on the next ball
rolled. A score will not be entered in the frame
3. When pins come in contact with the body, arms,
box until the next ball has been rolled.
or legs of a pinsetter and rebound.
4. A standing pin which falls upon removing dead
wood or which is knocked down by a pinsetter
or mechanical pinsetting equipment shall not Frame 1st Ball 2nd Bal Total Score

count and must be replaced on the pin spot 7 pins 2 pins 9 pins
where it originally stood before delivery of the Enter score in
ball. first square
5. Pins which are bowled off the lane, rebound, and
remain standing on the lane must be counted as
2. 5 pins 3 pins 17 — cumulative
score of first
pins standing.
two frames 9
6. If in delivering the ball a foul is committed, any
-8 = 17
pins knocked down by such delivery shall not be
counted. 3 Strike. Enter (X) 46 — 2 strikes
in first square (20) - 9 pins
(see frame
Bowling on Wrong Lane five) - 17 =
46
When only one player or the leadoff players of
both teams bowl on the wrong lane and the error is 4 Strike (X) 65— Strike (10)
discovered before another player has bowled, a dead - 9 - 46 =
ball shall be declared and the player, or players, re- 65
quired to bowl on the correct lane. When more than 5. 9 pins — add to Miss(-) 74 (65 - 9)
one player on the same team has rolled on the wrong the two no pins
lane, the game shall be completed without adjust- consecutive
ment, and the next game shall be started on the cor- strikes
rectly scheduled lane.
6. 8 pins Spare. Enter 89— Spare (10)
(/) in second - 5 pins - 74
square = 89
SCORING
7. 5 pins — add to 4 pins 89-9 pins =
spare from 98
All players should learn how to score. It adds consid-
frame six
erably to the enjoyment of the game if the player can
9 pins (-) no pins 98 - 9 = 107
keep an accurate record of the score as the game pro- 8.

gresses. There are ten numbered boxes on the score 9. 7 pins —a split (0) no pins, 107 ^ 7 = 114
sheet to correspond to the ten frames in a game. At missed

the top of each frame box are two small squares in converting

which to write the number of pins toppled with the the split

first ball and the second ball. Some simple scoring 10. Strike (X)— Player rolls two more 114-3 strikes

rules must be remembered in order to score a game balls, which are also strikes (30) = 144
accurately.

1. The score that is entered from box to box is cu-

I
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO
mulative; i.e., it represents the total number of llJil Cxi M \i\-\ l»l^ l5k| hu [
i7!q \% ,xx _
1
pins toppled up to that point. r\ I7\W 65\74- \S? l
7$ (07 iw \im
2. If a bowler does not get a strike or spare in any
frame, scoring is just a matter of adding on the FIGURE 6-4 Scoring example and score sheet of a complete
number of pins knocked down in each frame. game.
 BOWLING 91

5. If you spare or strike in the tenth frame, then approach. However, there are some important points
you roll one more ball if a spare, or two more to remember.
balls if a strike, and add that to your total score.
1. Hold the ball with both hands in front of the
In order to illustrate scoring we will score a hy- body. For a man this may be waist high, for a
pothetical game. But first let's review the symbols woman a little higher in order to attain a longer
used and the scoring procedure. swing for increased speed.
(X) Indicates a strike: 1 plus the score of the next 2. The feet are spread slightly apart, weight evenly
two balls. distributed, perhaps one foot slightly ahead of
(/) Indicates a spare: 1 plus the score of the next the other.
ball rolled. 3. Most of the weight of the ball should be sup-
(O) Indicates a split: score will depend on number of ported by the nonthrowing hand at this point.
remaining pins knocked down by next ball rolled.
4. The ball is gripped with the thumb in a 12
o'clock position for a straight ball or the 10
(0) Indicates a converted split: 1 plus the score of
the next
o'clock position for a hook ball.
ball rolled.

(-) Indicates a miss or error: no score.

(F) Indicates a foul: no score.
The Approach
(G) Indicates a gutter ball.
Bowlers vary in the number of steps taken in the
The score sheet of a completed game is shown approach. The number of steps range from three to
and analyzed in Figure 6-4. five, but most experts recommend the four-step ap-
proach. The beginning bowler should experiment
with the delivery and determine which works best.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE The following discussion will center around the four-
step approach for the right-handed bowler. The left-
A. Nature of the game handed bowler will reverse the starting procedure.
1. Equipment In proper execution of the approach, the bowler
2. Fitting a bowling ball will take a series of steps in a smooth, rhythmical
3. Safety: Lane courtesy manner, and will end with a slide and follow-
B. Techniques. Rules should be introduced early in through as the ball is released. Women bowlers begin
the learning progression to coincide with specific on the 12-foot line with feet straddling the second
techniques. dot from the right for right-handers or the second dot
1. Stance from the left for left-handers. The eyes should be
2. Approach fixed on the second arrow from the right (right-
3. Straight ball hander) or left (left-hander) located on the lane. Men
4. Hook ball will begin the approach approximately 18 inches far-
C. Scoring. May be introduced as the situation war- ther back from the 12-foot line. As the steps are
rants and is most appropriate. taken and the delivery is executed, it is important for
D. Strategy the bowler to walk in a straight line. Let the dots
1. Pin bowling and Spot bowling near the foul line be your guide.
2. Making spares
Learning Cues

Step 1. The push away. Step with the right foot

SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES and at the same time push the ball out to an arm's
length in front of the body. Do not overextend the
Bowling a relatively easy game to learn, but like
is
push away or loss of balance and direction may re-
all sporting activities it is important to learn the
sult.
techniques involved in order to develop consistency.
For the physical education teacher, much of the tech- Step 2. The ball moves to the bottom of the arc on
nique involving the grip, stance, approach, and re- the downswing as the left foot completes the second
step.
lease can be taught in the gymnasium. The two basic
skills to be learned are the swing coordinated with a Step 3. The ball reaches the top of the backswing
specific number of steps. (shoulder high), as the right foot completes the third
step. The ball must swing in a straight line,
shoulders square to the foul line.
The Stance
Step 4. As the last step is taken the ball swings
There is no definite or prescribed stance as- forward, the wrist is firm, and the ball is released to-
sumed by all bowlers preparatory for the start of the ward the target. The nonthrowing hand will help
92 BOWLING

serve as a means of balance. The left toe will be 3. The wrist remains firm, the palm faces the pins
pointing at the target. as the ball is delivered; maintain a straight fol-
low-through.
If the timing is correct the ball is released out in
4. The ball should be started from the right side of
front of the body and laid rather than dropped on the
the lane and directed toward the 1-3 pocket.
lane. The bowling ball, when properly delivered, has
a double motion. When first released it slides and re-
toward the pins. After
volves, sliding in the direction
The Hook Ball
sliding a distance, once it reaches the nonoiled sur-
face, friction increases, and the ball begins to re- Most good bowlers use a hook ball; beginning
volve, causing it to hook, roll straight, or back up, bowlers will want to learn this delivery as soon as
depending on the type of ball that is thrown. possible. To obtain maximum pin action, the ball
should strike the pins at an angle, but the angle of
the straight ball is limited by the width of the alley.
Practice Suggestions The straight ball revolves forward, but the hook ball
revolves at an angle, thus giving it greater pin
1. Allow students to move to the ball rack and dem-
splash or action by imparting a revolving action to
onstrate proper technique for picking up the
the pins. This delivery is sometimes called the
ball.
"handshake" delivery because the position of the
2. Pick up the ball and assume a good, well-bal-
hand is similar to that used in an ordinary hand-
anced stance with ball held comfortably and in
shake.
proper position.
3. From a designated line on the floor or on the ap-
proach try a four-step approach without the ball. Learning Cues
To determine the length of your approach, move
1. The wrist is firm, the thumb is in a 10:30 o'clock
to a position short of the foul line and take four
position.This position must be maintained
steps toward the beginning position. Try to coor-
throughout the swing.
dinate steps, arm swing, follow-through without
2. As the ball is released, the thumb comes out
the ball. Check the line from step one to step
first,the fingers lift and impart a rotational ef-
four.
fect to the ball.
4. Bellisimo recommends a one-step delivery with
1 3. Release the ball with the V formed by the thumb
a ball. Place students in a position to take the
and forefinger pointing toward the target.
last step. Allow them to first take a practice
4. The hand should be carried upward and forward
swing with a ball, then allow students to take
toward the pins in the follow-through. Do not
the last step and delivery. Concentrate on a
side-wheel, twist the arm, or intentionally spin
straight pendulum swing and a good follow-
the ball.
through with the hand finishing high.
5. Allow bowlers to try a four-step approach and There are two other types of deliveries: the curve
delivery using the ball (Figure 6-5). ball and the backup ball. However, because of the
difficulty of controlling them, they are not recom-
mended for the beginning bowler.
The Straight Ball
on Practice Suggestions
Beginning bowlers should concentrate first
perfecting a straight ball before attempting
to roll a 1. For the physical education class, use partners.
hook. It is also recommended that the woman bowler Roll a straight ball or a hook using a hollow
who lacks ball speed continue the use of a straight plastic ball to each other. Concentrate on proper
ball. wrist and hand position as well as swing consis-
tency.
Learning Cues
2. At the lanes, practice the swing first, holding the
1. The thumb should be held in a 12 o'clock posi- ball in the correct position. Some experts recom-
underneath the ball.
tion with the fingers mend rolling the ball back and forth between
2. The hand position should be maintained partners to practice the proper release tech-
throughout the swing, with no arm rotation dur- nique.
ing release of the ball. 3. The bowler will continue to roll the ball over the
second arrow from the right (right-hander).
However, experiment with your starting posi-
tion by moving over one or two boards toward
1
L. Bellisimo and J. Bennett, The Bowler's Manual, 4th ed. the left to find the most consistent path for your
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1982). p. 10. hook (Figure 6-6).
 BOWLING 93

FIGURE 6-5 Four-step approach. Note shoulders squarely facing the pins.
94 BOWLING

oooo ooo oooo Spares

ooo ooc ) ooo
oo To bowl a good score, the bowler must pick up
°o? o\
1
spares consistently. Accuracy is essential for good
spare bowling. Unlike rolling a strike ball, the spare
may force the bowler to vary the starting position
and the spot over which the ball may be rolled. For
the right-handed bowler, pins left on the right side of
the lane such as the 1, 3, 6, 10 or 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, the
starting position should be on the left side of the
lane. For pins on the left side, the ball will be deliv-
ered from the right side of the lane. Pins that are left
one directly behind another should be hit head-on;
otherwise, the bowler runs the risk of having the ball
glance off the front pin, thereby missing the rear pin.
Conversion of spares will make a marked difference
in your scores; practice and experience are two im-
portant factors in increasing the score.

MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS

V Orthopedically Impaired

1. Use commercially adapted bowling ramps made

from the following: wood, aluminium, plastic.
II
2. Use push sticks, either commercial or home-
B made.
3. Use special bowling ball made with retractable
FIGURE 6-6 Path of (A) straight ball, (B) hook ball. handles.
(C) curve ball.
Mentally Impaired

1. Show video tapes of bowlers with additional vis-

ual cues, e.g., pictures, magazines.
2. Reinforce students with additional tactile and
PLAYING STRATEGY kinesthetic input during delivery.
3. Allow additional practice time.
Spot Bowling and Pin Bowling
Sensory Impaired
An
individual sport, bowling has no complicated
1. Use variations on the approach:
playing strategies similar to those found in many
a. Carpet squares for footwork or carpet strip
team sports. You should plan your game so as to
for the entire approach.
knock down the greatest number of pins possible.
b. Secure a rope from start of approach to a
This is accomplished by individual control and accu-
chair or stool placed at the end of the ap-
racy, rather than cooperation with teammates in the
proach for visually impaired.
execution of plays.
Playing strategy should include, first, a mastery
of a definite approach and delivery style. The good
bowler will settle upon a definite pattern as early as OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
possible,making every effort to throw each ball with
the same motion. Most bowlers are classified as Lane Etiquette
"spot" or "pin" bowlers. The spot bowler selects a
As in other sporting activities, certain playing
spot on the alley a few feet from the foul line and at-
courtesies should be extended to your bowling com-
tempts to roll the first ball in each frame over that
petitors and teammates.
spot.The pin bowler looks at the pins while ap-
proaching and making the delivery. Whether you 1. Do not talk to or otherwise disturb a bowler who
prefer throwing a hook or a straight ball, follow your is on the approach and ready to bowl.
selected style on all balls and concentrate on devel- 2. Do not walk in front of a bowler to secure your
oping accuracy with a smooth and rhythmical deliv- ball from the rack when the bowler is ready to
ery. bowl. Wait for your ball to return.
 BOWLING 95

3. When bowlers on adjacent lanes are both ready oily or rough substances that may interfere with
to bowl, the one on the right (as you face the the approach.
pins) should always be permitted to bowl first. 4. Use a towel to wipe the ball or dry your hands
4. Do not use a ball that is the personal property of before each roll. A ball can become oily from the
an individual unless you have the owner's per- lanes, and the oil may get on your hands.
mission to do so. 5. When picking up the ball from the rack, always
5. Be at your post, ready to bowl when your turn keep your palms parallel to the sides of the bowl-
comes. ing rack (Figure 6-7).
6. After delivering the ball and noting the result, Be aware of your fellow competitors; make sure
turn and walk back immediately to the rear of the approach area is cleared before rolling the
the runway, being careful to stay in your ap- ball.
proach lane. 7. Ifstudents are used to set the pins, make sure
7. Do not argue with the foul line judge over divi- the pinsetter is clear of the alley before rolling
sions even though you think an unjust call has the ball.
been made against you.
8. Be punctual when scheduled to bowl. Nothing
upsets a team more than having to wait for a
late member. TERMINOLOGY
9. Control your temper. Public exhibition of anger
disturbs fellow bowlers and detracts from your Anchor The person who shoots last on a team.
efficiency. Baby split The 1-7 or 3-10 railroads.
Backup A reverse hook. A backup rotates toward the
right for a right- handed bowler.
Safety
Bed posts The 7-10 railroad.
Bowling is a relatively safe activity. Accidents Blow An error; missing a spare that is not a split.
are few, and good common sense will prevent them Box The same as a frame.
from occurring. The following are a few guidelines Brooklyn A crossover ball, one that strikes in the 1-2
for safe bowling. pocket.
Bucket The 2-4-5-8 or 3-5-6-9 leaves.
1. With a large plan formations well in ad-
class,
Cherry Chopping off the front pin on a spare.
vance so there is plenty of space between each
Crossover Same as a Brooklyn.
participant during the approach, backswing, for-
Double Two strikes in succession.
ward swing, and follow-through.
Double pinochle The 7-6 and 4-10 split.
2. Be aware of people around you; swing the ball Dutch 200 (Dutchman) A score of 200 made by alternat-
only on the designated alley.
ing strikes and spares for entire game.
3. Check to make sure the approaches are free of Error Same as a "blow." Failure to make a spare that is
not a split.

Foul To touch or go beyond the foul line in delivering the

ball.
Frame The box inwhich scores are entered. There are
E M ten frames to
Gutter ball A
each game.
ball that drops into either gutter.
Handicap A bonus score or score adjustment awarded to
Ei&H
an individual or team based on averages.
Head pin The number one pin.

s^ ^H High hit Hitting the head pin full in the face or head-on.
Hook A breaks to the left for a right-handed
ball that
bowler. For a left-hander a hook ball breaks to the
^^
right.
Jersey side Same as a Brooklyn.
Kegler Synonym for bowler, derived from the German:
Kegel (game of ninepins).
Lane A bowling alley.
Leave Pin or pins left standing after a throw.
5B^^==z:
Light hit Hitting the head pin lightly to the right or left

^ Line
side.
A complete game
as recorded on the score sheet.
Mark Obtaining a strike or spare.
FIGURE 6-7 Proper method of picking up a ball from the rack. Open frame A frame in which no mark is made; at least
96 BOWLING

one pin remains standing after rolling both balls in a American Bowling Congress. ABC Bowling Guide (current
frame. ed.). Milwaukee: American Bowling Congress, 1572
Pocket Space between the head pin and pins on either East Capitol Drive.
side. Bellisimo, L. and Bennett, J. The Bowlers Manual. 4th ed.
Railroad Another term for a split. There are several Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall, 1982.
kinds. Costello, P. and Glossbrenner, A. Bowling. New York:
Sleeper A pin hidden from view. Mason /Charter, 1977.
Spare knocked down on two balls.
All pins Grinfelds, V.and Hultstrand, B. Right Down Your Alley. 2d
Split A has been thrown, in
leave, after the first ball ed. Champaign, IL.: Leisure Press, 1985.
which the number one pin plus a second pin are down, Scott, T.M. and Carpenter, C.L. Bowling Everyone. Win-
and seven pins remain standing. Indicated by on ston-Salem, NC: Hunter Books, 1985.
score sheet. Showers, N.E. Bowling. Santa Monica, CA.: Goodyear
Spot A place on the alley at which a bowler aims. Publishing Co., 1980.
Strike knocked down on the first ball.
All pins Strickland, R.H. Bowling — Steps to Success. Champaign,
Striking out Obtaining three strikes in the last frame. IL.: Leisure Press, 1989.

Tap When a pin is left standing on an apparently perfect

Audio-Visual Materials
hit.
Turkey Three strikes in a row. RMI Media Productions, 2807 W. 47th St., Shawnee Mis-
sion, KS., 66205. Earl Anthony on Beginning Bowling
(Vi inch VHS or Beta video, 61 minutest. Features
selection equipment, proper delivery and common errors
SELECTED REFERENCES to avoid.
Athletic Institute, 200 Castlewood Dr., North Palm Beach,
American Association for Health, Physical Education, Rec- FL., 33408. Four Steps to Better Bowling Series <% or
reation, and Dance: Division of Girls' and Women's Vi inch video). Focuses on strikes and spares, fundamen-
Sport. Official Bowling, Fencing and Golf Guide current ( tals of footwork, fundamentals of armswing, shoe and
ed.). Washington, D.C.: AAHPERD. ball selection and scoring, and approach and delivery.
 CYCLING
THIS CHAPTER WILL EriABLE YOU TO:
Use proper hand signals and follow bicycle safety rules.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of one-, three-speed, 10-18 speed, and
all-terrain (mountain) bicycles.
Select and fit a bicycle to individual needs.
Select equipment for everyday riding and repair.
Describe and apply the gearing theory to everyday cycling.
Demonstrate techniques for safe and efficient cycling in city and country, including
ankling, balancing, body positioning, braking, cadence, emergency stops, group
riding, mounting and dismounting, maneuvering, pacing, short radius turning,
and straight roadside riding.

NATURE AND PURPOSE

Bicycling is a wonderful lifetime activity. It can be

enjoyed by young and old alike and is a great family
recreational pastime. Cycling offers relaxation, fit-
ness, and occasional vacation touring or camping. A
bicycle is not only a vehicle for pleasure and sport,
but also a means of transportation to work or school
— a role it has long played for millions of people
throughout the world. While it is not likely to replace
the automobile in this country, the bicycle is rela-
tively inexpensive, durable, cheap to operate and
maintain. It does not use up natural resources nor
pollute the atmosphere. This chapter will introduce
the fundamentals of cycling. Racing enthusiasts will
find sources on competitive cycling among the Se-
lected References.

BICYCLES AND EQUIPMENT

Bicycles come in various models, styles and
and with different components. They are priced from
under $200 to over $1,000. Bicycles include touring,
racing, all-terrain and utility models. When buying a
bike, shop at a local bike store for the best selection
and service. A
dealer will help you choose a bike
based on the type of riding you want to do.
10-18 Speed (Derailleur) Touring and Rac-
ing Bikes. If you want to cycle for fitness and per-
haps weekend bike trips, choose a sport or touring
10-speed (now sometimes with 12 to 18 gears). A
touring model is durable with a flexible frame that
FIGURE 7-1 Touring is fun and provides an excellent way to
colors, exercise.
speed, with stiffer frames, less shock absorption, a
narrow range of gears, and less padding.
All-Terrain (Mountain) Bike. An all-terrain
(mountain) bike, while heavy and slow on the open
road, is best if off-road exploring is your goal. It is
also fine for commuting or riding around town, but
not recommended for extended tours. All-terrain
bikes have at least 18 gears, high ground clearance,
fat, knobby tires, upright handlebars, and sturdy

absorbs shock, a wide range of gears for climbing frames.

hills, caliper hand brakes, and padded seat. Dropped Utility Bikes. Utility bikes with heavy
handlebars take some weight off the seat and allow a frames, upright handlebars, wide tires, and wide,
wide range of riding positions. Avoid a racing model padded seats are less expensive, can take more
unless you plan to race. Racing bikes are built for abuse, and require less upkeep than 10-18 speed

97
98 CYCLING

models. The one-speed adult cruiser with its balloon
tires is easy to handle and gives a very smooth ride.
It is fine for off-road riding. The three-speed bike has
lighter wheels, hand brakes, and gears which can be
shifted when stopped. It is good for commuting
around town, but is not good for long trips or climb-
ing many hills.
Basic Parts of a Bicycle
The touring bicycle shown in Figure 7-2
trates the basic parts of the bicycle:
1. Frame. Heavy frames are welded steel. Better,
costlier frames are double-butted, lugged and
brazed alloy. Frames come in different shapes
and sizes, and determine the quality of the bike.
2. Brakes. Either center- or side-pull hand caliper
brakes are good on derailleur bikes. Coaster
(pedal) brakes are used on one-speed models.
3. Wheels consist of hubs, spokes, rims and tires,
come in standard, touring, and racing versions.
4. Tires come in two basic types. Clinchers are du-
rable and inexpensive recommended ( A liner >.
can be inserted between tire and tube to prevent
punctures. Tubulars (sew-ups) are not advised
for the general bicyclist. While thinner and
lighter, they are expensive and very prone to
punctures.
5. Handlebars come in raised or dropped styles,
and either version can be fitted on any bike.
Upright bars allow good vision and are comfort-
able for many people. Dropped bars take shock
off the spine and weight off the seat while allow-
ing a wider range of riding positions. Handlebar
padding may be added to reduce road shock, pre-
illus-
venting arm and hand soreness.
6. Crank set in better bikes is alloy and cotterless
(uses bolts or nuts to attach the crank arm to the
axle).
7. Derailleur is a gear-changing device which lifts
and pulls the chain from sprocket to sprocket. If
you don't like shifting, click shifting is now
widely available. It finds gears automatically, so
you don't have around for the next one.
to feel
8. Pedals. Rubber tread pedals are cheap. Metal
platform or thin cage pedals allow use of toe
clips.
9. Saddle (Seat). Leather or plastic, narrow or
wide, padded or not, the seat should be comforta-
ble right away.

CABLE
SADDLE
HANDLEBAR

BRAKE LEVERS

TIRE

FRONT FORK END

TENSION' CHAIN STAY

ROLLER VALVE
DERAILLEUR (REAR)

BOTTOM BRACKET

FIGURE 7-2 Parts of a bicycle.

 CYCLING 99

Bicycle Inspection Checklist HAND BRAKES

Adequate space between lever and
Name handlebar when engaged? (If not, tighten
cable.)
Bicycle make & model Cable: Should be taut, with no kinks, rust,
or frayed ends.
Brake shoes: Tight? Openings face rear?
Serial No. Level with and no more than
3/i6"
from rim? W
At least rubber remaining? (Replace if

OK FIX needed.)
FRAME SIZE Test operation of each brake separately.
Can you straddle frame with both feet flat Must hold without catching: Front
on the ground? Rear
(Should be 1 to 2 inch space between
WHEELS
crotch and top bar.)
Spin each wheel. It should run true (no
SADDLE wobbles)
Horizontal adjustment — Nose of the saddle Should have no binding or looseness
should be 1 to 3 inches behind a vertical (bearings)
linedrawn through the crank hanger. A Centered between forks (and chain stays
cyclist 5'6" tall would position saddle 1 in rear)
inch back; 5' 10" tall: 2 inches back; and Rim: Not dented or kinked?
6' 3" tall: 3 inches back. Spokes: All intact and tight?
Vertical adjustment —
Sit on bike with heel Tire: Properly seated? Tread?
on pedal at lowest position. Knee should DERAILLEURS
be straight, so when toe is on pedal, knee Turn bike upside down or have partner lift

is slightly bent.
rear wheel while you crank pedal and shift
Tilt — Should be horizontal or slightly
through first the front then rear gears.
downtilted.
(Shift only while pedal is turning!) Derailleur
Is saddle tight and in good condition? should shift chain smoothly from one
HANDLEBARS sprocket to the next without skipping a
Vertical —
Top bar should be
adjustment gear, catching, or throwing chain off.

level withnose of saddle. Chain condition (Clean with silicone spray

Horizontal adjustment —
Place elbow on if dirty.)
nose of saddle. Outstretched fingertips Sprocket teeth intact, not bent or broken.
should just touch center of handlebars. PEDALS
(Length of stem may need to be changed.) Shake and spin to check bearings:
with wheel and symmetrical
In line
no looseness or binding.
Tight,no horizontal or vertical movement Pedals intact and tight?
Tubing ends plugged, grips tight Tread intact and tight?
TIRE PRESSURE Press down on both pedals at once.
Check. Correct pressure for this bike is Tight?
(Correct tire pressure is embossed on side REMARKS:
of tire.)

Check once a week.

BOLTS
Check bolts for looseness. Recheck G. Robbins, D. Powers, and S. Burgess, A Wellness Way of Life (Du-
monthly. buque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishing Co., 1991), pp. 329-330.

Learning Tips Fitting the Bicycle

A properly set up and well-maintained bike is a

1. See how many different types of bicycle compo-
nents you can identify on different bicycles in
class.
2. Visit a local bike shop and have the owner ex-
plain the advantages of different types of bicycle
pleasure to ride, easier to control, and important in
accident prevention. The most common problem for
beginners is riding with the seat too low. Complete
the Bicycle Inspection Checklist above to check the
fit of your bike and to see if any preventive mainte-

components. nance needs to be done before you hit the road.

100 CYCLING

Practice Suggestions ACCESSORIES AND CLOTHING

1. Check seat height. Locate the bolt under the seat
which loosens the seat post. Mark on the stem
current height, then, if needed, change seat
height, and set at correct height and tighten
The most important accessory, a bicycle helmet,
should be worn every ride. Make sure that it is ap-
proved by the American National Standards Insti-
tute ANSI or the Snell Memorial Foundation. It
i i

bolt.
should contain a dense liner made from stiff poly-
2. Locate bolts which adjust seat
tilt. Loosen
styrene which absorbs most of the impact in a crash.
and remove saddle, then replace and retighten
It should fit snugly and be fastened securely with the
bolts.
chin strap.
3. Locate quick release levers for front and rear
Toe clips are good because they enable a rider to
brakes. Release front lever and squeeze front
brakes. Close lever. Recheck front brakes.
pull up as well as push down each pedal stroke. How-
ever, they do take some getting used to. and must be
4. Locate quick release levers for front and rear
worn loosely at first so you can get your foot out
wheels. Loosen front brake, release front wheel,
remove. Replace front wheel, center between
quickly. Some new safety pedals work like quick-
release ski bindings, releasing the shoe with a twist
brake shoes, and close brake lever.
of the foot.
Avoid the "suicide" or "safety" brake levers posi-
tioned on the top of handlebars. They decrease brak-
ing power and increase the distance needed to stop.
GENERAL MAINTENANCE TIPS
Other equipment that is recommended includes
lock and chain, a water bottle, bike bag, tools, and
Regardless of the type of bicycle you have, it must be
gloves. Bicycles operated at night must have a head-
kept in good working order. Preventive mainte-
nance, tightening loose bolts before they fall off. and
lamp that is visible from a distance of at least 500
feel to the front. New bicycles must have front, rear,
lubricating cables before they rust and stick is better
pedal, and side reflectors A patch kit. tire irons and
than finding yourself stuck miles from home with a
broken bike. If you are not mechanically inclined,
pump are useful for fixing flats on the road. If you
encounter dogs frequently, you may wish to carry
consult your local bike shop for a spring tuneup.
dog repellent spray.
Then, at least once a month, make the following
checks: Investigate rattles and tighten loose bolts, if
Clothing worn depends on weather conditions.
needed. Check tire pressure and inflate to the recom-
In warm
weather, regular or bicycling shorts and a
t-shirt are ideal. Also remember to wear SPF 15 sun-
mended pressure embossed on the sidewalk Lubri-
screen. In cool weather, tights, t-shirts, sweatshirt
cate cables and moving parts with a silicone
or jersey, and windbreaker <or warmupsi can be
lubricant like WD-40. Also spray the chain and clean
layered to keep you comfortable. Gloves are essen-
it off by holding a rag against it as you turn the
tial, and a stocking cap can be worn under the hel-
pedals. If anything is bent or broken, like spokes,
rims, brakes or gears, take it to a bicycle mechanic
met and pulled down over the ears. If you wear long
pants, you will need pants clips or a rubberband to
for repairs.
On the other hand, if you like learning how keep them out of your chain. Rain calls for a rain
cape, though a large plastic garbage bag may suffice
things work, you can save money and time by doing
in a pinch.
much of your own maintenance. The following tools
are recommended: tire patch kit. tire irons, adjust-
able wrench or set of crescent wrenches <best>, third
hand (for brakes*, screwdriver, tire gauge, silicone
lubricant, tire pump. Several of the listed bike books RULES OF THE ROAD AND SAFETY
provide a complete section on bike repairs and CONSIDERATIONS
should be consulted.
A bicycle is not a toy but a means of transportation.
Bicycle drivers are subject to the same traffic laws as
Practice Suggestions automobile drivers. In most bicycle-automobile acci-
dents, it is the bicyclist who is at fault. Riding on the
1. Use wrench to check and tighten any loose bolts.
road requires maturity, knowledge, and ability to
2. Lubricate cables and inside cable housing with
follow rules of the road. The police issue traffic
spray silicone lubricant. Spray and wipe chain to
tickets to careless cyclists. Rules for safe cycling in-
clean. Spray pivot points of levers and calipers,
clude:
but do not spray bike rims.
3. Use tire pressure gauge to check tire pressure. 1 . Wear an ANSI or Snell approved bicycle helmet
Find recommended pressure on tire sidewall and and brightly colored clothing for maximum visi-
inflate carefully to correct pressure. bility in traffic.
 2. Obey regulations, stop signs, stop sig-
all traffic
nals, one-way and traffic control signs.
streets,
3. Keep to the right side of the road, drive with the
traffic in a straight line, and ride single file.
4. Never hitch a ride on other vehicles or carry
other riders or packages which obstruct vision or
interfere with proper control of the bicycle.
5. Always use proper hand signals to indicate turn-
ing or stopping.
6. Avoid cycling at night, but if you must do so,
wear light or reflective clothing and use lights
and reflectors on your bike.
7. Watch for doors opening from parked cars, for
drain grates, wet leaves, potholes, stones, glass
or other obstacles on the road, and for pedes-
trians. Cross railroad tracks at a 90 degree angle
to avoid catching the wheel in the tracks. FIGURE 7-3 Front rider signals road hazard.

8. Be sure your brakes are operating efficiently

and keep your bicycle in perfect mechanical con-
dition.
9. In rainy weather, caliper brakes lose up to 90
percent of their stopping power. Allow extra
stopping distance and don't take corners too fast.
Pump the brakes occasionally to wipe water off
the wheel rims.
10. Keep alert. Look out for cars pulling out into
traffic or turning. Listen for traffic approaching
out of your line of vision. Anticipate traffic con-
ditions rather than simply reacting to them.

Road Signs. The cyclist should be familiar

with traffic signs and markings, which may be found
in a driver's manual. Refer to the driver's manual for
rules regarding cycling specific to your state.
Dogs running loose are potential hazards. If you
see a dog at a distance, you can probably outrun it. If
threatened, you might scare him off with water from
your bottle, or stop, keeping the bike between you
and the dog, and walk away slowly. Most dogs will
leave you alone if ignored. Under no circumstances FIGURE 7-4 Hand signal— left turn.

should you kick the dog.

FIGURE 7-5 Hand signal — stop or slow down.
Group Riding
When riding as part of a group, the front rider
should calland signal (point to) road hazards such as
holes, loose gravel, bumps, etc. (Figure 7-3). The rear
rider can call "car back" to alert the group when an
overtaking car is approaching. Although experi-
enced riders may draft off each other to cut wind re-
sistance, novice riders should avoid overlapping
wheels, because a sudden unexpected swerve could
cause both to crash.

Hand Signals. Always use hand signals when

turning or stopping to alert other drivers to your in-
tentions and to allow them time to react appropri-
ately. Automobile drivers can anticipate moves and
give a cyclist more respect and maneuvering room
702 CYCLING
when they use hand signals than when they simply
stop without warning or suddenly cut across traffic.
Practice Suggestions
1. a. Ride a mapped route. Practice braking, and
signaling before every intersection or stop-
light.
b. Stop or slow. Downshift into a lower gear,
signal with the left hand, then squeeze the
brakes.
c. Turns. Downshift and slow down before turn-
ing. Keep the right hand on or near the brake
at all times, make sure traffic is clear both
ways, signal the appropriate turn with the
left hand, then proceed when safe. Do not
brake while turning.
2. Ride route in groups of three to six. Have front
rider call road hazards and rear rider call ap-
proaching traffic. Switch group positions at in-
tervals so each person rides front and rear.
Discuss different road hazards encountered.
3. Before riding route on which dog may be en-
countered, discuss strategies for dealing with
dogs.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
A basic learning progression for the beginning cy-
clist is listed below.
1. Bike safety inspection (complete checklist)
2. Rules of the road (signaling, group riding)
3. General practice skills for bicycling
4. Physical fitness
5. Parts of the bicycle and terminology
6. Preventive maintenance and adjustment
7. Bicycle selection
8. Bicycle clothing and accessories
9. Clubs, organizations, racing, touring, bikeways,
etc.
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
Mounting and Dismounting
When
mounting, straddle the frame, place one
foot on the pedal, raise the pedal to a high position,
then push off and sit down on the saddle. You may
dismount from a stationary or moving bike. For a
stationary dismount, coast and brake with one pedal
high and one low. Stop, step down first with the
higher foot. When both feet are on the ground, swing
one leg over the top bar. For a moving dismount,
coast with one pedal low, bring the other foot over
the frame and downward as you leave the saddle,
then apply the brakes and touch the ground.
Mounting and Dismounting with Toe Clips
After mastering mounting and dismounting, if
you wish with toe clips, you will want to prac-
to ride
tice getting your feet into and out of them. Toe clips
keep the ball of the foot firmly centered over the
pedal. They may seem more trouble than they're
worth at first, but most people who make an effort to
use them feel they are indispensable.
Mounting. Practice in an open area where you
are not likely to run into anything. You may first
wish to use just the clip without the strap. Straddle
the frame, place one toe in the clip, push off, and get
going a few strokes, then use your undipped toe to
flip the pedal so you can slip your toe into the clip.
While you are doing this you must steer the bike
straight.
Dismounting. Use just the clips or keep
straps loose. Stop and slide the foot on the higher
pedal backwards, not sideways out of the clip. Prac-
tice stopping quickly and taking the feet out of the
clips without looking at the pedals.
Control and Balance
Cycling on the road requires straight-line riding,
ability tomaneuver quickly around obstacles, ability
to stop quickly without skidding or being tossed over
the handlebars, and ability to glance back at traffic
without losing balance. To set up a practice course,
locate an empty parking lot or other flat surface, and
use chalk and sponges or empty milk cartons to
mark lanes.
Practice Suggestions
1. Balance. Pedal 50 feet very slowly within a two-
foot wide boundary taking as much time as you
can with feet remaining on the pedals and mov-
ing only in a forward direction.
2. Speed and Coordination. Begin 30 feet before the
starting line and pedal quickly through a course
that is eight feet wide but gradually narrows to
two feet during the 50-foot run.
3. Steering. Place sponges 10 feet apart on each
side of a 50-foot line. Weave in and out of the line
of sponges with both front and rear wheels with-
out knocking them over. Experienced cyclists
steer by leaning the body as well as turning the
handlebars.
4. Left and Right Spiral. Follow a spiral to the
center without touching any lines on the two-
foot-wide course. This tests left and right turn-
ing skill and balance.
5. Emergency Braking. Caliper brakes are so pow-
erful that they can throw you over the front han-
dlebars if applied forcefully. To brake safely,
keep your weight far back in the saddle while
 CYCLING 103

applying both brakes simultaneously, just below Practice Suggestions

the point where they skid. Pedal at average
speed toward a goal and stop the bicycle 10 feet 1.
short of a marked line without skidding.
6. Evasion. Set up 12 sponges in a pattern as
Gearing. To practice shifting gears:
a. On a straight road with little traffic, main-
tain normal pedalling cadence about 65 rpm
I
i

follows: but ease up on the pedal pressure.

b. Without taking your eyes off the road, move a
shift lever slightly forward or back. You will
o o o o hear a brief rattle, then a click as the chain
^^^o^-^o o moves to another sprocket. If the rattling con-
tinues, the chain is between gears. Adjust the
Start O O O O Finish
lever until there is no noise from the chain.
c. Shift through several gears using first the
left, then the right shift levers, until you can
Place one sponge, then four feet later two
shift into a higher or lower gear by feel.
sponges one foot apart. Ride around the single
d. To achieve the lowest gear, the chain must be
sponge, then between the pairs of sponges. A
skilled cyclist should be able to quickly skirt an
on the innermost chainwheels (small front
obstacle, yet remain on course.
and large rear). In the highest gear, the chain
will be on the outermost chainwheels Targe
7. Checking Traffic. Signaling turns requires that
front and small rear*. Avoid using the large
the rider first glance back at traffic without
front-large rear or small front-small rear
steering off course or losing balance. Ride a
chainwheel combinations. These force the
straight line in a chalked-offlane, and on signal.
chain to cross at the most extreme angle, pro-
look back over the left shoulder and tell your
ducing excessive wear and tear on the chain.
partner how many fingers he or she is holding
2. Cadence. While cycling at a steady cadence, time
up.
and count your pedal strokes for one minute.
8. Signaling and Turning. Quickly glance back
over the left shoulder to check traffic without
How does your cadence compare to the sug-
gested cadence?
wobbling; downshift; demonstrate proper sig-
3. Hill Climbing. Ride a course which includes one
nals for turns in both directions or stopping;
or more hills. As you approach each hill, keep
then execute the maneuver.
well to the right. Try to downshift early enough
so that you maintain an even cadence as you
Gearing and Cadence climb the hill and keep your hands on top of the
brake hoods. You can lean forward and either
When you can skillfully mount and dismount.
pull on the handlebars with each push of the
start and stop, ride a straight line and make turns,
pedals or practice standing up on the pedals for
you are ready use the gears. The purpose of gear-
to
ing is to be able to maintain a steady pedalling
maximum power. As you pick up speed on the
downhill side, get down low and keep your
cadence, regardless of terrain, wind, or weather
weight well back in the saddle. Pump the brakes
conditions.
on-off to control speed.
There are several gearing errors commonly
4. Ankling. Ankling involves applying equal force
made by beginners. Many people gear too high and
with the foot pushing and pulling throughout
pedal too slowly. They don't feel like they're doing
the pedalling cycle. Adding toe clips and straps
any work unless they're pushing against resistance.
enables you to pull on the upstroke as well as
This is inefficient and can produce sore knees. It is
push on the downstroke. doubling pedalling effi-
better to pedal quickly against less resistance in
ciency.
lower gears. While beginners may pedal at a cadence
of 60-70 rpm, experienced tourists often maintain Practice Suggestion
cadences of 90-100 rpm.
Second, in climbing a hill, beginners often wait During part of a ride, concentrate on ankling
to shift until they're halfway up the hill and pedal- technique.
ling cadence has slowed. To maintain your cadence,
downshift in advance of need.
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
Finally, beginners seldom downshift when ap-
proaching stop signs or stop lights. They end up hav-
Orthopedically Impaired
ing to stand up on the pedals to get going again.
While it takes practice to coordinate the downshift, 1. Allow the wheelchair user to propel his or her
signal, and braking, it is more efficient and kinder to wheelchair with the hands.
the knees to pull away from an intersection in a low 2. Commercial armcrank and rowcycles are avail-
gear, upshifting as speed increases. able for persons with lower extremity injuries.
704 CYCLING

3. Use adult tricycles for balance deficiencies. TERMINOLOGY

4. Depending on age groups, use scooter boards
with arm propulsion in the gymnasium. Ankling Pedaling technique in which the foot applies
5. Use of stationary cycles is advised for balance equal force on both the upstroke and downstroke.
deficiencies. Bikeway Paths or roads designated as bicycle routes.
Cadence Pedaling at a constant pace; around 65-85
Mentally Impaired
pedal revolutions per minute (RPM) for beginners,
1. Very modifications are needed.
little Use of peer around 95-100 for tourists, and 120 and up for racers.
teachers is advised. Caliper brakes Hand brakes.
2. Use adult tricycles for balance. Clincher Common tire and tube combination rim.
Coaster brakes Foot-activated internal hub rear brakes.
Sensory Impaired
Derailleur Device which moves the chain from one gear to
1. Use of tandem cycles is advised for blind or another.
visually impaired. Down tube Part of frame extending from the steering
2. Use of stationary cycles is advised for balance head to the bottom bracket.
deficiencies. Head tube Tube holding front fork assembly.
Saddle Seat.
Seat tube Part of frame extending from the bottom
bracket to the seat.
CYCLING FOR PHYSICAL FITNESS
Toe clips Metal cages or straps which hold the foot on the
pedal.
Bicycling offers all the benefits of any cardiorespira-
Top tube Part of frame extending horizontally from the
tory activity, plus it is non-impact. However, the
head tube to the seat tube.
bicycle is so efficient, that cycling short distances
Tubular tire (Sew up) Tire glued to rim of bike.
won't get you in shape. You'll have to put in some ef-
Wheel Includes the hub, rim, spokes, and tire.
fort and sustain a training heart rate of 150-160
beats per minute (age 20 and under) if you want to
improve your aerobic capacity. The sample workouts SELECTED REFERENCES
below are a good way to begin.
Ballantine, R. Richard's New Bicycle Book. Rev. ed. New
Sample Workout Program York: Ballantine Books, Div. of Random House, 1987.
Bicycling Magazine Staff, ed., Bicycling's Complete Guide
Directions: Ride the recommended number
of days
to Bicycle Maintenance and Repair. Emmaus, PA: Rodale
and time at your training heart rate; rest one day be-
Press, Inc., 1986.
tween rides.
, Bicycle Touring. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, Inc.,
1985.
Weeks Beginning
, Training for Endurance. Emmaus, PA: Rodale
1. Ride 3 days X 15 minutes Press, Inc., 1989.

2. Ride 3 days X 20 minutes Burke, E.R. Science of Cycling. Champaign, IL.: Leisure

3. Ride 3 days X 25 minutes Press, Div. of Hutman Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1986.
4. Ride 3 days X 30 minutes Cuthbertson, T Anybody's Bike Book. Berkeley, CA.: Ten
5. Ride 3 days X 35 minutes Speed Press, 1988.
Howard, J., et al. Cyclists Companion. Bergenfield, NJ.:
Intermediate
Greene, Div. of Penguin USA, 1987.
Hughes, T The Cycle Tourer's Handbook. N. Pomfret, VT.:
6. Ride 4 days X 30 minutes David & Charles Inc., 1988.
7. Ride 4 days X 35 minutes LeMond, Greg. Greg LeMond's Pocket Guide to Bicycle
8. Ride 4 days X 40 minutes Maintenance and Repair. New York: Perigee Books, Put-
9. Ride 4 days X 45 minutes nam Pub. Group, 1988.
Sloane,EA. The Complete Book of Bicycling. St. Louis,
Maintenance MO.: Fireside Books, Div. of Warren H. Greene, Inc.,
1988.
10. Ride 3-5 days X 40-60 minutes
Sloane, EA. Shane's Handy Pocket Guide to Bicycle Re-
pair. St. Louis, MO.: Fireside Books, Div. of Warren H.
Physical Fitness Evaluation. Take a five-mile time Greene, Inc., 1988.
trial and record your time. After 8 to 12 weeks repeat Snowling, S. and Evans, K. Bicycle Mechanics. Cham-
the ride and see how your time compares with the paign, IL.: Leisure Press, Div. of Human Kinetics Pub-
first trial. lishers, Inc., 1990.
The route, weather conditions, time of day, and Van der Plas, R. Bicycle Fitness Book: Riding Your Bike for
type of clothing worn should be similar on both rides Health & Fitness. Mill Valley, CA.: Bicycle Books, Inc.,
in order to make a valid comparison. 1989.
 CYCLING 105

Periodicals Pyramid Film and Video. 2801 Colorado Ave., Santa Mon-
ica, CA 90404. Telephone 213-828-7577. Everything
Bicycle Guide. 9/yr. Raber Publishing, Boston, MA 02116. About Bicycles. 15 min.
Bicycle Guide's Complete Cycling Fitness. Raber Publish-
ing, Boston, MA
02116. (All fitness levels.)
Organizations and Clubs
Bicycle USA. 9/yr. League of American Wheelman, 6707
Whitestone Rd., Ste. 209, Baltimore, MD 21207. (Gen- American Bicycle Association. P.O. Box 718, Chandler, AZ
eral, beginning to advanced.) 85244. (Off-road bicycle racing.)
Bicycling. 10/yr. Rodale Press, Inc. 33 E. Minor St.,
American Cycling Union. C/o Estelle G. Black, P.O. Box
Emmaus, PA 18049. (General, beginning.) 6099, Newark, NJ 07106. (Cycling for recreation and
competition.)
Audio- Visual Materials America's Freedom Ride. C/o Vineberg Communications,
61-20 Grand Central Pkwy., B-800, Forest Hills, NY
AIMS Media. 6901 Woodley Ave., Van Nuys, CA 91406.
11375. (Bicycle tours.)
Telephone 1-800-367-2467. Bicycle Driving Tactics. 14
min. Bicycling for Physical Fitness, Health & Recreation. Bicycle Federation of America. 1818 R St., N.W., Washing-
14 min. Bikes Are Back. 9 min. Bicycle Basics. 10 min. ton, DC20009. (Promotes bicycle transportation, recre-
ation, and programs.)
Get to Know Your Ten Speed. 19 min.
Beacon Films. An Hschul Group Company, 930 Pinter
Bicycle Network. P.O. Box 8194, Philadelphia, PA 19101.
Ave., Evanston, IL 60202. Telephone 1-800-323-5448. (Advocates bicycle transportation.)
Bike Style. Bicycle Transportation Action. 308 E. 79th St., NY, NY
Centron Education Films, Supplementary Education 10021. (Promotes bicycles as transportation.)
Group, Simon & Schuster, 108 Wilmot Rd., Deerfield, IL Bikecentennial: The Bicycle Travel Association. P.O. Box
60015. Telephone 1-800-323-5343. Safe Bicycling in 8308, Missoula, MT59807. (Researches and maps bicy-
Traffic. 1981. 19 min. cle touring routes.)

Do-It- Yourself, Inc. 5250 77 Center Dr. Suite 340, Char- International Bicycle Touring Society. P.O. Box 6979, San
—
,

lotte, NC 28210. Anybody's Bike Video Bicycle Repair,
Vol. 1. 40 min. Bike Tripping. 40 min.
Iowa State University. 121 Pearson Hall, Media Resources
Center, Ames, IA, 50011. Bicycling Safely on the Road.
25 min.
National Safety Council. 425 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago,
IL 60611. Bike Safety: Making the Right Moves. 15 min.
Diego, CA 92106. (Bicycle tours.)
League of American Wheelmen. 67 Whitestone Rd., Suite
209, Baltimore, MD 21207. (Bicyclists and clubs.)
National Bicycle League. P.O. Box 729, Dublin, OH 43017.
(BMX racing.)
National Off-Road Bicycle Association, P.O. Box 1901,
Chandler, AZ 85244. (Promotes off-road bicycling.)
 DANCE
Folk Dance
Modern Dance
Social Dance
Square Dance
NATURE AND PURPOSE
Dance can be defined as any patterned, rhythmic
movement of the human body in space and time as a
means of expression.
Since prehistoric times, humans have always
had the desire to dance. Today that desire is still
with us: people dance 1 for self-expressive pur-
( )
poses; (2) for religious, ritualistic, or ceremonial pur-
poses; and (3) to entertain or please others. Dance
will never die because it is constantly being reborn
through different dancers, different environments,
and different cultures.
Unlike other art forms, the art of dance is the
only art form whose sole necessary tool is the human
body. As with other structured or creative physical
activities, it is important not only to understand the
objectives and basic patterns of dance, but to practice
the skills necessary to achieve a level of proficiency
in this highly-expressive art form.
This chapter will look at four forms of dance
commonly taught in educational institutions: folk
dance, modern dance, social dance, and square
dance. Other popular dance forms such as ballet,
tap, and jazz dance are not included because of space
limitations.
MOVEMENTS COMMON TO ALL DANCES
All forms of dance involve movement. Although
dance movement may at times be confined only to
the body (nonlocomotor or axial movement), more
commonly it requires the use of various forms of lo-
comotion in which the body weight is transferred to
the feet or from one foot to the other. All forms of lo-
comotion can be reduced to five fundamental steps:
walk, run, leap, jump, and hop. Any other type of lo-
706
comotor activity is a combination of these basic
steps. Closely related to the five fundamental steps
are the skip, slide, and gallop, and often reference is
made to the eight fundamental means of locomotion.
Walk. The weight is transferred from one foot
to the other, alternately, one foot always being in
contact with the ground. The usual foot action is a
transfer of weight from the heel to the ball of one
foot, during which time the other leg is pushing off,
then swinging through to assume its position in the
sequence of action.
Run. The speed of the walk is increased, and
there is a brief period when neither foot is in contact
with the ground. A run is usually a quicker progres-
sion than a walk.
Leap. A leap is a spring into the air by means
of a strong push-off from one foot, returning to the
ground or the opposite foot. The leap differs from the
run in that more energy is needed, and there is a
longer period between transfer of weight due to a
longer period of suspension in the air. The leap may
be done either for height or for distance.
Jump. The body springs into the air by a two
foot take-off, landing on two feet. Other types of
jumps that you might see include: (Da single foot
take-off, landing on two feet, and (2) a two foot take-
off landing on one foot. A jump may be made for ei-
ther height or distance.
Hop. A hop is a spring into the air by means of
a strong push-off from one foot, returning to the
group on the same foot.
Graphic Representation. A walk, leap,
jump, and hop are all done to an even beat, some-
times designated as long, and represented graphical
as
 FOLK DANCE 107

etc. A run can take just as much time, but is usually Slide. The weight is transferred from one foot
twice as fast and represented as to the other by means of a step on one foot followed
by a quick drawing up of the other foot with an im-
mediate transfer of weight to it resulting in a side-
ward movement.
In relation to the long beat, it is shown Gallop. A gallop is similar to a slide, except
the gallop moves forward, and the foot executing the
leap is brought up to but not beyond the foot that has
completed the step. The leap, a forward movement,
is done with slight height; distance is not a factor.
etc.Should the pattern become uneven (long-short),
each of the three remaining related forms of locomo-
tion would fit into this rhythm: skip, slide, gallop.
The graphic representation would be
FOLK DANCE

which total time is equivalent to one beat, thus

A BRIEF HISTORY

They are of all ages, from all societal levels, and have
vastly different backgrounds, yet individuals gather
Skip. A combination of a step and a hop, done to participate in the shared activity of folk dance.
to an uneven beat inwhich the step is given the long Since the early 1940's in the United States, there
time- value ( ) and the hop the short value (
— ): has been increased interest and participation in in-
ternational folk dance. This activity has become a
step hop step hop step hop step hop common element in education, recreation groups,
dance clubs, and senior citizen programs.
Folk dances are sequences of movements, forma-
tions, and rhythmic patterns which have been cre-
Note:Were each part given equal time- value, a step-
ated by people of different cultures. Although many
hop would result instead of a skip:
of these international dances have the same steps
and movement patterns, the stylization and the pur-
poses for these particular dances are what adds to
hop hop
step step
the rich cultural expression of each dance. Most
dances are performed solely for recreational pur-
In performing the skip, there is a feeling of elevation poses; however, some international folk dances are
resulting from the natural tendency to swing the performed for ritualistic ceremonies or for celebrat-
free leg forward and upward. ing special occasions (Figure 8-1).

FIGURE 8-1 International folk dancers enjoy the exhilaration of this rhythmic group activity.
108 DANCE

SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE Mazurka. This step is commonly executed di-

agonally forward and requires three even, long
The following progression is recommended for begin- counts to be performed once. A gliding step is taken
ners. Each step will be fully described below. with the left foot to the front diagonal on count one, a
closing step is taken with the right foot to the right,
1. TVo-Step
2. Schottische
and a hop is taken with the right foot on count three.
At the time of the hop, the left leg swings out, then
3. Polka
the left knee immediately bends so that the foot
4. Mazurka
comes close to the right shinbone. The left foot is
5. Waltz Box
then lowered to prepare for the next mazurka step.
This is a strong, vigorous step, done continuously to
Basic Folk Dance Steps the same diagonal unless a variation is introduced.

The following abbreviations and terms (also 1 2 3

used in social dance) will be used in describing the Step FDL Close R HopR
basic folk dance steps:
Waltz Box. This step is a six-count pattern
Fwd = Forward consisting of step, step, close, step, step, close. It
Back = Backward must be remembered that the weight is evenly
Q = Quick transferred from one foot to the other. Thus, step for-
S = Slow ward with the left foot, step side with the right foot,
L = Left closing step left to right, step backward with the
R = Right right foot, step side with the left foot, and closing
FD = Forward Diagonal -top right to left.

The term "close" is commonly used

and spiral in folk 1 2 3
dance to mean that the free foot is moved toward the Step Forward L Step Side R Close L
supporting foot. The free foot then becomes the sup-
6
porting foot, and the supporting foot is now free to
Step Backward R Step Side L Close R
move.
Combinations of the above noted basic folk dance
steps are then used to perform specific international
Learning Cues folk dances. Stylization, formations, and music allow
these basic steps to become more exciting to perform
Two-Step. Three steps are taken in the
rhythm quick, quick, slow, using four counts. Thus, and to watch.

step left, closing step right to left, step left, and hold.
Practice Suggestions
The pattern may be repeated starting with the right
foot. 1. The primary concern of the teacher should be
the selection of dances which are suited to the
1 2 3 4
level of ability of the dancers. While there are
Step QL Close QR Step SL Hold
many values of international folk dancing, it
Schottische. This four-count pattern is most should also be a joyous activity. There is no bet-
frequently done by taking three small steps followed ter way to discourage students and to create dis-
by a hop, each using one count. It is an easy, smooth like for the activity than to attempt to teach
pattern that is sometimes done with small runs in- beginners a long, complicated dance.
stead of steps. 2. Before teaching a new dance, the teacher should
review the basic step or steps that are involved.
1 2 3 4
Basic steps may be practiced in an open, a single
Step L Step R Step L HopL
or double circle, moving counterclockwise, which
Polka. Two long-short intervals based upon is the most common line of direction in interna-
two counts make up the timing for one polka step. tional folk dances.
Depending on which part of this step one selects as a 3. The teacher should be thoroughly familiar with
starting point, a polka becomes either a) a hop-step- ( the dance and the music before attempting to
close-step or (b) a step-close-step-hop. The polka that present the material. A short background intro-
is performed most is the (a) type. duction to the dance may be given, which should
include the dance's native country, but students
(a) & 1 & 2
should get into the activity as soon as possible.
HopL Step R Close L StepR
The teacher should then demonstrate the com-
(b) & 3 & 4 plete dance to music.
HopR Step L Close R Step L 4. In the starting formation, the teacher can break
 —

MODERN DANCE 109

down the parts of the dance into small units

while verbalizing with one descriptive word for
each action. If necessary, this may be done some-
what slower, speeding up until the skill approxi-
mates the rhythm of the dance. In beginning any
dance part, the teacher might give a two-word
signal such as "Ready, and ." to alert.dancers
.

and allow for reaction time. When combining a

part, the teacher may cue the dancers as to what
will be next. Upon completion of the dance, cor-
rections in skill, techniques, or stylization may
be given to the entire group. When the dance is
repeated, any errors may be corrected individu-
ally.

Suggested Folk Dances for Beginners

Dance Basic Step

Alunelul Walk
Black Forest Mazurka Mazurka FIGURE 8-2 Dancers using the whole body as an instrument for
Doublebska Polka Polka expression.
Hora Walk
Jugo Schottische
Kalvelis Polka principles. Today, modern dance encompasses an
Korobushka Schottische even broader spectrum of techniques and thematic
Laz Bar Two-Step concepts which continually reflect the social and po-
Little Man in a Fix Waltz Box
litical issues and technical aspects of our time.
Miserlou Two-Step
Polka zu Dreien Polka
Many colleges and universities now offer under-
Salty Dog Rag graduate majors and minors in modern dance, and
Schottische
some offer advanced degrees. For many students
who are not looking to dance as a professional career,
this dance form offers an opportunity to develop a
strong, supple, well-coordinated body, and to use the
MODERN DANCE whole body as an instrument of expression (Figure
8-2). In this section, the beginner will obtain some
basic understanding of the elements of modern
dance, and practical suggestions for technique, im-
BRIEF HISTORY
provisation,and choreography.
Unlike three types of dance discussed in this
chapter, modern dance isconsidered to be an art
form on a par with painting, sculpture, music, and PRINCIPLES OF MOVEMENT
ballet. It began as an American art form around the
turn of the century when Isadora Duncan presented
Movement Determined by the Body Structure
modern dance to general audiences as an experimen- Students of dance must train their instrument
tal movement away from the restrictions of classical their body —
to be as fully responsive as possible to
ballet. Other dancers followed suit: Ruth St. Denis, the demands of beautiful, skilled movements. Flexi-
Ted Shawn, Mary Wigman, Doris Humphrey, bility,coordination, strength, control, and balance
Charles Weidman, Martha Graham, and Hanya are among the basic tools one should acquire in tech-
Holm. The last four people mentioned were labelled nique classes. These abilities also enable the dancer
the "four pioneers of modern dance" because during to perform special skills such as complex turns,
their studies at the Bennington College Summer spirals, and falls. The beginning dancer should be
School of Dance in the 1930's, each of them discov- guided in the correct alignment of the body to enable
ered their own unique approaches to modern dance freedom and clarity of movement. Each bony portion
technique and choreography which are still used and of the body should be lined up directly over or under
performed in educational institutions and on the another. The head is held level and tall above re-
stage. laxed (not collapsed) shoulders, under which is a
There are numerous modern dancers and chore- very high (not forward) chest, narrow waist, and
ographers who followed and each made individual pulled-up abdomen. The hips are aligned directly
statements through technique and choreographic under the chest, not pushed forward or backward.
110 DANCE

The legs are pulled up straight, not locked or hyper- Rhythm. The rhythmic structure organizes
extended. The body weight is held up from the center the movement into repeatable units of time. Rhythm
of each relaxed foot. The posterior and anterior torso is composed essentially of both force and time fac-
should be high and strong enough to allow the ex- tors. Dynamics
is a frequently preferred term for de-
tremities to remain relaxed and free to move. Noth- scribing the relationship between force and time.
ing should be "gripping." Poor posture or alignment Rhythmic factors include:
not only hampers technical facility, but can ulti-
mately lead to sprains and dislocations or can aggra- 1. Tempo — variation from fast to slow.
vate other injuries.
2. Underlying beat — the steady pulse inherent in a
particular movement phase. Three ways to ar-
The beginner should be encouraged to use the
rive at a basic beat are through:
body as freely and fully as possible. This develops an
a. Metric or movement counts determined by
appreciation of movement and a realization of actu-
the accompaniment.
ally dancing. Later, as the body becomes more finely
"tuned," the dancer is trained to control specific
b. Breath rhythm determined by the intervals
parts of the body for subtler, more refined expres-
of inhalation —
exhalation and carried like a
pulse through the body.
sion. The modern dancer has many ways to portray
the emotional and psychological content of a per-
c. Emotional rhythm determined by the inner
motivation of the dancer and the expressive
formance, and searches for ways to move to modern,
content of the work.
dissonant, and rhythmically complex music and
sounds. An acute kinesthetic sense must develop in
3. Phrase —sequence of long and short beats with a
feeling of unity, an idea suggested but not com-
the dancer so that the sensation of movement, the
visual shape, becomes the guidepost. Depth, quality,
plete in itself, though having its own beginning
and dynamic line followedby a pause before a
and dynamics of the sensation are conveyed by the
dancer for the observer, creating an enriching expe-
new phrase begins.

rience shared by both. Beside such training, the

4. Accent — emphasisgiven in movement, sound,
dancer should clearly comprehend the number of
force, space,tempo in the beat. Silence, or ar-
rested movement, can be as much an accent as a
ways a human being can move. These may be catego-
loud sound or abrupt movement.
rized as a nonlocomotor (or axial) movements and lo-
comotor movements.
5. —
Syncopation an unexpected or displaced ac-
cent in the general pattern. This engenders sur-
Nonlocomotor (or axial) movements occur in
prise and excitement as heard in jazz or felt in
space but do not transport the body from place to
clapping two beats while walking three in the
place. They generally include:
same given time.
1. Flexion —
bending walk
2. —
Extension raising or stretching
3. Rotation —twisting clap
4. —
Adduction moving a body segment toward the time length
central axis of the body
5. —
Abduction moving a body segment away from Force. Force conveys the quality, texture, or
the central axis of the body kinesthetic and emotional energy underlying a
6. —
Circumduction circling the entire torso or any dance. Energy or force is that factor which enables
body part one to feel the qualitative differences. Muscles and
7. A combination of the above joints are capable of moving with varying degrees
and combinations of forces; each is as different as the
Locomotor movements (as described at the be-
texture of velvet is from silk or tweed. These forces
ginning of this chapter) involve moving with the feet
from one place to another space. Again, they are
may be generally expressed as:
walk, run, leap, jump and hop, along with skip, slide, 1. Sustained — an evenly timed,
controlled flow of
and gallop. energy. The muscles resist gravity in varying
degrees from very, very strong to light and airy.
There is an equalization of muscle tension, as in
Movement Determined by the Environment
movements requiring careful balance or slow
and the Demands of Dance
motion.
There are a number of elements of movement 2. Swing — an alternate swaying, suspended, to-
that can be analyzed. We move within a specific and-fro use of energy. There is a passive acceler-
rhythmic structure, and with a variety of muscular ation as the dancer gives in to gravity and a
forces, all having relationship to physical forces such more active retardation and suspension as the
as gravity, acceleration, and momentum. We move in dancer completes the arc of the swing. The swing
space making designs, and through space by means has a characteristic beat of three for each phase.
of locomotor patterns. 3. Ballistic —a piston-like thrusting use of energy.

The dancer attacks out against gravity and re-
covers with an equal action before momentum is
overcome. There is a gradual dying down of the
movement between the two attacks. Such move-
ments usually have an underlying beat of two
and need far more energy than does the relaxed
swing. A series of vigorous jumps and leaps
would require ballistic force.
4. Percussive —a sharp, explosive use of energy.
The muscles fixate against gravity as the move-
ment comes to an abrupt halt, rather than "fol-
lowing through." The halt usually occurs in one
beat, though the preceding and following move-
ments may be in any other quality and time.
Percussive moments are the strongest peaks of a
movement. Much of the excitement felt in
watching jazz dance is due to a continual use of
percussive energy.
5. —
Vibratory a continuous back-and-forth use of
energy. Short, percussive movements done very
rapidly produce this effect but are difficult to
prolong because of the high tension and control
required to keep them even.
6. —
Collapsing a letting go of muscular energy.
The dancer's body (or a part of it) gives in to the
force of gravity. To recover from a collapse re-
quires any other use of energy called for to con-
vey the idea in mind. A true collapse occurs in
one time interval, a long or short beat.
Space. This special element limits and defines
the movement through the factors of:
1. Direction
a. Line of motion —
forward, backward, side-
ward, diagonal, turning, circular.
b. Focus — use of eyes or a body part, such as a
leg, to emphasize a point of attention.
2. Range
a. Distance covered —
by locomotion.
b. Degree and number of joint actions in axial —
movement, from narrow to broad. For exam-
ple, a greeting by a slight nod or a deep,
sweeping bow.
3. —
Levels low through high.
4. Body facing — front, diagonal, back, up,
side,
down — in relation to the location of the front
all
of the given work space.
Practice Suggestions
Dance classes are conducted in various manners,
but they all consist of the same basic elements.
There is a time for warm-up, locomotor and nonloco-
motor (axial) combinations, creative endeavors, and
concluding activities. The student learns how the el-
ements of rhythm, (time) force, and space can be
used in dance during these class experiments.
Warm-up. The warm-up often consists of easy
stretches and large muscle movements through their
MODERN DANCE 111
full range of motion, then progresses to the smaller,
more specific muscle groups. Warming up at the be-
ginning of the class allows the body temperature to
rise and can help to protect the body from injury.
Stretching within the warm-up helps the dancer
gain flexibility, control and balance in movement,
and also places emphasis on correct body alignment
necessary to execute the movement.
It is important to execute the warm-up exercises
in a dance-like manner so that the students realize
the relationship between the warm-up and actual
dancing. Warm-ups vary in intensity and accelera-
tion but have a common factor of being in motion,
always attempting to increase the range of motion.
Locomotor Movement. Locomotor move-
ments enable the student to discover space. The use
of change in direction, level, and focus for basic
movements creates an awareness of the emotional
expressions possible and of the dimensions of move-
ments to fill the shape of the space. Locomotor and
nonlocomotor (axial) movements are combined to de-
velop the balance and control stressed in the warm-
up. These movement phrases aid in exploring
movement combinations which can create possible
sections of dance compositions.
The beginning dance student finds satisfaction
in completing movement sequences using familiar
and unfamiliar material. Combining walks, runs,
falls, rolls, and pauses allows the student to experi-
ment with the changes in force and rhythm, and to
become comfortable with the floor through contact
with all parts of the body and not just the feet. This
often represses the fear of injury many beginners
have when working on a base floor and also
broadens their experience in movement. The begin-
ner must be guided in creative activities through a
series of movement problems ranging from the sim-
ple to the complex.
Improvisation. Improvisation can be an ex-
citing creative experience for dance students because
it allows them to spontaneously express their inner
feelings, in their own style, through movement.
Therefore, it is essential to create a comfortable at-
mosphere of freedom for exploration to take place.
The dancer should be familiar with all areas of the
space and be aware of the other persons in the space.
Improvisation may take place employing a large
group of dancers or an individual. One example of
developing a series of movement explorations is by
working with a circle and the parts of a circle. Circu-
lar floor patterns, large and small, may be shown by
using basic locomotor movements such as walks,
runs, or leaps. The full circles patterns then can be
changed to half- circles with full circles, sometimes
developing into spirals. This same series may be exe-
cuted by isolating different parts of the body from
rounded shapes into angles and including different
levels or directions (Figure 8-3).
112 DANCE
FIGURE 8-3 Dancers exploring angular shapes.
Improvisation may be an end in itself or a tool
for developing choreography. It is important during
improvisation that the student learn to make deci-
sions in movement sequences, to recreate patterns
explored, and to develop new technique and styles
through the use of rhythms (time), space, and force.
Conclusion. The concluding activity of a class
session varies with the material presented. It may
include stretches to relax and cool down the body or a
presentation of movement sequences developed dur-
ing the time period. Students become aware of the
dramatic implications of movement through obser-
vation. Discussion concerning the sequences and
causes of the effectiveness increase awareness plus
appreciation in the student for other dances and
dancers.
Warm-Up and Stretching Techniques
Listed below are a few specific ideas for class
use.
A. Bend Series
1. Stand tall with the feet parallel and hip dis-
tance apart; arms rest comfortably on each
side of the body.
2. While breathing out, allow the head to easily
drop forward, resting the chin on the breast
bone.
3. Round the shoulders so that the spine curves
forward. Continue to allow the arms to hang
loosely from the shoulders. The body is still
vertically aligned from the waist down.
4. Bend the knees, keeping the heels on the
floor, and lower the entire body until the fin-
gertips touch the floor.
5. Unbend the knees, while the fingertips are
still touching the floor, by raising the hips
toward the ceiling. Be sure that the knees do
not lock or overextend.
6. Reverse this entire process until the body has
returned to its original erect position.
B. Foot Series
1. Stand
tall with the feet parallel and a few
inches apart; arms rest comfortably to the
side; legs are straight, but not locked.
2. Extend the right leg forward until only the
ball of the foot and toes touch the floor.
3. Push the toes to a point, stretching the top of
the foot.
4. Pull back onto the ball of the foot.
5. Bend both knees, placing the heels on the
floor and making sure that the weight is
evenly distributed on both feet. (The legs and
feet are in fourth position parallel plie using
ballet terminology.)
6. Extend both legs, making sure the knees are
not locked, and rise onto the balls of the
feet. (The legs are now in fourth position par-
allel releve, in ballet terminology.)
7. Plie again (in fourth position parallel).
8. Point the right foot, straightening both legs,
but not locking the knees.
9. Pull the right foot back into parallel position
keeping the legs straight.
10. Repeat on the left foot and execute as many
repetitions as desired.
Note: Cue words for this series are "ball of
:
the foot, point, ball of the foot, plie, releve,
plie, point, pull back."
C. Leg Swing Series
1. Stand tall on a slightly turned-out and
straight left leg, with the right leg extended
to the back.
2. Swing the right leg forward and backward
easily from the hip with a relaxed knee and
foot for 7 counts; then step forward onto a
straight and slightly turned-out right leg on
count 8. Left leg should now be extended to
the back.
3. Repeat the swing with the left leg.
4. This series can also be done with 3 counts of
swings and a step on count 4, or 1 swing for-
ward with a step on count 2.
5. The arms may be placed to the sides as an ex-
tension of the shoulders, or they may move in
opposition to the motion of the swinging leg.
These are examples of parts of a warm-up which
need to be combined with other techniques to pre-
pare the body for vigorous activity. It is essential to
sufficiently warm-up the feet and legs if leaps,
jumps, and hops are to be stressed during the class
session.A warm-up does not necessarily consist of
only axial movements. Locomotor combinations of
the walk using plies and releves, lunges and leg
swings also may be used. Variations on stretches
may be executed by working with a partner and
using specific parts of the body, such as the ribs,
hips, shoulders, or knees as the impulse for the
 MODERN DANCE 113

stretch. The partner acts as an opposing force and

also serves as protection against injury in case the
dancer who is stretching begins to topple over.

Locomotor Patterns
Listed below are a few examples of locomotor
patterns for class use.

A. Slide Series
1. Slide to the right and then the left in dimin-

ishing counts of 8-4-2-1.

2. Three slides, then half-turn on the fourth
slide.
3. Threeslides then a full turn jump on the
fourth slide.
B. Triplet Series
A triplet is three forward steps with an accent on
the first step, which is usually done in plie.
1. Triplets moving forward. FIGURE 8-4 Dancers use points of attachment to create an
2. Two triplets forward and a turning triplet. interesting design for composition.

3. Two triplets, a turning triplet, a reach in re-

leve to one side and a side fall in the opposite
direction.
son leads and the other person follows in a series
C. Hop Series
of simple, mirrored axial (nonlocomotor) move-
1. Three runs forward then hop.
ments. The follower must attempt to imitate ex-
2. Three runs then turn the hop.
actly the movements of the leader. After the
3. Two steps and a hop.
dancers have switched roles, the teacher may
4. Step, hop, step, leap.
then advise them to use levels and to begin incor-
Locomotor movements should include the use of porating locomotor movements into their mirror-
the arms in a variety of ways to complement and ing activity.
contrast the basic movements. Arms may move in
Ideas for creative activities evolve from numer-
opposition to each other, in parallel positions, in a
ous sources. The beginning dancer may wish to work
static pose, or only one arm moving at a time. The
with a basic movement such as the swing and dis-
beginning student often has difficulty coordinating
cover how the parts of the body swing, then combine
the arms with other dance movements; therefore,
these swings with changes in focus and level, then
simplicity in arm positions is essential until some
the changes in rhythm and then how the movement
mastery of the movement has been accomplished.
develops as a locomotor or axial action.
The challenge of different arm, leg, and torso move-
The images and impulses for the movement may
ments and their combinations stimulates the dance
be abstract or literal in nature. A prop such as a
student to strive for achievement and more complex-
rope, a cape, or a box may be used to stimulate activ-
ity of movement.
ity. Exploring movement using various points of at-
tachment with another person or persons can be
Creative Activities — Improvisation interesting and create awareness of dancing with
other dancers (Figure 8-4).
Listed below are a few suggestions for creative The problems presented to stimulate creativity
activities or improvisational exercise. must be clearly designed and have specific goals,
especially for the beginner. Improvisation and explo-
A. Individual dancers create an intricate floor pat-
ration of movement should develop an expansion of
tern to fit a designated space. This activity may
emotional expression as well as technical accom-
initially onlyuse a walking pattern, but could
plishment.
eventually develop a series of locomotor move-
ments and patterns.
B. Individual dancers explore the elements of
weight and weightlessness. For example, one ELEMENTS OF CHOREOGRAPHY
group of dancers could improvise pushing a
heavy boulder uphill, while another group impro- As in music, painting, and the other arts, dance
vises the weightlessness of blowing a feather or must have both subject and structure-content and
dancing on the moon. form. The subject may be something as concrete as a
C. Dancers pair off and face their partner. One per- story or character study (representative, denotative)
114 DANCE
or as abstract as an emotional or mood idea <mani-
festative, connotative). Movement itself is often used
as an initial stimulus to begin a dance; the gestures,
principles of movement, and kinesthetic experience
of the dancer will suggest further material. For ex-
ample, the performer may move forward three steps
with the arms raised, then discover that the arms
could be used by moving them in small areas. This
may then suggest a leg gesture of a similar style the
next time a forward movement is used; this could be
executed in five beats, then with stronger tension
and a different focus. Eventually, a whole phrase or
dance assumes shape.
Modern dancers have been experimenting with
many abstract ideas as subject matter. Among these,
a student may find interest in explorations of physi-
cal principles, such as the movement and structure
of the atom, and the effects of centrifugal force on the
body. Atonal and twelve-tone music, as well as
sounds from nature, cities, and electronic machines,
are other fields of interest. The use of objects such as
elastic ropes or chairs; innovations in costume de-
sign and material such as stretchable tent-shaped
dresses; and stage sets such as slanting boards or
scaffolds —
all of these suggestions open up the many
possibilities for original and meaningful dan<
There is virtually little in
life that could not be the
source of creative work. A student may find that na-
ture ideas —
the wind, seas, birds, fire, the seasons
suggest qualities and themes that can become a
full-length work. Themes based on work, play, rou-
tine-farming, a basketball game, geometric shapes
— are all fruitful sources for beginning chore-
ographers.
After this subject has been chosen, the dancer
must begin to find the movements expressed as a
theme or basic material from which many of the
later combinations will come. Improvisation is one of
the most valuable tools for discovering movement.
The student simply moves spontaneously with or
without music, then employs dramatic actions or
dances freely with other persons. Gradually, the
movements will be molded into a concrete, rhythmic,
spatial form. New ideas will arise from work on the
dance itself. One should take care to be specific
about what one is trying to say. It is important to de-
velop good work habits, including the ability to make
decisions, to change something, and to stay with the
problem hand until it is resolved. Sometimes it is
at
helpful to ask someone to observe parts of a dance
composition to determine whether or not the feeling
or message is really being conveyed through the
movement.
Another way to begin a dance is within an al-
ready set form. Literary forms such as poetry, plays,
and short stories may be used. Musical forms lend
themselves well to dance; for example. ABA. rondo.
ABC. theme and variations. Different instruments
in a quartet may be copied in movement —
the oboe.
drum, violin, and flute, for example. Early musical
dance forms such as the pavane, gigue, or gavotte,
can bring excellent results.
Aesthetic Principles
Whether or not a dancer works within a set
framework, the overall design is still the prime con-
cern. Some of the following aesthetic principles
should be observed not only in a finished dance but
in any art work.
1. Balance: Alternations of length, energy, sym-
metrical and asymmetrical designs.
2. Repetition: Needed for familiarity of the themes;
for making one "whole" of a piece, for emphasis.
3. Contrast: In force, time, space; needed for inter-
est, heightened drama.
4. Unity: Again, to make a dance a satisfying whole
structure.
Sequence: Phrases and sections needed to follow
each other for coherence.
The way which movements and
6. Transition: in
phrases change from one to another. Transi-
tional movements must not be important within
themselves, but should be smooth and part of
the dance proper.
7. Variety: For interest by manipulating any prin-
ciple or dramatic idea.
8. Climax: A structural high point in a dance:
present in a classical approach to composition,
needed for developing the conclusion of the
dance.
dance theater, the more experimental
In today's
avant-garde choreographers often depart from many
of these principles. The novice, however, will pro-
duce more fruitful results when given disciplines to
follow.
To compose a dance, the beginning student may
find it best to use one or only a few dancers and stay
within the limits of an idea small in scope and
length. It is wise to select an idea about which the
student has some knowledge or experience. As in
any art. simplicity and honesty in staying with one
idea, no matter how limited it may seem at first, are
necessities in learning the discipline demanded by
dance. Choreographing for a large number can be-
come as complex as writing for a symphony orches-
tra. Too many philosophical ideas incorporated into
a dance tend to weaken the real value of the piece.
The value lies in the movements, not in words. The
medium of the dance is movement; its province is
one in which moods, feelings, and meaningful activi-
ties in space and time can put into visual forms what
words cannot express. Every human being who can
move can find personal and shared values in the
dance.

SOCIAL DANCE
BRIEF HISTORY
Social or ballroom dancing really began in the
United States at the time of World War I with the in-
troduction of many new forms of couple dances. The
Charleston was followed by a series of "jitterbug"
dances and the Latin-American rhythms which were
performed to big swing bands. Rock and roll music
influenced an individual type of dance which led to
performances of disco. Novelty and fad dances seem
to fill a need at a particular time and may reflect
changing trends in music. They may stimulate inter-
est and participation, but they seldom last long
enough to merit a place in the repertory of tradi-
tional social dances. The following discussion focuses
on basic elements used in social dance.
DANCE POSITIONS
Closed. (Used in Waltz, Fox-trot and Polka).
Partners face each other, standing toe to toe, looking
over each other's right shoulder, the man facing the
line of direction. With this style arm (left), the man's
left hand holds the woman's right hand at about
FIGURE 8-5 Closed position. FIGURE 8-6
SOCIAL DANCE 115
shoulder height, arms are relaxed and slightly bent
at elbows. With his lead arm (right), the man's
fingers are closed and on the woman's back slightly
above her waist. The woman's left hand is placed on
the man's right shoulder (Figure 8-5).
In Latin dances (tango, samba, merengue),
rumba, mambo, and cha cha cha, the man's lead arm
(hand on partner's back) should be above the small of
the back, and the elbow should be slightly higher
than in the above-mentioned closed dance position.
The man's style arm (left) is also placed higher when
performed.
Semi-Open. From closed position partners
turn slightly away from one another looking in line
of direction — man's right and lady's left sides are
near each other (Figure 8-6).
Open. From semi-open position, turn apart so
that both are facing in line of direction.
Reverse Open. Partners turn so that both are
facing in reverse line of direction —
man's left and
woman's right sides are near each other. Man's right
arm and woman's left arm may hang down at side
(Figure 8-7).
Line of Direction
In general, couples move about the floor in a
counterclockwise circle known as the line of direction
(LOD). Couples may, however, move forward, back-
Semi-open position. FIGURE 8-7 Reverse open position.
776 DANCE

ward, or sideward within this pattern; and, there are musical. A fox-trot may vary in tempo, but for begin-
many new dance steps in which the couples dance in ning students, a slower version is more appropriate.
much the same spot. Although it began as a trotting dance, the fox-trot
developed into the smoother, gliding dance that is
performed today.
Style and Etiquette

Every type of dance is performed with a certain Magic Step. Basic Rhythmic Pattern: S S QQ
style. The particular dance form, its tempo, and 1. Closed Position
rhythm determine the style with which a particular Fwd left-S
dance is executed. Fwd right-S
A man asks a woman to dance in a simple and di- Side left-Q
rect way: "May I have the next dance?" or "Will you Close right to left-Q
dance with me?" are the two customary approaches.
It is polite to escort the woman to and from the floor
LEAD CUE: Lift right arm, lean forward.
and to thank her for the dance. Usually a man may 2. Semi-open Position
cut in on a couple at a private party, but at a public Side left-S
dance, cutting in is not condoned. Dancers should Cross right over left-S
always be courteous and well-mannered on the Side left-Q (return to closed position)
dance floor. Closed right to left-Q

LEAD CUES:
How to Lead and Follow Pressure with heel of right hand.
Pressure with finger tips of right hand.
The man must indicate his steps and lead suffi-
ciently in advance so that the woman
can follow with 3. Turn-Under
confidence. He does this primarily with his upper Man's part same as semi-open position
torso, shoulders, and right arm and hand. The right Lady's part:
hand becomes the steering rudder. Side R: start to turn under R arm-S
The woman's principal method of following is to Complete turn under R arm onto L foot-S
remain relaxed so that her partner may guide her Side R-Q (return to closed position
easily. Close L to R-Q
Lady's right and man's left hands are released
during turn.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
Box Step. Basic Rhythmic Pattern: S QQ
Fwd L-S
There is no set sequence for learning basic social
Side R-Q
dance patterns. The teacher might consider the in-
Close L to R-Q
terests and ages of the students, variety in rhythm,
Back R-S
available music, and then select the order of dances
Side L-Q
that best fits the students. The following dances are
described below in detail:
Close R to L-Q

Fox- trot
Waltz Waltz (3/4 Time)
Tango
The waltzis the oldest form of ballroom dance,
Rumba
and credited as being the first of its kind to be
it is
Cha Cha Cha
performed in the basic closed-couple dance position.
Jitter bug
It was not accepted when first introduced in Amer-
All steps indicated as slow (S) use two beats of ica; however, composers such as Johann Strauss,
the music, and all steps indicated as quick (Q) use Von Weber, and Franz Shubert gave the waltz a dig-
one beat of the music. Unless otherwise indicated, nified grace through their smooth and flowing musi-
the steps described are for the man's (or lead) part; cal styles.
the woman's is opposite. For example, the man's It is important to note that the heels stay off the
"forward left" would mean the woman's "backward ground when performing this dance pattern.
right." (Note: Review the abbreviations listed in the
Basic Rhythmic Pattern: QQQ
Folk Dance section, page 108.)
1. Box step
Same as Fox-trot except each step is Q.
Fox-trot (4/4 Time)
2. Crossover
The fox-trot is an American ballroom dance first Do one-half Box
performed to ragtime music by Harry Fox in a 1913 Cross R over L (semi-open position)
 SOCIAL DANCE 117

Slide L (return to closed position: 1950s. The cha cha cha has Mexican, Afro-Cuban
Close R and Amercan influences, and was probably named
after the three quick rhythmic sounds that the feet
LEAD CUES:
Pressure with heel of right hand. make when executing the steps. Like the rumba, the
Pressure with finger tips. cha cha cha uses Cuban Motion.

Basic Rhythmic Pattern: S S Q Q S

Tango (4/4 or 2/4 Time)
1. Basic Step (closed position)
Some scholars believe the tango is derived from Dancing toward each other with hands held:
the "milongo,'' a dance that originated in Andulusia, Fwd L-S, Back R-S
Spain: others feel that the tango's roots lie in an Back L-Q. Back R-Q
Iberian gypsy dance resembling flamenco. Regard- Back L-S. Back R-S
less of its beginnings, the tango is characterized by Fwd L-S, Fwd R-Q
low. lingering steps followed by quick directional Fwd L-Q. Fwd R-S
changes. 2. Cross Step
Cross L-S (reverse open position) Man's L and
Basic Rhythmic Pattern: S S Q Q S
Lady's R hands joined
1. Basic step (closed position) In place R-S
Fwd L-S Side L-Q. Close R-Q. Side L-S
Fwd R-S Cross R-S (open position) Man's R and Lady's
Fwd L-Q L hands joined
Fwd R-Q In place L-S
Draw L to R. weight remaining on R-S Side R-Q, Close L-Q, Side R-S
2. Semi-open Position
Side L-S
Cross R over L-S Jitterbug (4/4 Time)
Fwd L-Q
SideR-Q The jitterbug evolved from the lindy hop, an
Draw L to R-S American novelty dance that was named after the
famous pilot. Charles Lindbergh, in 1927. As the
LEAD CUES: movement of the lindy hop evolved into more exag-
Pressure with heel of right hand. gerated hopping sequences, viewers remarked that
Pressure with finger tips. the dancers looked like "jittery bugs," thus giving
the jitterbug its name.

Rumba (4/4 Time) Basic Rhythmic Pattern: S S QQ

The rumba came to America in the late 1920's
1. Basic Step (closed position)
from Cuba. This Latin American dance was origi-
Touch L, then take weight on L-S
nally performed by African slaves living in South
Place R. then take weight on R-S
America. One of the main characteristics of the
Back L-Q (semi-open position)
rumba is the smooth lateral swaying of the hips, a Fwd R-Q (return to closed position)
movement known as Cuban Motion. 2. Basic Turn Man's Part same as Basic Step
Basic Rhythmic Pattern: QQS Lady's Part:
Start to turn to R under R arm on R foot-S
1. Box (closed position'
Complete turn under R arm on L foot-S
Side L-Q Back R-facing partner-Q
Close R-Q Fwd L-Q
Fwd L-S L under R arm on R foot-S
Start to turn to
Side R-Q Complete turn under R arm on L foot-S
Close L-Q Back R-facing partner-Q
Back R-S Fwd L-Q
2. Cuban Walk
Walking forward or backward in the Q Q S LEAD CUES:
rhvthm. Pressure with heel of right hand.
Pressure with finger tips.

Once the basic step patterns are learned the

Cha Cha Cha (4/4 Time)
teacher may introduce variations or the students
The cha cha cha, which is a combination of the may be encouraged to create their own modifica-
swing and mambo. became popular during the tions.
118 DANCE

Practice Suggestions standing, voice control, and ability to handle large

groups. Anyone who attempts calling must have a
Since leading and following are basic elements
distinct and pleasant voice, a sense of timing so that
for partner dances, the teacher should introduce
the calls will immediately precede the figure and
them by using a simple dance walk. Today's young
produce continuity in the dance, and a thorough
persons are not accustomed to dancing in contact
knowledge of the dance figures. Excellent recordings
with a partner, traveling on a dance floor, or follow-
of square dance music with calls are also available.
ing a definite basic step. The teacher, therefore,
Although there have been radical changes in the
should try to begin in a fundamental manner.
calls, style, and music of contemporary square
Using a free formation, the basic step of any so-
dance, the basic patterns and figures have been
cial dance should be learned without a partner. The
standardized, making it possible to enjoy this popu-
teacher, prior to presenting the foot pattern, might
lar recreational art form all over the United States
have students clap hands to the music which will be
and abroad (Figure 8-8). Today, this popularity has
used for the dance, because being able to recognize
created avenues in the competing commercial mar-
the underlying rhythm is essential. The basic step
ket for professionally-trained callers, square dance
pattern should be performed next with partners, all
retreats and vacations, and square dance clothing
couples moving in line of direction. While the indi-
and accessories, for those who desire the latest
viduals keep dancing, the teacher may give verbal
square dance fashions.
cues in relation to position, rhythm, or step pattern.
If necessary, individual assistance may be continued
through additional demonstration or dancing with
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
the student. Students may receive extra ideas or be
encouraged to create variations with partners learn-
Honor Couple Promenade
ing together.
Shuffle Grand Right and Left
In the teaching of social dance, it is important to
Forward and Back Star Left Right
I

provide a relaxed learning atmosphere; to suggest

Do-sa-do Pass Through
and implement partner changes; to build confidence
Seesaw Ladies Chain
through words of encouragement; and to give oppor-
Allemande Left (Right) Right and Left Through
tunities for everyone to practice good social eti-
Swing Square Positions
quette.
Promenade Single File Half Promenade
These steps, terms, and figures are described
below, along with a few other important square
dance terms, in alphabetical order. The number of
SQUARE DANCE counts usually used to fully execute the figures, and
steps are also indicated where appropriate.

A BRIEF HISTORY Square Dance Terms, Figures, and Steps

Allemande Left. Man gives his left hand to
Although square dancing originated in 17th century
the woman on his left. With left hands joined, they
England with the English country dances (as well as
shuffle around one another (exchanging places) and
the French contra dances), square dance has been la-
then both return to place. This figure is sometimes
beled "America's Folk Dance." (Note: Some scholars
followed by an allemande right, in which the man
believe that the dances of the American Indian are
executes the same figure but with his partner. More
the true American folk dances.)
frequently, the allemande left is followed by a grand
The early New England colonists brought with right and left (8 counts).
them these pompous and precise line dances where
Circle Left (or Right). Three or more dancers
the couples faced each other. However, as American
circle to the left or right, as directed. Hands are
square dance evolved, the less rigid and the more
joined with elbow comfortably bent so that the hands
recreational and social these dances became. In fact,
are above the elbow, man's palm up, woman's palm
square dancing was one of the most popular and sat-
isfying forms of social recreation because it was
down 16 counts for a full circle, 8 counts for half).
(

something in which all generations could participate
and enjoy.
"caller" was introduced to American square
The
dance in the early 19th century. The caller enabled
dancing participants to execute the basic patterns
without having to memorize the dances. Square
dance calling requires a good deal of practice, under-
Corner. The person to the man's left or the
woman's right is the corner person.
Courtesy Turn. The man takes the woman's
left hand in his left, then places his right hand in her
right which is at her back, waist high. Turning coun-
terclockwise, the man backs up and the woman
walks forward one half turn.
 SQUARE DANCE 119

FIGURE 8-8 Square dancing has become a popular recreational art from in the United States and abroad.

Do-sa-do. Do-sa-do is a French term meaning square formation, all four women star right and
back to back. Two dancers face each other and ad- move clockwise to their opposite man who gives
vance passing right shoulders. Each person slides them a courtesy turn (8 counts). Partner. The
behind the other person passing them, then moves woman on the man's right, the man on the
backward into place (8 counts). woman's Sometimes partners are changed
left.

Forward and Back. The persons

or couples temporarily before returning to the original
designated move four steps into the center of the cir- partners.
cle, then move four steps backward out of the circle
Pass Through. Two facing couples move for-
(8 counts).
ward, pass right shoulders, and remain facing in the
Grand Right and Left. In a square or circle same direction until the next call.
formation, the partners face and take right hands.
Men going counterclockwise and then women clock- Promenade:
wise, each partner moves ahead giving the left hand A. Couple Promenade. The most commonly used
to the next person and pulling by giving the right promenade square dancing is the couple prom-
in
hand to the next person and pulling by, giving the enade. Standing side by side, couples join left
left to the next, and stop. In square formation, the hands, then join right hands on top of their left
original partners will now be facing each other and hands. The couple then moves forward in a coun-
ready for the next call (16 counts). terclockwise direction.
Honor. The men bow while the women curtsey B. Half Promenade. Two couples, indicated by the
to their partners (or to the "corner" person, depend- call,use a couple promenade position to move
ing on the call). "Honor your partner" is an acknowl- counterclockwise and exchange positions in the
edgement of your partner usually at the beginning of square (8 counts).
a dance. C. Promenade Single File. Dancers face counter-
clockwise and move one behind the other.
Ladies Chains:
A. Two Ladies Chain. With couples facing each Right and Left Thru. With couples facing, each
other, men stand still as the women shuffle for- person gives a right hand to the person opposite
ward, take right hands, pull by them, then give them and pulls by. The left hand is immediately
the left hand to the opposite man who completes given to the partner, and each couple does a courtesy
a courtesy turn (8 counts). turn (8 counts).
B. Four Ladies Chain or Ladies Grand Chain. In Seesaw. Two dancers face and pass left
720 DANCE

shoulders.Each slides to the left while back to back, 2. When the movements can be done effectively,
then backs up to original position (8 counts). teach a Do-sa-do, Seesaw, Swing, Allemande
Separate. Each dancer turns his back on his Left, and a Couple Promenade. All calls may be
partner, then they move in opposite directions. This combined then in varied sequence or in the fol-
movement is followed by a directional call. lowing manner:
Shuffle. A walking pattern in which the feet Face your corner do a Do-sa-do
alternately slide in short, smooth steps along the Seesaw your partner
floor in time with the music. A shuffle step is exe- Join hands, circle right
cuted in an even rhythm, unlike the boisterous skip Circle left
or hop of the early square dances which is now re- Face the center, go forward and back
garded as an unacceptable style. Allemande left your corner
Square Positions. A square is an arrange- Allemande right your partner
ment of four couples who stand facing the center in a Swing your corner
square formation. The couples are numbered consec- Swing your partner and promenade
utively to the right, beginning with couple number 1, Go single file

whose backs are closest to the music or caller. Cou- Face the center
ples 1 and 3 are the "head couples;" couples 2 and 4 (Repeat)
are the "side couples."
3. A Grand Right and Left may be taught by desig-
Star Left couples or ladies star,
(or Right). If nating a certain number of hands until a new
those involved touch fingers of the designated hand, partner is reached. For example, a right hand to
elbows bent, and shuffle forward. If men star, each the partner would be "one" and a left to the next
turns the designated side toward the center of the would be "two." Any number may be chosen, but
star, and with an overhand grip, takes the wrist of seven hands enables the dancers to learn the
the man in front of him. Dancers move around the principle involved and eliminates the confusion
circle to return to their original positions (8 counts). of counting a large number of hands. Once the
Swing. This is a modified social dance position Grand Right and Left is mastered, an Allemande
in partners. The man's left arm is extended to the Left with the corner may precede this figure.
side, his right arm around the woman's waist. The These movements are ready to be combined with
woman puts her right hand in the man's left, her left those already learned.
hand is on the man's shoulder. They stand to the
4. The group of dancers may then move smoothly
side so that right hips and right feet are in line with
from the single circle formation to a double circle
one another and almost touching. Using the right
with partners facing. One may direct calls al-
foot somewhat as a pivot, they push with the left foot
ready acquired to make dancers comfortable in
so that partners circle about in place, in a clockwise
this new formation, for instance:
direction. As the swing is performed, partners look
at each other and lean away, which results in a Honor your partner
quick, vigorous turn (8 counts). Do-sa-do your opposite
Swing your partner
Practice Suggestions Circle left. Circle right
Allemande right your partner
1. The most common mistake made by the inexper-
Allemande left your opposite
ienced square dance teacheris selecting a spe-
Do-sa-do your partner
cificsquare dance and then directing the
Seesaw your opposite
dancers to walk through the basic movements
Swing your partner
and figures The movements from
of the dance.
these dances require a great deal of practice and 5. In the double circle formation, Star Left and
probably cannot be performed with music, re- Right and Pass Thru may be taught rapidly.
sulting in uninteresting drills more than an en- This permits dancers to work with different cou-
joyable dance. Basic calls should be taught in a ples while being at ease with the basic calls. Two
single circle. This method enables the teacher to Ladies Chain and Right and Left Thru may be
see quickly all dancers, to use music immedi- added to the figures. All basic calls except the
ately, and to eliminate the necessity for a spe- Grand Right and Left and the promenades may
cific number of students for squares. A simple be combined to music.
dance to music can begin, for example with:
The teacher will be able to teach the square for-
Honor your partner mation using previously taught calls and may add
Honor your corner more advanced figures as the selected dances below
Join hands, circle left, circle right require. Many of these are performed to music that
Walk into the middle has a familiar melody: therefore, the callers may
Come right back choose to sing their calls. Happy dancing!
 SQUARE DANCE 121

Selected Square Dances for Beginners Modern Dance

Big Daddy Anderson, J. Ballet and Modern Dance: A Concise History.
Buffalo Girls Princeton: Princeton Book Co., 1986.
Gentle on My Mind Blom, LA. and Chaplin, T.L. The Moment of Movement:
If You Knew Susie Dance Improvisation. Pittsburgh: University of Pitts-
Little Ole Winemaker burgh Press, 1988.
Little Red Wagon Cheney, G. Basic Concepts in Modern Dance: A Creative
Marina Just Because Approach. 3rd ed., Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book Co.,
Oh, Johnny 1989.
Ragtime Banjo Ball Duffy, N.W. Modern Dance: An Adult Beginner's Guide.
Winchester Cathedral Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1982.
Hawkins, A.M. Creating Through Dance. 2nd ed. Penning-
ton, NJ: Princeton Book Co., 1988.

MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS Minton, S.C. Choreography: A Basic Approach Using Im-
provisation. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Pub-
lishers, 1986.
Orthopedically Impaired
Morgenroth, J. Dance Improvisations. Pittsburgh: Univer-
1. Keep movement patterns slow and avoid quick sity of Pittsburgh Press, 1987.
changes for the students with ambulation diffi- Penrod, J. and Plastino, J.G. The Dancer Prepares: Modern
amputees.
culties, e.g., cerebral palsy, Dance for Beginners. 3rd ed. Mountain View, CA: May-
2. Keep tempo of the music moderate. field Publishing Co., 1990.
3. Emphasize concepts of high, low, soft, hard,
rough, smooth, etc., and have students interpret Social (Ballroom) Dance
movements. Dow, A. The Official Guide to Ballroom Dancing. Secaucus,
4. Minimal modifications are needed in square NJ: Chartuell Books, Inc., 1980.
dance for students using a wheelchair, e.g., This Is Ballroom Dance. Palo Alto, CA:
Ellfeldt, L., et al.
larger work area. National Press Books, 1974.

Mentally Impaired
Fallon, D.J.and Kuchenmeister, SA. The Art of Ballroom
Dance. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Co., 1977.
1. Follow suggestions for Orthopedically Impaired Harris, J. A., et al. Dance a While: Handbook of Folk,
above. Square, Contra, and Social Dance. 6th ed. New York:
2. Keep concepts and movement patterns simple. Macmillan Publishing Co., 1988.

Sensory Impaired
Moore, A. Ballroom Dancing. 9th ed. London: A & C Black,
1986.
1. Use peer teachers for blind students. Schild, M. Social Dance. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Pub-
2. Individual considerations need to be made on lishers, 1985.
the appropriateness of dance for the deaf and /or White, B. Ballroom Dancebook for Teachers. New York:
hard of hearing student. David McKay Company, Inc., 1962.

Square Dance
SELECTED REFERENCES Greene, H. Square and Folk Dancing: A Complete Guide for
Students, Teachers, and Callers. New York: Harper and
Folk Dance Row, 1984.
Bambra, A. and Webster, M. Teaching Folk Dancing. Lon- Harris, J. A., et al. Dance a While: Handbook of Folk,

don: B.T. Batsford, 1972. Square, Contra, and Social Dance. 6th ed. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co., 1988.
Evans, J. Let's Dance: A Movement Approach to Folk Dance.
Toronto, Ontario Can. Ed. Media Ltd. Publishers, 1985. Jenson, C.R. and Jenson, M.B. Square Dancing. Provo,
UT: Brigham Young University Press, 1973.
Gilbert, C. International Folk Dance at a Glance. Minneap-
Burgess Publishing Group, 1974.
olis:
Phillis,PA. Contemporary Square Dance. Dubuque, IA:
Ham's, J. A., et al. Dance a While: Handbook of Folk,
Wm. Brown Co. Publishers., 1968.
C.

Square, Contra, and Social Dance. 6th ed. New York: Schild, M.M. Square Dancing Everyone. Winston-Salem,

Macmillan Publishing Co., 1988. NC: Hunter Textbooks, Inc., 1987.

Lidster, M.D. and Tambunni, D.H. Folk Dance Progres- Stultz, S.J. Contemporary Square Dance. Minneapolis,
sions. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1965. MN: Burgess Publishing Co., 1974.

Mynatt, C.V. and Kaimar, B.D. Folk Dancing for Students Sweet, R. Let's Create 'Old Tyme' Square Dancing. Hazard-
ville, CT, 1966.
and Teachers, Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers,
1975.
Additional Sources
Weikart, Phyllis S. Teaching Movement and Dance: Inter-
mediate Folk Dance. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press, Diggins, D. Tap Technique. Sante Fe, NM.: Teal Press,
1984. 1988.
722 DANCE

Emery, L.F. Black Dance from 1619 to Today. 2nd ed. Dance Record Dist/Folkraft Records, 10 Fenwick Street,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton Book Co., 1988. Newark, NJ 07114.
Kislan, R. Hoofing on Broadway. New York: Prentice Hall, Dansounds, P.O. 27618, Philadelphia, PA 19118.
1987. Fair 'N Square Records, 816 Forest Hills Dr. SW, Roches-
Kraines, M.G. and Kan, E. Jump Into Jazz. 2nd ed. Moun- ter, MN 55901.
tain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co., 1990. Square Dance Record Roundup, Inc., 957 Sheridan Blvd.,
Denver, CO 80214.
Music Sources
Tape & Record Service, 3508 Palm Beach Blvd., Ft. Myers,
Big "O" Record Service, P.O. Box 786, Springfield, VA FL 33905.
22150.
 FENCING
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Identify the types of equipment used in foil fencing, and name the parts of the
French foil.
Perform some of the basic skills of foil fencing while participating in a bout,
including the grip, salute, onguard, advance, retreat, lunge, defense, parries,
engagements, and attacks.
Identify and apply some of the basic strategies used during a foil fencing bout.
Identify and apply the rules of foil fencing as participant or as a spectator.
Officiate as a judge at a bout and apply the rules.
Know and use the proper safety precautions.
Define and use the terminology generally associated with foil fencing.

NATURE AND PURPOSE taining correct distance. As these are mastered, con-
centration shifts to the proper use of the foil. By the
Modern fencing is a combat sport practiced by men end of a course, a student can expect to do some ac-
and women of all ages from 8 to 80 and at every level tual fencing and to know some of the rules and terms
from novice to Olympic. A fencing bout retains many of the sport. Bouting experience with a wide variety
of the characteristics of a real fight but without the of opponents is an important part of any fencer's de-
attendant dangers usually associated with the use of velopment; therefore, after the basic skills are
swords. The foils used in fencing are not sharp, and learned, the student should seek opportunities to
the fencer scores a point by touching an opponent test these skills against other fencers.
anywhere on the torso.
To touch the opponent without being touched is
the object of the game. In days long past, a duelist EQUIPMENT
certainly knew when he had been touched by a sharp
sword. In modern foil competition, the weapons are Weapons
wired so that when a touch lands, a scoring box
The three types of competitive weapons used are
shows a light and a buzzer sounds. Such equipment
the epee, the sabre, and the foil (Figure 9-1). The
is now required at most competitions, but in the typi-
epee, a direct descendant of the rapier, has a large
cal physical education class it is impractical and ex-
bell guard. Touches may be made only with the tip of
pensive to use the electrical foil. In such classes,
student judges stand alongside the fencers and
watch for touches.
Fencing is for everyone — from the bespectacled
youngster who loves to play video games to the
quick-footed, athletically inclined youngster who
loves to play sports of all kinds. Both should be given
the opportunity to experience the thrills of matching
one's fencing wit and skill on the narrow strip of
combat where each will be able to find fulfillment
and common values.
Fencing offers them the complete sport, one that
involves the total person —
mind, body, spirit. It is a
game of grace, speed, and especially finesse that
tests the body's coordination and stamina along with
the mind's acuity and guile. Fencing is the thinking
person's sport that eschews brute force —
not unlike
chess on a strip.
B
For most people, fencing is a new athletic experi-
ence and even the early lessons are fun. At first, the FIGURE 9-1 Types of weapons: (A) French foil, (B) sabre,
emphasis is on footwork, body position, and main- (C) epee.

123
724 FENCING
TIP
• — WEAK PART
MIDDLE
--STRONG PART
--GUARD
--HANDLE
POMMEL
FIGURE 9-2 Parts of the French
the epee, and the entire body is valid target. The
sabre (or saber) is principally a slashing weapon, al-
though the tip may also be used; the target area in-
cludes all body parts above the hips. The foil is a
light thrusting weapon, and the target area is the
torso. This chapter will deal with the French foil, be-
cause most teachers favor its use by beginners. Fig-
ure 9-2 shows the parts of the French foil.
The foil is the modern version of the dueling ra-
pier. It weighs 17 ounces and has a flexible blade 35
to 36 inches long. The total length of the weapon
cannot exceed 43 inches.
Foilgrips are right- or left-handed, and the
teacher might mark them as such to expedite issue.
The foil tip should be covered with adhesive tape or a
rubber tip. and a slight downward bend should have
been worked into the first one-third of the blade.
Protective Wear
The usual classequipment that ensures the
maximum amount of protection consists of a mask, a
bib, a foil, a jacket, an optional glove, and breast pro-
tectors for women. The mask comes in three sizes:
small, medium, and large. A
quilted cotton canvas
bib attaches to the mask to protect the neck and
N
_\J^B^P^
hJ^Fw
1 lllr'
Ml
BLADE
fw
w%*
ft
L V
f
FIGURE 9-3 Fencing cart loaded with equipment.
throat. The jacket sizes are small, medium, large,
foil.
and extra large. A separate plastron or underarm
garment is worn underneath the jacket. Women
must wear breast protectors.
The glove worn by a fencer is usually leather
with a padded gauntlet. The gauntlet should be long
enough to cover the end of the jacket sleeve so the
point of an opponent's foil will not slide inside the
sleeve. The beginner may wear any type of glove
during the stage of learning in order to get
initial
used to the "feel" of a glove on the hand.
All the equipment needed for a fencing class can
be stored on the fencing cart as pictured in Figure
9-3. The rolling cart, which measures 40 inches
wide. 64 inches high, and 14 inches deep, can be
built by your woodworking shop at minimum ex-
pense. The utilitarian nature of the cart is such that
it holds maximum equipment neatly while taking up
a minimal amount of space. The 1X2 inch boards on
the front of the cart act as racks for 5 masks each,
while the top flat surface has one-inch holes drilled
2¥z inches apart in order to accommodate up to 20
foils. Each hole is numbered for a corresponding
numbered foil. The pegs at the upper back provide a
place on which the numbered jackets are to be hung.
The bibs and breast plates can be stored on the top
surface behind the foils. This cart can be the answer
to all of your class equipment problems, for it can
store all of the equipment needed for a class of 20
students.
 FENCING 125

RULES AND PLAYING AREA At the start of a bout and also after each scored
point, the fencers begin at the on-guard lines and
Fencing rules are identical for both men and women; must remain on the strip during the bout. Stepping
however, men do not normally compete against off the sidewith both feet is a violation. The director
women. stops the bout and positions the fencer on the strip
Touches and Target. In foil fencing the tar- one meter farther back from where he or she went
get the body exclusive of the head and appendages.
is off. One foot out only halts the bout until position is

It begins at the top of the jacket collar and extends in
front down to the groin and in back to the top of the
hips. The sleeve seams mark the side limits.
A valid touch is one made with the foil point on
valid target area. Contact made with the side of the
blade never counts and is simply referred to as a slap
or plaque. If the point slides along the target without
momentarily fixing, it does not count and is known
as a passe. Touches made with the point on invalid
target areas (mask, legs, arms) are called "off-target"
and do not count but do cause the bout to be stopped.
Playing Area. For class purposes, any large
room will serve very well for instruction and bouting.
When judged bouts are held, boundaries can be
quickly marked with masking tape. Precise meas-
urement is seldom needed, and a rectangular strip
46 feet by 6 feet should be laid out. Two on-guard
lines need to be marked 6 feet in both directions from
the center, and warning lines are placed 6 feet from
each end. A diagram of a regulation strip is shown in
Figure 9-4.
regained. Whenever the rear foot of a retreating
fencer reaches a warning line, the director calls a
halt and informs the fencer about being on the meter
line. This warns the fencer that continued retreat
beyond the end line with both feet will result in a
point being awarded. If the warned fencer has re-
gained his or her own on-guard. line before crossing
the warning line a second time, the warning is re-
peated each time.
Officiating
In nonelectric fencing, a foil jury is composed of a
director and four side judges. Two judges stand be-
side each fencer and watch for touches made against
the opposing fencer. The director maintains a central
position in order to observe the entire jury as well as
the competitors (Figure 9-5). The judges and the di-
rector must move around as the fencers move, so as
to maintain their relative positions.
The director is in total control of the bout and

^Xr -x- -x- ^~+ ^~<-

2 m 4 m 2 m 67" 13'2 3
/8
" 67" CO
CD
x:
o
c
03
E

CD
Center

On-guard Warning
line line

FIGURE 9-4 Foil strip measurements,

in meters and in feet.

FIGURE 9-5 Positions of jury for

nonelectric (Adapted from Charles
foil.

Simonian, Basic Foil Fencing. Kendall/

Hunt Publishing Company, 1979.)

Warning Line
726 FENCING
gives the orders to fence or to halt. The commands a
director uses to start or restart the bout are: "On
guard;" "Fencer's ready;" "Fence." A fencer indicates
readiness by a nodding of the head. Whenever a bout
is halted, unless a touch or penalty is awarded,
fencers hold their ground. The director's duties in-
clude: inspecting equipment; supervising judges,
scorers and timers; directing bout; awarding
touches; and penalizing offenses. Often during the
bout the director will command "halt," to award
touches, issue warnings, or stop the action if it be-
comes too dangerous or too confused to follow.
There are four judges in each bout; two stand on
each side of the strip about two feet left of the direc-
tor to observe the fencer on the right and vice versa.
The judge's primary responsibility is to observe
when a touch is made on either valid or invalid tar-
get and to signal by raising an arm to indicate that a
touch landed. While the director also watches for
touches, it is the sole responsibility of the director to
determine which fencer had the right of way (ex-
plained below) in any situation where both fencers
received touches at about the same time.
When a judge raises a hand, the director imme-
diately calls a halt and proceeds to analyze the ac-
tion just completed. As each step is described, the
director polls the two judges from whose side the ac-
tion was initiated. The analysis and voting continue
until a decision has been reached to award or not to
award a point.
Votes. Judges may only reply with one of the
following answers:
1. The judge will vote no if the attack missed or
was parried.
2. The vote is yes if the attacking point clearly fixed
on valid target.
3. The vote isabstain if the judge could not see the
action clearly or is unsure of a touch.
4. The vote is yes, but invalid if the point was seen
to fix on invalid target.
The vote of each judge is worth one point, while
that of the director is 1 V2 points. Thus, if two judges
have agreed on the vote, they could override a con-
trary vote of the director by 2 to 1 V2. If the director
and one judge have the same opinion about the
touch, they prevail over the other judge by 2 V2 to 1.
An abstention carries no point value in the voting. If
the two judges have contradictory opinions while the
director abstains, there is a one to one tie that re-
sults in a doubtful touch decision, and no point is
awarded.
If the jury decides that a particular action landed
on invalid target, no further voting is needed, and
fencing is resumed. In other words, any touch on in-
valid area stops the action and nullifies any other
touches that might have landed during that phase.
There is no penalty for invalid (off-target) hits.
Scoring. Each time the director awards a
point, that point is recorded next to the name of the
fencer who was hit. Therefore, the fencer with the
lower score at any time is leading in the bout. When
one fencer has been hit five times, the bout ends. The
bout may also end if time expires, and the winner
will be the fencer who led at that moment. When
time runs out, enough points are added to the scores
of each fencer to bring the loser's score up to five
points.
Time limits are seldom used in informal or intra-
mural meets. Where time limits are in effect, the
competitors will need to be aware of the time that is
allowed. Normally, a one-minute warning is given as
the limit is approaching.
Types of Competitions
Most amateur meets are run on either a pool or a
direct elimination system. In a pool, each fencer
meets every other fencer in the pool in a specified
order, with the winner having the best won-lost
record. In the direct elimination format, the fencer
advances with a win or is out of the competition with
a loss.
Men's intercollegiate meets consist of a total of
27 bouts, nine in each of the three weapons. Each
team has three men per weapon who fence against
the three men from the opposing team.
Women's intercollegiate teams usually have four
women in foil who meet each
of the opponent's four
entries. Thus 16 bouts arefought, and the team hav-
ing the majority of wins is the winner. In the event of
a tie in bouts won, there is a count of the number of
touches scored by and against each team.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
The should be learned in the order outlined
skills
below. A
beginner can fence effectively if the skills
through the one-two are learned. The counterparries,
the double, the beat, and the low line offense and de-
fense can be added when more time is available.
A. Nature and Purpose of Foil Fencing
1. Equipment requirements
2.Safety considerations
B. Rules. A discussion of rules and officiating prac-
tice can begin when most appropriate and appli-
cable to a situation. This discussion should be
ongoing throughout the learning sequence.
C. Terminology. A discussion of terminology, like
rules, is most meaningful in the learning experi-
ence when dealing with that particular reference
to a term at a given time. The learning of the lan-
guage of foil fencing should occur throughout
each segment.
 FENCING 127

D. Skills and Techniques Thumb

1. Gripping the foil
2. Salute
3. On-Guard
4. Advance
5. Retreat
6. Lunge
7. Guard Positions and Engagements
8. Defense
9. Right of Way
10. Advance Lunge Index finger

11. Disengagement Attack

FIGURE 9-6 Gripping the French foil (right-handed).
12. Compound Parries
13. One-Two
14. Counter Parries
15. Double Salute
16. Low Line Parries
Beat Attack
17.
It is customary salute your opponent or
to

E. Strategies. Beginning strategies should be dis-

cussed once the fencer begins engaging in ele-
mentary bouts and at times most meaningful to
the learner.
partner before a bout or a practice session. Stand
erect with the heels together, the right foot pointing
straight ahead and the rear foot placed at a right
angle to the lead foot. From this position, bring the
foil bell up to eye level and then smartly straighten
the elbow to swing the foil downward.

FOIL SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES On-Guard

While it is much more fun to fence than to practice, Flex your arm enough to bring the foil point
foil

you must realize that fencing too often and too soon up while maintaining a fairly straight
to face level
will lead to bad habits. Fencing requires self-control line between the blade and your forearm. Bend the
and correct execution of skills, and there is no short- non-foil arm and raise your elbow to about shoulder
cut to success. Therefore it is important to spend a height; the forearm should be vertical and the wrist
large portion of class time doing drills to perfect the flexed and relaxed. While holding the arms in this
lunge, the footwork, and the blade skills. Some fenc- position, take a short step forward, and bend both
ing must be done in order to relate the drills to the knees to a slight squat as in Figure 9-7.
reality of the bout. This on-guard stance is designed to permit
movement in either forward or rearward direction
and to allow the effective launching of an attack.
Gripping the Foil
Most beginners learn to fence with the French
foil.As shown in Figure 9-6, the thumb and forefin-
ger oppose one another on the broad surfaces of the
handle, while the remaining three fingers rest
lightly along the side. There is slight curvature to
the rectangular handle, and the curves should be
directed toward the palm and toward the thumb.
The following instructions are addressed to right-
handed students.

Learning Cues

1. Curve of the handle to the thumb side.

2. Index finger and thumb on handle near pad of
bell guard.
3. The three remaining fingers rest lightly on the
handle.
4. The forearm should be at approximately a 45-
degree angle from the elbow joint. FIGURE 9-7 The on-guard stance.
128 FENCING

Your body weight should be evenly distributed onto

both legs, and your feet should be spaced somewhere
between 14 and 18 inches apart. The heels are in line
and the feet are held at a right angle.

Learning Cues

1. Feet must be weight evenly distributed

in line,
on both are 14 to 18 inches apart.
legs; feet
2. Flex the foil arm enough to bring the foil up to
the face level while maintaining a fairly straight
line between the blade and forearm.
3. Bend the left arm and raise the elbow to about
shoulder height; the forearm should be vertical
and the wrist flexed and relaxed.
4. While holding the arms in this position, take a
short step forward and bend both knees to a
slight squat. FIGURE 9-8 The lunge. (Courtesy of the Athletic Institute.)

Practice Suggestions
be aimed at your opponent's chest. Next, lift the
1. Place students on a line, check grip, have them
front foot, toes first, while simultaneously straight-
go through a routine of the salute and then as-
ening your rear knee and swinging your non-foil arm
sume on-guard positions.
to the rear in a large arc. The lunge ends with the
2. An effective drill for advance and retreat in-
front foot landing well out ahead, while the rear foot
volves a leading partner who advances or re-
remains where it was in the on-guard stance.
treats one or more steps at a time while the
If the lunge results in a touch, it makes no real
follower reacts and moves accordingly. Footwork
difference how the fencer recovers. But if the attack
should be varied so that the steps are sometimes
fails, it is most important that the fencer be able to
slow and sometimes fast. Step lengths should
recover quickly to a defensive position. This is done
range from quite short to fairly long.
by bending the rear knee while pushing hard with
the front foot. As the legs complete the recovery, the
Advance arms return to their proper positions in the on-guard
stance.
Whenever the opponent is too far away, one or
The lunge is one of the most important move-
more steps forward need to be taken. This is done by
ments in fencing and must be practiced diligently.
moving first the front foot a few inches forward and
The first lunges made by a beginner should be of me-
then the rear foot an equal distance. Neither foot
dium length, because the muscles might be injured if
should slide on the floor.
long lunges are attempted before the student has the
necessary flexibility. The need to fully extend the foil
Retreat arm just before lifting the front foot must be
stressed. A bout director must decide who the at-
If the opponent is too close, the fencer will need
tacker is at any given time and does this by observ-
to take one or more steps backward. The rear foot
ing which fencer extended first to present a definite
will move first, followed by the front foot.
threat to the opponent. In other words, which fencer
Footwork must be responsive to the opponent's
had the right of way. When two touches land at ap-
movements. The ability to change direction quickly
proximately the same time, the fencer who first ex-
in order to maintain fencing distance is very impor-
tended will receive the priority in the decision.
tant.

Learning Cues
Lunge
1. The foil arm is first extended toward the oppo-
When
two fencers maintain the correct fencing nent.
distance, neither can hit the other by merely reach- 2. The front foot, toes are lifted while simul-
first,
ing out with the arm and foil. It will be necessary to taneously straightening the rear knee and
take a long stretching step with the front foot in swinging the non-foil arm to the rear in a large
order to be able to touch the target with the foil tip. arc.
This is known as the lunge (Figure 9-8). Start by ex- 3. The front foot lands well out ahead while the
tending your foil arm toward the opponent. Your foil rear foot remains anchored as in an on-guard
hand will be shoulder high, and the tip of the foil will position.

4. To recover, the rear knee is bent while pushing
off with the front foot.
Practice Suggestions
NOTE: In preparation for the sudden lunging
movement forward, it is important to do a series of
stretching exercises giving particular attention to
the major muscle groups of the leg and back.
1. Begin with students in a line in an on-guard po-
sition. Practice taking short to medium steps,
then gradually lengthen the forward step.
2. With a partner, practice lunge at a partner then
recover to guard.
3. With a partner, practice an advance-lunge-
recover-and-retreat sequence.
Guard Positions and Engagements
In the on-guard stance, the foil arm can be held
pretty much anywhere —
to the right, to the left, low
or high. Normally it is best to hold the foil in the
sixth guard position, which is identical to the simple
parry six position shown in Figure 9-9.
guard, the fencer may use the strong parry four. If
the fencer chooses to stand on-guard while main-
taining contact with the blade of the opponent, the
blades are said to be engaged. Engagement numbers
derive from the numbers of the comparable parries.
For example, if your opponent's blade is to the left of
your own, the contact is termed a fourth engagement.
FIGURE 9-9 The simple parry six.
FENCING 129
Defense
When attacked, a fencer generally has two op-
tions: oneis to retreat and cause the attack to fall
short, and the other is to deflect the attacking blade.
If the attacking blade is to the left of your own. move
your foil sharply to the left just enough to contact
and deflect the blade away from your target. This is
known as the simple parry four (Figure 9-10), the
most common and strongest of the eight simple par-
ries. Deflection of the attacker's blade to the right is
made with the parry six Figure 9-9 In both of these
( 1.
parries, the hand and blade should move horizon-
tally right or left: the tip and the hand do not change
level, and the elbow remains bent.
Following a successful parry, the defender has
the opportunity to make a counterattack through the
use of a riposte. This may be a simple reaching out to
touch the opponent, but if the attacker is quick
enough to recover after having been parried, the de-
fender may have to lunge to score with the riposte.
Right of Way
From this Any time that there is a single touch landing, the
director has no problem in awarding the touch. How-
ever, if both fencers hit at the same time, the director
must decide which, if had the right of way. An
either,
attack is correctly made and has the right of way
when foil arm is fully extended as the lunge
the
begins. The opponent must take defensive action by
retreating or parrying. If the parry is successful, the
~
FIGURE 9-10 The simple parry four. (Photos by Ted Rice.
730 FENCING
right of way now passes to the defender who may
poste,and the former attacker is obliged to take
some defensive action. Thus the right of way can
change back and forth several times in any given
flurry of action.
Suggestions for Practice Bouts
Students could have some early bout experience
as soon as the skills and rules described above have
been learned. In a practice bout without judges, two
fencers get on guard a few feet apart and begin to
fence. After a bit of maneuvering, perhaps one will
chance a lunge. The opponent might step back,
parry, or be hit. If the parry is made, the defender
may fail to riposte immediately, thereby losing right
of way, and either fencer may initiate the next at-
tack. However, if the riposte is attempted, the new
defender may recover, parry, or be hit. If both
fencers attack correctly at the same moment and
both touch, neither hit is counted. It is very helpful
for the students to acknowledge being touched by
halting any further action, but this is not required
by the rules.
Advance Lunge
Since defenders often retreat to avoid being
touched by a lunging fencer, the attacker may put
together an advance and a lunge in order to reach
the target. There should be no pause between the ad-
vance and the lunge, and the right of way should be
obtained by extending the foil arm during the ad-
vance. The beginner should be careful to make the
advance only long enough to make up for the dis-
tance that the defender will retreat.
Disengagement Attacks
When a fencer's direct attacks are being repeat-
edly parried, it will soon occur to the attacker that
the parry must somehow be avoided. One method for
doing this is by means of a two-part action called the
disengagement. The first move is the extension of the
foil arm to give the impression that a direct attack is
being started. If this feint convinces the defender of
the need to parry, the attacker then deceives the
parry by lowering the point and then raising it again
as the parry goes past. This disengagement is of
course followed by a lunge to complete the attack.
Properly executed, the disengagement avoids
any blade contact by the defender. The foil arm re-
mains extended throughout. As the attacker, you
have to convince the defender that your initial ex-
tension is a real attack that must be parried. How-
ever, when you are the defender, you must not parry
a mere feint. Until you learn to distinguish between
a feint and a real threat, your first response to an at-
tack should be to retreat.
ri- Learning Cues
1. Extend arm an attack.
to give illusion of
2. As a parry is made, lower the blade and then re-
turn it to a raised position.
3. Follow-up with a lunge to complete the attack.
Practice Suggestion
For developing disengagement skills as well as
defending skills, there is a very effective drill in
which the defender may not retreat but may parry
four or six. The attacker is permitted the options of
direct lunge or disengagement lunge. In this drill, a
well-made disengagement should touch, because the
defender will be convinced that the feint is really an
attack to be parried. On the other hand, a poorly
made feint should get no response from the defender,
and the disengagement will be easily parried. To
avoid guessing by the defender, it is important for
the attacker to make a number of direct attacks in a
row, all of which will be parried.
Compound Parries
As an attacker's disengagement is being at-
tempted, the defender may parry a second or even a
third time in an effort to contact and deflect the
blade. Combinations of parries are termed com-
pound parries, and these are reflexive responses by a
defender who realizes that his initial parry failed to
make contact.
One-Two
A pair of parries can be deceived by an attacker
who makes two disengagement movements. The
firstdisengagement serves as a feint to draw a de-
fender s second parry which is then deceived by the
second disengagement. As with most attacks, the foil
arm should remain extended throughout so as to
maintain the right of way.
Counter Parries
Defensive variety is necessary against more
skilled opponents. Constant use of simple parries
will be answered by disengagements and one-twos.
Against a direct lunge, a defender in the sixth guard
position may make a clockwise rotation of his or her
foil in order to contact and carry the attacking blade
to a sixth parry. From a fourth guard position, the
rotation is counterclockwise and terminates in a
parry four.
Double
Against an opponent who utilizes counter par-
the attacker must deceive such parries by first
ries,
making a feint of a direct thrust to draw the counter
 )
parry. As the parryis being made, the attacker's foil
must the same direction as that of the
circle in
counter parry. By the use of the double, blade contact
is avoided, and the accompanying lunge should de-
liver the touch to the target.
Low Line Parries
When an attack is aimed at the lower target, the
normal parries four and six cannot be used. Instead,
the defender should lower the point and move the
foil hand in the direction of the attacking blade in
order to deflect it. The parry seven is used against at-
tacks to the lower left side (Figure 9-11), while the
parry eight is used when the threat is to the lower
right target area (Figure 9-12). As with the high par-
ries, the hand should move horizontally and remain
higher than elbow level.
Low line parries may be deceived by feinting to a
low target and then disengaging to a high target.
Similarly, an attack may begin with a high feint and
terminate with a disengagement to the low target.
Practice Suggestions
1. With a partner, practice counter parrying of at-
tacks. (In this instance, the drill requires one
fencer to attack in a predetermined manner in
order that the one practicing the parry can have
an opportunity to experiment with and learn the
actual execution of the parry.
2. Practice low line parries with a partner.
FIGURE 9-11 The simple parry seven
being made by the near fencer.
FENCING 131
3. With a partner, practice the riposte from the
parry. The partner should attack while the de-
fender practices execution of riposte.
4. Practice riposte from disengagement.
NOTE: Once single skills have been well learned,
drillsthat encourage a combination of the elements
of the lunge, attack, parry, riposte, disengagement,
advanced lunge, beat, advance, and retreat should
be practiced.
Beat Attack
When an opponent is standing on-guard with an
extended arm and a threatening point directed at
your chest, a beat action can be used to remove this
right of way. The beat is a sharp blow to the defend-
ing blade to knock it aside momentarily and create
an opening for an attack. Be careful not to wind up
and thereby telegraph your intention to beat.
STRATEGIES
1. Your first concern should be to make it difficult
for your opponent to hit you. The maintenance of
good and consistent distance is important, so
never let your opponent get closer than full
lunge distance unless it is part of your game
plan.
2. A retreat the simplest and most effective de-
is
fense against any attack; use it more often than
you use your parries.
s
osu
FIGURE 9-12 The simple parry eight being
made by the far fencer.
732 FENCING

3. Offensively, you must analyze what your oppo- ations would include ability to use sign lan-
nent doing to stop your attacks. You cannot
is guage, videos, pictures.
devise a good attack plan if you have not been
able to recognize the defense being used against
you. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
4. Generally speaking, use the simplest attack that
has a chance of scoring. Get more complex only if Fencing ranks among the safest of all sports, but
the opponent forces you to. common sense must be exercised at all times. The
5. Attack with confidence as though you expect to following safety measures should be adhered to
hit. Too often the beginner is unsure and attacks while participating in this sport.
timidly.
6. When you parry, the right of way is yours only if
1. Any time that partners face one another, a mask
you riposte immediately. Be unpredictable in must be worn.
your defense — sometimes parry, sometimes re-
2. The tip of the foil must be covered with adhesive
tape or a rubber tip.
treat.
7. Remember that every fencer is different, and 3. Watch out broken blades. A blade can break
for
at the slightest touch and the jagged end cause
you must adjust your game accordingly. Unor-
injury.
thodox fencers and left-handers can be prob-
lems, and experience with a variety of opponents
4. Masks that show rust or weak places and jackets
that are torn should be discarded.
is necessary for anyone who wishes to become a
good fencer. 5. A fencing half-jacket or full jacket should be
8. Use each practice bout as an opportunity to im- worn in class; sweatshirts offer no protection
against a broken blade.
prove your observational and fencing tech-
niques. Don't try to win at the cost of damaging
your hard-earned fundamental skills. In prac-
tice bouts it is better to lose while perfecting a TERMINOLOGY
particular skill or strategy than to win by resort-
ing to sloppy tactics. Above all. enjoy each bout, Advance A step taken toward an opponent while remain-
and be sure to shake hands afterwards. ing on-guard.
Advance lunge An attack that combines an advance and
a lunge.
Attack The initial forward movement of the weapon with
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
an extended arm to threaten the opponent's valid tar-
get.
Orthopedically Impaired
Beat attack A sharp blow given to the opponent's blade to
1. Wheelchair users may compete from their create an opening for an attack.
chairs. Bout A competition between two fencers.
2. If only one student needs a wheelchair, let the Corps-a-corps Physical contact between two fencers at
opponent use a regular classroom chair. close quarters.
3. Students on crutches, canes, or walkers can use Counter parry A circular parry that deflects an attacking
modified foils, such as whiffleball bats with a blade into a line opposite that of a simple parry.
soft protective tip. As an alternative, a crutch or Cutover A disengagement attack in which the blade is

cane with a soft protective covering over the tip lifted over the defender's foil. Also called a coupe.
can be used instead of the foil. Deceive To offensively avoid contact by a defender's
blade.
Mentally Impaired
Director The official in charge of a jury. In Europe the di-

1. Color code the opponent's body areas, e.g., trunk rector is called the president.
high, low, to reinforce appropriate target areas. Disengagement An attack in which the blade passes
2. Allow additional practice sessions to reinforce under the defender's foil.
safety precautions. Double An attack comprised of a feint followed by a com-
around the defender's counter parry.
plete circle
Sensory Impaired
Double touch A situation in which both fencers have
1. Individual evaluation must be made as to the equal right of way and both have landed touches. No
appropriateness of fencing for the blind student. point is awarded.
Blind students might compete against station- Doubtful touch This is the decision whenever the polling
ary targets that would provide audio feedbacks of the jury does not produce a majority opinion. No
based on position of score, e.g., high, too low out
r
, point is awarded.
of range. Engagement A held contact of blades when neither
2. Minimal modifications would be needed for the fencer is attacking.
deaf and hard of hearing. Instructional consider- Epee One of the three competitive weapons. The bell is
 FENCING 133

large and the entire body is a valid target; there is no Phrase Any unbroken series of offensive and defensive
right of way. Only the electrical version is used in exchanges.
meets. Pool A group of fencers who compete in round-robins.
Feint Any movement of the blade or body that obtains a Redoublement A new action made after the original at-
parry or other reaction from an opponent. tack is parried but no riposte is forthcoming.
F.I.E. Federation Internationale d'Escrime the world — Remise An immediate continuation of an attack that has
governing body for amateur fencing. been parried. A touch by remise can be allowed only if
Fleche (pronounced flesh) An attack in which the rear the riposte misses or is delayed.
foot crosses in front of the leading foot. It is often fol- Retreat A step taken backward away from an opponent.
lowed by a short run because of the momentum devel- Right of way A fundamental rule in foil and sabre that
oped. Potentially dangerous, this attack is not determines which fencer has priority in a phrase.
recommended for beginners. Riposte The return action that follows a successful
Infighting Close combat that is permitted so long as there parry.
is no body contact or other violations such as use of Sabre (saber) One of the three competitive weapons. The
the left hand or turning the back. cutting edge is used more often than the point, and the
Invitation Any deliberate exposure of target that is in- target area is all parts of the body above the hip level,
tended to draw an opponent's attack. including the head and arms.
Judge An official who stands beside one fencer to watch Salle d'armes Fencing school or club.
for touches made upon the other fencer. Salute A universal gesture used before practice or a bout.
Jury Consists of the director and the four judges in a A simple version is the raising of the weapon to a ver-
match or tournament. tical position, bell at face level.
Line A target area; may
be referred to as high or low, in- Strip The fencing area. It may be of any material and is
side or outside. "In-line" defines a defender's position marked with the boundary and warning lines. In elec-
when the arm is fully extended and the point is threat- tric foil and epee fencing, the strip may be covered
ening. with wire mesh that grounds touches made on the
Low line That part of the target below the defender's floor.
hand level in the on-guard stance. U.S.F.A. United States Fencing Association, the govern-
Lunge A means of delivering a touch by moving the lead- ing body that organizes U.S. fencing competitions and
ing foot substantially forward while the rear foot re- develops rules.
mains stationary.
MaTtre d'armes Fencing master: a coach who has under-
gone a period of formal training and has passed an ac-
crediting examination.
Match A contest between two teams in any weapon. A SELECTED REFERENCES
series of bouts between the fencers of two different
teams. American Fencing Magazine. Colorado Springs, CO:
Meet A full tournament between teams or individuals. A United States Fencing Association, Inc., 1990.
series of matches, bouts, or pools of bouts. Bower, M. Foil Fencing. Dubuque, LA Wm. C. Brown Pub-
N.F.C.A.A. National Fencing Coaches Association of lishers, 1990.

America. Gaugler, W.M. Fencing Everyone. Winston-Salem, NC:

On-guard The position assumed by a fencer when ready Hunter Textbooks, Inc., 1987.
to fence. Shaff, J. Fencing. New York: Atheneum, 1982.
One-two An attack made up of two disengagements. Simonian, C. Basic Foil Fencing. Dubuque, IA: Kendall-
Parry Deflection of an attacking blade. It is simple if it Hunt Publishing Company, 1982.
moves directly to the blade and counter if it describes a U.S.F.A. Rules Book. Colorado Springs, CO: United States
circle. Fencing Association, Inc., 1990.
 FIELD HOCKEY
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Identify the field markings.
Describe the basic rules of the game.
Analyze and demonstrate the techniques of holding the stick, dribbling, the hit,
fielding, various passes, the tackle, the dodge, the penalty corner, the free hit,
defense hit, and push in.

Identifyand describe the common goalkeeping techniques.

Describe basic offensive and defensive tactics.
Understand and use the basic terminology.

NATURE AND PURPOSE FIELD HOCKEY

Field hockey, recognized as one of the most popular

sports throughout the world, is an Olympic sport for
both men and women. In the United States it has
been played predominantly by women; however,
men do play in various locations. The United States
Field Hockey Association, through its sponsorship of ATTACK
ZONE
youth hockey programs, encourages both girls and
boys to become involved in the sport.
The game is played by two teams of 1 1 players
usually designated as forwards, midfielders (links), • FORWARDS
LEFT LEFT RIGHT RIGHT
defensive backs, sweeper, and goalie. The forwards WING INSIDE INSIDE
»
WING
• MIDFIELDERS
are offensive players and therefore must be quick, LEFT RIGHT

DEFENSIVE f MIDFIELDER MIDFIELDER 9

possess good stickwork and ball control skills, and ZONE LEFT CENTER RIGHT . DEFENSIVE BACKS
BACK SACK BACK
must shoot well. The midfielders serve as links
transforming the game from defense to offense. Mid-
fielders must be in good physical condition to play
both offense and defense; they must be good play-
makers to set up the forwards and sure tacklers to
stop the offensive thrust of the opponent. Defensive
backs must be aggressive and possess good marking
skills in addition to being strong tacklers. The FIGURE 10-1 Starting alignment of 4-3-2-1 -G. Note team

sweeper, the last line before the goalie, directs play
and shores up the defense. Sweepers must have pa-
tience, good fielding skills, and a "nose" for the ball.
The last link in the defensive chain is the goalie who
must have catlike reflexes and be aggressive. Al-
though some players are by nature offensive or de-
fensive, an emphasis should be placed on total team
offense and defense.
Field hockey has changed significantly in recent
years. Although a traditional 5-3-2-1-G alignment
is still used, most teams are moving to a style of play
that is more characteristic of soccer. Spectators may
expect to see a variety of system alignments (3-3-3-
1-G, 4-2-3-1-G) being employed by a team based
on the talents of individual players (Figure 10-1).
Each player carries a hockey stick, which is the
balance (depth), possible passing routes, and oppor-
tunities for 2-on-1 or 3-on-2 situations.
only means employed to move the ball in this game.
The one exception to this rule is that the goalkeeper
has kicking privileges.
Goals count one point and can be scored only if
an attacker's stick touches the ball inside the strik-
ing circle. The official game is played in two periods
of 30 minutes each, and 5 minutes between halves,
at which time the teams change ends. NOTE: There
is some variance in rules for high school, college, and
international play.
Because of the vigorous nature of the game and
the skill, coordination, and conditioning needed,
field hockey is an acceptable activity for both boys

734
 HANDLE

wniruuu
and girls and men and women in a school or college
physical education program. Whether played by all
ununm
boys, all girls, or on a coeducational basis, it is im-
portant to emphasize the rules of play, particularly
FIGURE 10-2 The hockey stick, right and left view.
those governing the hockey stick. Emphasis should
also be placed on the wearing of shin guards and
other protective gear. length, the individual should stand, grasp the stick
For coeducational play, any or all of the following as for a hit, and swing it in front of the body. The
rule modifications may be made: stick should "feel" comfortable and should not hit the
ground behind the ball at contact. For elementary
1. Use a larger, softer rubber ball rather than the
age physical education classes there are junior
official field hockey ball (especially in youth hockey sticks available which are shorter and lighter
hockey).
than typical adult sticks.
2. Place girls at every other position to encourage
passes to boys and/or to girls.
3. Reduce the size of the field and the number of Shin Guards and Pads
players (6 on 6) so the emphasis is on skill rather
Light shin guards are wise protection for all field
than on speed or strength.
players. The padding should cover the ankle bone as
4. Let all penalty shots be taken by girls, the corner
well as the shins. Goalkeeper's pads should cover the
pass by boys (or vice versa).
leg from the thigh down. In addition to pads, kickers
5. Eliminate the hit and allow only a push.
are worn to provide padding over the goalie's field
6. Eliminate the flick when shooting at goal.
shoe. Required protection for goalies also includes a
As in soccer, an indoor version of field hockey helmet with a face guard and throat protector. Chest
has become very popular. Indoor hockey is played on and elbow pads are also encouraged.
a gym floor (similar to street hockey) with 6 players
on a team. With large classes, use the additional
players for sideline play. There are rule modifica- PLAYING FIELD
tions involved with indoor play (see Appendix A,
Field Hockey, USFHA), the most significant of The about the size of a football field, 100
field is
which eliminates the hit and thereby encourages yards long and 60 yards wide, with a goal at each
controlled passing with a push pass. Indoor hockey end (Figure 10-3). Goal posts are 4 yards apart and 7
can be an excellent rainy day or cold weather activity
as well as a complete unit. FIGURE 10-3 The hockey field.

Goal Line 60 yards

EQUIPMENT ri6vds
y
5 yds
The Ball
The official ball is hard and slightly larger than
a baseball. For class purposes a seamless polyure- Shooting Circle

thane ball is most practical. 25 yard line

25 yds

The Stick
The hockey stick ranges from 26 inches (youth
sizes) to37 inches in length and generally weighs o
Center line
o
from 16 to 23 ounces. The thin portion above the heel 50 /risl
yds r.
has a wrapping (usually fiberglass although other x
3'
Q.
""

materials are used) around the wood to give greater

strength to this critical area.The blade is generally h 5 yds

made of mulberry wood and is somewhat shorter

today than it used to be. The left side of the blade is
25 yard line
flat and is used for contact with the ball. The right 25 yds +-
side of the blade is rounded and may not be used for
contact with the ball at any time (Figure 10-2).
When selecting the stick, it is important that the
handle be comfortable, thin, and strong. The stick
5 yds
should be light enough to facilitate technique and
ease of control. To determine the suitable stick

10 yds
736 FIELD HOCKEY

by a cross bar. The posts and cross

feet high, joined 2. Foul by the defense.
bars should have a square front and be painted a. A penalty corner is awarded to the attack-
white. The goal is usually enclosed with a net or ing team.
screening. b. A penalty stroke is awarded if the foul
The striking circle is placed on the field by start- stopped a sure goal or was flagrant.
ing with a straight line drawn 16 yards in front of
the goal and 4 yards long. This line is continued to
Out-of-bounds Play
the end line by quarter-circle arcs of a 16-yard radius
with the goal posts as centers. In all cases the line is considered "in the field of
play" whether it be the circle, sideline, end, or goal
line. The umpire must decide which team touched
BASIC RULES the ball last, since there is no provision in the rules
for co-responsibility (off two sticks).
The following basic rules may require modification
for coeducational play and perhaps additional rules
A. Over the sideline. A hit-in (hit or push) by a
for safety.
member of the team opposite that of the player
who last touched the ball before it crossed the
sideline.
Fouls B. Over the end line but not between the goal posts.

1. Taking part in the game without a stick.

1. —
Off the attack a defense hit.
2. Off the defense.
2. Using the rounded side of the stick.
a. When the ball is unintentionally hit over
Advancing a ball off the body. NOTE: Only the
3.
goalkeeper is permitted to kick the ball or block
the end line —
a long hit.
b. When the ball is intentionally hit over the
the ball with the body. The goalie shall not be
penalized if the ball is deflected off the body,
—
end line a penalty corner.
c. Over the end line between the goal posts.
provided it is not dangerous to another player
and the goalie contacts the ball within the strik-
(1 A legal goal when the ball was touched
by the stick of an attack inside the
ing circle.
striking circle. Play resumed by a push
4. Hitting the ball in a dangerous manner (i.e., into
back on the center line. The goal counts
a player at close range, a hard hit that rises, or a
even if the ball was last touched by the
ball that is hit on the fly).
stick or person of the defense.
5. Using the stick in a dangerous manner (i.e., fol-
(2) When the ball was not touched by a
lowing through into another player, tripping, or
stick of the attack inside the circle and:
slashing).
(a) was touched by a stick of the de-
Obstruction: placing the body shoulder, or
6.
any
(feet,
between an opponent and the ball. A
part)
fense —a long hit is awarded.
(b) was last touched by a stick of the at-
player may not obstruct an opponent from play-
ing the ball.
tack —
a defense hit is awarded.

7. Stick obstruction: interfering with an opponent's

stick (i.e., strike, hook, hold).
8. Pushing, charging, shoving, tripping, or in any
way interfering with an opponent.
9. Offsides: When within a team's offensive 25
yards a player may not be ahead of the ball un-
less there are two defenders between the player
and the goal. This does not prevent a player run-
ning forward to meet a pass after the ball has
been hit.
Penalties for Fouls
A. Outside the circle. A free hit is awarded to the
team fouled against on the spot of the foul.
B. Inside the circle.
1. Foul by the attack —
a defense hit which is out-
side the circle and 16 yards out from the end
line. This also applies when the foul occurs
outside the circle but within 16 yards of the of-
fensive goal. The 16-yard distance is desig-
nated by a hash mark on the sideline.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
There are numerous ways to arrange the sequence of
skill development for field hockey. In the one pro-
posed, dribbling and passing skills are introduced
early along with teaching students to move into
space and use support passing to beat a defender.
Fielding should be taught with the push pass and hit
so that students can stop a ball coming towards
them. As a general guide, it is best to introduce a
technique along with its definition, a rule that may
apply, and some strategy involved.
A. Nature and purpose
B. Conditioning aspects —
plan drills and exercises
that might be related to movements found in
field hockey. Emphasis of all areas of fitness, par-
ticularly upper body (forearm, wrist) strength,
agility, speed and flexibility.
1. Circuit training with stickwork
2. Footwork and acceleration moves
 FIELD HOCKEY 137

C. Basic game concepts Gripping the Stick

Field of play
1.

2. Use of equipment There are three basic grips used in field hockey.
3. Playing courtesies The fundamental position is used for the basic drib-
D. Skills and strategy —
introduce rules and termi- ble as well as hitting, pushing, and fielding. A grip
nology as well as combination skills and strate- change is required for reverse stick contact on the
gies at most appropriate times. ball as in the Indian dribble. A third grip is used in
1. Skills defensive play.
a. Gripping the stick
b. Dribbling 1. Fundamental position. With the heel of the stick
c. Push pass and fielding resting on the ground in front of the body, allow
d. Hitting the top of the handle to fall into the fingers of the
e. Flicking lefthand. This is basically a handshake position
f. Dodging on the stick. Place the right hand 6 to 8 inches
g. Tackling below the left. Grip the stick easily so the V
h. Goalkeeping formed by the thumb and index finger of both
2. Tactics and strategy hands is in line with the toe of the stick Figure (

a. Offensive playing hints and passing combi- 10-4).

nations 2. Indian dribble grip. A slight variation of the
b. Defensive playing hints fundamental grip occurs when the player exe-
c. Game tactics: Push back, free hit, defense cutes an Indian dribble or any reverse stick ac-
hit, hit-in, penalty corner, penalty stroke, tion of the ball. In this grip the left hand slides
long hit. right slightly. To assure correct positioning,
place the stick flatside on the ground, reach
down and place the V of the left hand on top of
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES the stick (Figure 10-5). The right hand assumes
its normal positioning. This grip allows the left
The proper relationship between ball and feet is hand to rotate the stick over the ball. The right
most important and can only be gained by always simply acts as a sleeve allowing the stick to ro-
practicing skills while one is moving. The essence of tate in it.
stickwork is footwork. Make the feet assume the 3. Defensive grip. Slide the left hand slightly left
proper relationship to the ball, not the ball to the from the fundamental position. In this grip the
feet. Be able to see the ball while also scanning the V of the left hand comes on the handle when the
field for open space and passing options. flat side of the stick is up (Figure 10-6).

FIGURE 10-4 Fundamental grip. Note the FIGURE 10-5 Assuming correct FIGURE 10-6 Defensive grip. Note the V
handshake positioning on the stick with V positioning for the Indian dribble grip. Note of left hand is on flat side of stick.
of left hand on side of stick when toe is up. V of left hand is on rounded side of stick.
138 FIELD HOCKEY

Learning Cues

1. The stick must be held firmly but comfortably.

ft 2. Adjust grip appropriately according to the skill
executed.

w*
Dribbling

In the dribble the fundamental grip position is used

with the body in a crouched position for running.
The stick is on the ball which is in front of the body
and slightly off to the right side (Figure 10-7). The
arms are relaxed and away from the body with the
right arm extended beyond the left. The ball is
moved forward by the stick as the player begins to
run. The feet should stay behind the ball, and a
change of direction is initiated by accelerating the
feet inthat direction. The ball should be kept close to
r jl r-$J the stick unless a player is in open field, in which
case the ball can be pushed slightly ahead.
Indian Zigzag Dribble. This dribble is gen-
erally used in crowded areas and before attempting
to move around an opponent. The ball is positioned
in front of the body and is rolled over on alternate
sides by the use of forehand and reverse stick taps
FIGURE 10-7 Dribble position. Ball is on

the stick in front of the body Player's eyes (Figure 10-8). This movement uses the Indian drib-
scan ahead. ble grip. The zigzag motion with the stick around the

FIGURE 10-8 Zigzag dribble: forehand action on the ball; stick rolls over ball with reverse stick action.
 FIELD HOCKEY 139

ball allows the dribbler to disguise the dribble with Learning Cues
faking moves, making it difficult for the opponent to
1. Line the body up behind an approaching ball in
tackle.
a low position.
2. Let the ball come to the stick. Absorb the ball by
Learning Cues
having a "soft" right hand. Control deflections.
1. Keep the behind the ball.
feet 3. The left hand angles forward to trap the ball in
2. Stay low and reach out for the ball. the stick. Second touch the ball with pass or
3. Keep the stick close to the ball. Move the ball by dribble.
accelerating with the feet.
Practice Suggestions
Practice Suggestions
1. Have a partner roll a ball to a player with a
1. Begin by moving in a straight line push the
ball ahead with an emphasis on footwork and
— stick. Emphasize lining up, absorbing, and trap-
ping the ball.
ball control. Concentrate on staying low by 2. Have a partner field a ball pushed or hit from
bending at the knees and keeping the head up. another.
As they dribble, have the students call out the 3. Introduce fielding on the move, i.e., shuttle pass-
number of fingers held up by the teacher. ing, passing down the field with a partner.
2. Move on diagonals and into open space with a 4. Introduce a passive defender and play two-
change of direction. Emphasize that the feet ini- versus-one keep-away. Later, as proficiency in
tiate the action when changing direction. fielding is gained, add an active defender.
3. Practice the technique of the Indian dribble sta- 5. Add passing drills that encourage give-and-go
tionary, then in a straight line, with direction passing, i.e., player A receives a pass from
change and around cones. player B, A passes back to B, cutting to receive
4. Use a designated grid area with 6 to 10 students and hit on goal.
and have them dribble around each other. En-
courage dribbling into open space. Place cones in
the grid and see how many cones the students
Push Passing
can dribble to in one minute. The push pass is used for short, accurate passing
or shooting when there is no time or necessity to hit
the ball. The pass can be executed quickly off the
Fielding the Ball
dribble or after receiving a pass. There is no back-
The should be fielded or controlled when it
ball swing on this skill because the stick stays on the ball
comes to a player before it is passed or played. A "two as it is pushed forward. The approach on this skill
touch" sequence is used when thinking about field- involves starting with the left shoulder and foot for-
ing and passing. The first touch stops the ball, and ward in the direction of the pass, and the body in a
the immediate second touch advances the ball. The low position (Figure 10-10). The ball should be con-
right hand slides further down the stick (Figure tacted opposite the left foot.
10-9).

FIGURE 10-9 Fielding the ball. Left hand FIGURE 10-10 Push pass positioning: left shoulder in direction of
angles forward as right hand absorbs the ball. pass and low positioning.
740 FIELD HOCKEY
Learning Cues
1. With the body in the correct approach position,
extend the arms out away from the body. A firm
right arm pushes the ball out while the left wrist
pulls the stick back.
2. Transfer the body weight from back to front foot
and finish with the head over a bent left knee.
3. The right hand pushes the stick through to the
intended direction of the pass.
Practice Suggestions
1. In a stationary position, push pass with a
partner. Emphasize arm extension and follow-
through.
2. Pass the ball off the dribble to a partner as in a
shuttle formation.
3. Move into give-and-go passing and keep-away as
presented in #4, #5 for fielding.
Hitting
The hard skill for passing and
hit is a strong,
shooting. The fundamental grip position is used, but
the hands need to be brought together at the top of
the stick. The stick swings in a perpendicular plane
with a hip to hip pendulum-like motion in the direc-
tion the ball is to travel. The ball should be contacted
opposite the left foot. On the backswing and follow-
through, the toe of the stick is up (Figure 10-1 1>.
This is primarily a left-sided skill with a straight left
arm pulling the stick through with a weight transfer
onto the front (left foot. To be assured of an accurate
I is used as a technique for lifting the ball over a de-
hit, allow the hands to guide the stick in the direc-
tion of pass.
. partner or into the goal.
rSMMMMMNHMMHR
FIGURE 10-11 The hit. Note the backswing
and the beginning of weight transfer.
Learning Cues
1. Bring hands together (fundamental grip posi-
tion i.
2. Transfer the weight to front foot. Initiate a left
arm pull.
3. Let the arms swing freely.
4. Follow through with arms to intended direction
of pass. Right hand helps guide the stick as the
left arm pulls through.
Practice Suggestions
1. Let the arms swing the stick in a pendulum
fashion. Recognize a relaxed and freely flowing
arm position. Practice left arm swings.
2. Hit to a fence (or rebound board) and follow
through with the stick to the fence.
3. In a stationary position practice the hit with a
partner. Add hitting on the move (i.e., shuttle,
passing down the field, dribbling, and hitting on
the goal).
Flicking
There is also no backswing on this skill, which is
executed like the push pass. However, in the flick
the ball is slightly in front of the body so the stick
can be placed under the ball. The left hand brings
the top of the stick back and behind the right hand,
which causes the stick face to open. Therefore, when
the stroke is executed the ball will rise with the
height depending on the angle of the stick. The flick
fender's stick, for penalty strokes, and for shooting.
The flick is especially valuable for shooting at close
range since the ball comes off the ground. It is possi-
ble to execute the flick with a moving ball, but it is
more difficult.
Learning Cues
1. The stroke and follow-through are executed like
the push pass.
2. Angle the stick by bringing the left hand back
behind the right. This opens the stick face up
and causes the ball to lift up.
Practice Suggestions
1. In a stationary position practice the flick with a
2. Flick the ball to goal off a dribble.
3. Practice penalty strokes.
Dodging
The dodge is used when a player in possession of
the ball wishes to evade an opponent who is ap-
proaching from the front. Because this technique is
so useful, players should learn a variety of dodges. It
is particularly important for beginners to learn how
 FIELD HOCKEY 141

players are moving, thus this point will be con-

siderably farther away than expected.
A Aa A A
A A 1
i 2. Keep the ball in control on the dodge to assure
A
A '
, Ai A,'
3.
player possession.
Execute the dodge right off the dribble. Acceler-
A uu/ ate by the defender and cut in behind the de-
fender to eliminate opponent recovery.
r r A A i
4. On lateral pulls turn the feet and run with the
A / a ;
A i
ball. Avoid slide stepping.

a ;
A 1
»
Ai
i

Practice Suggestions
A B C
> Path of ball
1. Practice dodge moves against a cone or a station-
ary defender. Be sure to emphasize lateral pulls
> > Feet of player as needed and footwork.
2. Dodge a passive defender who is standing but
H I] Feet of opponent may use a stick to reach. Encourage early dodg-
ing by going against a defender using an ice
FIGURE 10-12 Diagrams of dodges: (A) non-stick side dodge, hockey stick to extend the reach. The player
(B) reverse stick dodge, (C) pull leftdodge. must dodge before getting within a stick's reach
of the opponent.
3. Carry this into one-versus-one play with an ag-
to dodge, thereby avoiding the natural tendency to
gressive defender.
move directly into an opponent — which is illegal.
Teachers should introduce dodging at an early stage
in the unit and provide for continued practice. Tackling
Non-Stick Side Dodge. The player in posses- The tackle is a technique used in attempting to
sion of the ball sends the ball ahead and close to the take the ball away from an opponent. The key to be-
non-stick side of the approaching opponent. The coming an accomplished tackier is preparation and
player runs to the stick side of the opponent. In other patience.
words, the ball goes right, and the player goes left In the preparation a defender must establish a
(Figure 10-12A). This dodge (which is sometimes basic athletic stance: feet shoulder width apart,
called Y dodge) is easily executed and very successful knees flexed slightly, head up with eyes watching
because it is played to the opponent's non-stick side. the ball, and feet moving. The stick is between the
However, control of the ball is important as posses- feet, down low to the ground in a defensive grip to
sion is temporarily lost. permit proper stick action on the tackle (Figure
Reverse Stick Dodge. Before the opponent 10-13). As the opponent approaches, the defender
can reach the ball, the player in possession pulls the
ball with a reverse stick action laterally to the right. FIGURE 10-13 Defensive positioning. Note
is down with player in a balanced
the stick
After this move, the player accelerates forward by
position.
the opponent (Figure 10-12B). The advantage of this
dodge is it also goes to the non-stick side of the oppo-
nent, but with the player remaining in possession of
the ball at all times. However, it is a more difficult
dodge to execute.
Pull to the Left. On this dodge both the ball
and player go to the left of the approaching oppo-
nent. Shortly before the ball is within reach of the
opponent, the player pulls the ball laterally to the
left past the opponent's stick (Figure 10-12C). Upon
completion of this move, the player should accelerate
forward by the opponent. During this dodge the ball
remains in the player's possession; however, the
timing must be accurate and the ball must be played
laterally left, not diagonally, to avoid the opponent's
stick.

Learning Cues

1. Execute the dodge just before the opponent is

within reach of the ball. Remember that both
142 FIELD HOCKEY

should establish an overplaying position (to the left 2. Have a defender move with an opponent who is
of the opponent) which forces the opponent to dribble dribbling straight ahead with the ball. The de-
into the defender's stick side. If the opponent drib- fender may not tackle, but should watch for the
bles to the right, the defender must quickly move appropriate time to tackle. The defender can
the feet to constitute forcing the opponent right. If also make jab fakes.
the opponent does get to the non-stick side (left) 3. Allow a defender to make a tackle against an op-
of the defender, the tackle must be made with a re- ponent moving at half speed. Incorporate block
verse stick, which is more difficult. and jab tackles.
The defender's feet must be moving and giving 4. Move into one-versus-one play with the defender
with the opponent before a tackle can be made. This tackling an aggressive dribbler. After the de-
will allow the defender to be patient, and find the op- fender tackles and assumes possession, acceler-
portune time to steal the ball from the opponent. ate away from the opponent. Can also build in a
Caution must be made to avoid overcommitment and passing option after possession is gained.
lunging which makes the defender susceptible to
being beaten with an opponent's dodge.
Goalkeeping
There are two basic approaches to tackling:
Goalkeeping requires different skills from other
1. Jab Tackle (Figure 10-14)
positions. The goalkeeper must be agile, quick, and
As the defender retreats with the opponent, ex-
have good concentration and anticipation. The goalie
tend the stick with the left hand to jab under the
is well protected with a mask, gloves, pads for the
ball. If the attempt is unsuccessful, resume the
legs, and padded kickers which go over the regular
position of two hands on the stick and attempt
field shoe. The goalie has the privilege of using the
again. Fake jabs may be successful in confusing
feet for stopping and directing the ball and may also
the opponent.
stop the ball with the hand and other parts of the
2. Block Tackle Figure 10-15)
i

body, as long as it is not batted or deflected in a dan-

The defender gives with the opponent, stick
gerous manner.
down, and allows the opponent to bring the ball
to the defender. For this tackle the stick is held
Stance. A basic athletic stance with a few
with the fundamental grip, and the defender ex- modifications would describe the goalie stance. The
feet are shoulder width apart, weight evenly distrib-
tends the stick with two hands to block the ball.
uted on the balls of the feet, legs slightly flexed, a
Avoid swinging and chopping with the stick.
slight lean forward, the arms hanging in front with

Learning Cues the forearms parallel to the ground. Grasp the stick
with palms facing out; the blade will be up and
1. Overplay to force opponent to the stick side. slightly pointing away from the right goal post. The
2. Keep the feet moving with the opponent. Ti me head should be up watching the ball.
the tackle so it is unexpected. Goalkeeping Principles. The goalkeeper is
3. Continually jab and retreat, pressuring the ball. the last line of defense. There are three important
1
principles to follow and practice.
Practice Suggestions

1. Without sticks and have the defenders

balls, 1
V. Gros. Inside Field Hockey (Chicago: Contemporary Books,
practice footwork against an opponent. 1979). pp. 58-59.

FIGURE 10-14 Jab tackle. FIGURE 10-15 Block tackle.

 FIELD HOCKEY 143

1. In order to defend the goal line, the goalkeeper Practice Suggestions

moves with small steps on an arc from post to
post. This allows the goalkeeper to narrow the
angle to goal and thereby eliminate shooting
space.
2. The goalkeeper should be set when a shot is
made. This will allow the goalie to react to the
shot. If moving on the shot, the goalie could be
caught balance and unable to change direc-
off
tion to react to the ball.
3. The goalkeeper should line up with the
the ball should be in line with the goalkeeper
and the goal line.
Technique. The beginning goalkeeper should
meet the ball with legs together and "give" on impact
so the ball drops almost dead. It is then cleared with
the inside of the foot or the toe, hard and accurately,
to a space away from the opponent (usually along the
sideline) or to a teammate ready to receive and relay
the ball up the field. On the kick to clear the ball, the
goalie must have the head over the ball
balanced position (Figure 10-16). After contact the
knee follows through upward to bring the foot back
into place alongside the other. With more experi-
ence, the goalie may learn to step out and redirect
the ball with one foot, especially a well-directed shot
that is impossible to get behind with two feet. The
stick is used only for emergency clears.
Students should always wear protective equip-
ment when practicing goalkeeping or in a scrim-
mage.
1. Reaction drills.Roll balls to the right, straight
on, and to the left one at a time but quickly after
each goalie clear. Emphasis is on getting behind
the ball and maintaining balance and control.
2. Practice the application of basic goalkeeping
ball; i.e., principles. This can be accomplished by having a
player push or hit on goal. Use caution to avoid
players hitting when in very close to the goalie;
instead encourage players to use the more accu-
rate push pass rather than the hit.
3. Place a goalie in the goal area with a 3-on-3 or 5-
on-5 scrimmage situation. Emphasis should be
placed on clearing the ball into space away from
the rushing attack.
and hold a PLAYING STRATEGIES
Offensive Strategy
Once the ball is in a team's possession, the
players on that team must think about advancing
the ball toward the goal. Advancement is executed
by dribbling and through a series of passes. No mat-
ter what formation is being used, the following key
principles must be employed if the attack is to be
successful.

1. Movement in Space.
a. —
Players with the ball a player in possession
should move the ball into free space. This
movement should result in the drawing of a de-
fender, in which case the player should look for
further options.
b. Players off the ball— the responsibility here is
for a player off the ball to move into a helping
position for the player with the ball. These
players are in a "support" role and need to
position themselves in open space where the
ball can be passed. A player standing behind a
defender is considered in "dead space" where a
teammate will have to pass through the de-
fender in order to make the pass.
2. Passing. The ability to execute an accurate and
well-paced pass to a teammate is the very essence
of field hockey. Passing includes the responsibili-
ties discussed earlier of moving the ball to open
space and support play. Teams that employ a hit-
and-chase style of play will have minimal oppor-
tunities to establish a cohesive offensive plan.
The team having the ability to make accurate,
precise passes and maintain possession of the ball
will have the most scoring opportunities and will
control the tempo of the game.
FIGURE 10-16 Goalkeeper clear. Note the
head over the ball and high knee follow- At any time during a game a player should
through. have 2 to 3 avenues available to execute a pass if
144 FIELD HOCKEY
the team has established good field balance and
depth (i.e., relationship of forwards, midfielders,
and defense). Considerable practice time should
be allowed for passing in combinations of 2, 3, or 4
players. Drills should be developed that include
two-versus-one, three-versus-two, or four-versus-
three situations where the passer and players
without the ball must confront and get around a
3.
defender.
Scoring Ability. The team that wins is the team
scoring the most goals. A constant offensive pres-
sure employed by all members of the team will
usually result in more scoring opportunities.
Players must be able to get shots off quickly and
accurately, and follow up on rebounds.
4. Individual Ball Control. Although creating space
and passing are the most essential elements of
the game, there are circumstances where an of-
fensive player must be able to get by a defender
(one-versus-one) while carrying the ball. Success-
ful dodging, acceleration, stick and body fakes
while maintaining tight ball control are necessi-
ties in developing success in the one-versus-one
situation.
Defensive Strategies
Once the opposing
ball is in the possession of the
team, then all players on the team without the ball
must focus on defensive strategy. Defense involves
total concentration on the game and an awareness of
the offensive players in the vicinity. In addition to
the principles previously discussed, the good de-
fender must understand several others.
1. Pressure on the ball. The first responsibility on
defense is to provide constant pressure to the
player in possession of the ball. When applying
this pressure it is important to channel the of-
fensive player to a specific direction. In most
instances this should result in forcing the
opposing player to the strong side or stick side.
An exception would occur with left side defen-
sive players who generally would channel the
opponent to the sideline.
2. Marking. The second responsibility on defense is
to apply pressure on the next opponent most
likely to gain possession of the ball. Being able to
mark an opponent without the ball in order to
prevent that player from receiving a pass or
to decoy that player is good defensive strategy.
In such a position it is important to know the po-
sition of the ball and the location of your own
goal. The defensive player should stand ball side
and goal side of the opponent when marking.
3. Covering. If an offensive player gets behind a de-
fender assigned coverage, then another defender
must be prepared to move in and accept the re-
sponsibility. The sweeper is most frequently
found in a covering role. Once the opponent
Attack
T
• /-X
p
xp ^
• if.
Xc
x/
(A) (B)
FIGURE 10-17 Defensive roles: (A) X p pressure player with the
X m marking ball side, X c covering goal side; (B) when X p is
ball;
beaten and X c moves to pick up the free offensive player while X p
recovers.
moves past a defender, it is important for that
defender to switch into an unoccupied position
(to cover) or to recover and catch the attacker
(Figure 10-17).
4. Transition. Being able to switch from offense to
defense without a moment's delay is going to
save valuable yards. It may also make the differ-
ence in regaining possession of a ball momentar-
ily lost and turning it back to your advantage.
The reverse is also true in changing from de-
fense to offense. Upon changing possession the
defense needs to accelerate immediately into
space looking for passing options.
Situational Game Tactics
Push Back. The game is started with a push
back at the beginning, at half time, and after a goal.
Formation. Both teams line up in any manner on
their own respective halves. The individual taking
the push back must straddle the center line. All op-
posing players must be 5 yards away.
Execution. The ball must be moved backwards
(any distance before advancing forward). Emphasis
must be placed on an accurate, well-paced pass.
Penalty Stroke. The penalty stroke is
awarded to the attacking team when a foul (inten-
tional or unintentional) is committed by the defend-
ing team inside the circle and a sure goal is
prevented, or for a flagrant foul inside the circle.
Formation. The penalty shot is taken at a point 7
yards from the center of the goal line. Aside from the
shorter and opposing goalie, the remaining players
must remain outside the circle behind the 25-yard
line until the ball is played.
The Play. The goalkeeper should be in a ready
position on the goal line, not leaving the goal line or
 FIELD HOCKEY 145

moving the feet until the ball is played. The player

(on the 7-yard spot) taking the penalty shot must use Key
a flick or a push (no backswing allowed). The referee • Offense
asks the goalie, then the shooter if each player is X Defense
ready and then whistles for the play to begin. The — ». Ball movement
shooter has five seconds in which to execute the Player movement
G Goalie
stroke and is allowed one stride to the ball before
shooting. Faking or any other deceptive moves by ei-
ther player are not allowed. After a successful goal,
the play is restarted by a push back. If the try is un-
successful, the defense is awarded a free hit from the
16-yard area.
Penalty Corner. This formation is awarded
as an advantage to the attacking team. It occurs
when the ball goes over the end line off a defender's
stick with no attempt being made to keep it in the
field of play,or when the defense fouls in the circle.
Formation. The ball is placed on the end line 10
yards from the nearer goal post on either side of the
goal, according to the choice of the attacking team. A
member of the attacking team hits the ball out to a
designated teammate on the circle. Other attacking
players arrange themselves around the circle and,
when the ball is hit, move in to rush the shot and
play any rebounds. There need to be additional
players backing up the forwards to provide support
in case the ball is missed or is hit out of the circle by
the defense (Figure 10-18A).
The defending team has five players (including
the goalie) who start with sticks and bodies behind
the end line. No player may be nearer than 5 yards
to the player hitting the ball out. These players may
move as soon as the ball is hit. Usually a zone forma- X |PX x
tion (Figure 10-18B) is used to defend against the
initial shot. The other six members of the defending FIGURE 10-18 (A) Formation for penalty corner, (B) defensive
zone alignment with rusher, cover, post, and goalie.
team are behind the 50-yard line, and may not cross trailer,

it until the ball is hit out.

The zone formation usually involves a rusher

who pressures the initial shot. This player must ap-
developed to assist in getting a shot off to goal. How-
proach in a stick-to-stick position (defender on at-
tack) to avoid being hit with the shot. A trailer also
ever, the success of a corner basically lies in a good
initial pass, consequent stop, and hard, accurate hit
follows out stick-to-stick but behind the rusher in
to goal.
case that individual is beat. A cover moves by the
goalie to assist with any rebounds and to get the ball Free Hit. A free awarded to the opposite
hit is
out of scoring range. The goalie moves out from the team when a committed anywhere on the
foul is
goal line to narrow the angle and play the shot. Last field, except inside the circle (in which case a defen-

but certainly not least is a post player who positions
on the goal line (to the goalie's non-stick side) to stop
any shots that may get past the goalie. Once support
from other players is available, the defense moves
into marking position on the opponents.
The Play. The designated offensive player
pushes or hits the ball along the ground to a team-
mate who must stop the ball. After the stop the ball
should be hit to goal or passed to another teammate
to hit to goal. In circumstances where field hockey is
played on astroturf, a corner frequently involves a
stick stop. In this case after the ball is hit out, a
teammate stops the ball for a second player to hit im-
mediately. A variety of alignments and plays can be
sive hit or penalty corner is awarded according to the
circumstances).
Formation. For a free hit outside the circle, the
ball is placed on the spot where the breach occurred
and is usually played by a midfielder or defensive
player of the team fouled against. However, a for-
ward can also play the ball especially if it can resume
play quickly and help gain an advantage. For any
free hit, all opposing players must stand 5 yards
away. Within a team's offensive 25 yards, team-
mates must be 5 yards away as well. The ball must
be motionless before the hit can be taken.
The Play. The player taking the free hit may hit
or push pass the ball. In high school play the ball
746 FIELD HOCKEY
may also be lifted, but in college play the ball must
remain on the ground. After taking a free hit, a
player may not play the ball again until it has been
touched by another player. When possible, a free hit
should be taken quickly, so as to take full advantage
of the penalty, before the opposing team gets placed
to block the play. A free hit should be passed to a
teammate or into open space for a teammate to run
immediately onto the ball.
Defense Hit. A defense hit is awarded to the
defending team when an attacking player hits the
ball over the end line or commits a foul within
the attacking 16-yard area.
Formation. The ball is placed 16 yards from the
end line exactly opposite the spot where it left the
field ofplay (and should be outside the circle It is
usually taken by a defensive player in whose area
the ball is placed. The ball must be motionless, and
all opposing players shall be at least 5 yards away.
The Play. The ball is put in play as for a free hit.
Hit-In. When the ball has completely rolled
over the sideline by one team, the opposing team is
awarded a hit-in.
Formation. The ball is placed on the sideline and
can be hit or pushed in by any member of a team.
The hitter may have the feet in bounds or over the
sideline as the hit-in is being executed. The defend-
ing team must remain 5 yards away from the ball.
The Play. Successful execution will result when
the hit-in is made quickly since the defenders are 5
yards away. Once the whistle blows indicating the
out-of-bounds, the hit or push may be executed with-
out another whistle to start play. The premium is on
getting the ball to the point where it crossed the line
and getting it in play. Once the ball is hit by the
player, it cannot be played again by the same player
until it is touched by another player.
Long Hit. A long hit is awarded to the attack-
ing team when the ball is hit unintentionally over
the end line by a defending player.
Formation. The ball is placed on a hash mark on
the end line, 5 yards in from the sideline. Any team
member may hit or push the ball into play, and op-
posing team members must position themselves 5
yards away.
The Play. The player taking the hit will try to di-
rect the ball onto a teammate's stick or try to hit the
ball across to the goal mouth if an opening is avail-
able. NOTE: A team cannot score directly off of a
long hit. The defending team will attempt to block
the hit with one or more players, while other players
attempt to deny the ball to the opponent.
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
Orthopedically Impaired
Students who use wheelchairs will have to play
in a gymnasium. Floor hockey is the recom-
mended modification for mobility-impaired stu-
dents. Contact Special Olympics for the rules of
floor hockey and play hockey.
Mentally Impaired
1. Follow suggestions for Orthopedically Impaired.
2. Keep concepts and movement patterns simple.
Sensory Impaired
1. Use peer teachers for blind students.
2. Individual evaluations should be made as to the
appropriateness of field hockey for blind or vi-
sually impaired students.
i.
TERMINOLOGY
Advancing Foul committed when the ball rebounds from
a player's body (i.e., kicked i.
Covering A back-up defensive position used to support a
teammate who is beaten or to pick up a free player
moving into attack position.
Defense hit Term used to denote how play is resumed
when the attacking team hits the ball over the end
line or commits a foul within the attacking 16-yard
area. The ball is placed 16 yards from the end line op-
posite the spot where it left the field or the foul was
committed.
Dodge Play used to evade an opponent while maintain-
ing control of the ball.
Dribble A skill used to move the ball on the field while
maintaining constant control.
Fielding Controlling an approaching ball before it is
passed or played.
Flick A skill which causes the ball to lift off the ground in
a controlled fashion. Useful for shooting, lifting the
over an opponent's stick, and in penalty strokes.
ball
Foul Infringement of rules. Penalty may be a free hit,
penalty corner, or penalty stroke.
Free hit A method used to restart play following certain
infringements of rules. It is taken by a player on the
team fouled against.
Hit A skill
used to pass the ball which provides power and
distance. This skill involves backswing into the ball.
Long hit A method used to restart play after the ball is
hit unintentionally over the end line by the defending
team.
Marking Guarding an opponent which is performed with
ball side — goal side defensive positioning.
Non-stick side A player's left side, which is not easily de-
fended by the stick.
Obstruction A foul made by placing the body between the
opponent and the ball so as to interfere with the oppo-
nent's effort to play or reach the ball.
Offside A foul committed by a player receiving the ball
while in an illegal position.
Penalty corner The play awarded to the attacking team
for a foul by the defense inside the circle or when the
defense intentionally hits the ball over the end line.
Penalty stroke A shot awarded to the attacking team
 FIELD HOCKEY 147

when a defensive player commits a foul to prevent a Wein, H. The Science of Field Hockey. Pelham Books LTD.
sure goal or flagrantly fouls the opponent in the circle. London. 1973.
Push back Technique used to start a game at the begin- *Whitaker, D. Coaching Hockey. The Croowood Press.
ning or at half time and to restart play after a goal. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire. Great Britain.
Push pass A skill used to pass the ball that is accurate 1986.
and easy to receive. This skill has no backswing as the
Periodicals
stick starts on the ball and extends forward.
Eagle. Published by USFHA, National Office, 1750 E.
Reverse stick Turning the stick over to play a ball on the Colorado Springs, CO.
Boulder St.,
left.

Stick side A player's right side where the stick can easily Audio-Visual Materials
be extended to play the ball. * Field Hockey: The Basic Skills. Produced and distributed

Tackle A skill used to dislodge the ball from an opponent. by Tasmanian Film Corporation. Morris Video (distribu-
tor in U.S.), Tasmania, Australia.
*Field Hockey Level I Skills. Produced by the Canadian
SELECTED REFERENCES Field Hockey Association, 333 River Rd., Vanier, On-
tario, Canada.

* Coaching Hockey the Australian Way. The official coach- Hockey. The Skill Revolution. Sponsored by Esanda Fi-
ing manual of the Australian Hockey Association. Suite nance. Produced by Video Coach.
1, 36 Park St., South Melbourne, Australia. 1991.

USFHA Manual for Coaches. The official manual of the

United States Field Hockey Association. Available from *Sources marked by an asterisk are available from Long-
National Office, 1750 E. Boulder St., Colorado Springs, streth Sporting Goods, P.O. Box 475, Old Schuylkill Rd., Parker-
CO. ford, PA 19457.
 11 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG
THIS CHAPTER WILL EMABLE YOU TO:
Discuss the key points of the games of touch and flag football.
Identify the differences in equipment, rules, and strategy between flag football and
touch football.
Describe the rules governing play.
Analyze and demonstrate the various skills and techniques including the stance,
passing, catching, blocking, tackling, and kicking.
Describe the offensive and defensive strategies utilized.
Take proper safety precautions.
Use the basic terminology associated with the game.

NATURE AND PURPOSE players, running and passing plays, punting, place-
kicking, first downs, and scoring are used in touch
Touch Football football. The tackling element is eliminated in favor

The object of the game of touch football (and its
variation, flag football) is to advance the ball over
the opponent's goal line without being "tackled
Points are awarded for a touchdown (6 points), a
point after touchdown (1 point by kicking, 2 points
by running or passing), a field goal (3 points), a
safety (2 points), a forfeit (1 point), and by penetra-
tion in the event of a tie 1 point
( >.
of the touch, and in most versions of touch football
certain limitations are placed on blocking. In many
cases no limitations are placed on eligibility of pass
receivers, making it possible for any player to receive
a forward pass. This factor makes the game more in-
teresting to players on the line of scrimmage, who
seldom have an opportunity to score or handle the
ball in regulation football.

Informal games of touch football are often played

in areas any size large enough to give the players
running and passing room. In schools and recreation
leagues, where the game is played on an organized
basis, a regulation football field equipped with goal
posts and yard lines is used. A regulation football is
used, but players are not required to wear the heavy
official football equipment because tackling is not
permitted. Runners are stopped by a touch with one
or both hands instead of a tackle. The fact that ex-
pensive equipment is not needed makes this game
appropriate for use in recreational programs and in
schools where funds are not available to outfit a reg-
ular football team.
The game retains most of the fundamentals of
regular football, which gives it a popular appeal in
the fall, when sport pages are filled with news about
forward passes, touchdowns, and long runs. An offi-
cial touch football team is usually composed of seven
players, but variations (from five to eleven players)
may be used with very little rules adaptation. The
game provides an opportunity for the individual in-
terested in football to duplicate in a relatively safe
situation many of the skills utilized by widely publi-
cized members of the gridiron game. Most present-
day versions of the game resemble regulation
football to the extent that names of positions of
Flag Football
Flag football is a variation of touch football in
which cloth or plastic flags are worn on both hips by
all players. The flag is detached or stripped from a
belt (worn by all players) by the defensive player in
lieu of a touch. Flags are generally 12 to 15 inches
long and 2 inches wide and are attached to the belt
by an adhesive substance such as Velcro or by plastic
snaps (Figure 11-1). A different colored flag is used
by each team.
The basic rules governing flag football are simi-
lar to those used in touch football. Holding an oppo-
nent or holding onto the flag to prevent detachment
are common infractions found in flag football and
must be closely regulated. Some contend that utili-
zation of the detachable flag in lieu of the one- or
two-handed touch tends to minimize roughness in
team play. Officiating is easier in flag than in touch
football, since detachment of the flag is readily dis-
cernible while there may be arguments regarding
the touch.
From a strategic standpoint, flag football would
appear to orient itself better to all around offensive
and defensive strategy because of the increased diffi-
culty in detaching a flag. Teams will be more prone

148
 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG 149

\ GOAL

GOAL
LINE
3 yd. line

20 yds.

20 yd.
Line

20 yds.
<
LU
en
IT
< Mid <
Field
< <
FIGURE 11-1 Flag and belt worn in flag football.
Flag is attached with velcro. 20 yds.

•20 yd.
to include a more balanced running and passing at- Line
tack; defenses will have to be designed to prevent
both strategies. 20 yds.

In order to minimize hazardous play in flag foot- 3 yd. line

GOAL
ball, the following precautionary measures are sug- LINE
777777777}
gested: END ZONE// 10 yds.

1. Eliminate the blocking, tackling, or holding the

_L_
j \ end line
by a defensive player attempting to
ball carrier
/goal\
secure the flag. 40 yds.
2. Defensive players must maintain contact with
the ground when attempting to secure the flag FIGURE 11-2 The touch and flag football field.

— no jumping or diving.
3. The ball carrier may not employ a straight-arm
or utilize body contact against a defensive player
in order to prevent him from securing the flag. Ball. A regulation leather or rubber-coated
football can be used. It is recommended that a
junior-sized football be used by younger children.
Flags. Flags should measure 12 to 15 inches in
BASIC RULES length and 2 inches in width. They can be made of
cloth and tucked in the elastic top of the gym trunks
The rules for touch football and flag football are gen-
if belts are not available.
erally the same. However, when playing flag foot-
Length of Game. Four ten- to twelve-minute
ball, the rules for blocking, fumbling, and tackling
periods constitute a game with a one-minute rest be-
must be strictly enforced. In flag football, any ball
tween periods and a five-minute rest between
carrier without two flags is considered tackled.
halves. Games may also be divided into two twenty-
minute halves with a five-minute rest period.
Playing Field and Equipment Overtime. Tie games may be decided by one of
the following methods:
Playing Field. An
touch football and
official
40 yards wide by 100 yards long
flag football field is 1. Award the game to the team with the greatest
(Figure 11-2). The field is divided into four 20-yard number of penetrations inside the opponent's
zones and two end zones, each 10 yards in depth. 20-yard line.

Goals. Goal posts are not a necessity; however, 2. Award the game to team with greatest number of
lack of goal posts eliminates points after touchdown firstdowns.
by kicking and field goals. In these cases, points 3. Give each team four downs from the 20-yard line
after touchdown are gained by running or passing. and award the game to the team advancing the
ball the farthest.
Uniform. No required. The
special uniform is
use of football helmets and football pads is prohib- Forfeits. If a team is not ready to play within
ited, although tennis shoes or soccer shoes with ten minutes after scheduled starting time, the oppo-
molded rubber cleats may be used. nents are awarded the win on a forfeit. Teams refus-
150 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG

ing to resume play after an order to do so by the Downed Ball. The ball is dead and the player
referee forfeit to opponents. downed when an opponent touches him with one
Timeout. Each team is allowed two timeouts hand somewhere between his shoulders and his
per half. Timeouts are also taken under the following knees. In flag football, the ball is downed or player
conditions: tackled when one flag is detached from the belt or
the ball carrier loses a flag.
1. When ball goes out of bounds.
First Downs. A team has four chances to
2. After a score is made.
move the ball from one 20-yard zone to the next. If a
3. While a penalty is being enforced.
team does not advance the ball from one zone to the
4. At the discretion of the referee.
next in four downs, the ball goes to the opponents at
5. At the end of each period.
that spot.
Scoring. Scoring is the same as in regulation Passing. The following regulations govern
football: passing:
touchdown: 6 points 1. All players on both teams are eligible to catch
field goal: 3 points passes.
safety: 2 points 2. Forward passes may be thrown from any point
point after touchdown: 1 point (by kick, 2 points back of the line of scrimmage, and lateral passes
by run or pass) may be thrown anywhere on playing field.
3. Any number of passes may be thrown in a series
Players and Officials of downs.

Players. A team consists of seven players, al- Penalties

though fewer or more players may be used by mutual
consent. The offensive team must have at least three 5-Yard Penalty Infractions (from line of
men on the line of scrimmage when the ball is put in scrimmage):
play. Offside
Substitutes. Any number of substitutions Delay of game
may be made at any time during the game. Substi- Less than three players on line of scrimmage
tutes must report to the referee. Illegal motion or shift
Officials. Officials consist of a referee, an um- Illegal forward pass
pire, and linesmen. 15-Yard Penalty Infractions (from spot of
foul):
Illegal use of hands
Playing Regulations
Illegal block

Starting the Game. A toss of a coin by the Unnecessary roughness (push, tackle, shove,
trip, holding)
referee determines which team has the choice of
kicking off, receiving, or goals. The loser of the toss Unsportsmanlike conduct
has the choice of remaining options. Privileges of Clipping
choice are reversed at the beginning of the third
Pass interference
period. Flagrant violations of rules should be met with auto-
Putting the Ball in Play. The ball is put in matic disqualification.
play at the start of the game, after a score, and at the
beginning of the third period by a place kick from the
kicker's 20-yard line. Defensive team members must
be 10 yards away when the ball is kicked, and mem- RULES FOR COEDUCATIONAL FLAG FOOTBALL
bers of the kicking team must be behind the ball. If
the ball does not go 10 yards, it must be kicked Coeducational flag football is becoming an increas-
again. If the ball goes out of bounds after 10 yards, ingly popular game. Many variations and modifica-
the opponent has a choice of beginning play where it tions can be used. Modifications can be found in
went out of bounds or on their own 20-yard line. If Rules for Coeducational Activities and Sports, pub-
the ball is kicked into the end zone and the oppo- lished by the American Alliance of Health, Physical
nents elect not to run it out, play begins on their 20- Education, Recreation, and Dance, 1977 and 1980.
yard line.
Fumbled Ball. A fumbled ball at any time is
dead and belongs to the team that fumbled the ball
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
at the point of the fumble, the down and point to be
gained remaining the same. A fumbled forward pass A. Nature and Purpose of Touch Football /Flag Foot-
is ruled as an incomplete pass. ball
 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG 151

B. Conditioning Aspects — plan drills and exercises 1. Offense

that might be related to movements of touch and a. T-formation
flag football. b. Shotgun formation
C. Basic Game Concepts c. Single wing
1. Field of play 2. Defense
2. Equipment
Safety
a. Pass defense — pass rush
3. b. Running defense
Playing courtesies
4. G. Game Play
D. Rules/Coeducational —
Rules rules should be in-
troduced when appropriate and at a time that re-
lates to a specific skill or strategy. This does not
mean that all rules must be discussed at one SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
time.
The techniques and fundamental
E. Skills —
and Techniques skills should be taught
skills associated
with touch football and flag football are identical to
in combinations whenever possible; the sequence
regular football in most instances. There are two
that skills are taught is up to the individual pref-
areas, however, where touch and flag football differ
erence of the instructor.
from the parent game; these are in tackling and
1. Stances
blocking. The tackle in touch football refers to a
a. Three-point stance
touch between the shoulders and knees, while the
b. Upright stance
tackle in flag football refers to the detachment or
2. Ball Carrying
stripping of a flag by an opponent from a belt that
3. Passing and Receiving
circles the waist. In both touch and flag football,
a. Pass Patterns
players cannot leave their feet when blocking. There
4. Kicking
are other skills that all players must work on since
a. Punting
the skills will be used regardless of the position
b. Place kick
played.
c. Kickoff
5. Blocking
6. Tackling
Stances
a. Touch
b. Flag detachment The stance will vary according to the position
7. Centering played and the function of either the offense or de-
a. Direct snap fense. Generally speaking, the three-point stance is
b. Long snap used by the players on the line on offense and de-
F. Strategies —
offensive game concepts as well as fense and sometimes by the offensive backs. The
defensive game concepts should be introduced as upright stance may be used by linebackers, defen-
early as possible so that skills can be practiced sive backs, and sometimes, the offensive backs. (See
within the context of a game. Figure 11-3.)

FIGURE 11-3 Stance: the players on the line are in a three-point stance; the backs are in

an upright stance.
752 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG

Learning Cues — Three-Point Stance ball carrierrun toward the defensive player,
changing the ball as the player changes direc-
1. Feet are shoulder width apart, one foot slightly
tion.
ahead of the other in a heel-toe relationship.
2. Same type of formation, have the ball carrier
2. The supporting arm hangs vertically, the back is
run toward the defensive player using a series of
nearly horizontal, head is up looking ahead,
fakes to try to avoid being tackled.
weight is on support hand.
3. Using a blocker, have a ball carrier try to set up
3. The free arm rests on the knee of the forward
the block on the defensive player by following
leg.
the interference and setting up a series of fakes.

Learning Cues — Upright Stance

Passing
1. Foot position is much the same as in the three-
point stance. The forward pass assumes an important role in
2. Hands are placed just above the knees, back is touch football and flag football since rules permit
slightly bent on the waist, head is up, focused everyone to be an eligible receiver. A good passing
downfield. attack will loosen up the defense and allow the run-
3. Weight is on balls of the feet. ning game to become more effective. There are two
types of passes commonly used: the forward pass and
the lateral pass. The lateral pass may be thrown in
Ball Carrying
an overhand motion or it may be "pitched" to a
Because of the rules governing play, most player in an underhand motion. The lateral, which
players have an opportunity at one time or another cannot be thrown forward, adds much interest and
to carry the football. The effective ball carrier is one excitement to the game since it can be used any-
who can start quickly, change direction, dodge, side- where on the field.
step, and execute fakes that will throw the defensive
player off stride. It is important for the ball carrier to Learning Cues — Forward Pass
follow the blockers in order to elude the defensive
1. Ball gripped by the hand on the top; the
is
players.
thumb is opposite the middle finger, the other
fingers are spread on the laces (Figure 11-5).
Learning Cues (See Figure 11-4)
2. As ball is brought up behind the ear, plant the
1. Carry ball in outside arm furthest from the de- rear foot, step with the opposite foot in the direc-
fensive player. tion of throw as the arm is brought forward.
2. One end of the football is placed in the armpit 3. The wrist is snapped downward and palm of
and the other end is held in the palm of the hand throwing hand is rotated outward as the ball is

with fingers spread comfortably around the end released, thus giving the ball a spiral motion.
to provide a firm grip.

Practice Suggestions

1. Align a ball carrier facing a defensive player

standing 10 yards away. On the signal, have the

FIGURE 11-5 Proper grip for a forward

pass. Note that the middle finger and the
FIGURE 11-4 Proper way to carry a ball. thumb are opposite.
 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG 153

Practice Suggestions 3. As the receiver moves away from the passer,

fingers are extended, thumbs are turned out;
1. Place players opposite each other and throw ball
back and forth. Begin at a distance of 10 yards
give with ball on contact.
and move further away. 4. On passes caught over either shoulder, the
2. After you have reviewed certain pass receiver thumbs are turned out; the arm on the ballside
(nearest the body) is held below the shoulder,
patterns, form two lines, have a player center
the forearm is held at eye level (Figure 11-8).
the ball back to the quarterback, receivers go out
for a pass. First begin with short passes and
Practice Suggestions
then progress to longer passes.
3. Same formation as #2 but add two defensive 1. Form two parallel lines and have passes thrown
linesmen; force quarterback to throw on the run. above chest and below chest to pass receivers.
Another variation is to add two defensive backs 2. Two lines, passer drops back and throws pass
and attempt to complete a pass. over the receiver's head for over-the-shoulder
catch.

Receiving
3. Two lines, receivers practice pass patterns and
catches. Add defensive backs as a variation.
Pass receivers should become adept at eluding
their opponents by dodging, faking, and using a
Kicking
change of pace that will enable them to move past
the defensive player. It is important for the pass re- The kicking game consists of kickoffs to begin
ceiver to focus in on the ball as soon as it leaves the play, punting, and place kicks.
passer's hand, watching all the way to his own
hands. Some basic fundamentals must be remem- Learning Cues — Punting
bered.
1. The punter stands 13 yards behind the line of
scrimmage awaiting the center snap; the kicking
Learning Cues
foot is slightly ahead of the non-kicking foot,
1. Palms face out, thumbs toward the incoming arms are relaxed, palms open and up, trunk is
pass. Catch with the hands and pull into the slightly flexed.
body. 2. Follow the ball into the hands; the ball is held in
2. On passes above the chest, thumbs are turned the hand of the kicking foot toward the end and
in; below the waist, thumbs are turned out (see underneath. The other hand is placed on the ball
Figures 11-6 and 11-7). with laces up to the front and side. The ball

fir-

uiVl«- -
*r> i
FIGURE 11-6 Catching the ball above the FIGURE 1 1 -7 Catching the ball below the FIGURE 1 1 -8 Catching the football over
chest — thumbs turned in. waist — thumbs turned out. the shoulder.
754 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG

should be slightly tipped, nose downward just
below the chest.
3. The kick and step is a step with the right foot, a
hop with the left, and a follow-through with the
right leg. The kicking foot may finish above the
head.
4. The ball is released with the non-kicking hand
and guided to the correct position of the foot by
the kicking hand prior to release.
Place Kicking and Extra Point. There are
two types of place kicks, the traditional head-on ap-
proach and the soccer style instep kick, which is de-
scribed in the chapter on Soccer. Some key points to
remember for the traditional kick are:
1. Assume a stance two steps behind the spot of the
kick; the right foot takes a longer step and the
left foot a short step.
2. The non-kicking foot is placed approximately
two feet behind and a foot to the side of the ball.
3. With the head down and eyes on the contact
point, the body leaning forward, the right leg fol-
tempts to maintain contact on a blocking posi-
tion for 3 to 4 seconds.
2. With a center, a ball carrier, defensive player,
and offensive player, on signal the ball carrier
runs behind the blocker and cuts right or left,
depending on the direction of the block.
Tackling
Tackling is the term used to denote the touching
of a ball carrier to stop play or, in flag football, the
detachment or stripping of the flag to stop play. An
important point to remember is that, for the tackle to
be valid, both feet of the tackier must be on the
ground. A legal touch is between the shoulder and
knee of the opponent. The game may be played using
a one-hand touch or it may be increased in difficulty
by making it a two-hand touch game 'Figure 11-9).
In flag football, one flag must be detached from the
belt (Figure 11-10). Body balance and control of body
movement and speed are important factors to prac-
tice.

lows through with a definite leg snap coming at

the contact point.
4. The ball is contacted just below the center of the
football; the leg should be extended at impact.

The KickofT. The kickoff follows the same me-

chanics except the kicker is stationed 8 to 10 yards
behind the ball prior to kickoff. Practice and timing
are essential in executing the correct form for the
place kick during a kickoff.

Blocking
Since the player is not permitted to leave the feet
in executing a block, the player must become adept
at maintaining balance while retaining a position
between the defensive person and the ball carrier. It
is important to try to maintain contact with the de-
fensive player and draw him away from the ball car-
rier. The blocker is not allowed to hold the defensive
person, so the hands must be held in close to the
body at all times.

Learning Cues

1. Assume a three-point stance opposite your oppo-

nent; the initial steps are short, choppy steps to
the opponent.
2. Body is in a semi-crouch position, the shoulder
and forearms make contact with the opponent's
midsection, the head is placed between your op-
ponent and the ball carrier.
3. Drive your opponent away from the ball carrier;
use short, choppy steps.

Practice Suggestions

1. Form two parallel lines 2 yards apart. On the

signal, block right or block left; the blocker at- FIGURE 11-9 Tackling — a two-handed touch above the waist.
 —

FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG 755

Centering
The center plays an important part in touch and
flag football.The center snap is executed at close
range (direct snap) if a team uses a T-formation, at
longer range if a team uses a shotgun or single wing,
and at still longer range on punts and extra point
tries.Note that in touch or flag football if the center
snaps the ball on the ground before getting to the re-
ceiver, it is a dead ball.

Learning Cues Direct Snap (Figures 11-11, 11-12)

1. Feet are shoulder width apart, bend at the waist,

knees flexed, arms hanging comfortably in
front,head up.
2. Quarterback places hands under the crotch of
the center, fingers spread, heels of palms to-
gether.
3. The center places one hand on top of the ball
(laces up) and the other hand alongside and to-
ward the end of the ball. On the signal the arms
are rolled toward the quarterback, the ball is
snapped back to the quarterback, with the right
hand turning the ball a quarter right turn so the
ball is placed in the quarterback's hands on its
side.

Learning Cues — Long Snap (Figure 11-13)

1. Same starting position, although weight may be
forward and head lower than the buttocks.
2. Arms are swept toward the receiver, wrist snap
to impart spiral on the ball.

FIGURE 11-10 Tackling, flag football style. The ball carrier's hand
may not protect the flag.

FIGURE 11-11 The snap. Note quarter turn of the ball as it is given FIGURE 11-12 The direct snap.
to the quarterback.
756 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG

FIGURE 11-13 The long snap.

STRATEGY FOR TOUCH OR FLAG FOOTBALL ployed to represent the type of play, the player exe-
cuting the play or carrying the ball, and the side of
Offensive Strategy the line where the play is to go. The line may be
numbered with odd numbers on the left side and
Touch football permits the use of a wide range of
even numbers on the right (Figure 11-14). The backs
offensive plays because of the emphasis on passing
and the everyone is eligible to receive a
fact that
—
may be numbered: 1 quarterback, 2 right half-—
pass. In arranging the offensive strategy, a team
back, 3 —fullback, and 4 —
left halfback. Thus, after
the ball has been centered, the signal "Run 14" indi-
should plan a signal system that will denote the kind
cates a running play through the number 4 hole,
of play to be used (pass, run, punt), who is to carry
with the number 1 back carrying the ball.
the ball, and where the ball is to go. Plays should be
Offensive strategy should combine running and
kept as simple as possible. Numbers may be em-
passing plays in order to create confusion to the de-
fense. It is not good strategy to constantly employ all
passing plays or all running plays. Try to keep the
defense guessing; attempt running plays on second

O 0<?>0/0 down with a lot of yards to go for first down.

Offensive Formations. There are a number
of formations that can be created by the offense as
© long as three people line up on the line of scrimmage
before the ball is snapped. Three common formations
used in touch football and flag football include (1)
the T-formation, (2) the shotgun formation, and (3)
the single wing formation (Figure 11-15).

FIGURE 11-14 Numbers for offensive holes.

HB QB QB
FB HB

QB
HB HB oo o
O ® O O ® o o ® o
T-FORMATION SHOTGUN FORMATION SINGLE WING FORMATION

FIGURE 11-15 Types of offensive formations.

 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG 157

HOOK PASS SQUARE OUT

/
/
O O/
/
000/6 /
/
/
QB OB

SLANT FLY

O O O
QB

FIGURE 11-16 Types of pass patterns.

Defensive Strategy Offensive Hints

Teams should agree on a plan for the pass and 1.
the run defense. For a passing defense, certain
players on the line of scrimmage should be assigned 2.
to rush the passer, while other players drop back to
help the defensive backs cover possible receivers.
Generally a person-to-person assignment is made for 3.
the deep pass receiver while a zone defense is em-
ployed by the remaining defensive players to watch
for the short pass receivers. Figure 11-16 illustrates 4.
four types of pass patterns.
5.
Defensive Hints
1. Assign rushers to contain the passer or runner 6.
inside, not allowing the ball carrier the opportu-
nity to break outside the defensive containment.
2. Learn to recognize the opponent's formations
and most effective players; set up your defenses
accordingly.
3. Listen to see if an opponent is continually using
the same cadence; time your rush to the cadence
occasionally.
4. Defensive backs should not turn their backs on
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
the pass receiver; learn to run backwards or
sidewards so that you can always see the ball
Orthopedically Impaired
and the pass receiver.
5. Use different pass rushers to confuse the of- 1.
fense; send in linebackers at times as an element
of surprise.
Keep defense guessing by varying running and
passing plays.
If the defensive secondary plays deep, use many
of your players in short passing patterns. When
the defensive draws in, use the deep pass.
If you receive a long penalty, do not try to make
it up on one play; use a run and perhaps some
short passes.
Change your cadence occasionally to pull the de-
fensive team offside.
Utilize a quick kick on third down to get your
team out of a defensive hole.
Let your field position help dictate the type of
plays you will use —long passes are dangerous
near your own goal line; plays involving decep-
tion are best in the vicinity of midfield; use quick
hitting or pass plays near your opponent's goal
line.
For wheelchair users, games would have to be
modified to be played on the gymnasium floor,
and a foam rubber football is recommended.
758 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG
Able-bodied students could use scooters in the
sitting position. No modifications would be
needed for throwing and catching for students
with functional upper body skills. Forward
passes to students using powerized wheelchairs
would be completed by striking with the football
any part of the wheelchair above the waist area,
e.g., chair arms, seat back.
2. Students using crutches, canes, and walkers
should be able to participate on an outdoor or in-
door field. These students could be positioned as
defensive linemen and coached to raise their
assistive devices to block forward passes. Quar-
terbacks would not be allowed to move when
throwing against this defense.
Mentally Impaired
1. Play the games with smaller numbers, (e.g.,
fewer than five on a team) to help minimize con-
fusion and increase participation.
2. Make sure to use some means of designating
team players in play demonstrations, e.g., green
and red pennies.
3. Stationary lead-up games might be helpful, e.g.,
stationary passing relays the length of the field.
Sensory Impaired
1. Blind/visually impaired could be the designated
center and blocker.
2. Blind/visually impaired students could play
quarterback without using a center snap. Using
a "double pass" system the student would be re-
quired to pass the ball to a sighted teammate be-
fore the defensive rush could occur, with the
sighted player serving as the second quarter-
back.
3. Minimal modifications would be needed for the
deaf or hearing impaired. Develop some visual
system for stoppage of play, e.g., cue cards, wav-
ing of towel.
SAFETY
Observance of the following safety precautions will
minimize the incidence of injuries.
1. Do not wear any equipment possessing sharp or
projecting surfaces that may injure teammates
or opponents. This includes rings, belt buckles,
and watches.
2. Use rules that prevent leaving the feet in exe-
cuting the block.
3. Declare the ball dead on all fumbles.
4. See that the playing area is smooth and free
from holes and projecting objects that may prove
a hazard.
5. Use competent officials who enforce the rules
and eliminate rough play.
6. Be sure adequate treatment is available for
players in case of injury during play.
7. Players who wear glasses should wear a head-
band or eyeglass guard.
TERMINOLOGY
Backs Players on the team who ordinarily carry or pass
the ball on offense. Stationed behind the linemen.
Backward pass Play in which the ball is thrown or
passed in any direction except toward the opponent's
goal. Any player may make a backward pass.
Balanced line An offensive formation which has an equal
number of linemen on each side of the center. Line is
unbalanced if more linemen are on one side of center
than the other.
Block Action of offensive linemen and backs in which
they use their bodies to ward off defensive players
from the ball carrier.
Bootleg play An offensive play in which a back fakes
handling the ball to a teammate, conceals it on his
hip, and turns in the opposite direction.
Brush blocking Momentary blocking by an offensive
player.
Button hook A
forward pass play in which the receiver
runs toward the defender, turns, and runs back to-
ward passer to receive the pass.
Clipping A blocking action in which a player throws his
body across the back of the legist of a player not carry-
ing the ball. This can cause injury, and is a personal
foul.
Cross-buck An offensive play in which two backs cross
paths in moving toward the line of scrimmage, one
faking to receive the ball and the other actually taking
the ball.
Cut-back An offensive maneuver which the back
in
starts wide and then cuts back toward center of the
line.
End around An offensive maneuver in which one end
wheels around, takes the ball from a teammate, and
attempts to run for a gain.
Fair catch A player may make a fair catch on a kickoff,
return kick, or kick from scrimmage by raising his
hand clearly above his head before making the catch.
He may not be tackled, and must not take more than
two steps after receiving the ball. The ball is put in
play from the spot of the catch by a free kick or scrim-
mage.
Flanker An offensive maneuver in which a player lines
up nearer the sideline than a designated opponent.
Flat pass A forward pass that travels chiefly in a lateral
direction and is usually thrown with a flat trajectory.
Forward pass An offensive play in which the ball is
thrown toward the line of scrimmage.
Handoff An offensive play in which one back hands the
ball off to another back who attempts to advance the
ball.
 FOOTBALL: TOUCH AND FLAG 159

Lateral pass An offensive play in which the ball is passed American Association for Health, Physical Education, and
sideward or backward to the line of scrimmage. Recreation, Division for Girls' and Women's Sports.
Line of scrimmage An imaginary line, or vertical plane, Soccer-Speedball-Flag Football Guide. Current ed.
passing through the end of the ball nearest a team's Washington, DC: AAHPER.
goal line and parallel to the goal lines. Thus there is a Armbruster, D.A.; Erwin, L.; and Musker, F.F. Basic Skills
line of scrimmage for each team, and the area between in Sports for Men and Women. 5th ed. St. Louis, MI: C.V.
the two lines is called the neutral zone. Any player of
Mosby Company, 1971.

either team is he encroaches upon the neu-

offside if Dintiman, G.B. and Barrow, L.M. A Comprehensive Man-
ual of Physical Education Activities for Men. Englewood
tral zone before the ball is snapped.
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1970.
Naked reverse An offensive play in which the ball car-
rier takes the ball from another back and attempts to
Frommer, H. Sports Lingo: A Dictionary of the Language of
Sports. New York: Atheneum, 1979.
advance without benefit of backfield blockers.
Dowell, L.J. Handbook of Teaching and Coaching Points for
Neutral zone The imaginary line which passes between
Basic Physical Education Skills. Springfield, IL: Charles
the lines of scrimmage for each team. Either team is
C. Thomas, Publisher, 1974.
offside if it moves across the neutral zone before the
Little, M.; Dowell, L.; and Jeter, J. Recreational Football:
ball is snapped.
Flag and Touch for Class and Intramurals, Minneapolis:
Offside When an offensive player is ahead of the ball be-
Burgess, 1977.
fore it is snapped. (The penalty is five yards.)
Mood, D., et al. Sports and Recreational Activities for Men
Safety A score made when one in posses-
a free ball, or
and Women. Latest ed. St. Louis: Times-Mirror Mosby,
sion of a player defending his own goal, becomes dead 1987.
behind the goal, provided the impetus which caused it
National College Physical Education Association. Touch
to cross the goal was supplied by the defending team. Football —
Official National Touch Football Rules. Cur-
Screen pass An offensive maneuver in which a wave of rent ed. Chicago: The Athletic Institute.
eligible receivers converge in area where a pass is to New
Stanbury, D. and DeSantis, F. Touch Football. York:
be thrown. Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 1979.
Shotgun offense A formation in which the quarterback
lines up five to six yards behind the center. Usually
one or both halfbacks may line up one to two yards on
Skills Testing
either side of the quarterback and one yard in front of
the quarterback. Brace, D.K. Skills Test Manual: Football. Washington, DC:
Shovel pass An offensive maneuver in which a pass is American Association for Health, Physical Education,
thrown, underhand, usually forward to a back behind
and Recreation, 1965.
the line of scrimmage. Hewate, C. and Reynolds, J. "Flag Football." Soccer-Speed-
ball-Flag Football Guide. Washington, DC: American As-
Touchback When the ball becomes dead behind the oppo-
sociation for Health, Physical Education, and
nent's goal line legally in possession of a player guard-
Recreation, 1972.
ing his own goal, provided the impetus which caused
it to cross the goal line was supplied by an opponent.

No points are scored on the play, and the ball is put in

play by a scrimmage at the 20-yard line. Audio-Visual Materials

Clearvue Inc., 5711 Milwaukee Ave., Chicago, IL 60646

Touch/ Flag Football II: Rules of the Game (Filmstrip/
SELECTED REFERENCES Guide).
Clearvue Inc., 5711 Milwaukee Ave., Chicago, IL 60646
American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Touch/Flag Football I: How to Play (Filmstrip/Guide).
Recreation, Rules for Coeducational Activities and AIMS Media, Inc., 6901 Woodley Ave., Van Nuys, CA
Sports. Revised ed. Washington, DC: AAHPER Publica- 91406. Playing Touch Football (% or V2 inch video, 12
tions, 1980. minutes).
 12 GOLF
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Identify the parts and features of a golf course.
Identify the various clubs and other equipment, know their function and proper
care.
Describe and after practice execute the following skills: grip, stand, swing (irons
and woods), pitch, chip, and sand shots, putting, and various golf exercises.
Identify and carry out the courtesies associated with the sport.
State and interpret the major official rules of golf.

FIGURE 12-1 Directions for computing par on a golf course.

NATURE AND PURPOSE

One of the greatest advantages of golf lies in the age For Men
range of those who are able to participate. Both
Par 3 Up to 250 yards, inclusive
young boys and girls and mature men and women
Par 4 251 to 470 yards, inclusive
can be found participating at many golf courses. In
Par 5 471 yards and over
recent years the United States Golf Association has
sponsored Junior Golf Programs (ages 9 to 17);
For Women
therefore, more and more children are becoming in-
terested in playing at a very early age. Many private Par 3 Up 210 yards, inclusive
to
and public golf courses have extensive instructional Par 4 21 1 400 yards, inclusive
to
programs for the junior golfer and sponsor golf tour- Par 5 401 to 575 yards, inclusive
naments all summer long. Most public and private Par 6 576 yards and over
clubs have also set aside specific playing times for
the juniors in order to encourage their participation.
Golf may be played by strokes or by holes. The
objective is to play a ball from a teeing area to a hole,
handicap play the strokes are usually computed in
a prescribed distance from the tee, in the fewest
relation to the difference between par and the aver-
strokes possible. An official round is eighteen holes.
age score of the player. Thus, many can compete in a
In stroke play, the winner is the person taking the
tournament on a handicap basis. In match play the
fewest number of strokes over an entire eighteen
strokes are subtracted from the higher average
holes of play. Each hole receives a rating of par de-
player's score on holes designated as the most diffi-
termined by the length of the hole (see Figure 12-1).
cult. That is, a handicap of five would allow the
In match play, or play by holes, the winner is the
player to subtract one stroke from his score on the
golfer who wins the greater number of holes despite
five most difficult holes.
the final total in strokes. Stroke play is considered
more exacting, since each shot is of equal value,
whereas in match play, a loss of two or more strokes THE COURSE
on a hole may be recouped by a one-stroke victory on
a later hole. The course is the whole area within which play is
Golf is one of the few sports that allows a handi- permitted, and it is the duty of authorities in charge
capping system among participants. Handicapping of the course to define its boundaries accurately.
is a means of equalizing competition among golfers Most courses consist of eighteen holes; however,
of differing abilities. The player with the lower aver- there are many nine-hole courses. Golf scores are
age score is required to give strokes to the higher based on eighteen holes of play, with the par usually
average golfer. In stroke play the higher average varying between 70 and 72. Each hole consists of
player subtracts these strokes from his total to get a many common components and some not so common
net score. This is compared with the other player's components (see Figure 12-2). A player tees a ball up
gross or total score to determine the winner. In most on a wooden tee in the teeing area, in line with or no

760
 GOLF 161

more than two club lengths behind the tee markers.

Generally there are three sets of markers on a tee: Sand
Trap
the farthest from the hole are for championship play;
the middle markers are generally for men; and the
markers closest to the hole are where women initiate
play. From the tee, the golfer hits to a fairly well-
groomed area called the fairway and from there, hits
to a closely cut area of the hole called the green. Gen-
erally the area to the right and left of the fairway
where the grass is long and other obstacles may be
found is known as the rough. Most courses include
obstacles such as sand traps, bunkers, water haz-
ards, out-of-bounds, and trees placed in strategic po-
sitions to penalize a poor shot made by a golfer.
There are specific rules governing play that the
golfer must understand when confronted by one of
these obstacles. These are discussed below under
"Rules of Golf."

SCORING

Figure 12-3 represents a typical score card. The

golfer will note the yardage given for each hole de-
pendent on the set of markers from which play is ini-
tiated. Also included is information on the course
rating, the par designation for a particular hole, as
well as the hole's difficulty as expressed in men's or
women's handicap. Thus the hole having the men's
handicap designation of 7 (hole number 6) means
that it is the seventh hardest hole on the course. If
the golfer had a handicap of 7, he would be given a
Out-of-
deduction of 1 stroke from his score in order to equal-
Bounds
ize the competition. In this example, the golfer would Stakes
also receive a stroke deduction on holes 7, 11, 2, 13, Red Tees
1,and 12. White Tees
The par designation is the number of strokes Blue Tees
that an expert would take to play a hole. It is usually
FIGURE 12-2 A typical layout of a hole.

SCORE CARD
HOLE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 OUT 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 IN Total
Championship BLUE 440 545 250 350 175 385 420 385 480 34 30 520 440 525 4 20 205 350 385 185 405 3435 6865
Men's WHITE 365 515 245 325 160 380 415 350 455 3210 450 420 510 405 150 325 380 180 395 3215 6425
PAR 4 5 3 4 3 4 4 4 5 36 5 4 5 4 3 4 4 3 4 36 72
Men s Handicap 5 3 13 15 17 7 1 u 9 12 2 6 4 18 14 10 16 8

Won + Lost - Halved

Wornen's YELLOW 360 490 245 320 160 365 410 350 440 3140 440 405 510 405 150 320 370 175 395 3170 6315
Par 4 5 4 4 3 4 5 4 5 38 5 5 5 5 3 4 4 3 4 38 76
Woman's Handicap 5 l 17 9 15 7 11 13 3 4 10 2 16 18 12 8 14 6

COURSE RATING 70. 5

DATF PI AYPR
. ATTF< ,T

FIGURE 12-3 Score card.

762 GOLF
the number of shots from the tee to the green plus
two strokes for putting. Thus an expert playing a par
four hole would take two shots to reach the green
and two putts to hit the ball into the hole. Sometimes
a golfer will hit a ball from the tee into the hole in
less than par. A score of 1 under par is a birdie, 2
under par is called an eagle, 3 under par on a par five
is a double eagle, and 2 under on a par three is a hole
in one, the golfer's dream.
EQUIPMENT
Clubs
A set of golf clubs consists of woods, irons,
putter.The beginner may not wish to invest in a
complete set of expensive clubs, and can initially get
along with less expensive clubs. A minimum set
should contain two woods, four irons, and a putter.
The recommended choices would be a driver and a
number 3 wood, the 3, 5, 7, and 9 irons, and a putter.
While it is possible to obtain a full set by gradually
adding the missing clubs, such as the number 4 and
5 woods and the 2, 4, 6, and 8 irons, as well as the
sand wedge, a better plan is to play with the basic set
until a fairly high level of skill is reached. At that
time a golf professional should be consulted to fit the
player with a better and completely matched set of
14 clubs. The most popular 14 clubs are the driver,
numbers 3 and 5 woods, numbers 2 through 9 irons,
a pitching wedge, a sand wedge, and a putter. A set
of clubs may cost anywhere from around $75
eral hundred Generally the beginning golfer
dollars.
can purchase a starter set for approximately $100 to
$175.
The Putter. The putter is a golf club carried
by all golfers; it is used primarily on the putting
green to hit the ball into the cup. Today there are as
many putter designs as there are golfers. The putter
comes in various sizes, shapes, and colors. In choos-
ing a putter, the key points to look for, according to
the noted golf instructor Dick Aultman, are first,
that the putter when soled flat on the ground allows
you to look directly over the putting line; secondly,
that it should be simple to aim, and thus, that it be
1
easy to control.
Choosing Clubs
Golf clubs are precision instruments and vary in
design for men, women, and children. A golfer's
shotmaking ability is affected by many factors di-
rectly related to the construction of the golf club.
Among these factors are swingweight, length of the
club, shaft flexibility, clubhead design, and the
Swingweight. Determined by a swingweight
Dick Aultman, "Golf Primer," Golf Digest (May 1979),
scale, swingweight is the relationship among the
—
weights of a club's component parts grip, shaft,
and head. Scales to measure swingweight may be
found in most pro shops. Swingweights are usually
designated by the symbols C and D followed by a
number ranging from to 9. Women usually use a
lightweight club that has a swingweight of C4 to C7;
stronger women might use a C9 or even move to the
D classification. Men's clubs start at DO; an average
male golfer would use a swingweight of DO to D4.
Children's clubs are generally lighter.
Club Length. An important point to re-
member is that the higher the number of the club,
the shorter the club's length. The woods have the
longest shafts while the 9 iron, pitching wedge, and
and a
sand wedge have the shortest shafts.
In addition, the shorter clubs have a more
sharply-angled club face (greater degree of loft). The
combination of club length and club loft determine in
part the distance a golf ball can be hit under normal
conditions. If a golfer can execute a good shot each
time, there is an approximate ten-yard difference be-
tween each club used. Figure 12-5 indicates the de-
grees of loft of specific clubs.
Women's golf clubs are one to two inches shorter
than men's clubs and children's clubs are shorter
still. Some companies today are making fully
matched sets of junior clubs, but they are quite
expensive.
Shaft Flexibility. Matching the correct shaft
a golfer's swing is important. Most men
flexibility to
to sev- golfers should use a golf club with a shaft flexibility
rating of R, meaning regular. This shaft is also rec-
ommended for stronger women players. An S shaft
means stiffand should be used by stronger male
players. Most women golfers will use a golf club with
an L <Lady> rated shaft because these shafts have
more flexibility.
Clubhead Design. In recent years significant
advances have been made in clubhead design in both
woods and irons. The topic is too extensive and tech-
nical for discussion here. Almost any golf clubs can
be used to get you started. When your skill level in-
creases, you can consult a local golf professional for
the latest clubhead information.
Grip. Grips are generally made of synthetic
rubber, although other materials such as leather or
cord are also used. The standard size grip put on the
club in the factory can be changed to accommodate
different hand sizes. A good general rule is, "If it
feels right, it probably is."
Balls and Tees
grip. Golf Balls. Golf balls come in a variety of
types and in a wide price range. Beginners do not
need to buy the most expensive ball.
Golf balls have two kinds of covers. Balata is a
p. 113. soft rubber cover which damages easily but is pre-
 GOLF 163

CAP

BLADE

SOLE PLATE

SHAFT COLLAR
NECK COLLAR
NECK
GROOVING

HEAD
X^HEEL
SOLE

SOLE
WOOD CLUB IRON CLUB

FIGURE 12-4 Parts of a wood club and an iron club.

2 Iron 3 Iron 4 Iron 5 Iron 6 Iron

1 Wood 2 Wood 3 Wood

4 Wood 5 Wood

FIGURE 12-5 Club lofts. The loft of any one club will vary a few degrees. The manufacturers' recommendations are shown here.
764 GOLF

ferred by better golfers because they claim it has bet-
ter feel. Surlyn is a sturdier cover made of plastic
and some golfers claim surlyn-covered balls can be
hit farther. Beginning golfers should use a surlyn-
covered ball at first, and may have a different prefer-
ence as skill develops.
The inside of a golf ball can be manufactured in
two ways: (a) A small rubber core is covered by a thin
rubber string wound tightly around the core; (b) The
center of a golf ball can consist of synthetic material.
Combinations of both styles of covers and insides are
available.
Tees. Tees are made of wood and come
ious lengths; the standard is 2Vs inches. Tees
other materials should be avoided.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
Golf can be taught a number of different ways and
from various starting points. Many of the skills can
be learned and practiced indoors as well as outdoors.
The availability of space and equipment (clubs,
balls, screens, rugs, or mats) are important factors to
consider. For beginning golfers, audio-visual aids
can play a significant role in the learning process, for
they reinforce many of the concepts explained during
Full Swing techniques. Take-away, back-
swing, downswing, follow-through, balance
and tempo.
Special shots. Chipping, pitch and run, sand
trap shots.
Strategy of golf. Best taught on the golf course
during play, or as deemed most appropriate
for learning.
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
in var- Preswing Fundamentals
made of very important to have a good understand-
It is
ing of the preswing fundamentals. These fundamen-
tals, grip, club face alignment, body alignment,
stance and target selection, should be mastered be-
fore proceeding with the swing fundamentals. These
fundamentals should be reviewed before every prac-
tice session and before playing a round of golf
Should a swing problem occur during a round of golf,
a review of these fundamentals most often will solve
the swing problem.
The Grip
The correct grip the most important funda-
is

the initial stages of instruction. Another point to re- mental skill to be learned by golfers of any skill level.
member is that psychomotor and cognitive material It can determine in great part the path of your

is much better learned when presented together at
the appropriate time. For example, etiquette and the
rules governing play on the putting green are more
meaningful during a lesson on putting than during a
lesson devoted to the rules of golf. Finally, it is im-
portant to become proficient in the basic swing tech-
niques before attempting to move on to the more
advanced skills and techniques.
A. Introduction to Golf
Nature and purpose of the game
1.
swing, and consequently the directional flight of the
ball. There are three types of grips used in golf: the
overlapping (or Vardom grip, the interlocking grip,
and the ten-finger grip (Figure 12-6). The overlap-
ping grip is the one most commonly used. In this grip
the little finger of the right hand overlaps the index
finger of the left hand. The interlocking grip is used
by the golfer who has small hands and short fingers.
In this grip the little finger of the right hand inter-

Choosing the right equipment

2.
3. Care of equipment
B. Etiquette and Rules of Golf. These should be in-
troduced as deemed most appropriate for learn-
ing during different class intervals.
C. Skills and Techniques. Golf skills are best
learned starting with the shorter clubs. Putting
should be introduced very early. As skill in-
creases the longer clubs can be introduced with
the wood clubs coming last. Chipping can be in-
troduced following putting and full swing funda-
mentals.
1. Putting. Grip, stance, alignment, pendulum

stroke, lag putting, short putts, reading

greens, rules and etiquette.
2. Pre-swing fundamentals. Grip, club face align-
ment, body alignment, stance, target selection FIGURE 12-6 Types of grips, from left to right: the interlocking,
and strategy. the overlapping, and the ten-finger grip.
 GOLF 165

locks with the index finger of the left hand. Both scribed above. Place the right hand slightly for-
grips have the advantage of having the hands work ward hand will be
of the left hand. (The right
as a unit, because the hands are joined together. The below the left hand when gripping the club). The
ten-finger grip used by the golfer who has small
is palms of your hands should be facing each other
hands; it used frequently by beginning junior
is (Figure 12-7B). The lines formed by the thumb
golfers. The ten-finger grip enables the golfer to take and first finger of each hand should be pointing
a strong hold, but there is a tendency for the hands at the right eye. Later you may want to
to slip apart at times. strengthen the grip by pointing the lines toward
When assuming a grip, the fact that it may not the right shoulder as most women golfers do.
feel comfortable is no reason for the golfer to think You may want to weaken the grip by pointing
that it is incorrect. However, the grip should not feel the lines toward your nose if your hands are very
like a vise; rather it should feel firm yet somewhat strong.
relaxed. Tenseness in the grip will cause a restricted Using a 7 iron or a 5 iron, attempt to grip the
swing; the golf swing should flow. club. Be sure the sole of the club is flat on the
ground and the club face is pointed toward the
—
Learning Cues Overlapping Grip
direction you want the ball to travel. Place the
left hand on first, using the correct hand posi-
(Right-handed Golfer)
tion. Grip firmly with the last three fingers of
1. A good golf grip starts by using the same hand the left hand. The thumb and index finger grip
position used when standing erect. As you stand with less pressure. Use both palm and fingers to
erect with your arms hanging freely from your hold the club firmly and securely, but do not
sides, notice how both hands turn slightly in- squeeze too hard. (Figure 12-7C).
ward (Figure 12-7A). Extend your left hand and The left hand grip, for a right-handed golfer,
arm as though to shake hands. Close the thumb should see the end of the club cross the palm of
next to the first finger. The line formed by the the hand from the base of the index finger, diag-
thumb and first finger should be pointing to- onally to the heel of the hand (Figure 12-8A).
ward the right eye. The back of the left hand Closing the fingers around the club will insure a
should be pointing in the direction you want the good firm grip. Left-handed golfers will use the
ball to travel. same grip using their right hand.
2. Extend your right hand in the same manner as 6. The right hand grip is mainly a finger tip grip.
above. Close the right thumb next to the first First place the two middle fingers on the club
finger. This line formed by the thumb and first next to the index finger of the left hand (Figure
finger should also point toward the right eye. 12-8B). Use only fingertips. Overlap the little
The palm of the right hand should be pointing in finger between the index and middle finger of
the direction you want the ball to travel. the left hand. The index finger of the right hand
3. Extend both hands at the same time as de- is formed like a trigger finger and placed gently

FIGURE 12-7
ABC
Assuming the grip: (A) natural hand position, (B) natural hand position — arms extended, (C) natural hand position — golf grip.
766 GOLF

FIGURE 12-8 (A) Left-hand grip — fingers, palm.

FIGURE 12-9 A grip aid helps place hands in

perfect grip.

4. Correct right hand position must be observed by

a qualified instructor.
5. Grip aids can be purchased and placed on a
dowel rod. Grip aids come pre-molded for both
right- and left-hand golfers. Normal, strong, or
weak grips are also available. Home practice
with a grip aid will speed learning Figure 12-9 < >.

The Stance and Address

The stance and address involve assuming a
first

(B) Right-hand grip — two middle fingers. good grip. Next, the feet, hips, and shoulders are
properly aligned along with the club face. The stance
is completed with two bends and a tilt. The first bend
on the club. Let the thumb find a natural place is in the waist, the second bend is at the knees, and
as you form the line mentioned above. The palm the right shoulder is dropped to form a tilt.
of the right hand covers the left thumb but does Although there are three styles of stances, the
not touch the golf club. square stance is used by most golfers for most all
7. Close the right hand; the life line of the right shots Figure 12-10 The open stance is used for spe-
< 1.

palm should be placed over the left thumb.
8. The palms should face each other; the line
formed by the index finger and thumb of the
right hand should also point toward the right
eye; the club face should be square to the line of
flight.
Practice Suggestions
1. Place class in groups of two. One student works
on acquiring a correct golf grip aided by the sec-
ond student.
2. Grip with the left hand only. Hold the 7 iron at
arm's length using only the left arm and hand.
Remove all of the fingers from the club except
the index finger. The club will be held with only
this finger and the base of the hand.
3. Have the student helper attempt to pull the club
from the golfer's grip. The club should not come
out easily if at all. If the grip is incorrect, the
club will be very difficult to hold at arm's length
and can be removed easily by the student helper.
cial shots, such as a sand trap shot. The closed
stance is usually used to compensate for certain
types of body builds. The open and closed stances can
produce altered ball flight patterns such as a slice or
a hook.
Learning Cues
1. Always choose a target before attempting the
address and stance. Stand in line with the ball
and target and draw an imaginary line from the
ball to the target. A second imaginary line must
be drawn parallel to the first line. These two
lines must run parallel and not converge.
2. After securing a correct grip, place the club face
on the target line with the bottom of the club
face at a right angle to the line.
3. The second line is used to align your feet, hips,
and shoulders at a right angle to the club face.
The feet, hips, and shoulders should be pointing
in the same direction.
4. In a good stance the arms will hang freely from

FIGURE 12-10 Three types of stances,
the shoulders and straight down. Standing too
farfrom the ball will cause a poor swing plane,
and poor shots will result.
Ball position is determined somewhat by experi-
mentation. As a general rule, the golf ball will be
placed near the inside of the left heel for all full
swing shots. You may need to move the ball nearer
the center of your stance for the shorter clubs. Place
the ball right of center for special shots or unusual
circumstances (Figure 12-11).
Swing
The swing is a long, large elliptical circle. The
radius of the circle is the firm left arm and the club.
The left arm, wrist, and hand must be in control
from the takeaway, through the backswing, espe-
cially at the beginning of the downswing and on into
the follow-through. Any undue influence by the
right arm or hand will distort the swing circle and
ruin the shot.
Swing the club back and up as far as you can,
maintaining your balance. The right knee should re-
main inside the right foot during the backswing. The
wrists will fall into a cocked position with the
thumbs under the shaft. This will occur near the top
of the backswing. You will have turned your back to
the target, but your head has remained steady. Your
right elbow will be pointed downward.
The forward swing is started by replacing the
left heel in the original address position. You should
strive for the feeling of stepping into the shot. Your
left heel may not come off the ground for all clubs,
but the feeling of stepping into the shot is the same
for all clubs. As you step into the shot, you must keep
your head positioned behind the ball. Avoid anxiety
and an urge of the right shoulder to take over the
swing.
GOLF 167
left to right: open, square, and closed.
FIGURE 12-11 Ball positions.
The wrists will remain cocked during the begin-
ning of the downswing. They will uncock automati-
cally without thinking about it.
During the forward swing you should have a
sensation of the right side working underneath the
left side causing a bowing action in the waist. With
the irons, you should feel as though you are swinging
down and through, and with the woods, you should
feel a more level swing.
The entire swing lasts but a short time and does
not require complicated thought processes. If you
follow the above description of a golf swing and with
good tempo, you will have the sensation of swinging
the club through the ball and down the target line.
The swing will finish as you face the target with
most of your weight on the left foot. The right foot
will turn up on the toes. Your hands will finish high,
and the weight will be equally distributed between
the outside of the left foot and the right toes.
Although we frequently think of the adage
"practice makes perfect," the truth is that "practice
768 GOLF

makes permanent." Therefore, haphazard practice is 2. As the club reaches waist level, you should see
worse than no practice at all. Plan your practices the left arm still firm and in control. The right
well, concentrating on one phase of the swing at a elbow has begun to hinge. The left knee has
time. Remember that you will probably get worse as begun to turn inward. The right leg is still
your mind and body attempt to learn or relearn this braced, with the knee turned inward to pre-
new skill. Be patient and give yourself time to suc- vent a lateral sway and loss of balance. The
ceed. head has also begun to rotate slightly, but
does not move laterally.
Learning Cues (Figure 12-12) At the Top.
C.
A. Takeaway. The takeaway the act of moving the
is 1. The club should be horizontal for the longer

club away from the ball. The length of the take- clubs, near horizontal for shorter clubs. The
away is determined by how far the club moves left side is still in control. The thumbs are

away from the ball yet remains close to the
ground. The longer the club, the longer the take-
away. The speed of the takeaway also determines
the overall tempo of the entire golf swing.
1. With the left hand, wrist and arm in control,
under the shaft to support the club.
2. Sometime during the backswing, usually near
the finish, the wrists move to a cocked posi-
tion. This action should happen naturally and
is caused by the speed of the backswing.

start moving the club straight back away from 3. Your back should be turned to the target. The
the ball. Do not pull the club inside the target head will have continued to rotate but with no
line. The club will eventually begin an inside lateral movement. The right elbow is pointing
route as the club rises from the ground and is toward the ground.
lifted into the backswing. 4. The right leg has remained in the braced posi-
B. Backswing. This is not really a swing, but the act tion. The left knee has turned inward, and the

of turning and lifting the club into position. left heel may have been pulled off the ground.

1. With the left arm still in control, begin coiling D. Downswing

the body as you lift the club upward. The left 1. The initial movement is made by replacing the
shoulder will begin turning to a behind-the- left heel. A feeling of stepping into the swing
ball position. should occur. As you step into the swing, the

A B

FIGURE 12-12 Swing sequence: (A) takeaway, (B) backswing, (C) at the top, (D) follow-through.
 GOLF 169

hips will begin to slide on a parallel line to the A. Without a Ball or Club
target line. 1. Assume a golf stance and grip, arms hanging

2. With the left side still in control, you should
pull the club on a downward angle. You will
attempt to swing down and through the ball.
3. The right side is active as it works under the
left side. You will feel a bowing sensation in
the waist.
4. The wrists will uncock naturally; correct tim-
ing of the wrist cock will be obtained by prac-
tice.
5. The head must remain behind the ball. Swing
the club beyond your face before you allow
head movement.
E. Follow -through. The follow-through is a reaction
to all that has gone on before. If all has gone well,
the hands will finish high, and you should be fac-
ing the target. You will be equally balanced be-
tween the outside of your left foot and the toes of
the right foot.
Practice Suggestions
Many warm-up exercises can be used that ap-
proximate the rhythm and pattern of a full swing. In
addition, golf is a target game and therefore a target
should be selected and used as a reference in all
drills.
straight down from your shoulders, knees and
waist bent slightly. On command, pivot and
swing to a position with arms horizontal to the
ground. Stop and check for correct balance and
body position. Continue on to the top of the
backswing and stop. Execute a downswing,
stopping at a point where the ball would be
struck. Finally, finish the swing. Each stop
should be examined for correct body balance
and position.
2. With a towel rolled and grasped at either end,
assume a stance, then execute a golf swing. (A
golf club can be used. Make sure your weight
)
is kept inside the rear foot on the backswing.
Avoid excessive lateral movement.
B. With a Club and Ball
1. Assume a golf stance. Note the position of your
left foot. Next, place your left foot next to your
right foot. From this position, execute a
backswing and come to a stop. The downswing
is started by lifting your left foot from the
ground and beginning to step this foot toward
its original position. At the same time, begin
to pull downward with your left arm. Com-
plete the swing by replacing the left foot in its
original position. Correct execution will teach

•• jp

FIGURE 12-12 (cont.

770 GOLF
the sensation of weight transfer in the golf
swing. Practice this drill without a ball first
until you gain control. Add the ball to the drill
only after you have good balance and control.
2. To learn control of the clubface, choke down on
a 7 iron. Put your feet together and practice
hitting balls. When a majority of the balls are
flying toward your target, try a regular grip or
move to a longer club. This drill can be used
with any club including the woods.
3. Stand on the left foot only, using the right toes
only for balance. Hit balls toward a target
from this position. This drill simulates body
position at ball contact.
SUITING CLUBS TO SHOTS
Woods
The woods are used for the longest shots in golf.
The driver, the longest club,is used for shots from
the teeing ground on the longer holes. The first shot
on every hole may be teed.
The 3 and 5 woods are also used for distance.
They may be used for teeing off, but their primary
use is from the fairway. They do not afford as much
distance as the driver, but are more accurate. A near
perfect lie is necessary when using a wood from the
fairway or rough. If in doubt as to the lie, it is best to
use an iron.
Long Irons
The 2, 3, and 4 irons are considered the long
irons. They produce less distance than the woods but
are more accurate. Most long par 3 holes require a
long iron for the first shot. These clubs are good for
fairway and rough shots. They can also be substi-
tuted for a wood in a bad lie situation.
Some golfers find the long irons too difficult to
use. A 7 wood can substitute for the 2 and 3 irons,
leaving room for an extra club.
Medium Irons
This name applies to the 5, 6, and 7 irons. Re-
member, as the number becomes higher, so does the
flight of the shot produced. Increased height gives
less distance and more accuracy.
less roll, but
Medium irons are versatile and can be used for
several different kinds of shots. Par 3 golf holes of
medium length require a medium iron for the first
shot. On any hole, the medium irons should be con-
sidered as you near the 150-yard marker. A medium
iron is a good choice from a fairway bunker with a
large front lip. Near the green, if you desire a shot to
land on the green and roll towards the hole, a me-
dium iron works well. From deep rough, these clubs
can get you back in play.
When first learning the golf swing, the medium
irons are an excellent choice as the clubs with which
to begin. Most golf drills require a medium iron.
Short Irons
This category includes the 8, 9, and pitching
wedge (10 iron). These are the most accurate of all
the irons and are used inside the 150-yard marker.
Since the shots will fly much higher, you can expect
less roll. You may now shoot more towards a specific
target, such as the green or the hole, rather than a
landing area.
During your practice sessions, learn how far the
shortest club in your set will travel with a full swing
under normal circumstances. On the golf course,
once you are located at a distance that requires less
than a full swing, adjustments will have to be made.
To curtail distance, first open your stance
slightly. This will help shorten the backswing.
Choking down on the club can also reduce distance.
Narrow the stance in conjunction with the short
irons for shorter shots. See Chip Shots and Pitch
Shots for further ideas.
SPECIAL SHOTS
The short approach shots discussed in this section
the pitch, chip, sand shot, and putt — are frequently
called the golfer's scoring strokes. A high percentage
of shots taken during a round of golf consists of these
four types; therefore, the more proficient you be-
come, the lower your scores will become. One of the
key elements in these shots involves "feel"; conse-
quently, the shots must be practiced frequently in
order to develop a comfortable feeling. Most of these
shots, with the exception of a fairway sand shot, are
executed near the green or on the green itself.
Pitch Shot
The is characterized as a high flying,
pitch shot
minimum type shot. This shot is generally exe-
roll
cuted with a high lofted iron such as the 8, 9 or
pitching wedge. Less than a full swing is required.
The pitch shot is a good choice for a golfer faced
with a hazard, sand or water, blocking the entry to
the green. Many golfers use the pitch shot as a sub-
stitute for the chip shot, even though it is more diffi-
cult (Figure 12-13).
Learning Cues
1. Assume a square or open stance. Use your nor-
mal grip.
2. The feet are moved closer together.
3. Play the ball slightly left of center.
4. Pick the club up early in the backswing by cock-
ing the wrists.
 GOLF 171

MtH

FIGURE 12-13 Pitch shot. FIGURE 12-14 Chip shot.

5. Swing down and through, making sure the 2. Hit pitch shots over a barrier, such as your golf
hands do not stop at ball impact. bag.
3. Hit chip shots onto a practice green. Notice how
far the ball rolls using different clubs.
Chip Shot 4. Practice both chip shots and pitch shots with the
same club. Note how changes are made to pro-
The chip shot characterized as a low flying,
is
duce each shot.
maximum roll type shot. Generally, the ball will be
in the air one-third of the time, rolling two-thirds of
the time. Any club —
5 iron through pitching wedge
Sand Shot
— may be used. More lofted clubs produce less roll.
Most instructors suggest that the beginning The sand shot is usually a difficult shot for the
golfer select one club, 7 or 9 iron, to develop the nec- beginner to master because sand does not have the
essary experience. Since the chip shot is largely roll, firmness of the fairway nor does the ball set up as it
the shot must be treated much like a putt. Select a does on grass. A specially designed club called a sand
landing spot, then read the green to the hole (Figure wedge is used to execute the shot. Again, the element
12-14). of "feel" can determine success. Getting out of a sand
trap requires various strategies. With traps that are
flat, near the green, and with no lip, the beginner
Learning Cues
might try putting the ball out of the trap, provided
1. Narrow stance, square or slightly open. the ball is not buried. For shots with a low lip near
2. Normal grip. Some golfers prefer a putting grip. the green, the golfer may try a chip shot. However,
3. Play ball left of center. Hands, head, and weight for shots in a deep trap and with the ball buried in
center must be in front of ball. This delofts the the sand, the golfer must execute an explosion shot.
club, allowing maximum roll. Remember, a golfer may not ground a club in a trap
4. Keep lower body movement to a minimum, espe- without incurring a penalty.
cially on the backswing.
Learning Cues
Practice Suggestions
1. Address the with an open stance. Wiggle the
ball
1. Experiment with different clubs at 10-yard in- feet into the sand to secure a good foothold and
tervals starting 10 yards from the green. prevent slipping.
172 GOLF

>'

FIGURE 12-15 Sand shot.

2. The ball is played right of center. Preshift some

weight forward prior to the swing, but maintain
your head position behind the ball during the
entire swing. Open the club face slightly.
3. Cock the wrists early in the backswing, much
like the pitch shot. Focus on a spot an inch or so
behind the ball.
4. Explode the clubhead onto the spot behind the
ball. You must hit sand —
not the ball.
5. Be sure to keep the clubhead traveling through
the sand, under the ball, and into a good finish
(Figure 12-15).

The Putt
Putting is probably the most important phase of
the game, and too often one of the most neglected.
Concentration and confidence are two of the primary
requirements for good putting, and can be gained
FIGURE 12-16 Putting grip. Note overlap of
best through practice of fundamental techniques. index finger.
Forms of putting differ widely, but basic fundamen-
tals are much the same.
3. Both elbows must be bent to allow you to stand
close to the ball. You must also crouch down
Learning Cues
slightly for comfort.
1. Grip the club with your fingers, palms facing 4. The ball is played left of center. The putting
each other and in line with the putter face. All stance may seem awkward at first, but give it a
five fingers of the bottom hand grip the club. chance (Figure 12-17).
Overlap the index finger of the top hand (Figure 5. The backswing should be kept low. It is initiated
12-16). with the arms with little or no wrist break.
2. Any stance that is comfortable and allows you to 6. The forward stroke should return along the
place your eyes directly over the ball is accept- same line, keeping the putter face square to the
able. intended putting line.

FIGURE 12-17 Putting stance: (A) front view. (B) from behind.
The Sweetspot. This name is given to an
eighth-inch wide vertical area located on the face of
the putter. The most successful putts occur when the
sweetspot strikes the center of the ball. Missing the
sweetspot towards the heel of the putter will cause
the loss of distance and some control. Missing the
sweetspot towards the toe of the putter will cause
even more loss of distance and even more loss of con-
trol.
Of all putting fundamentals, striking the sweet-
spot to the center of the ball ranks as the most im-
portant. Regardless of which putting style you
choose or change to later, striking the sweetspot to
the center of the ball will always be your number one
goal.
Finding the Sweetspot. To find the sweet-
spot, hold your putterhead in front of your face, put-
ter face facing you, using your thumb and first
finger. Using a golf ball, begin dinging the putter's
face. Find the area that will allow you to drive the
putter straight back and forth with no gyrations or
shaft vibrations. Note the spot. Make a line on top of
the putter to align with this sweetspot. Some putters
already have a line marked for you; this line may or
may not be correct.
The Putting Stroke. The putting stroke can
be described as a sweeping motion. There should be
no lower body movement. Your head should also be
kept still until the putt is well on its way. The
amount of wrist break depends on the individual.
Generally, the closer to the nole, the less wrist break
needed to putt. Be sure to keep your hands moving
with the putt. Many beginners stop the hands at ball
impact causing mis-hit putts.
Finally, learn to read the greens. A putt seldom
rolls perfectly straight to the hole unless it is a very
GOLF 173
short putt. Since no green is perfectly flat, study
which way the ball will turn and to what degree. The
most important factor in reading a green is judging
distance. Misjudging distance and missing the
sweetspot are the main causes of missed putts.
Judging distance on a putt must include factors
along with distance. How fast the ball will roll on a
green can be affected by the grass length. Greens are
mowed early each day and are much faster early in
the morning after being mowed. Soft greens are
usually slower than hard greens. A putt traveling
downhill will roll much farther than one going
uphill. In some areas, the grain of the grass is a fac-
tor to be considered. Since putting can account for
nearly half or more of your total strokes, be sure to
devote plenty of time to developing your putting
skills.
HELPFUL HINTS
1. Always when planning any shot
select a target
or putt.Stand at least ten feet behind the ball,
plan your shot, then choose a club.
2. During the swing, concentrate on ball contact
and direction rather than distance.
3. Know what club to use from 150 yards. Gener-
ally, men can add or subtract 10 yards and
women 7 yards when choosing clubs for other
distances.
4. For downhill shots, use a lofted club, wide
stance, and play the ball back in the stance.
5. For uphill shots, use a less lofted club than nor-
mal, wide stance for balance, and play the ball
forward in the stance. In both uDhill and down-
174 GOLF
hill shots, adjust your shoulder position and
swing to match the contour of the hill.
6. For sidehill shots with the ball above your feet,
take more club than normal, but choke down
and swing easy. Expect the ball to travel in the
direction of the contour of the hill.
7. For a sidehill shot with the ball below your feet,
take more club than normal and plan to use a
short, easy swing. This is one of the more diffi-
cult trouble shots in golf.
8. Consider weather conditions when planning
shots. A golf ball will fly farther in warm, dry
air. Consider the velocity and direction of the
wind and how it will affect your ball flight.
9. Do not practice swing before you hit a normal
shot. Use a practice swing after you have made a
poor swing, and only if it will not delay play.
10. Practice swing may be used before playing an
unusual or difficult shot to help determine how
the normal swing must be altered.
11. Immediately after you play, analyze your game.
Decide which part of your game needs the most
more instruction.
practice or
12. Most amateur golfers make three mistakes.
First, they underclub themselves, then over-
swing, and finally overestimate their ability. Try
to play within your own abilities and when in
trouble, get back in play. Avoid attempting the
miracle shot. It is better to accept a score of one
or two strokes over par on a hole, rather than a
very large score made by using poor judgment.
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
Orthopedically Impaired
1. Allow wheelchair users to play from their chairs
using a standard position for striking, e.g., per-
pendicular to the Reposition striking posi-
ball.
tion to accommodate swing, e.g., facing the
green and striking with one arm if necessary.
2. If outdoor facilities are not accessible, e.g., rough
terrain or orthopedic condition too severe, de-
velop an indoor putting course. Use carpet rem-
nants for greens and tees, and boards for side
rails.
3. Modify the length of the club.
Mentally Impaired
Keep the concept of the game simple, do not
1.
stress various club selections for various condi-
tions, e.g., suggest that a student use a selection
of driver from the tee, an iron for the fairway,
and putter for the green.
2. Refer to ^2 in Orthopedically Impaired above.
Sensory Impaired
1. Allow blind students to "feel" someone complete
a golf swing.
2. Allow the blind student to pace off the distance
on the putting surface to the hole.
SAFETY CONSIDEFtATIONS
Golf can be a dangerous game if attention is not
given to your play and the play of others. Whether
golf is being played in a class situation, on a practice
range, or while playing a round, basic safety rules
must be observed.
1. Never hit a shot until you are sure those in front
of you are out of your range. If you hit another
player, you may be liable for damages.
2. Never swing a club, especially on the tees, unless
you are sure no one is standing close to you.
3. If the warning "Fore" is given, it is often danger-
ous to turn to see where the ball is coming from.
It is best to cover the head for protection and
turn away from the direction of the warning.
4. In the event of a thunderstorm, it is not wise to
remain outdoors. Shelter should be sought in a
closed building protected against lightning.
Large or small unprotected buildings are alter-
natives in the order given. If remaining outdoors
is unavoidable, keep away from open spaces and
hilltops, from isolated trees, wire fences, and
small shelters in exposed locations. Shelter may
also be sought in caves, depressions or deep val-
leys and canyons, the foot of a cliff, or in a dense
stand of trees. Umbrellas held overhead in ex-
posed places are dangerous.
5. Never practice in an area where others are play-
ing. Most golf courses have special practice
areas.
6. Never
hit practice shots while playing a round.
not only wastes time but is dangerous.
It
7. Only one person should hit at a time. The person
farthest from the hole should play first.
8. Knowing and applying the rules of golf and golf-
ing etiquette will increase your safety on a golf
course.
9. Carry a towel and wipe hands dry, particularly
on hot, humid days and rainy days.
10. Know the distances of specific clubs and dis-
tances you can hit the ball.
In Class — Rules for the Instructor:
1. Plan the lesson well in advance, checking such
things as formation, target areas, methods of re-
trieval.
2. Allow no one to swing a club unless instructed to
do so.
3. Provide plenty of space between golfers.
4. If stations are used, provide for adequate dis-
tance between groups.
 GOLF 175

In Class — Rules for the Student: 2. Allow the person farthest from the hole to putt
first.
1. Do not retrieve a golf ball until asked to do so;
never step out of line to pick up "muffed" shot.
3. When lifting a ball on the green, mark it with a
coin.
2. Do not walk too close behind other golfers swing-
4. Never lay a bag of clubs down on the green.
ing the golf club.
5. Do not throw the flag stick off to the side.
3. If working with a partner, stand in front and to
Always lay it down gently, away from all play,
the side of your partner, not behind.
and replace it when the hole has been completed.
4. Listen to instruction, follow prescribed rules.
6. Do not damage the hole with the stick or by
standing too close to the hole.
7. Repair ball marks on the green.
ETIQUETTE AND PLAYING COURTESIES 8. Upon completion of the hole, the group should
move off the green to record scores.
game with a well-defined code of
Since golf is a polite 9. Do not drag your feet or in any way scuff the
ethics, it is important for every golfer to observe green.
common courtesies while on the course.
In General, While Playing the Course:

1. Be polite at all times; know the rules of golf so RULES OF GOLF

decisions can be made quickly without causing
undue delay. The and are period-
rules of golf have been developed
2. Be aware of the local rules and regulations that ically upgraded by two coordinating bodies the —
govern play on a course. United States Golf Association (USGA) and the
3. Do
not hit practice shots between regular shots Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews, Scot-
—an infraction of the rules.
it is
land. The rules undergo continual study and are re-
vised by these two bodies every four years. The
4. Abstain from obscene language, loud talk, and
club throwing. USGA publishes a rule book each year and offers it
for sale at a minimal cost. It is strongly recom-
5. Plan ahead and be ready to play your next shot
without undue delay. The player farthest from mended that serious students obtain a copy. A book-
let entitled Easy Way to Learn Golf Rules is available
the flag stick shoots first.
6. Do not talk, move around, stand too close or di-
at a minimal cost from the National Golf Foundation.
rectly in line of a shot when another player is
preparing to shoot.
7. Never play a shot until the group ahead is com- Local Rules
pletely out of range.
In constructing the rules which uniformly gov-
8. While looking for a lost ball, do not unduly delay
ern all golf play in the United States, the United
the play of others. Allow a group playing behind
States Golf Association recognizes that certain local
you to go through by signalling them to do so conditions such as climate, variable physical condi-
and do not resume play until they are out of tions, and characteristics of golf courses may neces-
range.
sitate modifications of the rules. These modifications
9. After each shot, pick up the divot or loose grass
are termed Local Rules and are designed to protect
and replace it with your hand in the divot mark. the golf course and make the game more enjoyable. A
Pat it down with your foot.
player is responsible for becoming acquainted with
10. Fill holes made in bunkers and smooth the sand
the Local Rules before playing. Sources of informa-
after playing from a trap. Be sure to rake all
tion concerning Local Rules include the golf profes-
sand traps upon leaving them. sional, the score card, golf course bulletin board, and
11. Keep pull carts and motorized carts off the green
players familiar with the golf course.
area. The United States Golf Association limits the ex-
12. Yell"Fore" if a ball is in danger of striking an- tent to which Local Rules may modify the USGA
other person. rules. Players should refer to the United States Golf
13. The person having the honor (lowest score on
Association Rules of Golf Appendix to familiarize
the preceding hole) tees up first. themselves with the limitations.
14. Notify your partners when you wish to change a
golf ball.

On the Putting Green: Summary of Important Golf Rules

1. As soon as a hole has been completed, the player 1. A player may have a maximum of 14 clubs in the
should leave the green. Do not total the scores golf bag at any one time. Penalty for exceeding
and record them on the green. the maximum: disqualification.
776 GOLF

2. A player must tee up his ball between the tee
markers or anywhere in the rectangle two club
lengths behind them. Violation of the rule: two-
stroke penalty.
3. An intentional swing at the ball must be counted
as a stroke, even if the player "wiffs" it.
4. A ball is considered lost outside of a hazard if not
retrieved in five minutes.
5. A ball must be played as it lies except as pro-
vided for in the rules.
6. Loose impediments such as leaves, sticks (any-
thing of nature lying around) may be removed
outside of a hazard, so long as the ball does not
move.
7. Relief from man-made obstructions, drop the
ball within one club length of point of nearest re-
lief without penalty, but no closer to the hole.
See rule book for exceptions.
8. If a player hits a ball out-of-bounds, the player
must take a one-stroke penalty and play the
from the original spot.
9. When a ball is hit into a water hazard, the
player may drop a ball behind the hazard, keep-
ing the spot at which the ball crossed the hazard
between himself and the hole. Penalty: one
stroke.
10. A player, while in the act of putting on the green,
whose another player's ball or the flag
ball hits
stick, isassessed a two-stroke penalty. Putting
from off the green is not considered a putt.
Fairway The course between the teeing ground and the
putting green, exclusive of hazards.
Flag Banner on top of the flagstick identifying the cup.
Fore A warning cry to anyone of a stroke about to be
played or one that has been played.
Go to school Learning the roll of a green by watching a
previous putt over the same area.
Ground under repair Any portion of the course so marked
that includes material piled for removal or a hole
made by a greenskeeper.
Hazard Any bunker, water hazard, or lateral water haz-
ard.
Hole Small cup sunk into the green, into which the golf
The hole is 4 V* inches in diameter and at
ball is hit.
least 4 inches deep.
Honor The side entitled to play first from the teeing
ground is said to have the honor. This is usually deter-
mined by a coin flip on the first tee. Once play begins,
the player having the lowest score on the previous
ball hole is said to have the honor thereafter.
Hook A ball in flight that curves from right to left (for a
right-handed golfer).
Lie The position of the ball on the playing ground. Also
refers to the angle of the clubhead.
Loft The slope given to the face of a golf club to aid in
knocking the ball in a high curve.
Loose impediments Natural objects not fixed or growing
and not adhering to the ball, and including stones not
solidly embedded, leaves, twigs, branches, and the
like, dung, worms, and insects, and casts or heaps

made by them.
Match play Competition in which the winner is decided
TERMINOLOGY by the number of holes won.
Mulligan Permitting a second hit of a badly played ball
Ace A hole in one. usually on a tee shot. (Not permitted under the rules
Address The position taken by a player in preparing to but by mutual agreement in friendly matches.
start a stroke. Obstruction An artificial object erected, placed, or left on
Apron The area immediately surrounding the green. a course and not an integral part of the course.
Banana ball A slice Par The standard score for a hole.
Best ball tournament Competition in which the better Pull-shot To hit a ball straight, but to the left of the tar-
score of a partnership on each hole is used as the team get (for a right-handed golfer).
score. Push-shot To hit a ball straight, but to the right of the
Birdie The score of one under par on a hole. target (for a right-handed golfer).
Bogey A score of one over par on a hole
United States
( Rough The unmowed terrain on either side of the fair-
rules). In countries playing the British rules, a bogey way.
is the score an average golfer should make on a hole; Scotch foursome A competitive round in which two
on easier holes, par and bogey might be the same partners play the same ball, taking alternate shots.
score. Slice A ball in flight that curves from left to right (for a
Casual water Temporary accumulation of water which is right-handed person).
not recognized as a hazard on the course. Stroke play (medal play) Competition in which the win-
Course rating The comparative difficulty of a specific ner is decided by the total number of strokes taken
course. Usually computed by a committee of a local as- from a specific number of rounds, not by individual
sociation in order to have uniform handicapping for holes won, as in match play.
all courses within a district. Summer rules Playing the ball as it lies from tee through
Divot Sod cut with the clubhead when executing or at- green.
tempting to execute a shot. Teeing ground The starting place for the hole to be
Dogleg A hole which has a sharp bend in the fairway. played.
Driver Number 1 wood. Trap A hazard, technically known as a bunker.
Eagle A score for a hole played in two strokes under par. Waggle Body or club action prior to starting the swing.
 GOLF 177

Wedge A heavy iron club that is used to loft the ball high Owens, De De. The American Coaching Effectiveness Pro-
into the air. It is also used for special situations, such gram. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press, 1991.
as getting out of heavy grass or sand. Palmer, A. Play Great Golf: Mastering the Fundamentals of
Winter rules The privilege of improving the lie of the ball Your Game. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1987.
on the fairway of the hole being played. Snead, J.C. and Johnson, J.L. Golf Today. St. Paul: West
Pub. Co., 1989.
Watson, T and Hannigan, F. The New Rules of Golf. Latest
SELECTED REFERENCES ed. New York: Random House.
Wiren, G. with T. Dawson. Golf's Common Errors and
Aultman, D. The Masters of Golf: Learning Their Methods. What to Do About Them. Chicago: Contemporary Books,
New York: Atheneum, 1989. Inc., 1987.
Hogan, B. Free Lessons: The Modern Fundamentals of Golf Wiren, G. Golf: Building a Solid Game. Englewood Cliffs,
Trumbull, CT: Golf Digest/Tennis, Inc., 1985. NJ: Prentice Hall, 1987.
Lopez, N. The Complete Golfer. Chicago, IL: Contemporary
Books, Inc., 1988.
Audio-Visual Materials
National Golf Foundation. The Easy Way to Learn Golf
Rules. Jupiter, FL: National Golf Foundation, 1986. Other excellent material and films can be obtained by
Nicklaus, J. My
55 Ways to Lower Your Golf Score. New writing to:

York: Simon and Schuster, 1985. National Golf Foundation, 200 Castlewood Dr., North
Oritz, H.and Farley, D. Six Days to Better Golf: The Secret Palm Beach, FL 33408.
of Learning the Golf Swing. New York: Harper and Row, United States Golf Association, Golf House, Library
1988. Corner Rd., Far Hills, NJ 07931.
 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Understand gymnastics as a competitive sport.
which comprise competition
Identify the various events in gymnastics for men
and women.
Appreciate the importance of acquiring safety attitudes and habits in gymnastics.
Understand how to introduce a tumbling and/or gymnastics unit in the
classroom.
Identify basic body positions, grasps, and moves used in beginning tumbling and
gymnastics.

NATURE AND PURPOSE THE PARTICIPANT

Many people find hard to think of gymnastics as a

it
sport. It does not have the same tangible, competi-
tive aspect that spectators see other sporting
in
events. We cannot yell
"defense" or "get the ball," nor
can we measure the performance of the gymnast
with a stop watch or measuring tape. Gymnastics
is the performance of a routine on a piece of appa-
ratus. The routine is a combination of stunts and
moves that have been practiced and improved over a
period of time. The gymnast is actually competing
against himself (herself ), trying to improve upon the
last performance. The sport of gymnastics involves
individual effort; however, the gymnast's score is
added to that of his teammates to obtain a team
score.
One reason that makes it difficult for
formed spectator to grasp the concept of gymnastics
is that there is no scoreboard or clock to watch dur-
ing a gymnastic performance. In gymnastics it is not
only what is performed, but how it is performed that
is important.
Gymnastics, like figure skating and diving, are
judged by qualified individuals. Although judging
may sometimes seem too subjective, there are spe-
cific guidelines that judges must use in scoring. A
judge is considering the difficulty, the execution, and
the composition of the routine. These three aspects
are fundamental in scoring, but other areas also
enter into a score —
among them amplitude, creativ-
ity, elegance, risk, etc.
All parts of the body benefit in the sport of gym-
nastics. It promotes strength, agility, flexibility,
coordination, kinesthetic sense, and balance. Fur-
thermore mastery of a stunt or routine develops
more than the physical aspects; it also improves the
participant's self-image.
As in other sports, size may determine the future
and success of a gymnast. However, in gymnastics
someone small in stature is more likely to succeed
than the usual stereotyped 6'5", 220 lb. athlete. This
does not mean that a tall gymnast will be unsuccess-
ful, but generally a gymnast is shorter than 5' 10".
Today's gymnast must be above average in
strength for his or her height and weight. Flexibility
is another needed physical attribute. Also required
are a good kinesthetic sense (awareness of where
one's body and body parts are in space), and a sense
of balance. In addition, a well-developed sense of
timing along with good coordination are important.
Cardiorespiratory endurance does not play as
vital a role in gymnastics as in other sports; how-
the unin- ever, a gymnast must have muscle endurance. Al-
though a gymnastic routine may last only from one
to two minutes, the abdominal or quadricep muscles
may be contracted throughout that time. Also, a
gymnast must have muscle power to be able to use
the body and muscle groups with explosive force.
Timing plays a part with the burst of energy, but un-
less the strength is there to call upon, the gymnast
may end up on the floor.
Along with the physical attributes, there are also
psychological aspects to be considered. The partici-
pant is individualistic, self-motivated, confident,
and self-assured. The sport involves perseverance
and a drive for perfection. The gymnast is subject to
taking risks but not to the extent that safety is sacri-
ficed.
Gymnastics is a team sport, but as a member of a
team a gymnast is also competing against his or her
teammates. As previously mentioned, a gymnast is
actually competing against himself, always striving
to perfect his routine. The individual's score will not

178
 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 179

only determine his or her place among the competi- The National Association of Intercollegiate Ath-
tors, but also will be added to the team scores to de- letics (NAIA)
termine their final standing. The United
States Gymnastic Federation
(USGF)
THE COMPETITION The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU)
The National Federation of State High School
The gymnastic meet is an event in which more than Associations (NFSHSA)
one thing is happening at once. In large meets all Each of these organizations provides the guide-
pieces of equipment may be worked at once. Judges lines that colleges, conferences, high schools, and
will be at every station, and the gymnasts rotate to
clubs follow in competition. However, during na-
each station to perform. tional championships they must adhere to a specific
On a smaller scale, for instance a women's col- set of national rules.
lege meet, you may have the balance beam and floor In 1968 the Federation Internationale Gymnas-
exercise being judged at the same time by different tique (FIG), or International Gymnastic Federation,
sets of judges. Later, the uneven bars and vaulting published a Code of Points which has been the basis
are judged. There are usually two judges per event at for the rules in gymnastics. Although it is not possi-
these meets. One set of judges may score the balance ble to state the universal rules, we will specify the
beam and unevens, while the other set will judge the rules that apply in each meet or competition de-
floor exercise and vaulting. scribed below.
At a gymnastic meet, the judges watch and score Unless otherwise agreed upon by the teams in-
the performance. The average of scores is flashed volved, the men's gymnastic competition has six
(open scoring) or a runner will take the score to the events and the women's four events:
scorer's table (closed scoring) where it will be tallied.
Individual gymnasts' scores are added together to
Men Women
form a team score. A gymnast may score differently
on each piece of equipment. For instance, he may be 1. Floor Exercise 1. Floor Exercise
first on the pommel horse and third in vaulting, etc. 2. Horizontal Bar 2. Balance Beam
The "all-around" event comprises a total of the 3. Bars
Parallel 3. Uneven Parallel Bars
scores of a gymnast who competed in every event. 4. Pommel Horse 4. Vault
The gymnast who wins the all-around is considered 5. Rings
the top gymnast of the meet. A gymnast who does 6. Vault
not compete all-around is called a specialist and may
work only the floor exercise and vaulting. In most For both men and women also the all-
there is
countries gymnasts are always all-around. Only in around event, which is the total of either the men's
the United States do we continue to have gymnastic six events or the women's four events.
specialists and many argue this system enables To qualify as a judge, one must first be certified.
more people to participate. To earn certification involves passing a written test,
Each piece of equipment or event is unique, re- attending workshops, and paying a fee for certifica-
quiring a different strength from the gymnast. For tion. A judge must be aware of the rules of the meet
example, a performer on the still rings would require and the sport of gymnastics. He or she must try to
more upper body strength than someone working watch the performance with complete concentration
floor exercise. However, the gymnast who special- and be as objective as possible. Judges consider three
izes on rings may not be as flexible as the floor exer- major areas when scoring a gymnastic routine:
Balance beam requires the athlete to
cise specialist.
(what has been performed). Most
Difficulty
have some dance background and a good sense of
stunts have been given a difficulty value that the
balance, while vaulting centers more on the gym-
judges have learned.
nast's speed and explosive power. The all-around
gymnast is able to compete in all areas at the meet. Composition (the way the routine is put to-
gether).Each event has certain requirements
that must be incorporated in a routine.
THE RULES AND JUDGING Execution (how the routine is performed). These
three areas make up the greatest part of a
Most judges have been certified to judge gymnastics judge's score sheet.
by one of the governing bodies of gymnastics. There
Depending on thelevel of competition, the judge
are five main national groups that have developed
may have a point with which he or she may judge
the rules for gymnastics:
risk, elegance, amplitude, etc. Usually deductions
The National Collegiate Athletic Association are made on the floor exercise area each time the
(NCAA) gymnast goes out of bounds. Deductions are also
180 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING

made for falls, spotting, and not meeting time re- c. Forward Single Leg Cut
quirements on balance beam and floor exercise. d. Backward Double Leg Cut Dismount
One other aspect of judging that is usually seen e. Elementary Combination
in private clubs is compulsory routines. This is a rou- 5. High Bar
tine that is constructed for each piece of equipment a. Backward Hip Circle
at different skill levels. A gymnast learns the routine b. Knee Circle
and competes against other
for his or her skill level c. Kip

gymnasts same level, performing the same

at the d. Squat Dismount from Support
routine. As the gymnast becomes more skilled, he or e. Elementary Combination

she may move to harder "class levels" and learn 6. Parallel Bars
more difficult compulsory routines. When judging a. Forward Hand Walk
this type of competition, the judge has also learned b. Hip Roll
the routine and is aware of the specific deductions. c. Corkscrew Mount
The type of routines used in the Olympics or in d. Flank Dismount
intercollegiate meets are routines constructed by the e. Elementary Combination
gymnast and are called optional routines. These rou- 7. Uneven Parallel Bars
tines contain certain difficulties, but each routine is a. Back Hip Pullover
as different in composition as each gymnast. b. Mill Circle
c. Pop-up
d. Straddle Sole Circle
e. Elementary Combination
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
8. Balance Beam
A. Stretching, sit-ups and push-ups a. Squat Mc jnt
B. Introduction —
nature and purpose b. Chasse
C. Basic rules and safety conditions c. Back Shoulder Roll
D. Fundamental Skills d. Arabesque
1. Tumbling e. Leap

a. Forward Roll f. Forward Roll

b. Backward Roll g. Cartwheel Dismount
c. Tripod Balance h. Elementary Combinations
d. Headstand
e. Prone Headstand
f. Kip (neckspring) SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
g- Cartwheel
h. Round-off Basic gymnastic teams refer to body positioning uti-
i. Back Walkover lized in many of the events. A simple understanding
J.
Front Walkover of the basic body positions helps performance.
k. Headstand and Forward Roll Following are the positions used when performing
1. Tinsica different stunts in a routine:
m. Valdez
n. Back Handspring
1. Tuck— The knees and hips are bent, and the
head in a chin-down position.
is
o. Elementary Combination
2. Pike — The legs are straight, but the torso bent is
2. Pommel Horse
at the hips.
Feint
3. Layout— The entire body straight. is
Front Support and Swing
Single Leg Circle Forward
4. Puck — This position a combination
is of tuck
and pike. There is only a slight bend in the
Simple Travel
knees.
e. Elementary Combination
Vaulting There are also different grasps used when work-
a. Squat Vault ing the pieces of equipment. The grasps are gener-
b. Straddle Vault ally changed a number of times in a routine.
Front Vault
c.

d. Rear Vault
1. Over grasp— The palms of the hand are on top of
the bar (Figure 13-1).
Stoop Vault
Under grasp — The palms of the hand are under
e.
2.
f. Thief Vault
the bar (Figure 13-2).
Handspring Vault
g-
3. Mixed grasp— One hand an over grasp, and
is
h. Elementary Combination
the other hand is in an under grasp.
Rings
a. Inverted Hang The following are specific terms for the way the body
b. Nest Hang moves in gymnastics:
 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 181

three sections: the left end, as you face it, is called

the neck; the middle is called the saddle; and the
right end is called the croup. All three areas must be
worked in a routine, without hesitations or stops, or
else deductions are made by the judges. The pommel
horse requires a great deal of upper body strength
and balance and is considered by many to be the
most difficult men's event. This is one event in gym-
nastics where a spotter only seems to be in the way.
FIGURE 13-1 Over grasp. Because of the scissor and leg circles, there is a
greater chance of the spotter being injured than the
performer.

Learning Cues

Feint A feint is used on the pommel horse pri-

marily to initiate movement. A feint helps the gym-
nast gain momentum to perform a stunt. The
gymnast would swing one or both legs in the direc-
tion opposite to which the stunt is performed. Many
think of a feint as an extra swing or pumping action.
In competition, a feint is considered unnecessary
FIGURE 13-2 Under grasp.
movement and its use would result in points being
deducted.
Front Support and Swing (Figure 13-3).
1 Somersault — This
a rotation around a hori-
is Jump to a front support. Hands are in an over grasp
zontal axis. The somersault could be in the tuck, on the pommels. The arms are straight, and the body
pike or layout position. is straight with the legs spread wide apart. The
2. —
Twist A rotation around a vertical axis. Again, swing is initiated from the hips, going side to side.
it can be done in different body positions or in The entire body moves side to side so the swing en-
combination with a somersault. compasses the shoulder joint as well as the hips. The
3. —
Kip The kipping action is a skill involving the gymnast tries to attain as much height as possible
flexing of the body and then finishing in the ex- on the swing. There is a slight shift of weight as the
tended position. It is done quickly and is used in body swings from pommel to pommel.
all events.
Single Leg Circle Forward Figure 13-4).
4. —
Extension This is the opposite of the kip be-
i

This can most easily be learned by placing the right

cause you extend first and then achieve the
move due to flexion. A good example of the use of
extension would be a back handspring.
In order for the beginning gymnast to master
some elementary combinations, a learning series
•Practice Suggestions) is given at the end of each ap-
paratus and tumbling section.
hand on the pommel and the left hand on the neck of
the horse. Jump to a straight arm support and im-
mediately begin the move. Bring the right leg to the
left between the horse and the left leg, twisting the
hips slightly and leaning on the right arm. Bring the
right leg over the neck of the horse and under the left
hand which regrasps the pommel (neck of the horse >

MEN'S GYMNASTICS

Although both women and men

vault and work floor
exercises, the way they perform
in these areas is
completely different. We will describe first the six
men's gymnastics events and then the four women's
events.

Pommel Horse
The pommel horse is 64 inches long and 14
inches wide.stands 45V2 inches tall with two han-
It
dles extending up from the leather body. The height
of the handles is 4% inches, which makes the overall
height 50 inches. The pommel horse is divided into FIGURE 13-3 Front support and swing.
182 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING

FIGURE 13-4 Single leg circle forward.

after the left leg passes under it. Continue the right Vaulting
leg circling by passing under the right hand and over
The pommel horse may be used in this event.
the croup. This is considered one circle. It should be
Remove the pommels and tape the holes to prevent
rhythmic and repeated, making continuous clock-
any injury to the fingers. The horse is placed with
wise circles. There is a certain timing to this move-
the croup nearest the vaulter at a height of 53
ment that helps with the momentum and support,
inches. The male gymnast's hands must land only in
making it much like a pendulum swinging.
the middle area of the horse to prevent a .5 deduction
Simple Travel-Through. Though this is
in competition.
called a simple travel, anything but simple and
it is
When working with a beginning gymnast, it is
requires a lot of practice to master. Begin by placing
advisable to lower and turn the horse sideways. The
the left hand on the neck and the right hand on the
women gymnasts vault with the horse in this posi-
left pommel. Jump to a front support. Swing the left
tion, and it is much less intimidating to a beginner.
leg forward, cutting away the left hand and replac- The horse can be lowered to a height comparable to
ing it. Swing the right leg forward; now both legs are
the gymnast's skill level.
forward. The right hand is between the legs with the
The other piece of equipment used in vaulting is
left hand balancing on the neck. Swing the left leg
the spring board or reuther board. It is placed in
back and shift the weight to the right hand and the front of the horse, and the gymnast hits the board
pommel. The left hand regrasps the left pommel. with both feet to initiate the take-off over the horse.
Both hands are now on the pommel. Swing the right The pre-flight is the time between hitting the board
leg back and regrasp the right pommel again by
until the gymnast touches the horse. The vault is
shifting weight. This travel is repeated. Swing the
performed and then the after-flight begins until
left leg forward and under the left hand which re-
landing. All three phases of the vault are judged.
places itself on the pommel. Swing the right leg for-
The run to the board is not judged. Judging begins
ward and again the right hand is between the legs. with the board take-off.
Swing the left leg back and shift the body weight to
regrasp the right pommel with the right hand.
Swing the right leg back and shift the right hand off Learning Cues
the pommel to the croup. At this point the performer
can dismount, having performed a simple travel.
Flank Vault (Figure 13-5). The flank vault is
so named because the side (flank) of the body passes
When the gymnast is moving from the neck to the
over the horse. The flank vault is performed by
pommels, it is considered an uphill travel, and when
swinging upward from the board and swinging the
moving from the pommels to the croup, it is consid-
body and legs to the right over the horse. The right
ered downhill.
hand is cut away and the left hand leaves the horse
just before landing. The gymnast lands facing for-
Practice Suggestions
ward. To spot this vault, the spotter is on the side op-
Jump to front support, single leg circle forward, posite the passing legs. The spotter helps support
simple travel, dismount. and keep the arm of the vaulter stationary by grasp-

FIGURE 13-5 Flank vault.
ing above the elbow. The spotter moves with the
gymnast as he or she passes over the horse.
Front Vault. As with the flank
is so named because the front
front vault
passes over the horse. On take-off the body makes a
quarter turn to the left. The legs swing up to the
right so that the front of the body passes over the
horse. The right arm supports most of the weight,
and the left arm pulls out to counteract the legs. The
right arm leaves the horse just before landing. The
gymnast lands with his left side to the horse. The
spotter again stands away from the legs and helps
support the shoulders.
Rear Vault (Figure 13-6). The rear of the body
passes over the horse. On take-off from the board,
the hands hit the horse, and the body quarter turns
to the right as the legs are swinging sideward. The
rear of the body is passing over the horse, and the
legs are parallel to the floor. The right hand leaves
FIGURE 13-6 Rear vault.
GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 183
the horse on the quarter turn, and the left hand re-
leases as the body passes over. The right hand
reaches for the horse on the landing for stability. The
vault, the
gymnast lands with the right side toward the horse.
of the body The spotter grasps the arm closest to him (away
from the legs), moves with the gymnast, and releases
the arm when the vault is being completed.
The Thief Vault. The thief vault is different
from most vaults because it doesn't use a two-foot
take-off. The take-off is from one foot, as the other
foot swings upward the take-off foot joins it. Both
legs pass over the horse followed by the rear. The
hands touch the horse as the body passes over in a
sitting position. The hands give a downward and
backward push. Two spotters are used for the thief
vault: one spotter stands on the vaulter's side to sup-
port the gymnast's shoulder and arm in case it is
needed; the other spotter stands on the board side of
the vault to help prevent a fall backward in case the
vaulter does not clear the horse.
784 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING
Rings
In competition the rings are called still
The performer not only controls his body movement
but that of the rings. It is important in a learning sit-
uation to have plenty of mats below the ring station.
Women lack the upper body strength to compete on
the rings; however, the stunts listed here can be
taught to both men and women because they do not
rely on a great deal of upper body strength.
Learning Cues
Inverted Hang (Figure 13-7). Jump to grasp
the rings and at the same time flex the arms and
tuck the knees to the chest. Lean back with the
upper body and stay in a squat position until the
head is down, arms are straight, and the inverted
position is attained. Extend the legs, using the ropes
to stabilize the body if needed, then bring the legs to-
gether. The inverted hang can be done in a squat po-
sition or a straight position. To return to a starting
position, simply flex at the hips and slowly bring the
upper body forward. The spotting is either one or two
spotters on each side of the performer. Grasp the per-
former's wrist, and with the other hand assist by lift-
ing up and back if help is needed. Once the inverted
hang has been attained, remain near the performer
to steady him by placing a hand in front and back.
Nest Hang (Figure 13-8). Jump to hang and
bring the feet up to the rings in a tuck position. Hook
the feet through the rings and then push the body
FIGURE 13-7 Inverted hang.
through the arms by arching the back. Raise the
head. Return by reversing the process. Spotting is
rings.
done by grasping the performer's wrist and support-
ing his mid-section in case the feet slip out of the
rings.
Forward Single Leg Cut and Catch. Attain
an inverted squat hang and straighten legs. The po-
sition is an inverted pike with the legs parallel to the
floor. Both legs are going to move quickly forward
with the left leg straddling out to cut away the left
hand from the ring. Regrasp the ring with the left
hand as the legs move down to a hang. The per-
former keeps the arms slightly flexed and bears the
weight on the right arm before releasing the left.
Keep the ring as still as possible on the release and
look for the ring on the regrasp. The spotter supports
the performer's upper back and hips after he has
reached the pike position. The spotter can help by
lifting once the "cut" has been made so the performer
can regrasp the ring.
Backward Double Leg Cut Dismount. The
rings must be high enough so that the performer
cannot reach the floor in a hang. Momentum is the
key to successfully completing this dismount. In a
hanging position, arch and flex the body to gain
some momentum and then raise the legs up and
back over the head, bending at the hips. As the feet
approach the arms, straddle the legs and look back
with the head. Release the rings and raise the chest
as the momentum carries the performer to a stand.
For the beginner, two spotters are advisable. The
FIGURE 13-8 Nest hang.

spotter on the left side uses his right hand under the
performer's shoulder and the left hand on his back.
It is important to support the shoulder especially if
momentum is lost or the performer releases the
rings too soon.
Practice Suggestions
Swing to an inverted hang, nest hang, forward
single leg cut and catch, backward double leg cut dis-
mount.
High Bar (Horizontal Bar)
The high bar is perhaps the most exciting piece
of equipment watch the male gymnast work. It
to
has constant motion and moves quickly so that the
spectator is often left wondering, upon completion of
a routine, what the gymnast actually did! The steel
bar is 7'10y2 " wide and is 8'4%" off the floor. A rou-
tine flows with no stops or pauses. The stunts per-
formed on the high bar are much like the stunts
performed on the women's uneven bars. If there is no
high bar available, the top bar of the unevens can be
used to learn beginning moves. Spotting of the per-
former on the high bar is virtually impossible with-
out a spotting belt attached to the ceiling with
pulleys. Spotting without a belt means that the spot-
ter is in a position to catch the performer when diffi-
culty arises.
Chalk (magnesium carbonate) is used when
working the high bar to prevent the performer from
slipping when hands are sweaty.
Learning Cues
The following movements can be spotted by low-
ering the bar. These are beginning moves with
which the student can attain success.
FIGURE 13-9 Backward hip circle.
GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 185
Backward Hip Circle (Figure 13-9). The per-
former jumps to a straight arm support. The hands
are in an over grasp. Cast the legs back by flexing at
the hips, lifting the heels backward (legs straight
and toes pointed) toward the ceiling. As the body
comes back to the bar, the head and upper body drop
back, and the momentum helps the hips circle
around the bar. Keep the hips next to the bar. The
spotter or spotters are next to the performer. If
standing on the performer's right side, the spotter
helps secure the performer's arm with his left hand
and uses his right hand to help guide and lift the
performer's hips as he circles the bar.
Knee Circle. To prepare for a knee circle, the
performer jumps to a front support and then lifts the
right leg over the bar and between the hands. The
performer sits on the right leg as he changes his
hands or an under grasp. The performer circles the
bar with the knee by moving in a forward motion.
Before this can happen, he raises the hips so the bar
is placed in the bend of the knee. Once in position,
the performer lifts his head and chest to begin the
forward motion. He circles and returns to the sitting
position on the right thigh. The arms cannot collapse
in the circling motion, and the head and chest re-
main up. The spotting for this act requires almost as
much technique as the stunt itself. The spotter or
spotters stand beside the performer. If the spotter is
on the performer's right side, he uses his right hand
to reach under and around the bar to grasp the per-
former's wrist. The grasp used is inverted, and the
knuckles will be facing the spotter. The left hand
helps support and lift the performer on the back as
he circles the bar. The performer may want to chalk
the back of the knee to prevent chafing.
Kip (Figure 13-10). There are many variations
of a kip (glide kip, drop kip, reverse kip, etc.). The
786 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING
FIGURE 13-10 Kip.
kip can be used as a mount, a stunt within a routine,
or a connecting move between stunts. A kip requires
strength, but the key is timing. It usually takes a lot
of practice to master. Stand facing the bar with
hands in an over grasp. Jump, flexing the hips, and
bring the ankles forward. As the body swings
slightly forward, prepare to whip the legs out and
downward. The reaction to the whip with the legs is
an upward motion; bear down with the arms and end
in a front support. The spotter is on the performer's
side and has a sense of timing to assist with the kip.
The spotter on the right side of the performer places
his left hand on the performer's back and the right
hand on his calves. Move with the performer. Help
lift the legs and after whip, lift lower back.
Squat Dismount from Support. From a
straightarm support, cast the legs back and tuck the
knees to the chest. At the same time, move the feet
between the arms and over the bar. Land facing for-
ward in a standing position. Once the momentum is
established from the cast, the body continues for-
ward with the head up. The spotters are on either
side of the performer in front of the bar he is going to
squat over. With the spotter's closest hand, grasp the
performer's wrist, and with the other hand grasp his
upper arm. Spotters need to move with the per-
former on the dismount.
Practice Suggestions
Jump to front support, backward hip circle,
squat dismount from support.
Parallel Bars
Only men compete on the parallel bars, but there
is no reason why women cannot successfully learn to
work the parallel bars, too. The parallel bars are
wooden bars measuring 11'6" in length, and they
are adjustable in height from 5'7" to 5'9" and in
width from 18" to 20". Many beginners lower the
bars and adjust the width according to the length of
their forearm and hand.
Learning Cues
Forward Hand Walk. Jump to a straight arm
support between the bars and move one hand at a
time down the bars in a walking motion. Keep the
head up and do not let the shoulders depress or sag.
Take short hand steps and transfer the weight to the
opposite arm on each movement. The spotter grasps
the performer's thigh under the bar to support or lift
if the performer becomes fatigued.
Hip Roll. Sit in a straddle seat in the middle
of the bars and place both hands in an over grasp on
the right bar. The right hand is the hand closest to
the right Lower the upper body and bring the
leg.
head and shoulders under the right bar. At the same
time the right leg, maintaining the straddle posi-
lift
tion, and
roll across the hips on the left bar. Still in
the straddle position, the performer rolls across the
right thigh as the left leg crosses over to the right
bar. The upper body lifts as the performer ends in a
straddle seat, facing the opposite direction from
which he or she started. The spotting for this is done
from underneath the bars at the shoulders to sup-
port the performer, and another spotter may be help-
ful in guiding the leg placement.
Corkscrew Mount (Figure 13-11). This is a
fun mount to teach beginners. The name matches
the movement of the body, and the success rate is
great. Stand facing the middle of one side of the bars.
Grasp the near bar with the right hand in an under
grasp and the left hand in an over grasp. Jump, lift-
ing the legs toward the far bar. landing on the back

CROSS Rt 6HT O VER
BOTH LE6>*> STRAIGHT
LAND htiOH OH
LEFT THIC?H
FIGURE 13-11 Corkscrew mount.
of the left thigh.Begin turning over the bar with the
right leg extended and moving downward toward the
bar where the hands are grasped. As the legs are
twisting, the chest and head stay near and under the
grasped bar. When the legs are straddling the bars,
the upper body rotates, and the left hand releases to
grasp the far bar. Push up with both hands to finish
in a straddle seat. Spotting, like the hip roll, is done
from under the bar, but this time supports the per-
former's hips. Again, it may be helpful as a teaching
aid to have another spotter helping to guide the per-
former's legs.
Flank Dismount. Jump to a straight arm
support.The body is between the bars. Begin swing-
ing. When the legs are forward, lean on the left arm
and release the right hand. Pass the body over the
bar, making a quarter turn, and pushing off with the
left hand to land with the back toward the bar. The
spotter stands to the outside and slightly behind the
performer. Grasp the performer's left arm at the
wrist with the spotter's left hand and above the
elbow with the right. As the performer dismounts
the spotter would help guide him over the bar.
Practice Suggestions
Corkscrew mount, hip roll, flank dismount.
Floor Exercise
The floor exercise mat
42' by 42' and at least
is
one inch thick. The floor exercise event is the longest
of the men's events, lasting 1 minute and 30 seconds.
Along with tumbling, the performer displays
strength, agility, and balance. The routine moves
smoothly and covers all the corners and area of the
mat. (Tumbling dominates the floor exercise routine
and will be covered later in this chapter.)
GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 187
ELBOW UP
CHESV CLOSE
TO BAR
WOMEN'S GYMNASTICS
Women's competitive gymnastics consists of four
events. Twoof the events are timed (balance beam
and floor exercise) and must be completed in the al-
lotted time to avoid score deduction. Both balance
beam and floor exercise require dance and tumbling.
The uneven bars are similar to the men's horizontal
bar. The use of two bars reduces the need for upper
body strength on the part of the woman gymnast.
The uneven bars require circling moves, changes of
direction, and changes in hand grips. Lastly, the
vault is performed with the vault positioned side-
ways. The run and take-off are like the men's vault.
The women's performance in gymnastics centers
around dance and the ability of the gymnast to per-
form difficult moves with ease. Unlike the men's
gymnastic performance, a woman gymnast does not
display strength throughout her routines.
Uneven Parallel Bars
This event is done with two parallel bars at dif-
ferent heights. The top bar is 1'6W above the floor,
and the lower bar is 4' 11" high. The width between
the bars can be adjusted out to 2'9%". Routines
are constructed to flow smoothly without stops or
pauses.
Learning Cues
Back Hip Pullover (Figure 13-12). Stand be-
tween the bars with the hands shoulder-width apart
in an over grasp. Keeping the shoulders and chest
close to the bar, kick one leg forward, up and back
over the bar. As the first leg travels up, the second
leg joins it, and the head drops back. The performer
pulls the hips back over the bar and ends in a
788 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING

FIGURE 13-12 Back hip pullover.

straight arm support. The spotter stands on the op-

posite side of the bar as the performer. The spotter
on the performer's right places her left hand on the
performer's lower back and helps lift the legs with
the right hand.
Mill Circle (Figure 13-13). The mill circle is
very much like the knee circle explained on the hori-
zontal bar. The difference is that the knee is not bent
during the stunt. The performer is astride the bar
with both legs straight. The bar is resting on the
front of the back thigh. The hands are in an under
grasp. Keeping the bar in place on the back thigh,
the performer lifts her hips up and thrusts the chest
forward with the head up. Remaining in this posi-
tion, circle the bar and finish in the starting posi-
tion. The spotter stands on the same side of the bar
as the back leg of the performer. If the spotter is on
the performer's left, she uses her left hand to reach
under the bar and grasp the performer's wrist in a
reverse grip. As the performer circles the bar, the
spotter helps lift the hips with the right hand.
Pop Up. This is an elementary transition from
the low bar to the high bar. As the performer jumps
to a long hang on the high bar, hands are in an over
grasp. Place the left foot on the low bar with the knee
bent. The right leg is straight, toe pointed on top of
the low bar. The move is very much like a back hip FIGURE 13-13 Mill circle.

pullover. As the left foot pushes off the lower bar, the
head drops back and the arms pull the hips to the
high bar. The right leg joins the left as they circle
the high bar ending in a straight arm support on
that high bar. The performer keeps the hips close to
the high bar and thinks of lifting them up and over
the bar. The spotter stands on either side of the per-
former. The spotter will help lift the hips up and
back over the bar. On completion, grasp the calves of
the performer to help steady the straight arm sup-
poit.
Straddle Sole Circle Underswing Dismount
(Figure 13-14). To learn this dismount the per-
former stands between the bars facing out. Grasp the
 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 189

FIGURE 13-14 Straddle sole circle dismount.

bar in an over grip and jump up, placing the soles of
the feet on the bar outside of the hands. The arms
and legs remain straight as the body swings down-
ward. The arms are pulling against the bar to keep
the feet on as the performer circles under the bar. As
the height of the swing is reached, the feet release
from the bar and extend outward to land. The body
follows in an arched position. The spotting for this
move is done at the outside of the low bar. Because of
the straddle position, the spotter reaches in for the
upper body after the feet have passed. The spotter
helps lift the upper body on the landing and follows
the completed move.
Practice Suggestions
Back hip pullover, mill circle, straddle sole circle
underswing dismount.
Balance Beam
The balance beam is 3%"
wide, 16'4" long, and
3'llVi" above the ground. The gymnast
is required
to work from end to end on the beam, using tum-
bling, dance, and poses. The event is timed and the
routine must be completed in 1 minute and 30 sec-
onds to avoid penalty. A deduction is also made for
each fall, and the gymnast is allowed only 10 seconds
to remount the beam after a fall.
Learning Cues
The beam should be lowered when teaching be-
ginning students, and lines on the floor can often be
utilized for beginners.
Squat Mount. Place the spring board at a
right angle to the beam. Stand on the board with the
hands shoulder-width apart on the beam. Jump from
the board, pressing down on the beam. At the same
time, raise the hips and tuck the knees to the chest,
placing the feet on the beam. The spotter stands on
the opposite side of the beam and grasps the per-
former's upper arms to prevent her from falling for-
ward.
Back Shoulder Roll (Figure 13-15). Lie back
on the beam and drop the head to one side. The hand
closest to the face is placed on top of the beam, and
the other hand is under the beam. Bring the legs
back over the head to the beam, bending one knee to
place on the beam. The hand under the beam moves
to the top of the beam and the both hands push up.
End in a knee scale. The spotter is on the opposite
side of the performer's head. Facing the direction of
the roll, the spotter grasps the performer's hips and
guides them until the knee scale is attained.
Forward Roll. Standing on the beam, bend at
the waist and extend the arms to grasp the beam.
Lower the upper body to the beam by bending the
arms. Tuck the head by pressing the chin to the
chest. Raise the hips, roll to the back of the neck and
continue forward. Allow one leg to bend and place
the foot on the beam as the other leg extends for-
ward. Complete the roll by coming to a stand. The
spotter stands to one side of beam and guides the
performer's hips. Follow the performer until bal-
anced.
Leap. The leap is the transfer of weight from
one foot to the other with neither foot touching the
790 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING

FIGURE 13-15 Back shoulder roll.

beam during the transfer. A

leap is actually an iso-
lated running step. The beginner may be hesitant to
leave the beam for much height. Arms are out to the
side at shoulder level for balance. Try to spot the end
of the beam with the eyes and not look directly down.
Spotters are on either side of the beam with the near
arm extended toward the performer. The performer
can then use the spotter's arms for balance when
needed.
Chass6 Figure
( 13-16). The right leg is
of the left and remains in front throughout. Step for-
ward with the right leg and bring the left leg from
behind take its place. The weight shifts from the
to
right to the left as right leg is replaced with the left.
Continue again, stepping forward with the right,
and repeat. Spotter again walks along the side of the
beam as the performer travels down the beam.
Arabesque (Figure 13-17). This is generally
considered a momentary balance or pose. Step for-
ward on one leg and lift the other leg to the rear as
high as possible. Chest and head are raised by arch-
ing the back. Extend the arms to the side. The arms
may be changed to different positions. Be creative.
Use spotters on either side of the beam if needed.
Cartwheel Dismount. In order to do a cart-
wheel dismount, the performer should first be able
to do a good cartwheel on the floor. Stand approxi-
mately one step back from the end of the beam. Exe-
cute a cartwheel, placing the hands at the end of the
beam. Legs travel overhead and land together, much
in front like a round-off (see Tumbling: Round-Off on page
196). The performer ends facing the beam for better
balance. Arms remain straight and push off to land.
The spotter may want to stand on a bench or a stable
chair to approximate the performer's height. Stand
on the side of the beam at the performer's back when
the cartwheel is performed. If the performer is plac-
ing his right hand down first, the spotter will cross
his arms with the right arm on top and grasp the
performer's waist. The spotter moves with the per-
former and as the cartwheel is done his arms uncross
and end with the left over right. Reverse when spot-
ting is on the other side.
 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 191

] C
FIGURE 13-16 Chasse.

may want to firstuse the take-off board without the

horse. The student can run, use the two-foot take-off,
and land on a layer of mats. The hurdle step pre-
cedes the two-foot take-off. The hurdle is a step onto
one foot in front of the board and a two-foot jump
onto the board. The take-off from the board is explo-
sive. With practice, the run and take-off become sec-
ond nature, and the gymnast concentrates on the
actual vault.
In women's vaulting the horse is sideways and
47 inches high. Women can perform two separate
vaults, but only the better vault is scored.

Learning Cues

Squat Vault (Figure The lead up to a

13-18).
squat vault could be a squat mount onto the horse.
After leaving the spring board, tuck the knees to the
chest and place the hands on the horse. Land in a
squat position on top of the horse. As soon as the stu-
dent masters the squat mount, she can try the vault.
The performer will again draw the knees to the
chest, but as the hands land on the horse, she pushes
downward and keeps the head and chest up. Pass
over the horse in the squat position to land facing
forward. The spotter is on the far side of the horse,
FIGURE 13-17 Arabesque.
ready to grasp the performer above the elbows if she
should need assistance.
Practice Suggestions
The Straddle Vault. The lead up to the vault
Squat mount, leap, forward roll, cartwheel dis- can be the straddle mount. After hitting the spring
mount. board, the performer straddles (spreads the legs) and
lands in a straddle position on top of the horse. The
head is up with the feet and hands in contact with
Vaulting
the horse. The spotter is in front of the performer on
When teaching a beginner to vault, you should the opposite side of the horse, grasping the upper
begin with the run and hurdle step. An instructor arms, to prevent her from falling forward. The vault
192 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING
FIGURE 13-18 Squat vault
is done the same way as the mount only the hands
push downward and the performer clears the horse.
The head remains up, and the hips travel in a for-
ward motion over the horse. The spotter is in front of
the performer, ready to grasp the upper arms if the
performer should catch a toe while passing over the
horse. If the performer clears the horse, the spotter
moves quickly out of the way.
Stoop Vault (Figure 13-19). This vaultvery
is
much like the squat vault except the legs are kept
straight. The hips are raised high enough to clear
the feet between the hands. The head is up, and
again the performer is pushing down against the
horse with the hands. As the hips travel forward, the
chest lifts upward to prepare for the landing. The
spotter stays to the side to assist by grasping the per-
former's upper arm.
Handspring (Figure 13-20). This is a more
master than the previous vaults be-
difficult vault to
cause the performer needs a great deal of momentum
to accomplish the handspring properly. The per-
former must have a good approach and take-off. The
hips bend slightly on the take-off as the hips and
legs pass overhead. The arms remain straight, and
the head is aligned between the arms. There is a
push on the horse which actually originates from the
shoulders to the hands. The contact with the horse is
short and explosive. The after-flight is approxi-
mately the same distance as the pre-flight. The spot-
ter stands on the far side of the horse. Beginners
FIGURE 13-19 Stoop vault
should have spotters on each side. Grasp the per-
former's shoulder and upper arm to prevent the
arms from folding. Sometimes a spotter can also
stand between the springboard and horse, lifting the
vaulter's hips to attain the needed height.
Floor Exercise
Floor exercise for women is similar to the men's
event in that the same equipment is used and the
routine lasts no more than one and a half minutes.
However, the requirements for the women's floor ex-
ercise are considerably different. The women's rou-
tine is choreographed to music, which must be
instrumental only. Women must show dance skills,
tumbling, and acrobatic skills, and they must work
on the floor level sometime in the routine. The diffi-
culties required in the composition of the routine
may be derived from a gymnast's dance skills as well
as from her tumbling. The beginning tumbling skills
in floor exercise will be covered in the tumbling sec-
tion.
Tumbling
Tumbling does not require the use of apparatus.
Mats of different thicknesses are used as the tum-
bling stunts become more difficult or in the learning
process of a certain skill. School programs from ele-
mentary through high school would do well to in-

FIGURE 13-20 Handspring.
elude a tumbling unit in their curriculum. Most
tumbling stunts require some courage and determi-
nation to accomplish, thus a student can gain self-
confidence by mastering these new skills. The
physical attributes attained through tumbling are
increased balance, agility, coordination, and flexibil-
ity. Tumbling units can incorporate partner stunts,
pyramids, and tumbling routines for variation.
The squad method of teaching a tumbling unit
has been highly successful. Six to eight students on
each mat is the preferred number. The mats are
placed in a three-sided square or horseshoe forma-
tion, with the demonstration mat at the open side.
The instructor can demonstrate or have a student
demonstrate and then let the class practice the skill.
Always explain and show spotting techniques.
There are many ways of evaluating a tumbling
unit. The instructor can compose a short routine that
all students must perform, or the students can com-
pose their own routines which must include certain
tumbling stunts. The instructor can evaluate certain
predetermined tumbling skills at the end of the unit
and may find it beneficial to have a testing day every
three or four days in the tumbling unit. On this day,
the students may choose to be evaluated on skills
they have mastered. The more skills they master by
the end of the unit, the better the evaluation. The in-
structor can be creative in his or her methods of
teaching stunts and tumbling, and in evaluations.
The important thing to remember is that each stu-
dent should feel successful. The stunts introduced
must be challenging and yet not be too difficult so
the majority of students can master them by the end
of the unit. A good instructor will keep the entire
class involved and be generous with praise.
GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 193
Learning Cues
Forward Roll (Figure 13-21). The forward
roll isone of the basic skills in tumbling. The student
squats and places the hands, shoulder width apart,
on the mat. Next, tuck the chin to the chest, bend the
arms and raise the hips. The back of the head
touches the mat and continues to roll onto the feet to
a stand. The hands do not touch the mat again. Some
students find it helpful to grasp the shins and tuck
more tightly on the roll. The spotter assists by plac-
ing one hand on the head (not the neck) and the
other on the upper legs. The hand on the head keeps
the chin tucked, and the hand on the upper legs as-
sists with the roll.
Backward Roll. The backward roll is another
basic skill and is sometimes more difficult to master
than the forward roll. Again, the student begins in a
squat position. The hands begin on the mat, but as
the backward roll starts, they move upward to the
shoulders, fingers pointing back and palms up. It is
essential that the chin be tucked. The hands reach
back and are placed on the mat beside the head,
under the shoulders. As the hips come over the head,
the hands push off the floor. Remain tucked, never
allowing the knees to touch the mat, and land on the
feet. The spotter may have a more difficult time
helping the student complete the roll. If possible, try
to lift the hips as the roll begins. Many students will
roll backward crooked. This usually indicates they
are not pushing evenly with both hands at the same
time.
Tripod Balance (Figure 13-22). Place the
hands, shoulder width apart, on the mat. The head is
placed on the mat to make the third point of a trian-
194 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING

FIGURE 13-21 Forward roll.

gle with equal sides. The balance is done on the roof

of the forehead, not the crown of the head. Raise the
hips and place the knees, one at a time, on the
elbows. Balance. The spotter is behind the student to
steady him or her at the hips.
Headstand. The headstand can be done out of
the tripod balance. Straighten both legs, with toes
pointed, slowly. Once the balance is achieved, return
to the tripod slowly. The spotter stands behind the
student, making sure that the balance is maintained
by steadying the legs. This stunt is readily adaptable
to a uniform count, so that everyone can try it at
once; e.g.:

1. Hands down
FIGURE 13-22 Tripod balance. 2. Head down

FIGURE 13-23 Kip (neck spring).
3. Legs up (tripod forward)
4. Headstand
5. Legs Down
6. Head up
Make sure that students are far enough apart that a
loss of balance won't cause an injury.
Prone Headstand. Begin in a prone position,
lying flat on the mat with the hands placed under
the shoulders, fingers pointing forward. Pressing
down with the hands, lift and bend at the hips. Keep
the legs straight and raise the hips as if a string at-
tached to the ceiling was pulling them up. Drag the
feet along the mat. At the same time, place the fore-
head on the mat. Once the hips are overhead, raise
the legs into a headstand. Once balance has been
achieved, reverse the procedure, or roll out of the
headstand by tucking the chin to the chest and roll-
ing. The spotter stands behind the student and helps
him maintain his balance. If the student has trouble
lifting the legs off the floor, pull the hips slightly to-
ward the spotter. Continue to spot at the hips when
the student returns to the starting position.
Kip (Neck Spring) (Figure 13-23). Lying on
the back, flex at the hips and bring the legs straight
back so the knees are over the face. The hands are
FIGURE 13-24A Cartwheel.
GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 795
beside the head under the shoulders (same position
as a backward roll). The hips begin to move slightly
forward toward the floor and just at the off-balance
moment, the legs snap upward and forward. Simul-
taneously, the hands push against the floor, and the
feet come under the student to land on the mat. The
hips must be kept high, and the legs remain straight
on the whip. The spotter must have a feel for the
timing of this stunt in order to help the student effec-
tively. Kneel on the student's left side and place the
left hand on the small of the back and the right hand
on the upper arm. Help the student feel the slight
movement forward before the whip. Lift at the small
of the back on the whip and continue lifting with the
right hand as the student stands.
Cartwheel (Figure 13-24A). The cartwheel is
a basic move in tumbling, and the student can visu-
alize the spokes of a wheel when performing this
move. The cartwheel is performed to either side
(usually there is a preference). Stand with the right
side to the mat. The legs are spread slightly more
than shoulder width apart and arms are overhead.
Bend sideways, placing the right hand (straight
arm) on the mat and at the same time raise the left
leg up, followed by the right, as the left hand goes
down onto the mat. The left foot follows and then the
796 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING

Back Walkover (Figure 13-25). This stunt re-

quires back flexibility. Stand with hands stretched
up overhead, abdomen pulled in and the torso
stretched. One foot is pointed in front of the body,
and all the weight is on the back foot. Stretch up and
look back, keeping the arms on either side of the
head. As the head and shoulders move back and
down toward the floor, the support leg may bend
slightly, the pointed toe lifts off the floor and travels
back. The legs remain split and move over the in-

FIGURE 13-24B Spotting the cartwheel.

right foot arrives. As the feet are landing, the hands

are coming off the mat. As with a wheel, the spokes
(hands and feet) move in a straight line and hit the
floor in an even count. The cartwheel can be modi-
fied by beginning facing the mat and bending for-
ward instead of sidewards. The hand and foot
placement are the same. The spotter Figure 13-24B)
(

always stands to the student's back to avoid being

struck by his legs. If the student is going to his left,
the spotter grasps the student's hips with the left
arm crossed over the right. Move with the student,
lifting at the hips as needed. Reverse hand place-
ment if performing to the left.
Round-Off. The round-off should be at-
tempted after the cartwheel has been mastered. The
round-off is done from a short run. Perform as if
doing a cartwheel and as the legs are overhead, snap
together and quarter-turn the trunk. The legs snap
down together, and the hands push off the floor to-
gether (mule kick). The student will end facing the
direction from which he or she started. The hands
and feet are not in contact with the floor at the same
time. It is difficult to spot a round-off because the
student must learn to snap down and push off. If the
cartwheel has been sufficiently mastered, there is
little chance of injury. Verbal cues will be the great-
est aid to the student in learning a round-off. FIGURE 13-25 Back walkover.

verted torso to the floor. As the first foot lands, the
hands push off the floor. The spotters may kneel or
stand. If there is only one spotter, stand on the side
of the forward leg. Place the closest hand on the stu-
dent's back and the other hand on the back of the
lead leg as it goes over.
Front Walkover. The front walkover requires
even more than the back walkover and
flexibility
therefore is considered more difficult by many. Es-
sentially it is the reverse of the back walkover. Stand
with the hands overhead and one foot pointed for-
ward. Place the hands on the mat, shoulder width
apart. The weight transfers to the front foot as the
back leg raises behind and upward. The leg con-
tinues to travel overhead, and the legs are in a split
position. The back leg becomes the lead leg or the leg
that will contact the floor first. As the foot lands, the
hands push off the floor. There is no period of flight.
The leg that is still moving through the air drives
downward and forward, with the upper body trailing
behind. The spotter supports the student throughout
the walkover. It may be easiest to kneel beside the
student, supporting the shoulders with one hand
and the small of the back with the other.
Handstand to Forward Roll. To achieve a
handstand, the student places the hands shoulder
width apart on the mat and kicks one leg back and
up overhead. The other leg quickly raises upward to
join the first. The head remains aligned with the rest
of the body, ears next to the arms. A tight, straight
body makes maintaining a balance easier. After the
balance is maintained, the student shifts the
shoulders to the back to create a loss of balance. At
the same time tuck the chin to the chest and slowly
bend the arms, lowering the upper body toward the
floor. As the back of the head contacts the floor,
begin the roll by tucking the legs to the chest. Finish
the roll to a stand. The spotter stands to the side of
the student moving slightly to the back as he kicks
to the handstand. Spotting at the legs helps the stu-
dent attain balance. When the roll begins, the spot-
ter makes sure the student is leaning off" balance in
the direction of the roll before the head begins to
lower toward the ground. The spotter helps control
the momentum of the roll by controlling the legs of
the student.
Tinsica. The tinsica is a cross between a cart-
wheel and a front walkover. It is advisable that the
student be able to do both before trying the tinsica.
The student begins with the hands overhead and the
preferred foot forward. Place the same hand down on
the mat in front of the foot that is forward. As the
back leg rises, the other hand is placed ahead of the
hand on the mat. The back leg continues overhead,
followed by the forward foot which has pushed off.
The legs remain spread apart, and the student walks
out of the stunt, one leg landing at a time. The stu-
dent visualizes doing a front walkover on a balance
GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 197
beam with the hands and feet landing in a cart-
wheel-type rhythm. The hands and feet arrive at
four different times, moving forward in a straight
line. The spotter kneels and supports the student's
back and upper body at the shoulder, moving and
lifting with the student as the tinsica is being at-
tempted.
Valdez (Figure 13-26). Sitting on the floor, ex-
tend the left leg and bend the right knee, placing the
right foot close to the buttocks. The right hand is
placed on the floor behind the buttocks with the fin-
gertips pointing away from the body. With a vigor-
ous push off the right foot, swing the left arm back
from the shoulder (backward and upward) and place
the left hand on the floor. The legs remain split as
they proceed overhead, finishing as if doing a back
walkover. The right hand, which is on the floor, exe-
cutes a half-turn during the inverted period. This
usually happens naturally as the valdez is being per-
formed. The spotter kneels beside the student on the
side of the extended leg. Place the hand nearest the
student's back on the lower back and the other hand
on the extended leg's upper thigh. As the push-up
and back is made by the student, the spotter lifts and
guides the leg back and over.
Back Handspring (Figure 13-27). This tum-
bling stunt should be taught with two good spotters.
The student stands with the feet shoulder-width
apart and the arms extended in front, shoulder level.
Lower backward as if to sit in a chair. When balance
is lost, push against the floor with the legs and vig-
orously swing the arms up and back, stopping beside
the head. The head looks back when the arms begin
the move upward; however, it is best not to over-
emphasize this aspect in order to prevent the stu-
dent from traveling straight back. The motion is ex-
plosive, and the body is extended as the hips thrust
upward. The back arches slightly as the hands reach
for the mat. When the hands hit the mat, they push
off and the legs snap down after having passed
through the overhead inverted position. The spotters
stand on either side of the student. The spotter on
the student's right places his left hand on the stu-
dent's lower back and the right hand on the back of
the upper thigh. The spotter on the student's left re-
verses the hand placement. The spotters are careful
not to lift the student through the handspring but
rather to provide support. In order to master the
back handspring, the student must "feel" the sense
of timing that is needed. The spotters can help by
providing the security needed in attempting a back-
ward tumbling move.
Practice Suggestions
Prone headstand, tripod, forward roll, cartwheel,
handstand, forward roll, round-off.
798 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING

FIGURE 13-26 Valdez.

FIGURE 13-27 Back handspring.


SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
The nature of tumbling and gymnastics makes
safety a major concern of those supervising the pro-
gram. It is recommended that the participant warm
up before beginning any work on the equipment.
Warming up helps prevent muscle pulls and strains
and makes an individual aware of his or her body's
limitations. Stunts often require assistance (spot-
ting),which aids in safety. The facility, equipment,
and area organization can also assist in providing a
safe environment.
Spotting
The purposeof spotting is to aid the gymnast to
master a stunt safely. This aid can be either manual
or employ a spotting belt.
A
participant should not attempt a new stunt
without having performed the progressions and
lead-ups and without the confidence and ability re-
quired to succeed. The spotter should only be used as
assistant or teaching aid, not as a guarantee of pro-
tection from injury.
Manual manipulation —
the use of hands and/or
body to assist the —
performer is a valuable learning
tool for students of gymnastics. A good spotter can
apply just the right amount of support and protec-
tion needed. Of course it helps if the spotter has also
tried the stunts, but that is not always necessary. A
person can be an excellent spotter without ever hav-
ing trained as a gymnast.
The Spotting Belt. The "hands-on" method of
spotting seems preferable to the spotting belt, but for
hazardous stunts the belt is a necessary safeguard.
The belt fastens around the performer and has ropes
on either side which are attached with hooks that
swivel. The spotters stand on either side of the per-
former and hold the ropes. Depending on the stunt,
the spotters move and lift with the ropes to assist or
secure the performer. With the belt it is much harder
to attain the feel of the stunt and the timing may not
be as precise, but safety is always assured.
There is also an overhead spotting belt which is
attached to the ceiling through pulleys. Only one in-
dividual assists the gymnast. The overhead belt can
be helpful on the balance beam, high bar, and floor
exercise (if it can travel). The spotter must have ex-
perience with this type of spotting method because it
requires a good sense of timing for both the gymnast
and spotter.
Facility and Equipment
Having the proper facility and equipment is
important in providing a safe environment. Most
schools use the gymnasium, which has plenty of
space and overhead clearance. Equipment cannot be
too close to existing walls or other pieces of equip-
GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING 199
ment. For example, there must be ample distance for
the run and pre-flight in vaulting, but also for the
after-flight of the vault. The high bar and uneven
parallel bars need overhead clearance. A low ceiling
limits the use of these pieces of equipment.
Gymnastic equipment is expensive and must be
kept in good repair, not only for safety reasons, but
to prolong its life. Individuals need to be instructed
in how and properly move the
to adjust settings
equipment. It is a good idea to show those involved
how each piece is set up and to have safety checks
done on each piece of equipment before performing.
Those responsible must continually emphasize
that the gymnasium and equipment may not be used
without proper supervision. No one should be al-
lowed on the equipment at any time without prior
permission from the instructor, coach, or supervisor.
Organization
To provide a safe, controllable learning environ-
ment for a gymnastics unit the instructor can organ-
ize the class into squads. By
dividing a class into
groups and then instructing by either rotation or at
each station, the instructor can make sure a safe
teaching progression of skills is used.
Teach the lead-ups and fundamentals of each
skill before progressing. This not only makes it eas-
ier for the participant to learn and master the more
difficult skills, but also is a safety factor. One of the
main reasons participants are injured in the gym-
nastic or tumbling units is due to the individual not
understanding the skill he or she is executing. Mind
and body cannot work together unless they both
have a basic understanding of the skill. This can
only be accomplished through lead-up and mastery
of elementary progressions. The responsibility ulti-
mately lies with the instructor's knowledge of these
progressions. The "Selected References" section
listed in this chapter provides resources for enhanc-
ing one's knowledge of proper progressions for any of
the stunts and apparatus.
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
Orthopedically Impaired
1. Create obstacle courses using gym mats draped
over classroom chairs, balance beams, and simi-
lar apparatus, and allow wheelchair users to
travel the course out of their wheelchair. Em-
phasis should be placed on traveling over,
under, around, and through the course. (Consult
with the adapted physical educator and/or phys-
ical therapist before removing the student from
the wheelchair.)
2. Students using canes and/or crutches should be
able to participate with upper body activities,
e.g.,parallel bars.
200 GYMNASTICS AND TUMBLING

Mentally Impaired Routine A combination of stunts in a series. A routine

contains a mount, stunts, and ends with a dismount.
1. Contact the Special Olympics for their gymnas-
Seat A position on a piece of apparatus in which the
tics units.
weight is borne by the thighs or buttocks: Straddle
2. Contact AIM, Adventures in Movement for the
Handicapped, Inc., in Dayton, OH. (See Paciorek
seat— legs apart with the weight borne evenly. Side

and Jones, 1989, listed in Selected References.

seat— legs are together with the weight borne by the
buttocks or legs on one side of the apparatus.
Sensory Impaired Somersault The rotation of the body in the air around
the horizontal axis.
1. Use peer teachers for blind students.
Stand A fixed position with the body weight supported
2. Contact the United States Association of Blind
by the feet.
Athletes in Muskogee, OK. (See Paciorek and
Support A position on a piece of apparatus in which the
Jones, 1989.)
weight is supported by the hands or arms with the
shoulders above the base of support.
Tuck The knees and hips are bent, with the head in a
TERMINOLOGY chin-down position.
Twist The rotation of the body around the vertical axis.
Balance The body weight is supported by the hands,
Under grasp A grasp in which the palms of the hand are
upper arms, head or forearms in an inverted position,
under the bar.
with the shoulders above the point of support.
Dismount A stunt that moves the performer from the ap-
paratus to a stand on the floor. Also the last moves of
a floor exercise routine.
Grasp The placement of hands upon a piece of apparatus
with the thumb and fingers wrapped around. SELECTED REFERENCES
Hang A position on a piece of apparatus in which the
weight borne by the hands, knees, etc. with the
is Carter, E. R. Gymnastics for Girls and Women. Englewood
shoulders below the base of support. Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969.
Layout The entire body is straight. Drury, B. J. et al. Gymnastics for Women. 3rd ed. Palo Alto,
Mixed grasp A grasp in which one hand is in an over CA: National Press, 1970.
grasp position and one hand is in an under grasp Kalakian. L. H. et al. Men's Gymnastics. Boston, MA: Allyn
position. and Bacon, Inc., 1973.
Mount A stunt that moves the performer from a stand on Murray, M. Women s Gymnastics: Coach, Participant, Spec-
the floor to the apparatus. Also can be the first moves tator. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1979.
of a floor exercise routine. Paciorek, M. J. and J. A. Jones, Sports and Recreation for
Over grasp A grasp in which the palms of the hand are the Disabled. Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark, Inc., 1989.
on top of the bar. Ryser, O. et al. A Manual for Tumbling and Apparatus
Pike The legs are straight with the
body bent at the hips. Stunts. 8th ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Co., 1990.
Puck A combination of the tuck and pike, bent at the Tavlor, B. et al. Olympic Gymnastics for Men and Women.
hips with a slight bend in the knees. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1972.
 HANDBALL
AND RACQUETBALL
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Select equipment necessary to play handball and racquetball.
Identify and put into practice the rules gooerning handball and racquetball.
Identify and develop the basic skills, namely the forehand stroke, the backhand
stroke, the serve, and the back wall shot.
Employ the basic strategy necessary to play the game.
Identify and put into practice the safety considerations necessary for a successful
game of handball or racquetball.

NATURE AND PURPOSE
Handball and racquetball are related competitive
sports in which the hand (or a racquet) is used to
serve and return the ball. In their principal varia-
tions these games can be played by two opponents
(as a singles game), by three opponents (as a cut-
throat game), or by two opposing pairs of players (as
a doubles game). In this chapter, all that is said
about handball also applies to racquetball, unless
otherwise stated.
Although the game can be played on one or three
walls, the four-wall enclosed court provides perhaps
the greatest challenge to skill and the most competi-
tion. Primarily the four-wall game will be discussed
here, but most of its related description is meaning-
ful to the other variations of the game.
The side scoring 21 points wins the game
first
(in racquetball, first side to reach 15 points), and the
first side winning two games wins the match. The
third game, or tie-breaker, is usually played to only
11 points. There is no tie score nor requirement to
win by two points, as in some games.
A player may use either the right or left hand for
hitting the ball (or holding the racquet), but only one
hand at a time may be used to play the ball, and the
ball must be struck only once in each instance.
PLAYING AREA AND EQUIPMENT
Court. The standard four-wall handball court
is 40 feet long X 20 feet wide X 20 feet high (Figure
14-1). An outdoor single-wall court is 34 feet long X

40' X 20' X 20'

RECEIVING LINE

FIGURE 14-1 Four-wall handball court. The dotted line behind the short service line is for
racquetball (receiving cue).

201
202 HANDBALL AND RACQUETBALL
20 feet wide X 16 feet high (Figure 14-2). The four-
wall court is divided into a front court and a back
court of equal dimensions by a line called the short
line, running parallel to the front wall. Five feet in
front of the short line is another parallel line called
the service line. Eighteen inches from and parallel
with each side wall a line is drawn to form a box,
termed the service box, where the partner of the
serve (in doubles) must stand while the ball is being
served.
The racquetball court has a receiving line which
is marked as a broken line parallel to the short line.
The back edge should be five feet from the back edge
of the short line.
Ball. The handball is made of black rubber,
has a diameter of 1% inches and weighs 2.3 ounces.
In racquetball a blue seamless rubber ball is used
that is 2 lA inches in diameter and weighs approxi-
mately 1.4 ounces. If one-wall handball is to be
played in a physical education class, it would be ad-
visable to use the racquetball ball.
Gloves. The
rules of handball require that
gloves be worn. This is not only for protection but to
keep perspiration off the ball as much as possible. In
racquetball, gloves are not required by the rules;
however, many players prefer to wear them for a bet-
ter gripand reduced slippage due to perspiration.
Racquet. The racquetball racquet length
must not exceed 21 inches. There should be a thong
attached to the bottom of the racquet handle that
should slip over the player's wrist to secure the rac-
quet to the wrist. The racquet frame may be of any
material judged to be safe; popular types are made of
aluminum, steel, fiber glass, graphite or a combina-
tion of materials. The strings of the racquet must be
gut, monofilament, nylon, graphite, plastic or a com-
bination of these. Whatever the material, it should
not leave a mark or deface the ball. The frame comes
in three sizes —
regular, mid-size or full size. The
FIGURE 14-2 One-wall handball court.
price of the racquets ranges from $20 to $200. For
physical education classes, a less expensive solution
is to use wooden paddle racquets that cost much less.
Eyeguards. Eyeguards should be required of
all racquetball players. Guards are available in var-
ious price ranges and styles.
BASIC RULES
A strong point in favor of handball is the simplicity
of the rules governing the game. Any person can be-
come familiar with the basic rules in one or two class
sessions. In 1958 the Amateur Athletic Union, the
YMCA
U.S. Handball Association, and the agreed
upon a unified set of handball rules that would be
applicable throughout the country, and in 1959
these rules were adopted by the Jewish Welfare
Board. A summary of the latest rules is given below.
The Game
In the act of serving, the server drops the ball on
the floor (between the short and service lines), and
on the first rebound the ball is struck in such a man-
ner that it will first hit the front wall and on the re-
bound land upon the floor back of the short line,
either before or after striking one of the side walls.
After the ball is legally served, one of the receiving
team players returns the ball by striking it either on
the fly or on the first bounce so that it will strike the
front wall before striking the floor, either directly or
after having struck one or both of the side walls,
back wall, ceiling, or any combination of these sur-
faces. The receiving side then returns the ball to the
front wall, and play continues until one side is un-
able to return the ball legally, which will then consti-
tute either a point or a handout.
Playing Regulations
The
choice for the right to serve is decided by the
toss of a coin, and the player or side winning the toss
starts the first and third games. The server may
stand any place in the service zone. When the server
or serving side loses the service, he or they become
the receiver and the receiver the server; they alter-
nate in this fashion in all subsequent services of the
game. The serve must be made within the service
area; stepping on the line, but not beyond, is permit-
ted. In serving, the ball must be bounced on the floor
and struck on its first rebound from the floor. If the
server attempts to hit the ball on this rebound, and
fails, he is out. The server may not bounce the ball
more than one time in the service zone in making a
service. Violation of this rule retires the server. A
server may not serve until his opponent has had a
fair opportunity to get placed. The server's partner,
in doubles, must stand within the service box with
 HANDBALL AND RACQUETBALL 203

his back to the side wall, both feet on the floor, until NOTE: In racquetball, #7 and #8 do not apply; the
the ball passes the short line on its return from the server gets only one attempt.
front wall.
If a player's partner is hit by a served fly ball
while standing in the service box, it counts as a SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
"dead ball" without penalty, but does not eliminate
A. Introduction
any short or long fault preceding this service. If one
1. Origin and development
is hit by a servedon the bounce, it is a short ball.
ball
If the served ball should pass behind the partner and
2. Equipment
3. Safety
strike the floor back of the short line, it is a dead
ball.
B. Rules and Procedures of Play
Playing area
1.
In doubles the side starting each game is allowed
2. Scoring
one handout only. After that both partners are per-
3. Serving
mitted to serve. Players in doubles must follow the
4. Hinders
same order of service throughout the game. It is not
C. Skills and Techniques
necessary for players to alternate serves to their op-
1. Forehand shot (sidearm stroke)
ponents.
If a ball is swung at and missed, it may be played
2. Overhead stroke
again, providing it is hit before bouncing twice on
3. Overhead ceiling shot
4. Back wall shot
the floor. If a player swings at and completely misses
the ball and if in his, or his partner's attempt to
5. Backhand shot (Racquetball)
6. Service
again play the ball there is an unintentional inter-
a. Forehand serve
ference by an opponent, it shall be a hinder. If the
b. Drive serve
completely missed ball should on the fly or first
bounce strike an opponent, it is a penalty against the
c. Lob serve
—
opponent a point, or handout, as the case may be.
d.
Kill shot
7.
Z serve

D. Playing Strategy
Receiving Service
The
receiver or receivers must stand at least five
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
feet back of the short line while the ball is being
served. In racquetball, the receiver stands behind
the receiving line while the ball is served. The re- Forehand or Sidearm Stroke
ceiver may play the ball on the first bounce or volley
The forehand stroke is the primary offensive
it, provided he or she does not cross the short line.
stroke in handball and its mastery is essential in
The receiver may not play an illegally served ball. order to achieve a winning game. The most efficient
stroke occurs at knee height and is similar to the
motion of bending over to skip a flat stone across a
Illegal Service
body of water or throw a sidearm pitch in baseball.
Any two of the following serves in succession re-
tires the server: Learning Cues

1. When the served ball hits the front wall and fails 1. Position your body as if you were a baseball bat-
to strike the floor back of the short line on the ter, facing the side wall.
fly. 2. Raise the striking hand to the height of your ear
2. When a served ball hits the front wall and two in a "cocked" position (Figure 14-3).
side walls before striking the floor. 3. As the ball is struck, step forward with the front
3. When a served ball hits the front wall, side wall, foot, shifting weight from back to front foot Fig-
(

and back wall before striking the floor. ure 14-4).

4. When a served ball hits the front wall, then the 4. Simultaneously with the step, drop your strik-
ceiling or back wall before striking the floor. ing shoulder, rotate your body to enable your
5. When the server steps beyond the short line or forearm and hand to move forward in a plane
service line in the act of serving. parallel to the floor.
6. Failure of the server to properly return a ball in 5. Contact the ball at the vertical center of your
play. body.
7. A served ball hitting the ceiling, floor, or side 6. The wrist moves past the elbow in a snapping
walls before striking a front wall. motion.
8. A served ball which hits the front and side wall, 7. Ball is struck by the hand at the base of the
or front wall and floor, or front wall and ceiling fingers or in the "sweet" part of the racquet.
at the same time (crotch ball). 8. Follow-through ahead of the front knee.
204 HANDBALL AND RACQUETBALL

then move back five feet and hit a series, then

back five feet more, and so on.
2. Stand facing the side wall (five feet away) in a
ready position. Toss the ball easily against the
side wall so that the ball will rebound up from
the floor into a striking position for a forehand
shot.

Overhead Stroke
The overhead stroke is used to strike the ball at
eye level or higher and is very similar to a baseball
catcher's throw or a quarterback's pass in football.

Learning Cues

1. Position toes toward the side wall and open

shoulders to the front wall.
2. Weight is on the rear foot.
3. Bring cupped hand to the ear, cocked (Figure
14-5).
4. Weight shifts to the front foot as the arm moves
up and forward.
5. Ball is struck above and in front of the head.
6. Ball is struck by the fingers with a wrist snap.
FIGURE 14-3 "Cocked" position, forehand. 7. Follow-through in the direction you wish the ball
to take (Figure 14-6).

Practice Suggestions

1. Stand in a ready position deep in the court.

Bounce the ball vigorously on the floor so that it
rebounds up into a striking position for the over-
head.

FIGURE 14-4 Contact point, forehand stroke.

Practice Suggestions

1. Stand facing the side wall in a ready position.

Bounce the ball in front of you easily, striking
the ball as it rebounds at about knee level. Start
a series of practice shots near the short line, FIGURE 14-5 Overhead "cocked position.

- __ . —
i
FIGURE 14-6 Overhead follow-through.
2. From a position deep in the court, throw the ball
high against the front wall so that it bounces
high to you, returning it with an overhead
stroke. Move your body as soon as possible to the
striking position.
Overhead Ceiling Shot
The overhead fundamental to rac-
ceiling shot,
quetball, can be used effectively as either an offen-
sive or defensive strategy. While it can be hit with
the side arm, forehand, backhand or underhand
strokes, the overhand ceiling shot is described here.
The motion is very similar to a tennis serve, the ob-
jective being to hit the ceiling first, the front wall,
the floor and then land deep in the court.
Learning Cues
1. The body should be facing the side wall
shoulders open to the front wall.
2. The weight is on the rear foot and will transfer
forward as the contact and follow-through are
executed.
3. The racquet arm is cocked, elbow up and racquet
dropped behind.
4. The non-hitting arm should be pointed upward,
overhead almost pointing to the ball.
5. As the racquet arm snaps upward, the ball
should be contacted at the midline of the body.
Too far behind will cause the ball to hit the ceil-
ing directly overhead and too far forward will
cause the ball to hit the front wall.
HANDBALL AND RACQUETBALL 205
6. Follow-through in the direction you wish the ball
to take.
Practice Suggestions
1. Throw ball against the ceiling to get the feel of
the ball rebounding off the ceiling, then front
wall and the floor.
2. Toss ball overhead, using the same drill as #1,
gradually increase the force at point of contact.
3. Repeat drill #2 and begin placing the ball in dif-
ferent parts of the court, trying to hit the ball
consistently to the corner of the back court.
-<ack Wall Shot
The back wall shot, unique to handball and rac-
quetball, rebounds from the front wall to the floor
and then off the back wall before the opponent can
get into position to play the ball. If you want to be-
come an above average player you have to learn to
play this shot successfully. The stroke most applica-
ble for the back wall shot is the forehand stroke in
which the forearm is swung parallel to the floor.
This offers a balanced and powerful method of hit-
ting the ball.
Learning Cues
1. Face the back wall or the area of the back wall
that the ball is in.
2. Move the ball toward the front wall.
3. As the ball rebounds from the wall and begins to
descend, pivot on your right foot (for a right
hand shot) and turn your body, stepping toward
the front wall.
4. Hand and arm locked above the ear.
5. Strike the ball at the vertical mid-point of your
body.
6. Let the ball drop as low as possible.
want the
7. Follow-through in the direction you
ball to follow.
Practice Suggestions
and 1. Facing the back wall, toss the ball against the
back wall, letting it bounce toward the front wall
from the floor. Move with the ball, positioning
yourself for a back wall shot.
2. Facing the back wall, toss the ball against the
floor to the back wall, but before it bounces on
the floor, position yourself for a back wall shot.
Backhand Shot
While the handball player needs to develop both
hands equally well in playing both sides of the court,
the racquetball player must learn to use the back-
hand shot, The backhand shot is similar to a tennis
206 HANDBALL AND RACQUETBALL

backhand, but the stroke is much shorter and uses Service

more wrist snap.
The service, the beginning stroke of each point,
must be placed successfully in order to continue the
Learning Cues point, but the sendee can also be an offensive
weapon if developed to its potential. You may serve
1. Position your body by facing the side wall (oppo-
from anywhere in the service area, the most advan-
site side of the forehand stroke).
tageous spot being in the center, so that you may di-
2. Rotate the racquet in your hand one-eighth of a
rect your serve to either side. You must drop the ball
turn toward the front wall.
into the serving zone, strike it on the first rebound,
3. Cock the racquet back near the ear, pelvis
causing the ball to strike the front wall and rebound
turned (Figure 14-7).
over the short line and land on the floor.
4. As the ball is struck, step forward with the front
foot, shifting the weight from the back leg to the
Drive Serve. The drive serve a low, hard
is

front leg. serve placed so that it returns close to the side wall
5. Simultaneously with the step, bring the racquet and drops dead in the back corner; or a low, hard
forward and contact the ball in line with the serve that strikes the floor and wall just behind the
short line. If possible, the drive serve should not re-
front foot, but away from the body (Figure 14-8).
6. As the ball is struck, uncock the wrist, snapping bound off the back wall, thereby giving your oppo-
the ball towards the front wall. nent a back wall shot. The drive serve should be
struck with the same techniques described in the
forehand stroke.
Practice Suggestions
Lob Serve. The lob serve is a high ball placed
1. Standing at mid-court, facing the side wall, on the front wall which permits the ball to return in
bounce the ball easily into the backhand hitting an arc, hugging the side wall, and striking the floor
area. Hit a series of shots from this area, back up a few feet past the short line in such a manner that
five feet, hit another series, back up another five the ball rebounds again and drops gently into the
feet, and repeat. corner. The lob serve may be struck either with an
2. Stand at mid-court, facing the side wall. Toss the underhand or an overhead stroke, the underhand
ball easily against the side wall so that the ball stroke being generally easier to develop in the begin-
rebounds up from the floor into the striking area ning.
for a backhand shot. Repeat this series from Z Serve. This serve is named from the Z pat-
deeper in the court. torn formed by the ball. Standing near the left wall

FIGURE 14-7 Backhand "cocked" position. FIGURE 14-8 Backhand positions on contact.

FIGURE 14-9 The Z serve.
of the service area, serve the ball so that it strikes
the extreme right side of the front wall a few feet
from the corner, approximately four feet above the
should then strike the right wall, angle past
floor. It
in front of the server, strike the floor, and
strike the left side wall from which
spins off nearly
it
parallel to the back wall (Figure 14-9). The Z serve
should be struck with a low forehand, almost under-
hand stroke. The Z serve could also be executed from
the right side of the service area.
Kill Shots
A "kill" actually of such a low placement
shot is
that there is little or no possibility of a return. Gen-
erally hit with a forehand stroke, you do not hit
"down" on the ball but let the ball drop to knee
height before contacting it with a powerful stroke.
Kills can either be front wall kills or corner kills. The
front wall kill is stroked straight ahead, hitting so
low on the front wall that the ball bounces twice be-
fore your opponent can hit it. The corner kill is hit
low, but is aimed toward either corner formed by the
front and side walls. The ball should strike either the
front or side wall, and then it immediately will
carom into the side or front wall, producing an an-
gled return that is low and considerably slowed by
the ball striking the two wall surfaces.
PLAYING STRATEGY
Handball and racquetball are games in which a pre-
mium is placed on analyzing the opponent's
strengths and weaknesses. Some players are unable
to use their left hand with much effectiveness in
handball or they have not developed a strong back-
hand shot in racquetball. When facing such an oppo-
nent, a player should direct a majority of the shots so
the opponent is placed at a disadvantage. Players
should vary their strategy by employing fast balls al-
HANDBALL AND RACQUETBALL 207
ternated with lobs (high, soft shots) in sufficient fre-
quency to get the opponent off balance. The change
of pace is particularly effective on the serve, and
many good players use it to advantage. In playing
doubles, partners should agree on the area that each
is to cover and assign the areas so each player may
take advantage of any particular strong points they
may have.
Players should work for a desirable position on
the court. It is usually good strategy to maintain a
position in the well — near middle of the court and
close enough to enable one to play low balls and
corner shots. By skillfully placing shots, a player can
keep an opponent in such a position that he or she
will be at a disadvantage in returning crosscourt
angle shots. Think ahead and make the first play a
forerunner to a second or third play that will result
in an error by the opponent, or afford the opportu-
nity to place a passing or kill shot. If an opponent
persists in playing close to the front wall, he or she
can be driven out of position by high lob shots that go
overhead but do not strike the back wall with suffi-
cient force to rebound any distance. In the final anal-
finally ysis, a careful scrutiny of your opponent's style of
play is the first step in planning a campaign that
will be most effective. Identify his or her weak points
and take advantage of them.
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
Orthopedically Impaired
1. Follow rules from Wheelchair Racquetball Asso-
ciation and allow wheelchair user two bounces
before a return shot is required.
2. Tether a ball to an assistive device, e.g., walker,
crutch, for mobility impaired students.
3. Use a larger size ball or one made of different
material, e.g., nerf ball.
4. Use of velcro strapping to secure racquets to
hand during play.
5. Use of flat paddle-type boards secured to hand
instead of racquets for striking.
6. Commercial extension devices are available for
amputees and others with grip limitations.
Mentally Impaired
1. Reduce the court size and responsibility to court
coverage.
2. Use one- walled courts or stations in the gymna-
sium.
3. Refer to #3 Orthopedically Impaired above.
Sensory Impaired
1. Individual considerations need to be made on
the appropriateness of handball /racquetball for
blind students. Lead-up games might allow the
student to roll or throw an audio ball against a
wall to practice movement and appropriate posi-
208 HANDBALL AND RACQUETBALL

tioning. Place small bells inside whiffleballs and 8. Running around the forehand and backhand
use as audio ball. will pin you against the side walls.
2. Minimal modifications would be needed for the 9. Your shoulder level should equal the ball height.
deaf and /or hard of hearing. Instructional con- 10. Let any ball at chest level in center court go past
siderations would be the same as previously you and play it off the back wall.
mentioned, e.g., use of sign language, videos,
pictures.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

1. Dress properly for the game. Always wear rub-

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS ber-soled shoes to ensure firm footing.
2. Always warm up thoroughly before beginning
competition.
Helpful Hints— Handball
3. Do not play a dead ball, because your opponent
1. Practice "kills" alone. Play the ball around an may turn and get struck in the face.
imaginary opponent and work on the various 4. Do not deliberately hit an opponent with the ball
arm strokes. in the hope that he will call a hinder on the play.
2. If your hands swell from playing, soak them in You may both get hurt, and ill feeling will de-
hot water before entering the court, and swelling velop.
will be minimized. 5. After you play the ball to the back court, do not
3. Gloves are worn by a majority of handball watch the ball; you may get hit in the face by a
players. Your enjoyment of the game will be in- returning ball.
creased if you wear a pair of gloves that fit your 6. Allow your opponents room to make the play.
hands well. Always hang gloves up to dry after Don't crowd or you may be struck.
using them. 7. Wear eyeguards at all times.
4. Do not rush the ball. Wait for it, and you will not
only save energy but play a better game.
5. Control is more desirable than speed. TERMINOLOGY
6. Serve each ball so that it is difficult for the oppo-
nent to return it. Try to get several ace serves in Ace A service which completely eludes the receiver.
each game. Back wall shot A shot made from a rebound off the back
7. A ball hit close to the floor has less bounce and is wall.
more difficult to return. The forehand stroke is Box See Service box.
best for this shot; practice regularly on this play. Ceiling shot A shot striking the ceiling first, then the
8. Watch good players and pattern your play after front wall.
those who have mastered the game. Crotch The juncture
of any two playing surfaces, as be-
9. As a playing courtesy, the opponent is entitled to tween the and any wall.
floor
a fair and unobstructed opportunitv to plav the Crotch shot A ball that strikes the front wall and floor si-
ball. multaneously. Not good.
10. If there is any doubt about a play, it is advisable Cut throat A three-man game in which the server plays
to play the point over. against the other two players, with each player keep-
ing an individual score. Not played in official competi-

Helpful Hints — Racquetball tion.

Drive shot A power shot against the front wall which re-
1. "Think" your serve before serving it; you have 10 bounds fast, low, and in a straight line.
—
seconds use them. Fault An illegally served ball.

2. Back out of the serving zone as soon as the ball Handout Retiring the server who fails to serve legally or
crosses the short line, keeping your eye on the when the serving team fails to return a ball that is in
ball the entire rally. play.
3. Remain in a set position until you see if your Hinder Accidental interference or obstruction of the
shot will be a forehand or a backhand, then turn flight of the ball during play. Point will be played
facing the correct side wall and move to properly again.
align yourself to take your shot. Kill A ball directed to the front wall in such a way that it

4. Return to center court. Try to place your shots to rebounds so close to the floor that it is impossible to
keep your opponent out of center court so you return.
can remain there. Passing shot A placement driven out of opponent's reach
5. Place the ball away from your opponent. on either side.
6. Try to get the ball to take two bounces before Rally Continuous pay of the ball by opponents.
reaching the back wall. Receiving line The receiving line is a broken line parallel
7. Hit with 80 percent power for control. to the short line on a racquetball court. The back edge
 HANDBALL AND RACQUETBALL 209

of the receiving line is five feet from the back edge of Volley To return the ball to the front wall before it

the short line. bounces on the floor.

Run-around shot Ball that strikes one side wall, the rear Z-ball A defensive shot that strikes three walls before
wall, and other side wall. touching the floor. The ball strikes the front wall, a
Safety zone The safety zone is a five-foot area bounded sidewall and then the opposite side wall.
by the back edge of the short line and receiving line.
The zone is only observed during the serve in racquet-
ball. SELECTED REFERENCES
Screen A hinder due to an obstruction of vision by oppo-
nent. Allsen, P.and Witbeck, A.R. Racquetball. Dubuque, IA:
Server Person (or persons, in doubles) in the "hand-in" William C. Brown, 1981.
position and eligible to serve. Amateur Athletic Union. Official Handball Rules, current
Service box Area within the service zone bounded by the ed. 231 West 58th Street, New York, NY 10019.
side wall and a parallel line 18 inches away; denotes American Amateur Racquetball Association. Official
where server's partner must stand in doubles when 1990-91 Rulebook. 815 N. Weber, Suite 203, Colorado
the serve is being made. Springs, CO 80903.
Service court The area in which the ball must land when Blumfield, C, and Barstow, J.N. Off the Wall. New York:
returning from the front wall on the serve. Dial Press, 1978.
Service line The service line is parallel to and five feet in Fabian, L. Racquetball: Strategies for Winning. Dubuque,
front of the short line. The front line of the service IA: Eddie Bowers, 1986.
zone. MacClean, N. Platform Tennis, Racquetball and Paddle-
Service zone The area where the server must stand ball. New York: Drake Publishers, 1977.
when serving the ball. Located between the service Mand, C.L. Handball Fundamentals. Columbus, OH:
line and the short line, usually five feet wide, and ex- Charles E. Merill Publishing Co., 1976.
tending across the court. McFarland, W.J. and Smith, P. Sports Illustrated Hand-
Short line A line on the floor parallel to front wall and ball. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1976.
equidistant from front and back wall. Serve must Mood, D., et. al. Recreational Activities. St. Louis: Times
carry over this line on its return from the front wall. Mirror/Mosby, 1987.
Shoot To attempt kill shots. Pahgrazi, R.P. Racquetball. IL: Scott Foresman, 1986.
Side out The loss of serve by a player or team. Sauser, J. and Shay, A. Beginning Racquetball Drills.
Throng Strap attached to the bottom handle of the rac- Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1981.
quetball racquet which is worn around the player's Turner, E. and Hogan, M. Winning Racquetball. Cham-
wrist. paign: Leisure Press, 1988.
 ORIENTEERING
THIS CHAPTER WILL EHABLE YOU TO:
Identify the parts of a liquid-filled
Utilize fundamental topographic map
Utilize basic compass techniques and
riaoigate an orienteering course using a topographic
compass.
Identify the basic terminology necessary to
orienteering.
NATURE AND PURPOSE
Orienteering is a cross-country type of activity in
which the participant utilizes topographic map read-
ing skills and follows directions by compass or other
means to navigate over unfamiliar terrain. The
skills of orienteering can be used to enjoy many out-
door pursuits such as camping, backpacking, hiking,
cross-country skiing, fishing, and hunting, or for
competing in the sport of orienteering. Called "the
thinking sport," competitive orienteering requires
great mental acuity, problem solving and decision
making, along with cardiorespiratory fitness, as the
orienteer can cover distances from two up to ten
miles in navigating an orienteering course. With
today's back-to-nature interests by people of all ages,
orienteering skills can be valuable in improving en-
vironmental awareness and self-reliance in the out-
of-doors.
Participants of all ages and levels of ability can
take part in orienteering as a recreational activity or
competitive sport. In competitive orienteering,
courses with various degrees of difficulty are set up
to allow for differences in skill levels; therefore, all
participants can achieve success. For many, just
completing the course can be a satisfying experience.
Orienteering is an excellent coeducational activ-
ity. The techniques and skills can be easily taught to
both boys and girls and men and women. The envi-
ronmental setting makes for social acceptance. Since
outstanding physical ability is not necessarily the
limiting factor, girls often achieve the same success
as boys.
Competitive Orienteering
Point-to-point or cross-country orienteering is
the most common type of competition. This event re-
quires the competitors to navigate through a pre-
210
compass and how it works.
reading techniques and skills.
skills.
map and a liquid-filled
understand the activity and sport of
scribed series of control points shown on a
topographic orienteering map (Figure 15-1 with all
>,
competitors visiting the controls in the same order.
At the start of the event, competitors receive a clue
card (Figure 15-2). The clue card identifies the con-
trol markers by letter code and describes a promi-
nent feature in which the control marker has been
set. The competitors leave the starting line at equal
intervals of time, for example, one-minute intervals,
so that the event becomes for each a contest of route
selection and physical skills with the time to com-
plete the course determining the order of finish. To
insure that each competitor has visited the control
markers, a code or punch is located at each control
and must be marked on a competitor's scorecard
(Figure 15-3). In competitive orienteering, courses of
different levels of difficulty are set up to allow for the
differences in navigational and physical skill abili-
ties of the contestants. These courses are designated
by colors: white, yellow, orange, green, red, and blue,
with white and yellow being for the novice, orange
and green for the intermediate, and red and blue for
the advanced orienteer. Course difficulty is deter-
mined by the number of controls, distance between
the controls, and the difficulty of the placement of
the controls in the field. For example, compare the
distance between controls and the total distance of
the red course shown in Figure 15-4 with the dis-
tances of the white course shown in Figure 15-1. The
red course is obviously much more difficult.
EQUIPMENT
Maps. The most essential item of equipment
for successful orienteering is the map. For children
just beginning, a map of a schoolyard, local park, or
forest preserve, drawn to scale, is sufficient: how-
ever, for the advanced orienteer, large-scale topo-
 ) *

ORIENTEERING 211

Form Line *-- Foot Path

"-' Small Path
Contours
"* '
Paved Road Crossabie Fence
Gravel Road, Parking + High Tower
^
Boulder
Impassable Gift —o Gully
StoneWali

Rock Outcrop I Meter Depression

v

FIELD CHECKED I979 BY

t t Intermittent

Stream, Spring
Stream

Uncrossable Stream '

*
Pit

Junk
Building
BOB EVENS,
Open Land Ruin
KEVIN BRADLEY. RENA AND DEWAYNE
- Small Knoll
Broken Ground
HOLLOWAY
Boulder Field < V Powerline
MAP DRAWN BY DEWAYNE HOLLOWAY
IN I980
ti FI Cave x Footbridge

FIGURE 15-1 Topographic orienteering map showing a white course used by beginning orienteers. (Map courtesy of the
St. Louis Orienteering Club and Dewayne Holloway

Day 1 White Course 2.7 km.

=IOSE ORIENTEERING CLUB CONTROL CARD
1 (WA) The trail junction Finish
2 (WB) The re-entrant (head) Name
3
4
(WC)
(WD)
The trail junction
The re-entrant
Start
00
5 (WP) The junk Course Class
6 (WE) The fence corner Elapsed
7 (WF) The depression
8 (HW) The earth bank

Follow streamers to finish

IX 12 13 W IS 16 17 16 19 to
FIGURE 15-2 Competitors' clue card
for the white course. (Courtesy of the 1 2 3 * 5 6 7 8 9 10
St.Louis Orienteering Club and
Dewayne Holloway.)

FIGURE 15-3 Competitors' score card. (Courtesy Rose

graphic maps showing selected man-made and Orienteering Club.)

natural features are necessary. These topographic

maps, usually drawn on a scale of 1:24,000, are pro-
duced by the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) of the Department of the Interior. Recently,
more accurate and highly developed orienteering
maps have been produced. These maps, usually
drawn on a scale of 1:15,000 and developed from cur-
rent aerial photographs, have been accurately field
checked and printed in the standard international
orienteering colors: blue (water features), black
(man-made features), green (vegetation features),
brown (contour features), and yellow (clear areas).
Although colored maps are more meaningful and
precise, black-and-white maps can be successfully
used and are less expensive.
272 ORIENTEERING

W/k&UMQTQM STATE P/kUK to" oe,.

FIELD CHECKED 1979 BY BOB EVENS

KEVIN BRADLEY, RENA ANDI

HOLLOWA-
MAP DRAWN BY DEWAYNE HOLLOWAY
IN 1980
15 FT
FIGURE 15-4 Topographic orienteering map showing a red course used by advanced onenteers. (Map courtesy of the
St. Louis Orienteering Club and Dewayne Holloway.)

Orienteering maps provide the following impor-
tant information to the orienteer:
1. Map Scale. Each map contains a certain scale
which is proportional between a distance on the
map and the actual distances in the field. For ex-
ample, a scale of 1:15,000 on a topographical
map means that one unit of distance on the map
equals 15,000 units of actual distance in the
field. A bar scale representing map distance is
lines represents a constant elevation, in feet or
meters, above sea level. The space between each
line on a topographic map represents a vertical
distance called the contour interval. The contour
interval is given below the bar scale at the bot-
tom of the map sheet. In areas of the United
States with little elevation, the contour interval
will be 5 to 10 meters (or feet) to more accurately
represent the land features, while contour inter-
vals of 10 to 20 meters or feet are found in more
( )

located in the margin of the map.

mountainous areas.
2. Directions. The top of an orienteering map repre-
4. Other Map Features. Other important man-made
sents geographic north; therefore, the other car-
or natural features such as power lines, roads,
dinal directions are: south (the bottom), east (the
trails, bridges, buildings, fences, boulders, cliffs,
right), and west (the left). Most orienteering
streams, lakes, marshes, or ponds are also
maps will have the magnetic-north lines already
shown on the map. These features are either
drawn on the map. These lines, called the decli-
drawn to actual scale or displayed symbolically
nation lines, represent the degree difference be-
with the description of each symbol found in the
tween the magnetic north direction and true
map's legend (see Figure 15-1).
north direction. The angle of declination on
USGS topographic maps can be found in the Compass. The second most essential item of
margin. equipment for successful orienteering is the com-

3. Elevation Features. A topographic map is distin- pass. The protractor type compass with the liquid-
guished from a planemetric map (roadmap) in filled housing (Figure 15-5) is the most widely used
showing the shape and elevation changes of the compass in orienteering today because it permits the
terrain by brown contour lines. Each of these orienteer to take a bearing and measure its distance
 -
Direction- of
Travel Arrow/
Base Plate
Magnetic Needle
Orienting Arrow
Orienting Lines
Compass Housing
mBKm.
FIGURE 15-5 The protractor compass.
quickly and accurately. The parts of the compass and
their basic function are as follows.
1. Base Plate. The transparent rectangular plate on
which the compass housing is mounted is called
the base plate. The front edge and one of the side
edges are marked off in inches and millimeters
for measuring map scale or distance.
2. Compass Housing. The degree markings are
found on the outer rim of the rotating compass
housing. Each mark represents one degree, and
they are numbered in intervals of 20. (It should
be noted that 0° and 360° coincide and are both
north.) Once the compass is set correctly, the de-
gree bearing is taken at the index pointer on the
rim of the housing.
3. Orienting Arrow. Located inside the compass
housing is the orienting or north-seeking arrow.
Its function is to assist in orienting the compass.
The compass is oriented by holding the compass
in such a way that the orienting arrow is lined
up with the magnetic needle, both of which will
be pointed north.
4. Magnetic Needle. The free floating needle lo-
cated inside the compass housing is called the
magnetic needle. The north end is painted red
ORIENTEERING 213
and always points to magnetic north unless af-
fected by a metal object.
5. Orienting Lines. Located inside the compass
housing and running parallel to the orienting
arrow are the orienting lines. These lines assist
in determining declination by setting them par-
allel to the magnetic lines on the map, with
north on the compass pointing to north on the
map.
6. Direction-of-Travel Arrow. At the upper end of
the base plate is located the direction-of-travel
arrow which is used for determining the direc-
tion of travel when the compass is oriented.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
Whole Method
The direct or whole method is recommended for
teaching younger children and novice orienteers. In
this method beginners walk or run an orienteering
course in the field with suitable terrain as their first
introduction to orienteering. The only preliminary
learning prior to this field work is a knowledge of
map symbols, an understanding of how to "orient the
map," and the ability to map read by using the
—
thumb the first basic skills of orienteering.
It is important during these first learning ses-
sions that orienteering courses be set that are good
illustrations of those points that are to be learned.
Therefore, the course-setter must understand that
during the first few sessions, the courses should be
set in such a way that the beginner needs only to fol-
low roads, edges of fields, trails, and other similar
objects.
The course-setter must never be enticed to set
what we might normally call "good" controls, but in-
stead, must always keep in mind that they are trying
to show what the map symbols and definitions
mean. The control points should be typical for the
symbol and definition. All controls should be so dis-
tinct that no one can be uncertain as to what is
meant.
The following factors must be carefully attended
to when course-setting:
1. Terrain. There must be lots of trails, open coun-
try, roads,and similarly distinct and easily read
features. Then it is important to make proper
use of these.
2. Map. The map should be drawn according to the
norms, have the correct colors, be easily read,
and preferably be 1:15,000 although it is possi-
ble to use 1:24,000. (Itis a good idea to enlarge
the normal maps for beginner courses).
3. Control choice. The aim of the control was men-
tioned already. Besides the above points, the
control should be such that even without a com-
pass, the novice can match the map with the ter-
rain and find the control.
214 ORIENTEERING
4. Route choice. Route choice, as we usually mean
it, should not be introduced at the novice level.
There are lots of things which must be learned
before you start on route choice. "Route choice"
that comes in a later part of the course means
only that the novice for example, chooses the
correct path at a path junction.
5. Orienting the map. The controls and the legs be-
tween controls should be such that the novice
can always match (orient) the map with the ter-
rain without using his compass. It is important
that he or she be taught always to have the map
oriented. This is the most important point in the
entire course, and it should be introduced right
from the beginning.
After these basic techniques and skills are mas-
tered and confidence gained, more advanced tech-
niques and skills such as a knowledge of contour
lines, map scale, handling a compass, measuring
distance, use of attack points, off-aiming, and pace
counting may be introduced.
Part-Whole Method
While the "whole" method of teaching is often
used with children and novice orienteers, the most
widely used and accepted method of teaching is the
"part-whole method." In this method the basic and
advanced techniques and skills of using the map, the
compass, and map and compass together are taught
in a classroom/field setting before the orienteer at-
tempts to navigate an orienteering course. In at-
tempting to navigate an orienteering course, an
orienteer using this method should start with a nov-
ice yellow or white course (such as shown in Figure
15-1) gradually progressing to an intermediate, or-
ange or green, and then to a more advanced blue or
red course (such as Figure 15-4), once the basic or-
ienteering skills and techniques are mastered.
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
Map Reading. Since the map is the primary
tool for navigation in orienteering, it is essential to
teach basic map reading techniques and skills first.
1. Orienting the Map. Orienting the map simply
means keeping the map turned so that north on
the map corresponds to north in the field regard-
less of the direction the orienteer travels. Orient-
ing the map can be done either by inspecting the
surroundings and aligning the terrain features
with those on the map or by using the compass.
The steps in using the compass to orient the map
are as follows:
a. Set the compass dial at 360°. Then place the
compass on the map with the edge of the base
plate parallel to one of the magnetic north
lines, making sure the direction-of-travel
arrow points north,
b. Rotate the map and compass until the mag-
netic needle is over the orienting arrow. The
map is now oriented with respect to magnetic
north.
2. Map Reading by Thumb. In using this technique
the map should be folded so that it can be easily
held and read as only the immediate area in
which you are orienteering is showing. The tip of
the thumb is then placed on the map correspond-
ing to the place in the field where you are stand-
ing and pointing in the direction you will travel.
As the orienteer travels along, the thumb is
moved to the place on the map corresponding to
the location in the field where the orienteer has
traveled. This technique assists in keeping the
map reader oriented, as the terrain features that
lie ahead can be easily analyzed and checked.
Compass Reading. The compass can be used
with a map or by itself. For the beginning orienteer,
the steps in taking a bearing and traveling with the
compass by itself should be taught first. These steps
are as follows:
1. The orienteer stands facing in the direction of
the intended destination. With the direction-of-
travel arrow pointed in this direction, the com-
pass housing is turned until the north end of the
orienting arrow is lined up with the north end of
the magnetic needle.
2. Once the compass is set, the orienteer picks out
a prominent feature such as a tree or hilltop in
line with the direction-of-travel arrow. He or she
travels to that feature, takes another bearing,
and continues toward the desired destination.
Additional Procedures. Taking a bearing
and traveling with a compass and map involve addi-
tional procedures and should be done with precision.
Three basic steps are used in this process:
1. Put the edge of the base plate from the present
place of location to the intended destination,
making sure the direction-of-travel arrow is
pointing in the direction of travel (see Figure
15-6).
2. Turn the compass housing until the orienting
lines are parallel to the magnetic lines and the
orienting arrow is pointing north on the map
(see Figure 15-7). When magnetic north lines
are not present, the orienting lines can be set
parallel with the meridian lines — the lines run-
ning true north to south. In this case the decli-
nation (angle of difference in degrees between
true north and magnetic north) must be added
or subtracted to the final bearing. This degree
difference is given in the margin on topographic
maps. To decide whether to add or subtract.
 ORIENTEERING 215

FIGURE 15-6 The first step in taking a bearing with compass.

FIGURE 15-7 The second step in taking a bearing with compass.

think of the rhyme "East is least and West is COMPETITIVE STRATEGIES

best." If the angle of declination is east, the de-
In competitive orienteering the orienteer must
gree of declination is subtracted; if the declina-
know special techniques and skills in order to select
tion is west, it is added.
the fastest and least tiring route between control
3. The final important step is to turn yourself until
points.
the north end of the magnetic needle points to
the north end of the orienting arrows (Figure 1. Pace Counting. Pace counting involves a two-step
15-8). approach:
216 ORIENTEERING

IE m.
N

/
rn

FIGURE 15-9 A young orienteer using her map and

compass takes a bearing to the next control point.
FIGURE 15-8 The third step in taking a bearing with
compass.

a. In step one, the orienteer measures the dis-

tance on the map by using the marked edge of
the compass and the map bar scale.
b. Step two involves measuring the distance in
the field by pace counting. In pace counting,
you count your double step, or each time the
same foot hits the ground. This can be prac-
ticed by measuring an exact 100 yards or 100
meters over different terrain and counting the
number of double steps taken in covering this
distance.
2. Attack Points. Sometimes called secondary con-
trols, these are large, prominent features such as
a cliff, building, bridge, trail junction, or other
features near the control which can easily be
found and identified on the map. Finding an at-
tack point makes the final approach to the control
much easier.
3. Check Points. After finalizing the route the orien-
teer should visualize certain prominent features
(check points) she will see along the way which
will indicate she is on the correct route.
4. Handrails. Linear features running parallel to
the direction of a control point or an attack point
are called handrails. These can take the form of
natural features such as a stream, the edge of a FIGURE 15-10 After checking the map and setting
field, a ridge or man-made feature such as a road, her compass, the orienteer has selected the woods
trail, fence or power line. Handrails are used by trail to the next control.
 ORIENTEERING 217

the orienteer as a natural guide to follow toward TERMINOLOGY

the control point.
5. Catching Features. Long features running cross- Aiming off A technique in which the orienteer purposely
wise to the orienteer's direction of travel are aims to one side of a control point so that he or she will
called catching or collecting features. These fea- know which way to turn.
tures can assist the orienteer in navigation, as Attack point A large, prominent visible feature both on
upon reaching the catcher the orienteer needs the map and in the field, from which the final ap-
only to turn in the proper direction and follow it proach of attack to the control can be made.
until the attack or control point is reached. These Bearing Sometimes called an azimuth, it is a direction
"catchers" include the same linear features de- measured in degrees from north with a compass.
scribed as handrails. Cardinal points The four basic directions on a compass:
6. Aiming Off. When control or attack points are lo- north, south, east, and west.
cated on linear features such as roads, streams, Catching feature A made-made feature
long, natural or
fences, etc., the orienteer aims off, that is, sets the running perpendicular to the orienteer's direction-of-
compass toward a point 40 to 60 meters to the travel.
right or left of the control point rather than right Contour interval The vertical distance in height between
at it, so that upon arriving at the linear feature he contour lines on a topographic map.
knows exactly which way he must turn, right or Control Marker of two colors —
usually red and white or
left, to find the control point. orange and white —
placed in the field before the or-
ienteering meet starts; used for locating control points
on the map.
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS Control description A word description for the location of
a control point.
Orthopedically Impaired Declination The degree difference between the magnetic
Work on special "searches" within the gymna- north direction and the true north direction.
sium using maps, and other coded documents. Desig- Handrail Linear features running parallel to an orien-
nate each wall in the gym a color and have the teer's direction of travel which are used to navigate to
students follow the colored map, e.g., travel to the a control or an attack point.
yellow wall, then the green wall and find the hidden Magnetic north The direction to the magnetic north pole

treasure. located north of Hudson Bay.

Map symbols Designs found in the legend on a map; used
Mentally Impaired landscape features.
to indicate

Have the students work on making special com- Meridians Real lines on the map or imaginary lines in
passes to learn North, South, East, and West, e.g., the terrain running true north to true south.
color code the directions. Orienteering The skill or the process of finding your way
in the field with map and compass combined.
Sensory Impaired Orienting the compass Turning the compass until north
1. Use peer teachers for blind students. on the compass is the same as north in the field.
2. Use visual cues, e.g., posters, notebooks, etc., for Orienting the map Turning the map until north on the
the deaf and/or hearing impaired. map corresponds to north in the field.
Pace counting Method used to measure distance in the
field by counting each time the same foot strikes the
ground.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS map and
Scale A proportion between a distance on the
the actual distance in the field.
While orienteering is a relatively safe activity,
Topographic map A map showing elevation changes by
there are some precautions which must be followed:
means of contour lines.
1. Orienteers should be cautioned to avoid poten- True north Geographic north (the North Pole).

tially dangerous obstructions and features

shown on the map such as cliffs, rock faces,
barbed wire fences, or deep rivers and streams.
2. The orienteer should be instructed to wear pro-
tective clothing when heavy brambles, briar
patches, or thick vegetation exist in the terrain.
3. Before embarking on a course, a safety bearing
should be given which will lead the orienteer to a
large catching feature such as a road, trail, etc.,
in the event he or she becomes lost or totally dis-
oriented.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Disley, J. "YourWay with Map and Compass." Burlington,
Ontario: Silva® Orienteering Services, 1971.
Gilchrist, J. "Teaching Orienteering." Binghamton, NY:
Silva® Orienteering Services, 1991.
Kjellstrom, B. Be Expert with Map and Compass. NY: Mac-
millan, 1976.
278 ORIENTEERING

McNeill, C, Ransden, G., and Renfro, T. Teaching Orien- 3. "What Makes Them Run" (20 minutes).
teering. Perthshire, England: Harvey's Publishing, 1987. 4. "By Map and Compass"
Filmstrips and Slide Series:
Instructional Pamphlets 1. "Adventures with Map and Compass."
"Orienteering" (A Boy Scout Merit Badge Booklet). 2. "Map and Compass Clinic Kit."

"Learn Orienteering." 3. "Orienteering— What's That?"

"So You Want to Know About Orienteering." Training Aids and Orienteering Equipment
above pamphlets are published yearly through
(All of the
Silva® Orienteering Services USA, P.O. Box 1604, Bing-
—
Silva® Orienteering Services USA See "Training Aids hamton, NY 13902.
and Orienteering Equipment" below for address.)
Topographic Maps
Audio-Visual Materials National Cartographic Information Center, 507 National
Center, Reston, VA 22092.
The following materials are available from the Interna-
tional Film Bureau, Inc., 332 South Michigan Ave., Chi- Organizations
cago, IL 60604. Phone (312) 427-4545.)
United States Orienteering Federation, P.O. Box 1039,
Color Films (rental or purchase): Ballwin, MO 63011.
1. "Orienteering" (10 minutes). Canadian Orienteering Federation, 355 River Rd., Vanier,
2. "Invisible Force of Direction" (21 minutes). Ontario, KIL 8B9.
 RECREATIONAL SPORTS
Angling
Horseshoes
Pickle-ball
Shuffleboard
Table Tennis
ANGLING
NATURE AND PURPOSE
Angling is fishing for sport. More specifically it is
the use of the skill of casting to catch fish. Angling
has increased steadily in popularity and today
countless people of all ages engage in the sport. Over
thirty million fishing licenses are issued in the
United States each year, and millions of people fish
without a license. With so many participants it is
quite possible that more money is spent on angling
than on any other sport. Wherever fish and water
are to be found, anyone can enjoy this lifetime recre-
ational activity.
The basic skill in learning to become an angler is
casting. Despite the fact that this is a relatively sim-
ple skill, very few master it because they neither
learn under proper guidance, nor do they take the
time to practice the skill once they have acquired it.
There are two types of casting: fly and bait or
spin casting. There are some similarities between
the two, but they employ different tackle and very
different techniques. In fly casting, a longer, more
flexible rod is used, the line is controlled from the
hand, and the light fly is propelled entirely by the
weight of the line. The technique of fly casting
makes it possible to use small, light "lures"; i.e., arti-
ficial flies, and to cast with a great deal of precision
and accuracy. Bait/spin casting requires a shorter,
less flexible rod. Distance is gained by the weight of
the bait or lure and the line is controlled at the reel.
EQUIPMENT
Fly Casting Tackle
The beginner should try to enlist the assistance
of an experienced fly fisher to help with the selection
of proper equipment. With the recent upsurge of in-
terest in fly casting and fly fishing, this should not
be a difficult task since most fly fishers are willing to
provide basic instruction as well as other informa-
tion about getting started in this recreational activ-
ity.
Rod. The most important piece of equipment is
the rod. Fly rods come in different lengths and have
different actions. An 8V2 or 9 foot graphite rod with a
medium to fast action is probably the best choice for
the beginner.
Reel. A single action fly reel is recommended.
This reel should have an adjustable drag (a mecha-
nism that increases or decreases the resistance on a
line once a fish is hooked), an interchangeable spool,
and the capacity to hold enough backing line in order
to play the fish. Figure 16-1 shows some types of
reels.
Line. The manufacturer's recommendations of
line size for the rod should be closely followed. Fly
lines today are usually constructed of a core of
braided dacron or nylon fibers covered by a plastic or
some other synthetic coating. They come in various
tapers (thicknesses) and weight. To balance an 8V2 or
9 foot rod properly, the beginner should select a
weight forward floating line in a six or seven weight.
These lines would be listed as a WF6F or WF7F on
the manufacturer's box.
279
220 RECREATIONAL SPORTS
FIGURE 16-1 Types of reels
Bait/Spin Casting Tackle
Once again, the advice of an experienced bait/
spin caster is invaluable and would save the begin-
ner a great deal of time in getting started.
Rod. The beginner should select a rod that is 5
to 6 feet long, and has a medium action. Most rods
are constructed of fiberglass, graphite, or some com-
bination of the two.
Bait-Casting Reel. The beginner should se-
lect a "level-wind" reel, meaning that the line is
wrapped evenly on the spool. The reel should fit the
length and action of the rod.
Spinning Reel. Spinning reels are divided
into two general classes. In the open type, the spool
upon which the line coils has no cover, leaving the
spool and line fully exposed. In the cone type, a cone
covers the spool and line to protect the line from dirt
and to prevent its being touched by lures, twigs,
weeds, and other foreign objects. The line passes
through a hole in the center of the cup, directly in
front of the axis of the spool shaft.
The action of the reel spool is the basic difference
between the spinning, spin-casting, and standard
bait-casting outfit. The spool of a spinning reel does
not rotate to release the line on the cast or to respool
itduring the retrieve. On most reels, it advances and
recedes as the line is being coiled on, in order to spool
—
the line uniformly but it never rotates. On the cast,
the line slips off the exposed end of the spool. This
action can best be visualized by thinking of a spool of
thread. If one end of the spool of thread is held firmly
in one hand and the thread end grasped by the other
hand and stripped off straight over the opposite end
of the spool, the action would be similar to that of the
spinning line leaving the reel. The spool also re-
mains stationary on the retrieve. A metal "finger"
rotates around the spool, picking up the line and
placing it back around the spool.
Line. Generally speaking, a light to medium
monofilament line is recommended for the beginner.
When putting the line on a spinning reel, it is very
important to follow the manufacturers instructions
carefully in order to avoid twisting the line. Usually
a braided monofilament line is used for the bait-
casting (level-wind) reel because many fishermen
feel it is less likely to backlash.
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
The ability to cast the line onto the the most
water is
important skill the angler must learn. Indeed, the
development of a good casting stroke is the key to
success in any type of fishing. As the various tech-
niques are described in this section you will notice
some similarities in the use of the fly rod. bait-cast-
ing rod, and spinning rod; however, there are impor-
tant differences. Reference will be made to the
positioning of the casting arm in relation to the
hands on a clock. Most of the movements center on
the ten o'clock and two o'clock positions. Therefore, if
you think of the movement in terms of the hands of a
clock face, you should have relatively little difficulty
 ANGLING 221

w —

FIGURE 16-2 Overhead fly cast. Note wrist is firm not fixed.

in understanding the action of the arm and rod in between the ten o'clock and two o'clock positions.
the learning sequence. The greatest problem novice flycasters have is using
their wrist too much, resulting in a casting action

Fly Casting
like a "buggy whip" (Figure 16-2).

There are two important things to remember

when learning to fly cast: first, the right
grip the handle and become part of the execution of
the cast; and second, the other hand must control the
feed of the line as the cast is being made. After suffi-
cient practice, the sequence and action of the two
hands will become smooth and rhythmical. (Left-
handed individuals should reverse the described
procedure.) Another key point for the beginner
to remember that the cast is primarily a result of
is
the action of the hand and the forearm and less of
the wrist.
To practice the cast, begin by pulling 15 to 20
feet of line from the tip of the rod and place it on the
ground in front of you. Grip the rod on the handle
with the thumb placed on top in line with the rod.
Wrap the fingers comfortably around the handle.
The wrist is bent until it becomes a parallel exten-
sion of the forearm. The stroke itself is best executed
Learning Cues
hand will
1. Begin by lifting the tip up, rapidly accelerate
from the ten o'clock to one o'clock position. The
space between the wrist and handle opens
slightly.
2. The rod stops at the one o'clock position, and the
line drifts behind the shoulder. Wait until the
line is almost completely unrolled, then begin
the forward cast.
3. Accelerate the rod forward to the ten o'clock po-
sition, stop quickly and allow the line to unroll
forward. The line should land softly on the sur-
face as the follow-through is completed.
4. Since the basic principle of fly casting is to cast
("roll" and "unroll") loops of line, the beginner
should watch the back cast to be certain that
these loops are "rolling" and "unrolling" prop-
erly. Indeed, fly casting is a recreational skill
222 RECREATIONAL SPORTS
that requires the caster to apply equal power to
both the back cast and the forward cast. Even
more specifically, a proper forward cast is impos-
sible to execute after an incorrect back cast.
Practice Suggestions
The
left hand plays an important role in the cast
as feeds line to the rod on the forward cast or
it
draws line from the reel during a false cast.
1. Slack is taken, and the line is grasped between
the thumb and forefinger and stripped drawn <
from the reel. Repeat this action two or three
times so additional coils are formed.
2. At the end of the forward cast, the line is re-
leased from the coil in the left hand, the loop
nearest the ends of the finger being released
first. It is important to keep the loops separated.
3. As soon as sufficient line is drawn for the length
of the cast, complete the cast, releasing the loops
of line referred to previously. The release of
these loops of line into the cast is called "shoot-
ing the line" and is usually used to add distance
to the cast.
Bait Casting
The grip for bait casting is different in that the
thumb must be placed on the spool flange for the
conventional type, and the reel turned sidewise so
that the handle points straight up. The index finger
should grip the finger trigger while the other fingers
grasp the handle firmly but not rigidly.
In fishing, a good caster learns to cast from any
position and with either hand. In target casting,
which is the only method of learning accuracy, the
caster may stand directly facing the target or
slightly sidewise, with the right side (if casting
right-handed toward the target and the right foot
>
slightly advanced. The arms should be held in a re-
laxed "natural" position with the elbow at or near
the side. The target should be aligned by looking at it
through the top of the tip.
The overhead casting action has two parts: the
backward and the forward motion. Each is equally
important.
Learning Cues
1. Stand comfortably; the elbow should be clear of
the body while the forearm becomes an exten-
sion of the rod.
2. Bring the rod up quickly and stop at
o'clock position: the weight on the lure will
the rod further back.
3. With no hesitation bring the rod swiftly to a ten
o'clock position, and ease the thumb off the line
on the spool.
4. While the lure is in flight, gently apply pressure
with the thumb braking the spool, and allow the
rod to follow-through in the direction of the line
of flight. The spool is braked to a complete stop
as the lure reaches the surface of the water. The
rod must be shifted to the left hand in order to
retrieve the plug. The right hand then grasps
the handle of the reel and begins to reel in the
line. The method of retrieving depends on the
type of bait being used. Often the manufacturer
supplies printed instructions on proper manipu-
lation so the angler may secure the best results
from each type.
>
Spin Casting
Remembering that there are two types of spin-
ning reels, the open and the cone type, the cast for
both is made in the same manner as with the bait
casting outfit. The only difference is in the control of
the line during the cast. With the closed-type reel,
the thumb button is pressed then released at the ten
o'clock position, and the left hand helps to feather
the line and eventually brake it. With the spinning
outfit, the caster places pressure upon the line be-
tween the forefinger and the rod grip after the line
has left the spool.
In starting the cast, the line ahead of the reel is
< •
held firmly against the rod grip with the forefinger
of the hand with which the cast is made. While hold-
ing the line securely, the pick-up bail or finger is re-
leased and moved aside so that it will not interfere
with the line during the cast. This is done by turning
the handle very slightly in reverse, by pressing a re-
lease button, or as required for the particular make
of reel. The pressure upon the line is released at the
same time and in the same manner as the thumb
pressure upon the spool would be released with a
bait-casting outfit. During the flight of the lure, con-
trol is exercised by decreasing or increasing the
index finger pressure on the line against the cork
grip.
As with the conventional rod and reel, the direct
overhead cast is recommended until proficiency with
the new outfit is acquired.
Practice Suggestions
The beginning angler must learn not only accu-
racy and form but also develop a "feel" for the casting
technique being learned. Distance is secondary in
the beginning. Use a dummy lure <no barbs* when
practicing. Teaching Note: In all instances, whether
dealing with beginners or more advanced anglers,
a two
make sure there is adequate space between partici-
bend
pants. Single line formations with a two or three
arms' length between participants are safest.
1. Pick up the rod and practice the forearm and
wrist action without casting.
2. For a class, place a series of plastic hoops at a
standard distance and have students hit the tar-

get.As proficiency is gained, move the hoops to
varying distances, designate high scores for
those hoops farthest away and lower scores for
those that are nearest to the angler. Individual
and team competition can be promoted.
3. Since many people fish from a boat, bring a
bench or low-backed chairs to class so students
can practice each method of casting from a sit-
ting position.
SKILL TESTING— SKISH
Skish a dry-land game designed to improve one's
is
skill incasting with regular bait/spin casting and fly
casting tackle. It is an excellent way for all casters to
master the skills of accuracy and the control of dis-
tance.
Bait Casting. Bait-casting rules call for the
plug not to exceed five-eighths of an ounce, and the
line must be no smaller than nine-pound test. Ten
targets, rings not to exceed 30 inches, are randomly
scattered with distances unknown to the caster. The
closest target is not less than 40 nor more than 45
feet from the casting box (4X4 feet), while the far-
thest one should not be more than 80 nor less than
70 feet away. Each target has its own casting box,
and the contestants move from box to box, taking
two casts at each target (Figure 16-3).
Scoring: 6 points are scored for a perfect cast on
first trial; 4 points for a perfect cast on second trial.
The cast must fall within the target to score. In the
event of a tie score, the one having the greatest
number of points on initial casts is declared the
winner.
Fly Casting. Fly-casting rules for regular fly-
casting tackle require a fly tied in approved dry fly
style with the hook broken off back of the barb. Five
targets are placed at distances unknown to the cas-
ters, between 20 and 40 feet from the casting boxes.
First round. The caster must start with fly in
hand and no slack in the line, and is given two and
one-half minutes at each target to make three casts.
u-
O
oo
v aid kit at all times. Hooks, whether on flies or
6 ',
n n m n
FIGURE 16-3 Skill testing set up or skish game using 10 targets
and 5 stations.
)
ANGLING 223
Scoring: 5 points are scored for a perfect cast on
first trial;3 points for a perfect cast on second trial; 2
points for a perfect cast on third trial, and a maxi-
mum score is 50 points. (On water, the fly must rest
on the water until the judge calls for the score.
Second round. The time limit is one and one-half
minutes (90 seconds) for each target. The caster roll
casts until a "perfect" has been scored on all five tar-
gets or until the official calls time. Time begins when
the fly drops on the surface. Each perfect score
counts 5 points, with a possible score of 25.
—
Third round with fly. The time limit is one to
one and one-half minutes. The caster starts with fly
in the hand and no slack in the line. To begin, the
caster extends the line to the nearest target by false
casting, and time begins when the fly drops on the
surface as a measured cast. Two casts are made,
without false casts, at each of the five targets from
left to right, stripping the necessary line and shoot-
ing it reach each target.
to
Scoring: 3 points are scored for a perfect cast on
first trial; 2 points for a perfect cast on second trial.
The maximum possible score is 25 points. In case of
a tie, the caster having made the greatest number of
initial perfects is declared the winner.
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
Orthopedically Impaired
Modifications must be considered for several
aspects of fishing, baiting the hook, holding and
casting, reeling, and removing the catch. Several ad-
aptations can be made for grasping the rod (see
sections on Handball /Racquetball and Tennis).
Electronic devices exist to help casting and reeling;
however, the simplest modification would be to elim-
inate these sub-tasks and use a simple "cane pole"
arrangement.
Mentally Impaired
Minimal modifications are needed.
Sensory Impaired
Minimal modifications are needed.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
1. All anglers should carry or have access to a first
lures, occasionally end up in one part or another
o of an angler's anatomy!
2. Anglers must be constantly aware of the dangers
sh.
of being in the sun too long. Use a sunscreen or
sunblocker, wear a hat (which is also good to
ward off" hooks on errant casts), and polaroid
—
sunglasses for safety and to see fish.
224 RECREATIONAL SPORTS

3. Anglers often, probably too often, fish in places Tackle Fishing gear; usually refers only to the rod and
where there are the
lots of insects, especially of reel.
flying variety. Be certain to carry appropriate Thumbing Controlling the speed of the cast by means of
repellent. thumb pressure on the reel.
4. Wading with boots in unknown waters or wear-
ing them in a boat is hazardous, and the angler
must avoid such risks. SELECTED REFERENCES

Cooper, G. and Haas, E. Wade a Little Deeper, Dear: A

Woman's Guide to Fix Fishing. New York: Nick Lyons
TERMINOLOGY Books, 1989.
Gerlach, R. The Complete Book of Casting. New York: Win-
Back cast Drawing the rod back; the initial movement in chester Press, 1975.
the cast. Knap, J.J. Fishing Secrets. New York: Crown Publishers,
Backing line Thin braided line put on the reel before the Inc., 1977.
fly line to fill up the spool and for insurance against a McClane, A.J. Secrets of Successful Fishing. New York:
fish making a long run. Henry Holt, 1979.
Backlash A faulty casting technique that results in a National Association of Angling and Casting Clubs. By-
tangling of the line. Laws. Rules and Regulations of Casting, current ed. Uni-
Bait casting The throwing and placing of a lure and line
versity City, MO: NAACC.
from the rod and reel. National Skish Board. National Skish Guide, latest ed.
Dry fishing
fly Casting a surface fly so that it resembles Washington, D.C.: NSB (Bond Building).
an insect on the water. Kosenbaur, T. The On is Fly Fishing Guide. New York:
False cast A fly casting cast where line is held in the air Nick Lyons Books, 1984.
and not allowed to fall to the surface. Usually used to Rosenthal, M. The Freshwater Fishing Book. New York:
increase the length of a dry cast, or a fly change direc- Macmillan, 1989.
tion. Wright, L. First Cast: The Beginner's Guide to Fly Fishing.
Ferrules The connections between the sections of the rod. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987.
Fly Natural and/or synthetic materials tied on hooks.
Fly casting Throwing a line with an artificial lure by Videos
means of a fly rod. Dierks, R. Introduction to Fishing. Prior Lakes, MN. Min-
Forward cast The last movement forward with the rod tex Entertainment.
that throws the lure or the fly to the desired spot. Krieger, M. The Essence of Fly Casting. Sebastopol, CA:
Guides Small loops on the rod through which the line is Sonoma Video Productions.
run. Scientific Anglers. Fly Fishing Made Easy. Minneapolis,
Leader The strong, transparent material that connects MN: 3M Sportsman Video Collection.
the line to the hook or lure. Note: The number of videos on all aspects of angling in-
Level-wind reel A reel which has a carriage that distrib- creases monthly. We urge you to check fishing publica-
utes the line evenly on the spool. tions for the latest releases.
Lure Artificial or natural bait used to attract fish. A hook
or hooks is/are attached to the lure.
Net A device to take the fish safely out of the water.
Power stroke The brief time in fly casting between the
forward and backward cast when power is applied by
the caster. HORSESHOES
Reel The mechanism which winds or unwinds the line.
Reel seat The part of the rod handle to which the reel is
attached.
Rod tip The top end of the rod. NATURE AND PURPOSE
Roll cast A fly cast in which line is rolled out over a sur-
face without utilizing a backcast. Horseshoe pitching has been popular for a long time
Shoot Feeding out extra line during a fly casting forward both as a recreational and competitive sport. The
or backward cast. Also used to increase the distance of formation of the National Horseshoe Pitchers Associ-
a cast. ation in 1921 has given rise to chapters in nearly
Spinner Artificial lure that spins when it is drawn every state as well as Canada. The NHPA sanctions
through the water. local and regional meets for men, women, boys and
Spoon shaped something like a spoon.
Artificial lure girls. A World Tournament is held each year for Men
Strike Whena fish grasps the lure or fly as well as the and Women while a Junior Boys and Junior Girls
angler's response to set the hook. World Champion is also decided.
 HORSESHOES 225

The game is played by pitching horseshoes to- BASIC RULES

ward a metal stake some 40 feet (30 for women and
juniors) from the pitching point. Points are scored for The National Horseshoe Pitchers Association estab-
shoes landing closest to the stake, providing the shoe lishes the official rules of horseshoe pitching. The
is not farther than six inches from the stake. A simplified rules are listed below.
ringer (shoe which encircles stake) counts three
points. The winner is the player who first scores 21
1. A game is divided into innings, and each contes-
tant pitches two shoes in each inning. A game
points (informal play) or 50 points (official tourna-
lasts 25 innings (50 shoes pitched by each per-
ment competition). Players alternate in throwing
son).
shoes, with the player who scored one or more points
2. The choice of the first pitch to start the game is
on the previous pitch throwing first. In singles play
decided by the toss of a shoe or a coin.
the players move from stake to stake after each
throw, but in doubles one partner is stationed at
3. A shoe that has left the pitcher's hand is ruled a
pitched shoe.
each stake and makes all throws from there.
4. A pitcher's opponent must stand behind the per-
son in action and may not interfere with the
pitch in any way.
5. A contestant may not walk to the opposite stake
PLAYING AREA AND EQUIPMENT or be informed of the position of the shoes until
the inning is completed.
The Court. The official horseshoe court (see 6. Shoes thrown when a has been committed
foul
Figure 16-4) is 50 X 10 feet with one-inch metal are considered shoes pitched; however, they may
stakes placed 40 feet apart (30 feet for women and not receive any point value. Fouls may be as-
juniors). The stakes are centered in a 6 X 6 foot sessed for the following:
pitcher's box. For informal recreational games, the a. Illegal delivery of shoe.
distance between stakes may be arranged to fit the b. Failure of opponent to stay behind the
available space. If courts are to be built on a school pitcher, or his interfering in any way with the
ground, it is advisable to build back stops behind opponent while he or she is in the act of pitch-
each pitcher's box to prevent the horseshoes from re- ing.
bounding into a student. In schools that lack the c. Touching thrown shoes before a measure-
space or do not wish to build permanent courts, tem- ment has been made.
porary ones can be built in a place of convenience. d. Thrown shoes which strike part of the
Horseshoes. Horseshoes may be bought at pitcher's box or land outside the foul lines and
local hardware stores or discount department stores, which then rebound into the box.
or may be specially ordered from a number of compa- e. Stepping on or over the foul line.
nies approved by the NHPA. For schools, several 7. Ties are broken by pitching an extra inning(s).
physical education and recreation equipment compa-
Scoring
nies sell either official metal shoes or indoor and
outdoor rubber horseshoes that are used with 1. The shoe nearest to the stake scores one point,
wooden stakes. An
official shoe should not exceed providing it is within six inches of the stake.
7Vt inches in width and 7% inches in length, and 2. Two shoes closer than opponent's shoe score two
should weigh no more than 2 pounds 10 ounces. The points.
opening can be no more than 3% inches from point to 3. One ringer scores three points and two ringers,
point. six points.

Piicher's
Platform 1" Raised Foul Line
(cement)

FIGURE 16-4 The official horseshoes court.

226 RECREATIONAL SPORTS

4. A player having two ringers to one by his oppo- There are four standard methods of delivery, so the
nent scores three points. beginner should do some experimenting to deter-
5. All shoes equally distant from the stake count as mine which method is best for him or her.
ties and no points are scored.
1. In the single turn delivery (see Figure 16-5) the
6. A leaning shoe has the same value as that of a
open face of the shoe is directed toward the
shoe lying on the ground and in contact with the
stake.
stake.
2. In the one and one-quarter turn delivery (see
Figure 16-6), the open end of the shoe faces the
pitchers left and the thumb is across the top.
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES 3. In the one and one-half turn delivery (see Figure
16-7), the open end of the shoe faces the pitcher.
Players must stand behind the foul line on the pitch-
4. In the one and three-quarters delivery (see Fig-
ing platform when pitching. Most players assume a
ure 16-8), the open end of the shoe faces the
starting stance with the pitching arm closest to the
pitcher's right and either of two shoe holding
stake and in a position which permits a forward step
methods may be used.
in the act of delivery of the shoe. The number of
turns which the shoe takes in flight usually deter-
mines the style of grip to be used. Regardless of the Learning Cues
grip used, there are several factors common to all
1. Weight evenly distributed on both feet in the
pitches:
stance, step off on opposite foot, knees bent, eyes
1. The shoe should be held parallel to the ground on the target, shoulders square to target.
which calks down. 2. While slightly leaning forward, the arm remains
2. The rotation of the shoe should be clockwise. straight and falls down and back and retraces
3. The open end of the shoe should face the stake the same arc on the forward swing. The pitch
when landing. must be smooth and rhythmical.

FIGURE 16-5 The single turn delivery.

E
J

FIGURE 16-6 The one and one-quarter turn delivery.

FIGURE 16-7 The one and one-half turn delivery.

 HORSESHOES 227

FIGURE 16-8 The one and three-quarter turn delivery. Two different grips are illustrated.

3. At the release the body and arm extend giving 3. The target for the horseshoe can be placed next
proper lift, the forearm rolls in order to turn the to the student with grasp and release difficul-
shoe. ties.
4. Small rings can be made from old jump ropes to
Practice Suggestions replace the actual horseshoe or hula hoops can
be used for more severe mobility impairments.
1. Experiment with various deliveries; usually the
one and one-quarter turn delivery is best for a Mentally Impaired
beginner.
Minimal modifications are needed.
2. Practice the step and throw without a shoe then
add the shoe. Partner should check to see that Sensory Impaired
arc is straight and shoulders square and deliv-
1. Some type of audio device can be placed as the
ery is rhythmical.
and positioned inside
target, e.g., buzzer or bell,
3. Juniors and school age children might start
of a hula hoop. Blind and/or visually impaired
closer to the stake and work their way back to 30
students could toss bean bags instead of horse-
feet.
shoes for inside the hoop.
2. No modifications should be needed for the deaf
and/or hard of hearing.
SAFETY

1. Stand well away from the pitching court when TERMINOLOGY

not involved.
2. Be aware of people around you when swinging Calks Raised areas on the heels and toes of one side of
the horseshoe. Pitch only in the designated area. the pitching shoe that tend to make the shoe less
3. If setting up courts for a class, make sure there likely to skid when striking the surface of the pit area.
is adequate distance between courts to compen- Double ringer Two successive shoes which encircle the
sate for erratic throws of beginners. stake by the same player in the same inning.
Flipped-up shoe Flipping shoe in air to determine which
player takes the first pitch. Instead of calling heads or
COURTESIES tails, a player calls smooth or rough.
Heel The ends of the prongs on each side of the open end
1. Observe the rules.
all of the shoe.
2. Do not disturb a person who is in the process of Inning The pitching of two shoes by each player.
pitching. Leaner (also Hobber) Shoe which leans against a stake.
3. Keep emotions under control. Pit The area inwhich the shoe lands.
4. Be aware of the game and the position in the Pitcher box The area which includes the pitching plat-
game so you are ready to pitch when your turn form and the pit.
comes. Ringer A shoe that encircles the stake.

MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS SELECTED REFERENCES

Orthopedically Impaired National Horseshoe Pitchers Association of America. Offi-

cial Rules for Horseshoe Pitching. Current ed. Federation
1. Able-bodied students can be placed in a regular of 54 State Associations in the U.S. and Canada. (Con-
classroom chair if mainstreamed with students tact local association for state address.)
using a wheelchair. Reno, O.W. Pitching Championship Horseshoes. 2nd ed.
2. Distances can be shortened. New York: A.S. Barnes and Company, 1975.
228 RECREATIONAL SPORTS

The Horseshoe Pitchers' News Digest, published monthly, Most important of all, it is a safe game not re-
P.O. Box 1606, Aurora, IL 60507. quiring size or strength to enjoy. The fact is, the per-
son who has difficulty with tennis, racquetball or
handball because of the speed of the ball, will find
greater success with the moderately paced pickle-
PICKLE-BALL ball game.

BASIC RULES
NATURE AND PURPOSE
1. Court. The size of the court is 20 X 44 feet for
Pickle-ball a fast-paced, fun-filled game for indi-
is both doubles and singles. The net is hung at 36
viduals of all ages. Developed first as a recreational inches on ends, and hangs 34 inches in the mid-
backyard game, it has found its popularity among dle. When laying out a court, allow adequate
racquet enthusiasts and in physical education pro- —
space 3 to 5 feet at each end and 1 to 2 feet at
grams. Combining the court markings and dimen- the sides— of the court boundary lines for player
sions of badminton, skills associated with tennis, a movement. However, it should be noted that
net which is three feet high, solid wooden racquets, many families play pickle-ball with little or no
and a plastic whiffle ball, the game can be played in back and side court and enjoy the game.
a singles format or doubles format. The premium is 2. Serve. Player must keep one foot behind the
on ball placement rather than strength or size of the back line when serving. The serve is made un-
players. For this reason, it can be played as a coedu- derhand. The paddle must pass below the waist.
cational activity, and a recreational activity by boys The server must hit the ball in the air on the
and girls and men and women. The winner of the
game is that player or team first to reach 1 1 points;
20'
however, an individual or team must win by a mar-
gin of two points.
Pickle-ball can be played in a number of venues;
the surface of the court must be hard enough so that
the plastic ball will bounce. Therefore, it is not un-
usual to see pickle-ball courts set up inside on a gym-
nasium floor or on a concrete or blacktop playground
surface. While official pickle-ball equipment can be
purchased at a reasonable price from a number of
physical education equipment suppliers or from
Pickle-Ball Inc. in Seattle, Washington, the square-
headed paddles can be made from a good quality ply-
wood, a piece of nylon for a safety strap and wooden
handles. Whiffleballs the size of a baseball or soft-
ball may also be used and generally the smaller the
ball, the quicker the game. A badminton net strung NON-VOLLEY
across a series of wooden standards 36 inches high 44' Net 36"
will meet the requirements of the net needed for the
game. Because the equipment is relatively inexpen-
ZONE
sive, pickle-ball is an attractive game not only for
class but for recreation and intramural tournament
play.
The game itself uses skills associated with
tennis. Somephysical education instructors use the
game as a good skill developer for the forehand and
backhand drives, lobs and volleys. Because the 15'
player has to bend his knees to get low enough to
stroke the ball properly, it is a good developer for
this element of tennis. The game is played on a court
the same dimensions as a badminton doubles court.
While the service areas retain their markings, the
pickle-ball court has a non-volley zone seven feet on
either side of the net. For the gymnasium which has
a permanent badminton court painted on it, the FIGURE 16-9 Official pickle-ball court. Note the non-volley
short service area may serve as the non-volley zone. zones. Diagrams courtesy of Pickle-Ball. Inc.. Seattle, WA.
 PICKLE-BALL 229

serve. Bouncing the ball before hitting it is not
allowed. The service is made diagonally cross
court and must clear the non-volley zone. Only
one serve attempt is allowed, except if the ball
touches the net on the serve and lands in the
proper service court. Then the serve may be
taken over. At the start of each new game, the
first serving team is allowed only one fault be-
fore giving up the ball to the opponents. Thereaf-
ter, both members of each team will serve and
fault before the ball is turned over to the oppos-
ing team. When the receiving team wins the
serve, the player in the right hand court will
always start play.
3. Volley. To volley a ball means to hit it in the air
without first letting it bounce. All volleying
must be done with player's feet behind the non-
Non-volley zone
volley zone line (Figure 16-10). NOTE: It is a
fault if the player steps over the line on his vol-
ley follow-through.
4. Double Bounce Rule. Each team must play
their first shot off the bounce. That is, the re-
ceiving team must let the serve bounce, and the
serving team must let the return of the serve
bounce before playing it. After the two bounces
have occurred, the ball can be either volleyed or
played off the bounce (see Figure 16-11).
5. Fault:
a. Hitting the ball out-of-bounds.
b. Not clearing net.
c. Stepping into the non-volley zone and volley-
ing the ball.
d. Volleying the ball before it has bounced once
on each side of the net, as outlined in Rule 4.
6. Scoring. A team shall score a point only when
serving. A player who is serving shall continue
to do so until a fault is made by his or her team.
The game is played to 11 points; however, a
team must win by 2 points.

2 !
3
Position of Players for Doubles at Start of
Game
Determining Serving Team. Players may
toss a coin or rally the ball until a fault is made.
1 4 Winner of the toss or rally has the option of serving
first or not serving first.

Doubles Play. Two alternate positions for

FIGURE 16-10 Position of players at net when volleying. players are shown in Figures 16-12 and 16-13.

...i
Serving Receiving

FIGURE 16-11 Illustration of double bounce rule.

Receiving
Serving

2 I

1 !
4

FIGURE 16-12 Position of players for doubles at start of game.

230 RECREATIONAL SPORTS

3
2

1 I

FIGURE 16-13 Doubles play.

a. Player 1 in right-hand court serves diagonally

across court to receiver (3) in opposite RIGHT-
HAND court. The ball must clear the non-volley
zone and land in the right-hand serving court.
The receiver (3) must let the ball bounce before
returning the serve. Serving team must also let
the return bounce before playing it Rule »4: Dou-
i

ble Bounce Rule). After the two bounces have oc-

curred, the ball may then be either volleyed or
played off the bounce until a fault is made.
b. If the fault is made by the receiving team, a point
is scored by the serving team. When the serving
team wins a point, its players will switch courts
and the same player will continue to serve. When
the serving team makes its first fault, players will
stay in the same court, and the second partner
will then serve. When they make their second FIGURE 16-14 Note cord around wrist to prevent paddle from
slipping from hand
fault they will stay in the same courts and turn
the ball over to the other team. Players switch
courts only after scoring. A ball landing on any
line is considered good. be used in a physical education class. Generally the
larger the ball, the slower the game. For smaller
Singles Play. All rules apply with the follow-
children, the larger ball is easier to strike and to
ing exception: When serving in singles, each player
"watch" into the hitting area.
serves from the RIGHT-HAND court when his score is
zero or an even number, and from the LEFT-HAND
court when his score is odd numbered. Net
A badminton or a tennis net may be used in the
game of pickle-ball. Wooden standards may be con-
EQUIPMENT
structed and strung across a gymnasium floor to
make up several pickle-ball courts for class play.
Paddle
The official pickle-ball racquet is generally made
of hardwood or a good quality plywood. The squared- SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
off head should not exceed 8 inchesin width nor 15
1/2 inches in length. A racquetball paddle, any A. Nature and purpose of pickle-ball
strung paddle or paddle with holes is not legal. A B. Acquaint players with equipment, court size
cord should be attached to the butt end of the handle C. Skills and Techniques. Relate skills to tennis
for safety purposes; the w rist should be inserted
r
techniques; use drills to develop forehand and
through the cord so the paddle does not come off dur- backhand drives, lobs, service, and volleys. Use
ing play (Figure 16-14 >. practice drills using rebound volleying against a
wall: play mini-games using only the forehand or
backhand. Combine game-like drills as you begin
Balls
introducing rules of the game.
The perforated ball used in pickle-ball is
official 1. Grip, stance, and footwork

3 inches in diameter. Various sized whiffle balls may 2. Forehand and backhand drives
 PICKLE-BALL 231

3. Service— lob. drive three important rules to remember: 1 the paddle 1

—
1

4. Volley forehand and backhand must pass below the waist in the serving motion
5. Lob the ball must be dropped and hit out of the air: and
D. Rules of the Game. Introduce the rules when ap- (3) one foot must remain behind the back line.
propriate;introduce the non-volley zone and Lob Serve. The lob serve 'Figure 16-1T
rules governing net play as soon as possible. used as a defensive technique to keep the opponents
E. Strategy can be introduced with a skill as soon as in the back court area. This high arcing serve will
appropriate levels of skill are attained. Game- tend to bounce higher and keep the opponent in a de-
like drills which combine elements of strategy fensive mode.
and are introduced early help the player learn
more quickly. Learning Cues
F. Game Plav
1. Standing with the paddle side foot behind the
other and facing the net. the body is in a ready
position.
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES 2. The weight is transferred from the back foot to
front foot, the ball is dropped just forward of the
The techniques and skills required to play pickle-
front foot.
ball are identical for the most part with those used in
3. The paddle arm swings forward and with the
tennis. Refer to Chapter 23 for the skill breakdowns
face of the paddle perpendicular to the direction
for the eastern grip, the stance or ready position,
of the serve, the paddle makes contact with the
forehand and backhand drives, the forehand and
ball opposite the front foot.
backhand volley, and the lob. Good footwork is also
4. The arm continues forward and upward giving
essential in pickle-ball. For movement to the ball re-
the ball the necessary lift for a high arcing serve.
quiring two steps or less, slide your feet into posi-
tion. Use drills placing the player in a ready position Drive Serve. The drive serve Figure 16-16
I 1 is
and sliding the feet from side-to-side in that position. an effective defensive serve when executed correctly.
For balls hit further away, such as the lob over the This low. flat arcing serve will land deep in the oppo-
head to the back court, turn and run to the ball while nent's back court, forcing the player away from the
looking over the shoulder toward the net to note volley zone.
where opponents may be moving.
Learning Cues
Service. There are two types of service. The
firstdrives the ball over the net in a flat arc while 1. Standing with the paddle side foot behind the
the second type of service results in an arc best de- other and facing the net. the body assumes a
scribing a lob. When initiating the serve, there are ready position "knees flexed, bent at waist'.

FIGURE 16-15 The lob serve. Note paddle makes contact with ball below waist.
FIGURE 16-16 The drive serve.

2. The weight is transferred from the back foot to 2. To receive the serve, place yourself in a ready po-
the forward foot, the ball is dropped opposite the sition behind the back line; this enables you to
forward foot. return either a drive serve or lob serve. Return
3. The paddle arm swings forward, the wrist is the service in the back court and corners. Vary
cocked. the placement of the shot so your opponent is
4. At contact opposite the front foot, the wrist is forced to hit abackhand or a forehand.
snapped through, and the forearm is pronated 3. Force your opponent to move from side-to-side
as the follow-through is executed. and up and back.
4. In doubles, try to take control of the net by forc-
Practice Suggestions ing your opponents to hit shots from the back-
line.
It isimportant to emphasize that the serve must be
5. In doubles, hit the ball down the center of the
in play in order to score points; therefore, consistent
court occasionally; this forces opponents to make
serving is essential to the game. Practice serves for 5
choices which sometimes puts them out of posi-
to 7 minutes at the beginning of each class period.
tion to hit the return.
Zones can be outlined on the floor and serves di-
6. Use a lob shot occasionally when you have
rected toward specific zones. Players will get a feel
drawn your opponent to the net. However, if you
for how hard to hit the two serves.
and your opponent are near the net, use a lob as
The key to the lob serve is the height and depth
a defensive technique to allow you to get back
of the serve. Standards with a badminton net placed
into position.
across the back of the non-volley zone at a height of
10 to 15 feet will force the server to practice hitting
the ball high enough to carry to the back court.
The key to the drive serve is also the height and
depth. For helpful practice, use standards with a
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
string across the court at a height of 4 to 5 feet above
Orthopedically Impaired
official net height; direct the server to hit the ball
over the regulation net height but below the string. See modifications discussed in Tennis and in
Practice drills for the other strokes can be Handball /Racquetball.
adapted from the Tennis chapter.

Mentally Impaired

PLAYING STRATEGY Minimal modifications are needed.

Serves are most effective when hit into the far

Sensory Impaired
back court and into the corners. It is best to vary
the serve, however, to keep your opponent off See modifications discussed in Tennis and in
balance. Handball/Racquetball.

232
 SHUFFLEBOARD 233

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Smash A shot hit forcefully from above the player's head.
Volley To hit the ball in the air before it bounces on the
1. Always wear the strap around your wrist so if court.
the paddle slips from your hands, it stays with
you.
2. Warm up properly before starting the game. SELECTED REFERENCES
Stretching exercises for the shoulder girdle,
hamstrings, and abductors of the legs are recom- Curtis, J.M. Pickle -Ball for Player and Teacher. 2nd ed. En-
mended. glewood, CO: Morton Publishing, 1989.
3. Get used to calling for the ball so as to minimize Pickle-Ball Incorporated. Rules and other publications,
contact with your doubles partner. 3131 Western Ave., Seattle, WA 98121.
Squires, D. The Other Racquet Sports. New York: McGraw-
Hill 1978.
,

TERMINOLOGY

Approach shot A shot hit inside the baseline while ap-

proaching the net. SHUFFLEBOARD
Backcourt The area near the non-volley zone and base-
line.
Backhand Stroke hit on the opposite side of the hand
holding the paddle.
NATURE AND PURPOSE
Baseline The end line of the pickel-ball court.
Down-the-line A shot hit near a sideline which travels Shuffleboard may be played by two people (singles)
close to, and parallel to, the same line from where it
or by four (doubles). The game is played by propel-
was initially hit. ling round wooden discs by means of a cue stick with

Drive A low shot that is hit near the opponent's back- a curved end over a hard, smooth surface on which
court.
the outlines of the court have been drawn.
Drop shot A ground stroke hit in such a way that the ball The Court. The court is 52 feet long and 6 feet
drops just over the net into the non-volley zone. wide, with a triangular target and scoring diagram
Error A mistake made by a player during competition. at each end (see Figure 16-17). One end of the court
Fault A serve which lands out of bounds or court area. is designated as the Head of Court and the other as

Foot faultFailure on the server's part to keep at least one the Foot of Court.
behind the baseline during the serve.
foot Equipment. Each player is provided with a
Forehand The shot hit on the right side of a right-handed cue stick measuring 6 feet 3 inches maximum; it
player. must have no metal parts touching the playing sur-
Game A game is determined in pickle-ball when one side face. There are two sets of discs, four in each set, one
has reached 11 points; however a team must win by set painted red and the other black. The discs must
two points. be 6 inches in diameter, weigh not less than HM*
Half-volley A ball hit only inches from the court surface ounces nor more than 15 ounces, with thickness
after the initial bounce. ranging from % inch to 1 inch. Shuffleboard can be
Let Any point that must be replayed. easily adapted to many types of surfaces; shuffle-
Let serve A serve that touches the top of the net and falls board courts can be painted on the floors of
in the proper service court; it must be replayed. classrooms, gymnasiums, hallways, sidewalks, or
Lob A ball hit sufficiently high to pass over the reach of other concrete surfaces found at schools. Shuffle-
an opponent that falls within the court. board sets are available from most suppliers of phys-
Non-volley zone The 7-foot area on either side of the net. ical education and recreation equipment at a very
A player may not step into the non-volley zone to play reasonable price. The discs are usually made of a du-
a ball before it bounces or on the follow-through of a rable composition material that can be used both in-
stroke. doors and outdoors.
Pace The speed of the ball. Choice of disc color is made by playing one disc to
Passing shot The shot which passes beyond the reach of the farthest deadline, with player of the disc closest
the net player and lands inbounds. to it receiving his choice of colors. In starting a game,
Placement A shot bit inbounds and untouched by an op- the owner of red discs shoots first, followed by black,
ponent. then by red, alternating thus until all discs are shot.
Poach To cross over into your partner's territory to play a In singles play, after all discs are shot from Head of
normally played by your partner.
ball Court, the players walk to Foot of Court and, after
Serve The lob or drive stroke used to put a ball into play tallying the score, continue play toward Head of
at the beginning of the point. The serve must be using Court with owner of black discs shooting first.
an underhand motion. In doubles, with two players at each end of the
 234 RECREATIONAL SPORTS

CROSS SECTION
SMOOTH CONCRETE
m -4 : ^ '-A- < ^ ^ 4 ;
2"
3 CONCRETE
4"CINDERS

DEAD LINES
" L \
® 1/2

n
<£>
Clearance- (D

r triangle
1/4"LINES-
ro

ft, ®
6 ! 6"
-6"h*
'

^ ^ I
3'^ I
* 3' ^ |^ 3'*> 12* -• 3'*4-» 3'*4—- 3'*4— 3'-Jl-6" 6-6
52'

NOTE-MAXIMUM WIDTH OF LINES 1 1/2"

MINIMUM WIDTH 3/4"
®BLACK|
when p LAY NGD0UBLES
|

©RED J

FIGURE 16-17 Shuffleboard court.

court, a game is started with the owners of red discs playing rules. Five points are deducted for the fol-
shooting all discs first from the Head of Court, fol- lowing infractions:
lowed by owners of black discs. Owners of red discs
1. All discs not in respective half of 10-off area
again shoot first from the Foot of Court, followed by
when ready to shoot.
black. On the second round, owners of black discs
2. Discs not played from respective half of 10-off
shoot first at each end of the court, followed by
(red played from right side, black from left).
owners of red discs. Playing of all discs from one end
3. Players stepping on or over baseline in making
of the court and back constitutes a round, so in dou-
their shot.
bles play the lead in starting to shoot changes after
4. Players not remaining seated when play is to-
each round, while in singles play the lead changes
ward their end of the court.
after each half round.
5. Interfering in any way with opponent while he
or she is making a play.
6. Players touching live discs at any time.
BASIC RULES
Ten points are deducted for the following infractions:
Scoring. The scoring area contains one 10-
1. Player making hesitation or hook shot.
point area, two 8-point areas, two 7-point areas, and
2. Player making remarks to disconcert opponent.
one 10-off area. In order to count, a disc must lie en-
3. Making any remarks which may be construed as
tirely within one of the scoring areas with no part of
coaching a partner while making a play.
the disc touching any side line, except that the sepa-
4. Player shooting before opponent's disc has come
ration line in the 10-off area is not considered. A
to rest.
game may end at 50, 75, or 100 points. Play con-
tinues until all discs have been shot, even if game Playing Rules. A disc returning or remaining
point has been reached during the early part of a half on the court after having struck any object other
round. In doubles, if a tie score results at game point than a live disc is called a dead disc and shall be re-
or over, two additional rounds are played. If the moved from the court before the play is resumed. If a
score is still tied, play continues as outlined. In sin- dead disc strikes a live disc, that half round shall be
gles, one additional round is played to determine the replayed. A disc that stops in the area between far-
winner in a tie game. In match play, the winner is thest deadline and starting point shall be considered
determined on the basis of the best two out of three dead and be removed from the court. Any disc that
games. stops just beyond the farthest baseline shall be
Penalties. From 5 to 10 points are deducted moved a distance of at least eight inches from base-
from the player's score for certain infractions of line. Any disc stopping more than halfway over side-
 SHUFFLEBOARD 235

which rests or leans on the edge, shall be

lines, or the students to practice pushing the disc out of
removed from the court. the area with their own disc.
3. Practice shooting for position. Develop "feel" for
the push by attempting to push the disc to var-
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES ious boxes. Begin with no competition and then
add competition.
The involved in playing shuffleboard are very
skills
few; however, it is a game requiring the development

of touch —to know just how hard to push the disc. It MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
is extremely important for the shuffleboard player to
"read" the surface on which the game is being Orthopedically Impaired

played, since the disc will react with different speeds See modifications discussed in Field Hockey,
on different surfaces. In executing the push or for- Chapter 10.
ward thrust of the cue, it is important to place the
cue against the disc before the pushing action Mentally Impaired
begins. Do not jab at the disc, because this will result Minimal modifications are needed.
in a loss of power. A few important points must be
remembered about the push. Sensory Impaired

See modifications discussed in Field Hockey.

Learning Cues

1. The handle is held at the end, weight forward on

TERMINOLOGY
the feet, body slightly leaning forward (Figure
16-18A).
Cue Stick used to propel discs toward the target.
2. Push by straightening out the elbow, the oppo-
Dead disc A disc that returns to or remains on the court
site foot steps forward, the arm straightens and
after having struck an object other than another "live
follows-through toward the target, with knees
disc." Disc is also dead that stops between farthest
flexed (Figure 16-18B).
deadline and starting line.

Foot of court That end of the court opposite the head.

Practice Suggestions
Head of court That end of the court from which play
1. Have students line up one behind the
in squads, starts to begin a match.
other. Place one student at the end of the court Hesitation shot This is illegal — the forward motion of the
to retrieve discs and push them back to students disc must be continuous (no stopping and restarting
awaiting their turn. Rotate students from push- during the attempt).
ing position to retrieving position. Round The playing of all discs from one end of court and
2. Place discs in different scoring areas, and allow back constitutes a round.

W A *
***-'-
im

FIGURE 16-18 Execution of the push in shuffleboard.

236 RECREATIONAL SPORTS
SELECTED REFERENCES
American Association for Health, Physical Education, and
Recreation. Official N.A.G.W.S. Recreational Games and
Volleyball Guide. Current ed. Washington, D.C.:
AAHPER.
National Shuffleboard Association. Official Rules.
simmee, FL: NSA, Inc., 1965.
TABLE TENNIS
NATURE AND PURPOSE
Table tennis (popularly called Ping-Pong) may be
played by two or four people. Equipment consists of a
table with a smooth playing surface, a net, balls, and
rackets (also called paddles). The game may be
played by both old and young and seems destined to
remain one of our most popular recreational activi-
ties.
EQUIPMENT
The equipment necessary to play table tennis is of
simple construction and relatively inexpensive.
School physical education programs can have
rackets and tables made by the industrial arts de-
partment at a very nominal fee. Many physical edu-
cation and recreation supply companies sell table
tennis sets and balls for a very reasonable price. Ob-
viously, as the competitive level and skill increases,
more expensive rackets may be wanted.
Table. The table is 9 feet long and 5 feet wide,
with a height of 30 inches from floor to top surface
(Figure 16-19). Most tables are made of three-
quarter inch pressed wood or good quality plywood,
FIGURE 16-19 Table tennis table.
but other materials can be used. Tables that come in
halves and have a collapsible undercarriage are easy
to store. Some are constructed so that one half can be
folded up into a backdrop and used for a rebound
wall in practicing various strokes.
Net. The playing surface is divided by a net se-
Kis-
cured in the center and parallel to the end lines. The
top edge of the net is 6 inches above the playing sur-
face.
Balls. The balls are constructed of celluloid,
hollow, 4 1/2 to 4 3/4 inches in circumference, and
weigh between 37 and 41 grains. A good ball should
be perfectly round and without wobble when spin-
ning. The United States Table Tennis Association
seal of approval on a ball is a good indication of qual-
ity.
Racket. A variety of rackets (paddles) can be
purchased at most sporting goods stores. Some have
grips that will fit your hand size. All have a rubber
or sponge covering of some type that covers the play-
ing surface. A covering of inverted sponge is most
used and is recommended for all levels of players.
BASIC RULES
Singles Game
Scoring. The winner of a match is the player
who scores 21 points, unless both players have
first
20 points, in which case the winner must gain a two-
point lead in order to win. The choice of ends and
service at the start of the game shall be decided by
toss.
Change of Ends and Service. A game is
started with the server making five consecutive
services. The receiver follows with five services, each
player alternating in this fashion for the duration of
the game, unless the score becomes 20-all, in which
case the receiver will make one serve, followed by the
original server with one serve, then the receiver, and

so on, until awinner is declared. If the match con-
only one game, or in the deciding game of a
sists of
match, the players change ends at the score of 10.
The player who started at one end of the table in one
game starts at the other end in the immediately sub-
sequent game.
The Service. The service is delivered by re-
leasing the ball, without imparting any spin upon
release, and striking it with the paddle outside the
boundary of the court near server's end. Finger spins
and rubbing the ball against the racket face are ille-
gal.Any spin imparted to the ball must come from
action of the racket upon impact with the ball. The
ball shall be struck so that it first drops into server's
court and then into receiver's court by passing di-
rectly over or around the net.
A Good Return. A ball having been served or
returned in play shall be struck by the player so that
it passes directly over or around the net and lands in
opponent's court; if the ball, during play, returns of
its own impetus over or around the net, it may be
played the same as a returned ball.
Let Ball. The served ball shall be a let if it
touches the net or its supports, and later lands in re-
ceiver's court. A let shall also be declared when a
serve is made before the receiver is ready, unless the
receiver makes an effort to strike the ball. It is a let if
either player, because of conditions not under his
control, is prevented from making a serve or a re-
turn.
Either player shall lose the point:
1. If he or she fails to make a good service, unless a
let is declared.
2. Ifa good service or a good return is made by an
opponent and he or she fails to make a good re-
turn.
3. If racket, or any part of player or
touches the net or its supports while the ball
in play.
4. If the player moves the table in any way while
playing the ball.
5. If a player's free hand touches the table while
the ball is in play.
6. If, at any time, he or she volleys the ball. (A vol-
ley consists of hitting the ball before it has
bounced.)
Doubles Game
The rules for singles games apply to
cept as indicated below.
Service Line. A one-eighth inch white line
drawn down the center of the table parallel to the
side lines is called the service line.
A Good Service. The ball must touch
server's right-half court or the center line on his side
of the net, and then, passing directly over or around
TABLE TENNIS 237
the net, touch the receiver's right-half court or the
center line on his side of the net.
Choice of Order of Play. The pair who has
the right to serve the first five services in any game
shall decide which partner shall do so, and the op-
posing pair shall then decide similarly which shall
first be the receiver.
Order of Service. Each server shall serve for
five points. At the end of each term of service, the
one who was receiving becomes the server, and the
partner of the previous server becomes the receiver.
This sequence of the receiver becoming the server
and the partner of the previous server becoming the
receiver continues until the end of the game or the
score of 20-all. At the score of 20-all, the sequence of
serving and receiving shall continue uninterrupted
except that each player shall serve only one point in
turn, and the serve alternates after each point until
the end of the game.
Order of Play. After the server makes a good
service, a good return is made by the receiver, then
by the partner of the server, then by the partner of
the receiver, and then by the server, and thereafter
each player, in that sequence, shall make a good re-
turn.
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
Table tennis requiresmuch concentration and excel-
lent reactions. Because of the close similarity to
tennis, the basic fundamentals regarding stroking
the ball may be applied in some instances. The dis-
cussion in this section will deal with some of the be-
ginning skills needed to get the player started.
clothing,
is Grip
The most common grip used by a majority of
players is the "shake hands" grip used in tennis (Fig-
ure 16-20). The great Chinese players use a grip
known as the penholder grip (Figure 16-21); how-
ever, this style of grip is usually best only for an at-
tacking type of game.
Learning Cues
1. With the racket perpendicular to the floor, grasp
the racket as you would shake hands.
2. The last three fingers wrap around the handle
and the forefinger lies close to the lower edge of
doubles ex- the racket face.
Strokes
The forehand and backhand push shot should be
first the mastered by the beginner before playing the game.
For the right-handed player, the forehand stroke
should be used when the ball approaches from the
238 RECREATIONAL SPORTS

FIGURE 16-20 Standard "shake hands" grip. FIGURE 16-21 Penholder grip.

FIGURE 16-22 A good ready position.

right, and the backhand when the ball approaches 2. As the ball approaches, the right arm is drawn
from the left. Preparatory to any stroke the player back by pivoting at the elbow, the right shoulder
should assume a good athletic stance in a ready posi- back by pivoting past the elbow, the right
tion (Figure 16-22). The knees are bent, weight is shoulder turns and is pointed toward the table.
evenly distributed on the forward half of the foot, 3. Push the racket forward toward the ball, extend
arms are in front of the body, elbows bent, racket arm in a horizontal plane.
held parallel to the ground. 4. Body weight transfers from back foot to forward
When executing both shots, it is important to re- foot throughout the stroke.
member that the ball is directed over the net by a
pushing action, not a hitting action. Variations in Learning Cues: Forehand Push (Figure 16-25)
arm movement and wrist movement will allow spin
1. As the ball approaches, the racket is drawn
to be imparted to the ball.
back; shoulders turn so the left shoulder is
pointed toward the table.
Learning Cues: Backhand Push (Figures 16-23, 16-24)
2. Push the racket forward toward the ball, arm
1. The ball is played in front of the body at the extended in a horizontal plane; shoulders re-
point of highest contact. turn.
 TABLE TENNIS 239

FIGURE 16-23 Position of the hand in backhand push.

FIGURE 16-24 Position of body during backhand

push shot.

FIGURE 16-25 Position during forehand push

shot. Note the left shoulder is pointing toward the
table.

FIGURE 16-26 Ready to serve on the forehand side.

3. Body weight transfers from the back foot to the
forward foot throughout the stroke.
Learning Cues: Topspin Serve (Forehand Side)
Serves
1. The body assumes a stance three quarters side-
important for the beginner to remember
It is ways to the table, the ball rests on the fingers of
that the ball may not be served from the palm of the the left hand, racket assumes position of a fore-
hand. In addition the ball must contact the server's hand push shot (Figure 16-26).
side of the table first. 2. The ball is tossed upward, the racket face
 dowel rod. Use a large square
to 16 inch vertical
piece of cardboard strapped to the student's
hand instead of a regulation paddle.
Mentally Impaired

Minimal modifications are needed.

Sensory Impaired

See modifications discussed in Tennis and in

Handball/Racquetball.

TERMINOLOGY
Ace A service that completely eludes the receiver.
Advantage (ad) Next point made after a deuce score. It is
FIGURE 16-27 A folding table can be used as a rebound wall for "advantage out" if the receiver wins it and "advantage
practice. in" if the server wins. The player wins the match who
wins a point after gaining "advantage."
first

All Term used to denote an equal score; e.g., 20-all.

(slightly closed) comes forward and continues
Backhand Stroke frequently used by right-handed
forward after the contact.
player when returning a ball hit to his left. The paddle
3. As the racket face follows-through, it rolls over
is held so that the back of the hand faces the ball; the
the top of the ball thus imparting topspin to the
ball is usually hit with side of paddle opposite the side
ball.
used in the forehand.
The mechanics for a backhand topspin serve will Backspin A ball hit so that top of ball rotates toward
be essentially the same except the serve is initiated stroker, bottom moving away.
from the left side for the right-handed player. Block shot A half-volley.
Dead ball A ball is dead if a let is called, if the ball
Practice Suggestions bounces twice on the table, and at the conclusion of a
point or rally.
1. If a folding table is available, fold up one side
Deuce When the score is even at 20-all. To win. a player
perpendicularly, so that it can be used as a re-
must score two consecutive points.
bound wall to practice strokes and serves (Fig-
Drop shot A shot played so softly that it dies before oppo-
ure 16-27).
nent can reach it. or places him at a disadvantage if he
2. Practice the toss (6 to 8 inches high) needed for
does play it.
the serve, concentrating on a smooth, rhythmi-
Finger spin An illegal procedure whereby spin is im-
cal toss.
parted to the ball by the fingers in serving.
3. Practice against a wall, either letting the ball
Forehand A stroke or volley made in such a fashion that
bounce once or volleying the ball as long as pos-
the palm is the leading part of the movement. Usually
sible. As a variation, mark a target (circle or
hitwith the opposite face of the paddle than that used
square) on the wall and try to hit the ball into
in backhand. In this stroke the left foot of a right-
the target.
handed player is toward the table.
4. To develop a feel for the racket and ball, contin-
Let Means "play the point over" and occurs when the ball
uously tap the ball upward off the face of the
strikes the top of net and falls into correct service
racket, then downward, while walking. Note the
court, also if a ball breaks or if a player is interfered
importance of concentration as this drill is exe-
with by an official or spectator.
cuted.
Mixed doubles Doubles game in which each team has
5. When practicing the strokes and the serve, equal
one man and one woman player.
amounts of time must be given to developing
Push shot A ball struck with a pushing motion of the
skills on the backhand side as well as the fore-
paddle near the top of the bounce so that no spin is
hand side.
placed on the ball.
Service court In singles, the entire table area on the re-
ceiver's side, 5by Wi feet. In doubles, the table is di-
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
vided by a center line so each service court is 4% by 2%
feet.
Orthopedically Impaired
Slice A stroke in which the ball is stroked late so that it

1. See modifications discussed in Tennis and in tends to spin in a direction away from the paddle.
Handball /Racquetball. Topspin A ball stroked so that the top spins forward in
2. Set up a modified table-top tetherball game. the direction of flight. Is the opposite of backspin or
Tether a small whiffleball with a string to a 12 underspin.

240
 TABLE TENNIS 241

Volley Illegal stroking of ballwhile it is in the air and be- Sports. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
fore it has touched the table. 1972.
Miles, D. Sports Illustrated Table Tennis. Philadelphia:
J.B. Lippincott Co., 1974.
SELECTED REFERENCES Sklorz, M. Table Tennis. Yorkshire, England: E.P Publish-
ing Limited, 1973.
American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Varner, M. and Harrison, J.R. Table Tennis. Dubuque, IA:
Recreation. Official N.A.G.W.S. Individual Sports Wm. C. Brown Company, Publishers, 1968.
Guide. Current ed. Washington, D.C.: AAHPER. United States Table Tennis Association. Table Tennis For
DeWitt, R.T. and Dugan, K. Teaching Individual and Team You. current ed. Philadelphia: USTTA.
 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Select equipment best suited to your needs.
Consider the advantages and disadvantages of waxless skis and waxable skis,
and know how to wax them.
Understand and apply the concept of "layering" in clothing.
Perform the techniques of getting up from a fall, poling, turning, and striding while
mooing on flat, downhill, and uphill terrains.
Know what safety precautions to observe when crosscountry skiing.

NATURE AND PURPOSE
The great increase in popularity enjoyed by cross-
country skiing can be attributed to many factors.
First is the relative ease with which Nordic skiing
can be learned. To move from one point to another,
the skier only has to initiate a walking action, thus it
is a very natural activity. Unlike Alpine skiing, the
touring skier has no lines to wait in, no crowds to en-
dure, no long rides to the ski area, and no tow tickets
to purchase. Second, the individual can engage in ski
touring almost any place where there is no traffic: a
country road, over fields, through woods, on hills, or
—
on prepared tracks these are all appropriate places
to cross-country ski. Third, there are no age or sex
limits; touring provides a good, clean form of recre-
ation for all. It is not uncommon to find family
—
groups children, parents, and grandparents
gathering on a crisp, winter weekend day to ski tour
in local and state parks, woods, or other scenic areas.
In addition, many touring centers or local clubs in
the United States now sponsor Citizens Races of var-
ying distances, much like the marathons engaged in
by many joggers. The purpose of the Citizens Races
is not only competition but the opportunity to partic-
ipate with hundreds of other people and to test your-
1
self. Fourth, ski touring is an excellent physical
conditioner, especially when performed in a smooth,
rhythmic manner over a prolonged period of time.
Research studies indicate that the cross-country
skier expends a great deal of energy in this physi-
cally demanding sport. Finally, ski touring equip-
ment is reasonably priced at the beginner level;
many stores offer ski packages that include bind-
1
Further information about the Citizens Race can be ob-
tained by writing to the Citizen and Club Cross-Country Racing
Committee, United States Ski Association, 1726 Champa Street,
Denver, CO 80202.
ings, boots, poles, and skis for under $100. For the
person who wishes to try out the activity, several
outdoor stores or state parks will rent the necessary
equipment for less than $10 a day.
School Programs. Several high school and
college physical education programs include cross-
country skiing as part of the regular curriculum.
Many stores and state parks will rent equipment to
schools for a reasonable price and in some instances
will provide basic instruction. Many of the beginning
techniques can be learned in two or three sessions,
so the student can soon participate on flat and
slightly rolling terrain. Obviously the more rugged
terrain and steeper hills and valleys require more
advanced techniques that take longer to develop. Al-
though advanced techniques are beyond the scope of
this chapter, information may be found among the
Selected References.
Handicapped Programs. Cross-country ski-
ing is an activity that also appeals to the blind and
the partially sighted, the deaf, and the one-legged
skier. Instruction programs for the handicapped en-
able special populations to enjoy this wonderful form
of exercise and recreation. Several organizations
that can supply additional information are listed in
the Selected References.
EQUIPMENT
Ten years ago the individual interested in ski tour-
ing would have found a limited selection of equip-
ment from which to choose. Today, however, almost
every Alpine ski manufacturer has added a line of
ski touring equipment. For the beginning skier the
selection process can indeed be mystifying and frus-
trating; therefore,it is best to consult an expert be-
fore buying any equipment. The most important
consideration for the beginner is that the equipment

242
 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY 243

function properly and serve the skier through and

and participation.
after the initial stages of learning

Skis

When selecting cross-country skis, it is impor-

tant to understand that they are categorized accord-
ing to their use. Racing skis, which are narrow (35 to
45 mm) and very light, are designed specifically for
competitive skiing. Mid-touring skis are heavier and
slightly wider (40 to 50 mm). Beginners, novices, and
recreational skiers frequently use the mid-touring
ski. The touring ski is still wider (45 to 60 mm) and
heavier than the racing or mid-touring ski. Many be-
ginners learn on this type of ski because it is heavier,
provides greater stability, and can withstand greater
abuse. Many learn-to-ski programs rent this type of
ski to the beginner. The touring ski is also used by
the expert for deep powder skiing, because the extra
width helps keep the ski above the surface rather FIGURE 17-1 Determining proper ski length. Tip comes to mid-
palm for men and to the wrist for women.
than sinking into the snow.
Skis come in assorted lengths and should be se-
lected according to your body build and sex. The fol-
lowing is a general guide to use in selecting proper
ski length. While standing on the floor, raise your
arm straight up. For a woman or girl, the tip of the
ski should come to the wrist; for a man or boy, the tip
should come to mid-palm of the hand (Figure 17-1).
If you are a heavy person, consider a stiffer ski; if
you are light, consider a more flexible ski.
One very important factor is whether to choose
the waxable or waxless type of ski. Cross-country
skis are designed to grip the snow's surface in order
to obtain a good forward motion. The gripping action
of the ski bottom to the snow results from the use of
various waxes (the points of the snow flakes actually
penetrate the wax to allow it to grip when pressure is
applied to the kick zone) or, in the case of waxless
skis, a specially designed indented surface that grips
the snow (Figure 17-2). Although cross-country skis
are generally made of a combination of wood and B
synthetic materials, most bottom surfaces are syn-
FIGURE 17-2 Types of bottom
thetic rather than wood, making them more impervi- surfaces found on "waxless"
ous to moisture. cross-country skis: (A) fish scale
The waxless ski is easy to maintain and for that pattern, (B) step pattern.

reason would perhaps better serve the occasional

skier. There are, however, some disadvantages to
this type of surface. The waxless bottom is not as
adaptable to changing snow conditions as waxable
skis. Application of different waxes in the kick zone
is generally not possible, thus prohibiting maximum
gripping performance. Additionally, the waxless ski
sacrifices high level performance and speed. How-
ever, a majority of beginners and recreational skiers
find the waxless type ski to be very satisfactory for
their purposes.
Waxable skis are used by the ski purist and by
the skier who wants the fun of waxing skis. The obvi-
ous advantage is that different waxes can be applied
for different snow conditions, thus insuring a good
kick and glide. Waxing skis takes time and requires
some basic knowledge of snow conditions. It is also
an additional expense and bother that some skiers
would rather do without. Waxing is described in de-
tail at the end of this chapter.
Bindings
Bindings enable the boot to be attached to the
ski.There are several types: some have cables that
go around the bottom of the boot; others have cables
that clamp the top of the boot to the ski. For the be-
ginner and recreational skier the traditional three-
pin binding is most commonly used 'Figure 17-3). It
244 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY

FIGURE 17-3 A three-pin binding. FIGURE 17-4 A clamp binding found on

some newer systems.

consists of three pins which are projected or inserted

into the sole at the toe end of the boot; a metal bar or
clamp called a bale then pushed down and held by
is
a projection on the binding. The bale can generally
be released by applying pressure to the projection on
the bar or clamp. Most toe bindings are made of
metal, although some manufacturers have developed
a plastic binding. All bindings are "norm fitted;" that
is, they will fit any size boot. There are various norm

sizes. The general size for the recreational skier is ei-

ther a 75 mm nordic norm (width of the toe boot) or a
50 mm nordic norm. Newer, more sophisticated
binding systems are available which may use a dif-
ferent design to secure the boot to the binding. Most,
however, require some type of clamp to secure the
boot to the ski (Figure 17-4). Bindings can be pur-
chased separately, but it is best that they be
mounted by an expert.
Boots
Aproper-fitting boot is perhaps the key to suc-
cessful cross-country skiing. Boots should be selected
on the basis of comfort to the skier. The boot should
be flexible enough across the crease so that it does
not cut off circulation to the toes or cut across the
toes. The skier should try the boot on, wearing the
socks used for skiing. The heel of the boot should be
snug, there should not be much side-to-side flexibil-
ity, and there should be plenty of room in the toes.
Generally, a space about the width of a finger at the
end of the big toe indicates proper length.
A light touring boot is best for the beginner and
recreational skier (Figure 17-5). This boot is usually
made of leather and comes in either a low cut or a
high cut (gives more warmth and should be set in a
I,
reinforced plastic or metal plate. Boots usually range
FIGURE 17-5 A light, touring boot.
in price from $20 and up. Before the first use it is
important to apply a waterproofing conditioner and
let the boots dry well. If properly taken care of, boots
will last for several years.
Poles
Poles are used to aid in propelling the skier for-
ward or as a means of balance and support. The pole
consists of a grip, a strap, a basket, and a metal point
that is bent to facilitate extraction from the snow.
The poles can be made of a carbon fiber material, fi-
berglass, aluminium, or bamboo (Tonkin poles).
Since poles tend to take a lot of abuse, the bamboo
pole is the least durable. Most skiers prefer the fiber
material pole which can be found in most stores.
The three key factors to look for when selecting a
pair of poles are the length, the type of strap, and the
size of the basket. To check for proper length, as you
 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY 245

stand on the floor, the pole should fit snugly under

the armpit (Figure 17-6). A pole that is too long or
too short will hinder the skier's movement. The
strap should be adjustable in order to allow the skier
to make adjustments to the size of the gloves or mit-
tens worn on the hand. Baskets, which are generally
made of plastic, should be a medium size. Large bas-
kets are used for deep powder snow, whereas smaller
baskets are used by the competitive racer. Poles
usually begin at $10.

Clothing

In addition to comfortable boots, what clothing

to wear and how much are very important considera-
tions. Remember that cross-country skiing involves
total body movement and a great expenditure of en-
ergy. As a result, tremendous amounts of heat can be
generated, and therefore overdressing will result in snugly
FIGURE 17-6 Judging the length of the ski pole. It should fit

overheating. The best way to dress, as recommended beneath the armpit.

by many experts, is on the "layering" principle; i.e.,
by wearing layers of loose-fitting clothing. Layering
enables the skier to add or subtract articles of cloth-
ing according to the prevailing weather conditions.
The following are important points to remember in
selecting suitable ski wear.

1. A non-moisture absorbing layer (polypropolene

material) should be worn next to the skin. This
enables moisture and perspiration to pass out to
your middle layer of clothing.
2. Avoid fabrics that do not breathe because they
tend to hold in heat and moisture. Fabrics that
are water repellent are preferable to fabrics that
are waterproof.
3. Outer garments should be of a nonabsorbent
material. Occasionally a skier falls and then
snow clings to the material and may wet the in-
side layers.
4. Since much heat is lost through the head, wear a FIGURE 17-7 A pair of gaiters helps keep boots and ankles dry.

warm woolen knit hat or head covering big

enough be pulled down over the ears.
to
lated vests. The cost of these items varies with the
5. Loose-fitting pants or knickers are recom-
type and the quality. The important thing to re-
mended to allow freedom of movement. A wool
member, no matter what you spend, is that the
sweater or turtleneck shirt plus a nylon shell
layering of loose-fitting garments permits the cross-
will keep the skier warm and dry under most
country skier to adapt to all types of weather condi-
conditions.
tions.
6. Wear a light inner pair of cotton socks and a pair
of woolen knee length socks on top to keep the
feetand legs warm and dry.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
7. Wear mittens with a down fill or a light wool lin-
ing and a leather outer shell. Leather gloves
Cross-country skiing can take place during various
with a warm lining are preferred by many be-
weather conditions and on different types of terrain
cause they give better control in handling the
(uphill, downhill, the flat), The sequence suggested
poles.
here begins on the flat, preferably with prepared
Other accessories include gaiters, an outer cover- tracks, and then proceeds to the uphill and downhill.
ing that keeps the lower legs dry (Figure 17-7); a The skills and techniques described are for the be-
fanny pack or knapsack to carry emergency mate- ginner to beginner-intermediate level of recreational
rials, a repair kit, waxes, or extra clothes; and insu- cross-country skiing.
246 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY

Nature and Purpose

1. Ski touring as a recreational sport
2. Selecting equipment
3. —
How to dress what to wear
4. Safety —
introduced at appropriate times,
when most meaningful
B. Conditioning — should begin prior to instruction
on the slopes and should continue during the ski
season
C. Waxing Techniques
D. Skills and Techniques
1. On the Flat

a. Getting up from a fall

b. Diagonal stride
c. Diagonal stride/Single poling
d. Double poling
e. Double poling/Stride

a
f. Kick turn
2. Uphill
a. Diagonal stride
b. Side step
c. Traversing
d. Herringbone
3. Downhill
a. Straight running
b. Snow plow turn
c. Step turn

d. Traversing

SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES

The skills and techniques discussed in this section
are for the beginner and beginner-intermediate rec-
reational cross-country skier. There are several pre-
techniques that can be practiced prior to beginning
on the snow. These can be done on a carpeted area. If
waxable skis are used, they should be free of wax.
Practice Suggestions: Carpeted Area

1. Familiarize yourself with how the binding on the

ski works. Put on the boots and insert the toe in
the binding so that the three pins are inserted
into the three holes at the bottom of the toe.
2. With both skis on, side step; move the tails of the
skis keeping the tips fairly stationary, move
around in a circle.
3. Slide the skis forward, approximating a walking
FIGURE 17-8 Grasping the pole. The strap lies beneath the palm
action. Get the feel of the opposite arm and leg
of the hand.
moving forward as the skis slide forward.
4. Learn to grasp the pole properly (Figure 17-8).
Insert the hand through the strap, with thumb
up, grasp the strap and pole grip. The skier
should feel pressure at the bottom of the V of the Lift one ski then the other to note the action of
thumb and index finger if gripping properly. As the ski to boot and to develop a sense of balance.
the arm pushes backward during the poling Because the heel is free from the binding, often
phase, the hand will release the pole; however, the tail will fall causing the beginner to catch
pressure of the strap should always be felt at the the snow and fall during side stepping or a kick
junction of thumb and index finger. turn.
 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY 247

FIGURE 17-9 Getting up from a fall. Note the skier rolls to his knees, with knees straddling the uphill ski.

Skiing on the Flat 3. Slide one ski forward so one knee is at a 90-
degree angle, then merely stand up.
best to start learning to cross-country ski on
It is
the A facility that has pre-made tracks aids the
flat.
— Single Poling
beginner by placing the skis in the proper track Diagonal Stride
while skiing. (When skiing alone in the wilderness The diagonal stride is to cross-country skiing as
you are not very likely to find any pre-laid tracks. If )
walking is to moving forward. The diagonal stride is
no tracks are available, any flat ground with a shal- a smooth, vigorous, rhythmical walking action that
low covering of powder snow will also serve the pur- must be mastered by all beginners (Figure 17-10).
pose. Opposite arm and leg action are used just as when
Getting Up from a Fall. All skiers at one walking in a vigorous fashion, while the other arm
time or another find themselves on the ground either and leg serve as a counterbalance to maintain proper
as a result of a fall or as a deliberate means of slow- body position. The stride involves a kick (push off) of
ing down. If on a hill or flat, the following method the ski and forward slide followed by the repeat ac-
will enable you to resume a standing position (Fig- tion of the other ski as it is brought forward. A plant-
ure 17-9). ing and downward and backward push of the ski pole
aids the glide forward. This skill is used on flats and
Learning Cues going up slight inclines. An accentuated motion can
be used for moving up steeper inclines.
1. Holding a pole in each hand, assume a position
perpendicular to your skis. If you are on a hill-
Learning Cues
side, the skis must also be perpendicular to the
slope with the skis on the downhill side. Now 1. The head is looking up and forward; body leans
tuck the knees up under the body. forward slightly, knees are comfortably flexed,
2. Roll to a kneeling position on the skis, poles weight is forward over the center of the skis on
planted and held to either side for stability. the balls of the feet.
248 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY

FIGURE 17-10 The diagonal stride. Note weight is forward, knees

are flexed.

The right arm reaches forward as left leg slides

forward. Place left pole opposite the left foot,
push downward and backward with pole and
push off with right foot. As glide slows, repeat
action on opposite side.
From the pole plant the arm will extend behind
as the push is completed, knees remaining
flexed through the action. The pole is released
from the snow, and the arm is swung forward as FIGURE 17-11 Double poling. Note compression of the back and
extension of the arms upon completion.
the pole is regripped.

push of the arms combined with a bending and com-

Double Poling /Kick
pression of the upper body forward at the waist is in-
Double poling is a variation used as a change of itiated Figure 17-11 The arms travel past the hips,
( ).

pace from the single poling done with the diagonal
stride. It is a powerful action that may be used when
the skiing surface is crusty or a bit icy. Both arms
are brought forward, the poles are planted opposite
the toes, and a vigorous downward and backward
and the hands are released from the poles. A kick or
stride may be added to this movement by simultane-
ously sliding the right or left ski forward as the arms
swing forward. The opposite leg initiates the kick:
near the end of the push the poles are planted and
 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY 249

3. The upper back is compressed forward at the

waist as the arms continue to push downward
and backward through extension.

Kick Turn
The kick turn is a technique used to change the
skier to an opposite direction while standing on the
flat or hillside. Although it may appear difficult, it is
quite easy for the beginning skier to master.

Learning Cues

1. While standing with the skis together, plant

poles (used as balance) behind the body.
2. Turn body to the right, pick up the right ski and
turn so it faces opposite direction of the left ski.
3. With weight on the right ski, pick up the left ski,
swing it around so that it is parallel to the right
ski.

Practice Suggestions: On the Flat

1. Without poles, begin by walking with the skis, to

develop a sense of balance and rhythm. Empha-
sis should be on sliding the skis forward.
2. Without poles, kick (push off) on one ski and re-
turn to starting position, then push off with the
opposite ski. Combine a kick (push) followed im-
mediately by the same action of the opposite ski.
Add a vigorous pumping action with arms to ap-
proximate action used with using single poling.
3. Combine poling with the diagonal stride. Em-
phasis should be on the forward plant opposite
the foot with one pole while the other arm is
fully extended behind and then the consequent
downward push and extension of arm. The same
drill may be used to practice double poling.
4. To practice double poling with a stride, begin by
striding with only the left or right leg until you
feel comfortable coordinating the kick, pole
plant and push; then add alternating strides.
5. Practice kick turn on flat without poles, then try
using poles. Next proceed to the hillside and
practice there.

Moving Uphill

Obviously not all cross-country skiing is done on

FIGURE 17-12 The double pole and kick.
a flat surface. The skier must learn to negotiate
slopes as well. The easiest method for going uphill is
arms and upper body execute the double poling tech-
using the diagonal stride described above. Where the
nique (Figure 17-12).
slope is fairly steep, the action resembles a running
motion with little or no glide during the concluding
Learning Cues
phases of the stride; thus the kick and stride will be
1. Weight should be evenly distributed on both shorter. It is important to remember to keep the
skis, knees flexed, weight on balls of the feet. weight well forward and knees flexed as you are
2. As the arms are brought forward and poles are moving uphill.
planted, the arms will be slightly flexed at the Side Stepping. When the beginning skier en-
elbow. counters a slope too steep to execute by means of the
250 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY
diagonal stride, the side stepping skill may
for moving uphill.
Learning Cues
1. Assume a position crosswise to the hill.
2. With the edges pressing into the side of the hill,
step off with the downhill ski, step up with the
uphill ski.
3. Use the downhill pole to help push off with the
downhill ski, keeping weight into the hill.
Traverse.
Traversing is another means to
travel uphill. Traversing is merely a diagonal stride
combined with a slight uphill movement. The skier
strides toward a point, then executing either a kick
turn or turn using a herringbone side stepping ac-
tion, changes direction going uphill across the face of
the slope. The skier actually will move back and
forth across the face of the hill while moving uphill
toward the top.
Learning Cues
1. Setting the skis crosswise to the hill, move for-
ward using a diagonal stride. The movement is
slightly uphill.
2. Weight should be forward, keeping the edges of
the skis set into the hill. The steeper the hill, the
greater amount of edge setting will be necessary.
The Herringbone. Although the herringbone
isthe most tiring way to climb a hill, it must be used
when climbing up a steeper slope. The technique can
best be described as a series of V's made by an alter-
nating series of steps in which the ski tips are spread
apart and the tails are kept fairly close together Fig-
ure 17-13). In a V position, the poles are planted be-
hind the skis; the edge of the skis are set with weight
on the inside edge. As the right foot picks up the ski,
the right pole is planted and used to maintain bal-
ance and push off; the process is then repeated on
the other side.
FIGURE 17-13 The herringbone climb, a method of climbing uphill.
be used Learning Cues
1. With weight forward and knees flexed, spread
tips of skis apart and keep heels together.
2. Set the weight on the inside edges by shifting
weight to inside of each foot.
3. Plant pole behind skis; step up, plant the other
pole, and step up.
Practice Suggestions
For the beginning skier, these uphill techniques
can be practiced first on the flat, then on a gradual
incline before attempting a steeper hill.
1. On a moderate incline, practice setting an edge
as might be used in side stepping. Emphasis
should be on rolling the ankle so weight is on the
inside of the downhill ski and on the outside of
the uphill ski. Practice climbing 10 to 12 steps.
2. The same exercise may be used for the herring-
bone as previously described. However, note the
weight is set on the inside of each ski as the step
is made.
Moving Downhill
Once the skier reaches the top of a hill it is
usually necessary to go down. On slight inclines the
skier may go straight down, but on steeper hills it
becomes necessary to slow down and even to turn in
some manner to avoid running into an obstacle. At
times the best way to slow down is simply by sitting
down. Before you used this method, however, make
sure you know how to assume a standing position
once again.
(
In moving downhill, it is important to remember
a few key points. First, the weight must be centered
or slightly forward over the skis; if not, loss of bal-
ance and a fall might result. Secondly, the hands
must be held in front of the body so that the weight is
placed properly over the skis. If the hands are al-
lowed to fall behind and to the back of the body, they
cause the weight to shift backward, thus resulting in
a loss of balance and control. Finally, the skier
should prevent the poles from dragging behind or
becoming snagged in the snow, on a bush, or on any
obstacle, because this would also result in a loss of
balance and possible fall.
Straight Running. As the name implies, in
straight running the skier goes straight down a hill.
For the beginning skier, this technique is used on
hills with a gradual incline. Remembering the points
previously discussed, the following cues are impor-
tant.
Learning Cues
1. Body weight is over the center of the skis: the
skis are shoulder width apart.
2. The knees must be flexed, the upper body is bent
at the waist, hands held in front, head up and
 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY 251

3. To turn in this position merely transfer more

weight to the inside of one ski. and you will turn
in the opposite direction. Pressure to the inside
of the left ski will result in a right turn, and vice
versa.

Step Turn. A step turn is frequently used to

change direction, to go around a corner, or to avoid
an object on the ground Figure 17-14 The turn is
.

executed from a glide, while running straight down-

hill or while on the flat. The skis should be flat pre-
paratory to initiating the turn. The steps themselves
are a series of short steps, tips leading to the side,
rather than wide steps. If going downhill, the step-
ping action is quicker than on a slight incline.
FIGURE 1 7-1 4 The step turn. Note the head and shoulder drop in
the direction of the turn. Learning Cues

1. Turn the head and drop the shoulder slightly in

looking ahead, poles tucked under the arms, par- the direction of the turn.
allel to the skis. 2. While lifting the tip of the inside ski. shift the
weight from the outside ski stepping on to the
Snow Plow — Snow Plow Turn. An easy
inside ski in the direction of the turn.
method to learn for slowing down
the snow plow.
is
3. For tighter turns, quicken the steps.
To slow down, the skis are pushed apart at the tails
4. Keep the hands in front of the body throughout
and weight is transferred to the inside edges: the tips
the movement.
remain 6 to 8 inches apart forming a V. To turn in
this position, the weight is merely transferred to the
Practice Suggestions: Downhill Techniques
inside of one ski.
Begin developing the downhill techniques on a
Learning Cues gradual slope before moving on to a steeper slope.
1. The knees are flexedmore than normal as the 1. On a long gradual hill begin by first straight
body is lowered slightly. By exening pressure running. Execute a snow plow with tails apart,
through the inside of the heels, the ski tails are then allow skis to return to a straight run posi-
pushed outward, while the ski tips remain close tion, then repeat snow plow. Practice using this
together. combination several times.
2. Body weight is slightly forward: pressure is 2. For snow plow turns, place stakes on a long
placed on the inside edges of the ski by moving gradual hill several feet apart and practice turn-
knees inward and slightly rolling the ankles. ing around one to one side and then another to
252 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY

the other side. Practice until you feel comforta- Mentally Impaired
ble turning in both directions.
Fewmodifications are needed. Use of peer
3. For the step turn, use stakes to design a course
teachers advised. Make sure students have devel-
is
that forces you to step in different directions
oped good cardiovascular fitness prior to cross-coun-
while moving on the flat and downhill.
try ski units.
4. Practice getting up from a fall while on the flat
and while on a hillside. Emphasis should be on Sensory Impaired
assuming a good base of support (crouch posi-
1. For blind skiers use tracked snow trails when-
tion) and use of poles.
ever possible (approximately 3 to 4 inches deep
tracking).
2. Use peer system, possibly tethering the blind
skier to the sighted partner.
WAXING

The waxing becomes more important as the

art of
skier's approach becomes more serious. Waxing is
optional on the waxless ski but it is essential on the
SAFETY AND COURTESY
waxable ski. For the waxless ski (fishscale pattern or
step pattern —
see Figure 17-2), you may apply a
1. Check equipment before you begin to ski, make
sure it is in proper working condition.
base wax to the whole surface and a glide wax on the
tips and tails of the skis. The base wax
applied
is
2. Use good judgement when skiing with people of
with a hot iron and then ironed on evenly onto the lesser ability. Make all people are familiar
sure
with the trail and ski within their physical
surface. Care must be taken to move the iron quickly
limits and on terrain appropriate to their level of
over the surface so as not to burn the base. The glide
skill.
wax may be rubbed on by hand then smoothed down
with a cork. Most recreational skiers will never need 3. Get yourself in good physical condition several
to wax their waxless bottomed skis.
weeks before engaging in a vigorous touring or
racing program.
For waxable skis a two-wax system is recom-
4. If skiing on a course that has pre-made tracks,
mended: one for snow conditions below freezing and
let faster skiers have the right of way.
the other wax for above freezing temperatures. The
wax is applied to the kicker zone of the ski so that 5. Be aware that the wind chill factor can make the
air feel much colder then the actual tempera-
the ski will grip when pressure is applied to that
ture, therefore causing the danger of frostbite.
area but will release and glide smoothly when the
pressure (kick) is completed. Manufacturers have
—
Cover and protect extremities ears, nose,
fingers, and toes are especially vulnerable.
color-coded the waxes to give the best results at var-
ying snow temperatures. Usually the green to blue 6. Dress appropriately for the prevailing condi-
tions. Remember that as the temperature falls,
colored waxes, which are harder waxes, are used for
lower temperatures while the red and violet colored wet clothes are very uncomfortable. Wear a hat.
waxes, which are softer, are used for higher temper- One third of the body's heat loss is lost through
atures.
the head.
For the beginning skier using waxable skis, it is
7. Wear a good pair of sunglasses on bright, sunny
recommended that the base wax be applied at the ski
days to cut the glare and prevent possible snow
blindness.
shop at the time of purchase. For subsequent care, a
8. If touring all day long, carry an emergency kit
ski wax kit can be purchased containing all the
that contains ski wax, extra clothing, a wax can-
equipment needed. Such a kit should contain two to
dle, matches or lighter to start a fire, high en-
three kicker waxes and two to three glide waxes, a
scraper to remove old wax, and a cork to smooth the
ergy food bars, and duct tape for temporary
repair or broken ski tips.
surface.
9. If skiing alone, let someone know where you are
going and the route you'll be skiing on.
10. When skiing in rural areas, request permission
of the property owner before crossing someone's
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
land.
11. Ski under control at all times; if you find your-
Orthopedically Impaired
self going too fast, sit down.
1. Use additional supports (similar to outriggers 12. Ski in areas free of traffic, including automo-
for downhill skiing) when traversing across the biles and snowmobiles.
countryside. 13. When in a crowd, be careful with your ski poles;
2. Ski on level surfaces as much as possible. the pointed tips can cause injury.
 SKIING: CROSS-COUNTRY 253

TERMINOLOGY Wax A petroleum-based product applied to the bottom of

a cross-country ski that enable the ski to grip and also
Alpine skiing Downhill and slalom skiing as opposed to to slide.
cross-country or Nordic skiing.
Bale A metal device that presses the sole of the boot over
three pins, thus securing the boot to the ski. SELECTED REFERENCES
Basket Circular portion, usually made of plastic, near
the bottom end of the ski pole that prevents the pole Baldwin, N. Skiing Cross Country. Toronto: McGraw-Hill
from sinking too deeply into the snow. Ryerson Limited, 1977.
Binding Metal or plastic device for fastening the boot to Brady, M. Cross-Country Ski Gear. Seattle: The Mountain-
the ski. eers, 1987.

Camber The curved portion built into all skis that Caldwell, J. The New Cross-Country Ski Book. 8th ed. Lex-
touches the snow when force is applied and lifts off ington, MA: The Stephen Greene Press, 1987.
when weight is lifted. The ski appears bowed as it lies Endestad, A. and Traford, J. Skating for Cross-Country
flat on the ground. Skiing. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press, 1987.
Diagonal stride A skier's gliding action that resembles Foss, M. and Garrick, J.G. Ski Conditioning. New York:
walking as it is executed. John Wiley & Sons, 1978.
Fishscale A type of surface resembling fishscales found Gillette, N. and Dustal, J. Cross-Country Skiing. 3d ed.
on the bottom of waxless skis. Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1987.

Gaiter A water repellent covering that fits over the boot,
ankle, and lower leg. It is designed to keep snow out of
the boot.
Groove Indentation that runs the length of the bottom of
the ski allowing the ski to run straight.
Herringbone A technique used to climb uphill that leaves
a V pattern on the snow.
Kick The force (push) that is applied during the stride,
allowing the skier to glide on the snow.
Kick turn A technique used to change direction 180°
while standing still on the flat or hillside.
Klister A type of sticky wax used on the bottom surface of
a the Norwegian name for paste.
ski. Klister is
Layering Wearing loose layers of clothes over undergar-
ments so that the skier may easily add on for extra
Hall, W. Cross-Country Skiing Right. San Francisco:
Harper and Row, Publishers, 1985.
Heller, M., ed. The Skier's Encyclopedia. New York: Pad-
dington Press Ltd., 1979.
Jensen, C.R. Winter Touring: Cross-Country Skiing and
Snow-Shoeing. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publishing
Company, 1977.
Lederec, W.J. and Wilson, J. P. Complete Cross-Country
Skiing and Ski Touring. 2d ed. New York: W.W Norton
and Company, Inc., 1975.
Masia, S. Cross-Country Ski Maintenance and Repair. Chi-
cago: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1987.
Sheahan, C. Cross-Country Skiing. Chicago: Contempo-
rary Books, Inc., 1978.
Thornton, P. Contemporary Cross-Country Skiing. Chi-

warmth or remove excess if too warm. cago: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1978.
Nordic skiing Cross-country skiing and ski jumping.
Pin binding A type of toe binding that has three pins that Audio- Visual Materials
are projected into the sole of the boot, securing the Available from The Travelers Film Library, One Tower
boot to the ski. Square, Hartford, CT 06115. / Hope I Get a Purple Rib-
Pole plant Action in which the poles are put into the bon (1977). Featuring Bill Koch— silver medalists, 1976
snow at a particular place and during a particular Olympic Games. (16 mm
sound film. 15 min.)
time. Available from The Travelers Film Library, One Tower
Setting an edge A technique used to prevent a skier from Square, Hartford, CT 06115. It's as Easy as Walking
slipping by angling the edge of the ski into the hill-
(1975). (16 mm
sound film. 10 min.)
side. Available from Modern Talking Picture Services, 5000
Side step A technique used to climb a hill on skis. The Park St., North, St. Petersburg, FL 33709. Skiing Is Be-
skis are parallel to each other as the skier steps up
lieving. (16 mm
sound film. 24 min.)
Pyramid Films, P.O. Box 1048, Santa Monica, CA 90406.
along the length of the ski.
If You Walk. (16 mm, 3/4 or 1/2 video, 14 minutes).
Can
Snow plow A technique used to slow the skier down Techniques of natural stride.
while going downhill by spreading the tails and keep-
ing the ski tips close together.
PBS Video, 475 L'Enfant Plaza, SW, Washington, D.C.,
20024. Introduction and Diagonal Skiing (3/4 or 1/2
Step A type of ski bottom design found on waxless skis
inch video, 29 minutes). An overview of cross-country
resembling a series of steps. skiing and diagonal stride. Turning and Review (3/4 or
Tail The back or end portion of a ski. 1/2 inch video, 29 minutes). Three most successful turns
Tip The front end or leading point of a ski. and review of other techniques.
Track The trail that is left by skis as the skier moves RMI Media Productions, 2807 W
47th St., Shawnee Mis-
through the snow. These may be machine made. sion, KS 66205 (1/2 inch VHS or Beta video, 45 min-
Traverse Movement back and forth across the face of a tues).Overview of cross-country skiing including
hill; the technique may be done uphill or downhill. equipment selection and other skills.
 SOCCER
OBJECTIVES
Identify and put into practice the rules governing the game.
Practice and then execute the basic skills including kicking, passing, trapping,
heading, tackling, the throw-in, and goalkeeping.
Discuss and employ basic offensive and defensive strategy and tactics.
Identify and discuss the nature of the game including player responsibilities, field
markings, and player positioning.
Identify and use basic terminology associated with the game.
NATURE AND PURPOSE
Soccer isplayed by eleven players from each team.
The game starts at midfield with a free kick called
the kick-off as each team is in its own half of the
field. The offensive objectives are to maintain pos-
session of the ball, keep the ball wide until near the
goal, and then get the ball in front of the opponent's
goal where a player can propel it between the
uprights, beneath the crossbar and completely
across the goal line for a score. The ball may be pro-
pelled with any part of the body except the hands
and arms; however, the foot, body, and head are the
main parts of the body used.
The defense's main objectives are to contain the
opponents and the ball, forcing excessive passes,
mark (guard) opponents in scoring position, tackle
the opponent, taking the ball away whenever possi-
ble, funnel the ball to the middle of the field toward
their own goal, and concentrate in front of their goal
when the ball is in scoring position. The goalkeeper
provides great assistance to the defense by being al-
lowed to use the hands to contact the ball; and he
also attempts to clear the ball away from the scoring
area by throwing, punting, or drop-kicking it.
Systems of play are comprised of attackers
(strikers /wings /forwards) midfielders (linkmen/
halfbacks) and defenders (stopper /sweeper /full-
backs). The attacker's primary contribution to the
system is scoring. The midfielders support the of-
fense and are the first line of defense. The defenders
support the midfielders and are the last line of de-
fense. The defender's primary objective is defending
against the opponent's attack. Systems are num-
bered from the defenders forward (example 4-2-4)
depending upon the number of players comprising
each of the three lines excluding the goalkeeper.
The game is continuous with no timeouts al-
lowed, and time is stopped only for an injury, a tem-
254
porary suspension of play by the official, the end of a
period, or a score.
The players use basic skills of kicking, trapping,
dribbling, heading, tackling, and throwing (where
allowable) to propel or control the ball. The game is
low scoring due to the difficulty of executing the
skills, plus the nature of some rules.
The game requires constant adjustments by all
the players and calls for short sprinting plus slower
jogging. Good physical conditioning is necessary.
The constant activity, use of the big muscle groups,
large numbers competing, and low equipment ex-
pense make the game highly suitable for competitors
of all ages and sexes.
FIELD OF PLAY
A regulation field measures 100 to 120 yards in
length and 65 to 75 yards in width (Figure 18-1 The 1.
dimensions and areas can easily be modified to suit
the number, age, and sex of the participants. The
field can be made longer or shorter and various grids
can be applied (as discussed later on) to provide
practice areas for modified games.
In the list below, the numbers correspond to the
numbers in the diagram of Figure 18-1.
1. End Line. When the ball goes out of play over
this line it is put in play with either (a) goal kick
(offense last touched the ball) or (b) corner kick
(defense last touched the ball).
2. —
Goal Area the area where the ball is placed for
the defending team to take a goal kick. It is
placed on the front line of the area in that half
field in which the ball went out of play.
3. Penalty Area. Restriction area where (a) the goal-
ie is allowed to play the ball with the hands; (b)
the offensive team has to stav out of when the
 SOCCER 255

65 to 75 yds

.44 yards —
U— 20 yards-kJ
8 yds

CORNER FLAG
_ _ ,

CORNER FLAG

Penalty Kick
Arc

©
o>
Center (Mid
or Halfway) Line ©
— Side (Touch) Line
o

o
o

<\
PENALTY
KICK MARK

GOAL AREA
_i ti
CORNER FLAG CORNER FLAG
End (Goal) Line

-8 yds-
The flagstaff must
The maximum width of the
8 feet 5 feet be not less than 5
goal posts and the maximum
depth of crossbar
feet high. A knob
shall be
issuggested in
5 inches.
preference to a
spike.

Corner Flag

FIGURE 18-1 Regulation soccer field markings. (For further explanation of

numbers, see text.)

defending team is taking a goal kick; (c) on the 6. Penalty Kick Arc. This arc is a ten-yard radius
goal kick the ball must be kicked out of this area from the ball, and players from both teams must
for the ball to be legally in play; (d) if a foul com- stay behind it. On a penalty kick both teams (ex-
mitted in this area by the defending team re- cept one offensive player and the goalie) must be
sults in a direct free kick, then a penalty kick is out of the penalty area and at least ten yards
awarded to the team fouled; (e) players from from the ball.
both teams must stay outside this area on a pen- 7. Center, Mid, or Halfway Line. This line (a) in-
alty kick with the exception of the goalie and the sures that both teams are in their own half of the
person taking the penalty kick. field on the kickoff, and (b) is used to help regu-
4. Side or Touch Line. A ball going out of bounds late the offside rule.
over this line is put in play with a throw-in by 8. Center Circle —a
ten-yard radius circle to re-
the opposite team which last touched the ball. strict players of the defending team on the kick-
5. —
Penalty Kick Mark the spot where the ball is off. They must stay out of the circle until the ball
placed when a penalty kick results. is contacted.
256 SOCCER

9. Corner Arc. One yard from each corner there is a
corner arc. The ball is placed on this arc when
the offensive team is taking a corner kick.
10. Goal Line —
the line between the uprights of the
goal. When the whole ball crosses it below the
crossbar, either on the ground or in the air, a
goal results.
11. Corner Flag. The flag is at least five feet high
and located in each of the four corners to assist
in locating the boundary lines.
nents must be ten yards from the ball, unless stand-
ing on their own goal line between the uprights,
until the ball is kicked. The ball must be stationary
on the free kick, must travel the circumference of the
ball to be in play, and may not be re-contacted by the
kicker until someone else touches it.
Direct Free Kick Offenses
awarded
Offenses for which a direct free kick is

are:

1. Handling the ball; intentionally contact the ball

EQUIPMENT
with the hands or arms. This includes the goa-
lies when
outside the penalty area.
The only equipment absolutely necessary playing for
2. Holding an opponent with the hands or arms.
soccer are a ball and two goals. There are many
3. Pushing an opponent; includes the hands or
makes and price ranges of soccer balls manufactured
arms.
today. The molded ball with a rubber bladder, ny-
4. Striking or attempting to strike an opponent;
lon wound carcass, and compressed weatherproof
the goalie is also not allowed to use the ball to
leather or synthetic panels is recommended. Goals
strike a player.
can be purchased or may be constructed of 2 X 4s or
5. Jumping at an opponent.
pipe. Soccer shoes, shin guards and nets for the goals
6. Kicking or attempting to kick an opponent.
may be added when progressing from physical edu-
7. Tripping or attempting to trip an opponent.
cation class to intramural to inter-scholastic compe-
8. Using the knee on an opponent.
tition levels. Gym shoes may
be substituted for
Charging an opponent violently or dangerously;
9.
soccer shoes, thick magazines for shin guards, and
includes the goalie in the penalty area or from
chain link fencing for nets. The fact that the game
the rear unless being obstructed.
can be played by a large number of players at very
little expense makes it particularly appealing. Com- All direct kicks to the attacking team in
awarded
petition apparel is not a major factor. Colored jersey the penalty area are penalty kicks.
vests and game jerseys are inexpensive. For pant>.
gym shorts, sweatsuits, or game trunks may be
worn. Indirect Free Kick Offenses

Offenses for which an indirect free kick is

awarded are:

BASIC RULES 1. A player playing the ball a second time before it

is played by another player at the kickoff, on a
Kickoff. At the beginning of the game, choice throw-in, on a free kick, on a corner kick, or on a
of ends and the kickoff are decided by the toss of a goal kick (if the ball has passed outside the pen-
coin. The ball is placed in the center of the field on alty area*.
the half-way line, and the team kicking off plays the 2. A goalkeeper carrying the ball more than four
ball forward from the line. The player usually kicks steps or the goalie delays getting rid of the ball.
the stationary ball legally (one circumference of the 3. A substitution or re-substitution being made
ball > forward teammate, attempting to main-
to his without reporting to the referee, or a substitute
tain control of the ball. All players from both teams replacing the goalie not informing the referee
are in their own
half of the field with the defending and then handling the ball in the penalty area.
team yards from the ball. A goal cannot
at least ten 4. Persons other than the players entering the field
be scored from the kickoff. of play without the referee's permission.
Fouls. Fouls and misconduct committed dur- 5. Dissenting by word or action with a referee's de-
ing the course of play result in a free kick to the of- cision.
fended team. The severe infractions, which are most 6. Ungentlemanly behavior. For persistent in-
often injurious, result in a direct free kick, meaning fringement of the rules, a warning, or expulsion
a goal can be scored directly from that kick. A direct may follow.
free kick foul occurring in the penalty area and 7. Dangerous play by raising the foot too high or
against the defending team results in a penalty kick, head too low while attempting to play the ball,
the most severe infraction. Less severe infractions thus endangering a player.
result in an indirect free kick, meaning someone else 8. Resuming play after a player has been ordered
must contact the ball following the kick before a goal off the field.
can be scored. When making a free kick, the oppo- 9. Offside.
 .

SOCCER 257

10. Charging
illegally (not violent or dangerous).
KEY
11 Interfering with the goalkeeper or impeding him • = defending player
in any manner until he releases the ball, or kick- O = attacking player

ing or attempting to kick the ball when it is in o = player with ball

* = ball movement
his possession. s^^> = player movement
12. Obstruction other than holding.
13. Player leaving the field of play during the prog-
ress of the game without the consent of the ref-
eree.

Physical Contact. Body contact is allowed

provided it is legal. A legal charge consists of a gentle
nudge (not violent or dangerous), shoulder to
shoulder, in an upright position, at least one foot
contacting the ground, the arms close to the sides of

FIGURE 18-4 Penalty kick.

the body, and playing the ball at the exact moment

(Figure 18-2). The body may not be used as an obsta-
cle to shield an opponent from getting to the ball un-
less actually playing the ball at that moment. This is
obstruction (Figure 18-3), and allows for an oppo-
nent legally to charge the person obstructing, pro-
vided the contact is not violent or dangerous.
Penalty Kick. The penalty kick (Figure 18-4)
is taken from any spot on the penalty mark, and all
players except the kicker and the goalkeeper must be
outside the penalty area. The goalkeeper must
FIGURE 18-2 Legal charge.
stand, without moving the feet, on the goal line be-
tween the goal posts until the ball is kicked. For any
infringement by the defending team the kick is re-
taken, if a goal does not result. On an infringement
by the attacking team, other than the player making
the kick, the kick shall be retaken if a goal results.
An infringement by the player making the kick re-
sults in an indirect free kick by the opposing team at
the spot where the violation occurred.
Goal Kick. The ball is in play as long as it is
not totally across the boundary lines (goal line or
side line), either on the ground or in the air. When it
goes out of bounds over the goal line, the ball is put
in play either with a goal kick (last touched by the
attacking team) or a corner kick (last touched by
the defending team). A ball put out of bounds over
the side line by a player is put in play with a throw-
in by the opponents.
On the goal kick, the ball is placed on the front
line of the goal area in that half of the field nearest to
where it crossed the goal line (Figure 18-5). Any
FIGURE 18-3 Legal obstruction. Note use of body to player on the team may take the kick. It is kicked
protect the ball while playing it. from the ground. The opposing players remain out-
258 SOCCER

FIGURE 18-5 Goal kick.

FIGURE 18-6 Corner kick

side the penalty area until the ball is kicked, and the
ball must travel beyond the penalty area for it to be
in play. The kick is retaken for any infringement.
Corner Kick. The corner kick is taken by the
offense from the arc in that half of the field nearest
to where the ball crossed the goal line. A goal may be
scored directly from the corner kick (Figure 18-6).
Throw-in. The throw-in is taken from where
itwent out of play. It is thrown equally with both
hands on the side of the ball from a point behind the
head and delivered directly over the head. Both feet
must remain on the ground during the throw and be
either in contact with the side line or outside the
field of play.

Offside. The players must be concerned with

their position in reference to the ball as play pro-
gresses. An offside infraction is called if a player is
nearer the opponent's goal line than the ball at the
moment the ball is played, with limited exceptions.
The offside rule is for assisting the defending team
so that the offense will not be able to have players
FIGURE 18-7 Player is in own half of field not
continually lurking in front of the goal. This would
offside.
lead to an unskilled game with team strategy con-
sisting of no more than long, uncontrolled kicks from
one end of the field to the other, and back again.
A player nearer the opponent's goal line than the position, seeking to gain an advantage, or interfer-
ball at the moment the ball is played is considered ing with an opponent. Once offside, the only way for
offside Figure 18-8B) unless: 1 he is in his own half
( ( ) a player to put himself onside again is if: 1) an oppo- (

of the field of play (Figure 18-7); or (2) there are two
opponents nearer their own goal line than he Figure (
18-8A); or (3) the ball last touched an opponent; or
(4) he received the ball directly from a dropped ball
by the referee, a goal kick, a corner kick, or a throw-
in. A player in an offside position does not have to be
penalized except if he is gaining an advantage by his
nent next contacts the ball; or (2) he is behind the
ball when it is next contacted by his teammates; or
(3) there are two opponents near their goal when he
is in an advanced position of the ball, and the ball is
played to him by his teammates. The key factor for
offside is always the position of the player in relation
to the ball at the moment the ball is contacted.
 — —

SOCCER 259

•
•

\J
-

FIGURE 18-8 (A) Two opponents are nearer their own goal line at the moment the ball
is played, plus the receiver is behind the ball at that moment not offside. (B) Two
opponents are not nearer their goal line offside.

Dropped Ball. Temporary stopping of play SIDEVIEW

OF GOAL
while the ball is still playable results in the game re-
starting with a dropped ball. Two opponents face ~-

each other and the referee standing between them ff GOAL

drops the ball to the ground for either to contact. It is L :
NO GOAL C
dropped where the ball was when play stopped un-
,

j||
less in the penalty area. Then it is brought to the
nearest point outside the penalty area and dropped.
Common reasons for a dropped ball occurring are: (1)
simultaneous contact by opponents causing the ball
to go out of bounds, (2) temporary stopping for in-
//
ft
L

L
h
s*
"' /

r
/
/
/• S
A BALL BOUNCED
I

BACK ON FIELD
jury, (3) the ball becoming deflated, or (4) simultane- ft
n - / /
ous fouls by both teams. ^at t
—£'
I
L mm
Goalkeeper. When the ball nears the scoring
area, the goalkeeper enjoys certain privileges not
granted to other players while in the penalty area.
He may: use his hand and arms to stop a ball from
/£ 1 It-/
//
£ ^
i^
c *
LL
scoring; take four steps with the ball in his posses- GOAL
sion; punt, throw, or drop-kick the ball; and he is free
from interference by opponents while in possession FIGURE 18-9 Scoring a goal.

of the ball. He loses these privileges when outside

the penalty area.
Scoring. A goal is scored when the whole of Goals may also be scored on "direct free kicks," pen-
the ball passes over the goal line, between the goal- alty kicks, and corner kicks. A goal counts one point
posts, and under the crossbar, provided it has not for the team scoring the goal. After a goal is scored, a
been thrown, propelled by hand or arm, or carried by kickoff is made at the center of the field by the team
a player of the attacking side (Figure 18-9). If a scored against. Teams change ends after each regu-
member of the defending team, other than the goa- lar and extra period.
lie, deliberately deflects the ball with his hand or Time and Players. The length of the game,
arm attempting to stop a goal, it should be scored a number of substitutes, and when substitutes are al-
goal if it crosses the goal line between the uprights. lowed to enter the game are rules that vary depend-
260 SOCCER

ing upon the age and ability levels of the players. Combining areas A through F provides an even
The organizations governing competition provide wider field, whereby more players can compete in an
rule guides; however, there are only minor differ- across field game, as in the foregoing example. The
ences in them. Men and women are playing by basi- same area (A through F) is used to practice offense
cally the same rules regardless of the organization, (attackers and midfielders) versus defense (goalie,
and quite often at an early age (6 to 11), the game is defenders, and midfielders) playing half field as on
played co-ed. the regulation field. Scoring objectives are: the of-
fense gets one point for scoring a goal, hitting the
goal posts, or causing the goalkeeper to field the ball.
SUGGESTIONS FOR MODIFIED PRACTICE GAMES Defense scores one point if they get the ball past the
AND AREAS halfway line under their control.
Here are some other suggestions for playing
Figure 18-10 is a grid model showing various ways of games within a restricted area: a given number of
modifying a regulation field to provide areas of dif- consecutive passes without losing the ball receives a
ferent sizes. The larger the area the more competi- point; allow only one contact per player; allow no
tors possible. Examples are 2 on 1, 3 on 1, 2 on 2, 3 more than two contacts per player; after receiving
on 2, 3 on 3, 4 on 2, 4 on 3, 4 on 4, 5 on 3, 5 on 4, 5 on the ball the player must out-dribble an opponent; the
5, etc. A modified goal, objective, or soccer strategy receiver of a pass must take the ball (pass or dribble
and tactic are used in the games. Cones, flags, or away from) his own goal before it next goes forward;
other players are used as two-sided goals. These may every other pass must be in the air; no pass above
be placed opposite each other on the end line of the knee height. The possible modifications are endless
area, slightly on the field with space behind them or and dependent upon what skill or strategy one wants
in the middle of the area. One, two, or more goals to stress.
may be used.
Combining grids allows for actual games with
modified field sizes. An example is using grid D, E,
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
and F together, placing a goal on the side line of the
field and centered in the middle of the area. The size
Beginning Level
of the field is now 96 feet by 225 feet, where an ac-
tual game might consist of 6 on 6, 7 on 7, or 8 or 8. A. Stretching and running
Two games may be played at once if grids G, H, and I B. Basic rules
are used similarly. C. Fundamental skills
1. Kicking
a. Inside of foot push pass
46%' 132 ft. 46V b. Instep
2. Trapping (Receiving)
T a. Sole of the foot
b. Inside of the foot
c. Chest
3. Dribbling
a. Inside of the foot
b. Outside of the foot
E
4. Heading; Power standing
60ft- 5. Tackling: Front
6. Throw-in: Standing
7. Goalkeeping
a. Catch —
roll or bounce
b. Catch —
waist or chest

Goal [
c. Catch head— or above
] d. Punt
D. Strategies
1. Tactics

a. Possession
b. Space —
receiving ball
2. Group
a. Superiority around ball
225 ft.
3. Team
a. Communication
FIGURE 18-10 Grid for setting up practice b. Functional training combining two or more
areas. positional lines
 SOCCER 261

E. Principles F. Systems
1. Attacking 1. 4-2-4
a. Depth/Support 2. 3-3-4
b. Width 3. Defensive style —
diagonal and man to man
c. Penetration Offensive style
4. —
dribbling and fast/slow
2. Defending G. Restarts
a. Delay 1. Indirect free kicks

b. Depth/Support 2. Direct free kicks

c. Width 3. Defensive wall
Balance
d.
F. Systems
1. W formation SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
2. M-W formation
Defensive style
3. — zone The fundamentals
Offensive style
4. — static positioning, long pass of soccer are dribbling, heading,
trapping, kicking (shoot or pass), tackling, throwing,
and short pass
and goalkeeping. Because the game of soccer is pri-
G. Restarts
marily a kicking and trapping game, it is essential
1. Corner kick
that players master the technique of controlling the
2. Goal kick
ball without use of the hands or arms. In observing
3. Throw-in
good soccer players, one sees that they control the
4. Kickoff
ball and keep it reasonably close to their bodies
when passing or advancing it down the field. The
Intermediate Level ball is kept close to the ground and not kicked into
the air where it is difficult for the player to keep pos-
A. Partner stretching and interval training
session and control.
B. Review beginning unit
C. Fundamental skills
When learning or teaching each of the skills, the
following factors are important for understanding
Kicking
1.

a. Outside of foot
—
problems their causes and corrections:
b. Lofting the ball 1. Alignment to Ball
2. Trapping (Receiving) a. Position the body early in preparation to con-
a. Outside of foot tact the ball.
3. Dribbling b. Position at the best spot in the line of flight
a. Screening for making initial contact.
b. Sole of the foot c. Prepare the contact surface at the proper
4. Heading: Power jumping angle required for optimum execution.
5. Tackling: Side d. Be as stable as possible.
6. Throw-In: Running 2. Base
7. Goalkeeping a. the foot/feet for optimum stability.
Position
a. Catch —
fall to side b. the foot/feet so that the contact sur-
Position
b. Tip be at the proper angle for execution.
face can
c. Throw —
overhand c. the grounded foot/feet in the direc-
Position
D. Strategies ball is to be propelled or received.
tion the
1. Review beginning unit 3. Whole Body Position
2. Tactics a. Position of specifically the feet, knees, hips,
a. Space-creating shoulders, arms, and head before, during,
3. Group and after ball contact.
a. Space-restricting 4. Power/Absorption
b. Tempo
Power
Team
4.
a. Rhythm
a. Ball contact surface — speed of ball.
b. Functional training involving tactical pass-
b. Joints providing force —
range of motion and
speed of motion.
ing restrictions
c. Proper line of force (see #5).
E. Principles
d. Total body parts alignment as they relate to
1. Attacking
the desired trajectory.
a. Mobility
e. Follow-through (see #7).
b. Improvisation
2. Defending Absorption
a. Concentration a. Ball contact surface —speed of ball.
b. Control b. Joints involved in receiving force.
262 SOCCER

c. Proper line of receiving force (see #5).

d. Total body parts alignment as they relate to
receiving the trajectory and force of the ball.
e. Direction (away from ball) of body parts used
for absorbing the ball.
5. Line of Giving/Receiving Force
a. Correct direction of all body parts related to
the desired trajectory, rotation (spin), and
final destination of the ball.
6. Ball Contact
a. Surface and angle of body part used to make
contact.
b. Exact spot on the ball to contact for accom-
plishing the desired end result.
c. Alignment to ball (see #1).
d. Base (see #2).
e. Whole body (see #3).
f. Power/absorption (see #4).
g. Line of giving/receiving force (see #5).
7. Follow-through
a. The full range of motion (arc) of the primary
power joints used and the exact point at
which to stop in order to provide the desired
power plus trajectory to the ball.
b. When receiving the impetus (trapping) of the FIGURE 18-11 Inside of foot push pass.
ball, the primary joints used in recoiling, giv-
ing, or absorbing which lead to cushioning
the impact —
follow-through away from the in a straight line. Raise the contact leg to the
line of flight of the ball. rear bending the knee until the lower leg is close
to parallel with the ground with the inside of the
Each of these factors will be considered as we foot facing the ground —
COCKED POSITION. Posi-
discuss the learning cues for performing each spe-
tion head directly above ball (to keep ball on
cific skill or technique. Either a B (Beginning) or /
ground) or slightly behind the ball (to loft off
(Intermediate) is indicated with each skill or tech-
ground) head. Hips and shoulders near 90' to
nique to designate the appropriate ability level for
approaching ball with slight pivot out as contact
presenting that skill. Where suitable, verbal learn-
leg is drawn back. Arms comfortable, away from
ing cues are given in capital letters.
body for balance (Figure 18-11).
4. Power. Power results from the height that the
contact foot is raised off the ground <Figurel8-
Kicking (Pass or Shot) 12B), speed that the contact leg is snapped for-
ward to meet the ball, speed of the approaching
Kicking primarily used for passing, shooting,
is
ball, correct ball /foot contact (hard surface), and
and clearing. The
rotation (spin) on the ball denotes
the amount of follow-through.
proper or improper contact. Different parts of the
5. Line of Giving Force. The foregoing power items
foot can be used to contact the ball.
applied in the correct line depend upon the ap-
proaching flight of the ball and the desired final
Learning Cues: Inside of Foot Push Pass iB)
destination. The correct line involves the body
=
1. Alignment to Ball. Quickly position as near the alignment to the ball (as near 180 as possible),
direct flight (180°) of the ball as possible direction the grounded foot is pointed (Figure
ALIGNMENT. 18-12A), straight linear 180° cocking of contact
(
I

2. Base. Place grounded foot toward target, posi- leg, and straight linear snap down plus follow-
tion it to the side of the ball approximately 6 to —
through of that leg LINE OF FORCE.
12 inches and either even with or slightly behind 6. Ball Contact. The correct contact surface is the
the ball (Figure 18-1 1A), depending upon de- hard area near the heel of the foot and ankle
sired flight (on the ground or in the air) area (Figure 18-12B) with the inside of the foot
GROUNDED FOOT. Knee slightly flexed. facing the approaching ball. The ball is con-
3. Whole Body Position Contact foot raised with toe
. tacted near its midline and either high, middle,
—
pointed out TOE OUT, knee pointed out KNEE — or low depending upon the desired speed and
OUT, and ankle joint locked at 90-degree angle trajectory.
ANKLE LOCKED. Draw leg backward from the hip 7. Follow-Through. The height the contact foot and
 — —— —

SOCCER 263

FIGURE 18-12 Inside of foot push FIGURE 18-13 Instep kick. Note
pass. Note leg, ankle, and knee of toe, ankle, and knee of contact foot.
contact foot.

leg are allowed to lift after contact depends upon hard area on the top of the arch (Figure 18-13B).
the desired trajectory and/or force. The ball is contacted near the midline and either
high, middle, or low depending on the desired
Learning Cues: Instep Kick (B) speed and trajectory.
7. Follow -Through. The height the foot and leg are
1. Alignment to Ball. Approach the path of the ball
allowed to lift is dependent upon desired trajec-
—
from a 45° angle. ALIGNMENT.
tory and/or force.
2. Base. Same as Inside of Foot Push Pass except
the grounded foot is approximately 10 to 18
Learning Cues: Lofting the Ball (I)
inches to the side of the ball grounded foot.
Knee flexed. 1. Alignment to Ball. Same as Instep Kick.
3. Whole Body Contact foot lifted with toe
Position. 2. Base. The grounded foot is approximately 10 to
—
pointed down TOE DOWN, knee rotated in 18 inches to the side of the ball and slightly be-
KNEE IN, and ankle joint locked as near 180° hind it. Knee flexed.
with the lower leg as possible ankle locked 3. Whole Body Position. Same
as Instep Kick, ex-
(Figure 18-13). Lift heel upward toward the but- cept that the head is positioned slightly behind
tocks cocked position. Hip extends and ro- the vertical plane of the ball— HEAD back (Fig-
tates slightly. Position head directly above ball ure 18-14).
(to keep ball on ground) or slightly behind ball
(to loft off ground) —
HEAD. Hips and shoulders
near 90° to approaching ball with slight pivot
out as contact leg is drawn back. Arms comfort-
ably away from body for balance.
4. Power. Power results from the height that the
contact foot is raised —
HEEL raised, speed that
the contact leg is snapped forward to meet the
ball— SPEED, speed of the approaching ball, cor-
rect ball/foot contact, and the amount of follow-
through.
5. Line of Giving Force. The foregoing power items
applied in the correct line depend upon the ap-
proaching flight of the ball and the desired final
destination. The approach angle of the body to
the flight of the ball approximates 45°. The
grounded foot is pointed toward the intended
destination (Figure 18-13A) as the remainder of
the power joints naturally correct to a direct
alignment with the desired line of flight. FIGURE 18-14 Lofting the ball with an instep kick. Note body
6. Ball Contact. The correct contact surface is the angle, low contact with ball, and head behind ball.
264 SOCCER

4-7. Power, Line of Giving Force, Ball Contact, Fol- 4-5. Power and Line of Giving Force: Same as In-
low-Through: all same as Instep Kick. side of Foot Push Pass.
6. Ball Contact. The correct contact area is the
Learning Cues: Outside of Foot Kick (I) hard area on the top outside surface of the foot
(Figure 18-16). The ball is contacted near the
1. Alignment to Ball. Same as Inside of Foot Push
midline and either high, middle, or low depend-
Pass.
ing upon the desired trajectory and speed.
2. Base. Same as Inside of Foot Push Pass.
7. Follow -Through. Same as Instep Kick.
3. Whole Body Position. Contact foot lifted with the
toe extended down and rotated inward TOE —
DOWN and IN, knee rotated in KNEE IN, and — Trapping
—
ankle joint locked LOCKED ankle. Lift heel
Many surfaces of the body can be used to trap
backward and upward toward the buttocks
(catch) the ball. Trapping means controlling a ball
cocked position (Figure 18-15).
that is received by a player. There is "immediate" or
"deflect" trapping. The first denotes control of the
ball right where the player receives it, while the sec-
ond means redirecting the ball close to the receiver
(3 to 4 feet) to avoid an on-rushing opponent. When a
body trap is used, a foot trap usually follows in order
to "settle" the ball to the ground.

Learning Cues: Sole of Foot Trap (B»

1. Alignment Quickly position as near to a

to Ball.
direct line ( 180° with the path of the ball as pos-
)

sible — ALIGNMENT.
2. Base. Body weight supported by the
is totally
grounded with
foot as the contact leg is raised
the sole facing the approaching ball.
3. Whole Body Position. Ankle of contact foot flexed
(90°) with toe higher than heel, toe up, provid-
ing a wedge-like surface for ball contact. The
contact leg and foot are extended in front of the
body, reach out, as the grounded leg provides
support with a slight flexion of the knee. Hips
and shoulders near 90° to approaching ball.
Arms slightly away from body to provide bal-
FIGURE 18-15 Outside of the foot kick. Note ance and stability.
toe, ankle, and knee of contact foot.
4. Absorption. The ball at contact is cushioned by
slightly flexing the knee of the contact leg,
slightly flexing the knee of the support leg with
a slight pike at the waist which moves the head
forward toward the ball give.
5. Line of Receiving Force. The foregoing absorption
factors are applied as near a direct line with the
path of the ball as possible.
6. Ball Contact. The ball is contacted on the top and
slightly to the rear by the sole of the foot. The
contact foot approximates a 45° angle with the
ground providing a wedge between the sole of
the foot and the ground (Figure 18-17).
7. Follow -Through. There is negative follow-
through as the contact leg and foot at impact
give in the same direction that the ball is travel-
ing in order to stop the ball.

Learning Cues: Inside of Foot Trap i

B i

FIGURE 18-16 Outside of the foot

1-3. Alignment to Ball, Base, and Whole Body Posi-
kick and dribble. Note toe, knee of tion: same as Inside of Foot Push Pass (Figure
contact leg, and contact surface. 18-18).
 —
SOCCER 265

, '
If r
W-9^
U IV
^^
• .* • ,1" -

^^^aHBI
<

FIGURE 1 8-1 7 Sole of the foot trap.

FIGURE 18-19 Inside of the foot
trap. Note grounded foot, position of
ball, ball/foot contact, and toe and
knee position of contact leg.

6. Ball Contact. The correct contact surface is the

soft area on the inside of the foot near the arch.
The ball is contacted on the top and back wedg-
ing it to the ground to the rear of the grounded
foot for "immediate" control (Figure 18-19). It is
contacted nearer the bottom and back (impart-
ing back spin) in advance of the grounded foot
for "deflecting" the ball away from but close to
the body.
7. Follow -Through. The contact leg lowers the foot
on the ball wedging it (immediate control) or the
leg and foot made a relaxed, sweeping action
"deflecting" the ball away from but close to the
body.

Learning Cues: Chest Trap (B)

1. Alignment to Ball. Quickly position as near to a

direct line 180° ) with the path of the ball as pos-
(

FIGURE 18-18 Inside of the foot trap.
alignment to ball, base, whole body position.
Absorption. The force of the ball is cushioned by
the soft relaxed contact surface, the wedging of
the ball against the ground by the contact foot
WEDGE, and the movement of the contact leg
away from the path of ball at about the same
speed of the approaching ball GIVE. — (Figure 18-20).
Line of Receiving Force. The foregoing absorption
factors applied in the correct line depend upon
the path of the ball and the desired final destina-
tion for the ball. The correct line involves the
body alignment to the ball (as near 180° as pos-
sible), direction the grounded foot is pointed,
angle of the contact foot, and direction the con-
tact leg is moved upon impact.
sible.
Note
2. Base. The feet are in a staggered stance with the
body weight evenly distributed STANCE. —
3. Whole Body Position. The knees are flexed, hips
thrust forward bending backwards, shoulders
back further than the hips, placing the upper
chest near parallel with the ground, the head
away from the body for balance BACKBEND —
4. Absorption. Upon ball contact, the knees flex
deeper allowing the chest to "give" quickly, ab-
sorbing the impact.
5. Line of Receiving Force. Same as #4 above. The
ball rebounds off the chest in a low upward tra-
jectory, falling to the ground near the feet. Turn-
ing the shoulders at impact causes the ball to
rebound to the side of the body if desired.
266 SOCCER
FIGURE 18-20 Chest trap
6. Ball Contact. The contact surface is the high flat
part of the chest just below the throat.
7. Follow-Through. Following contact and rebound,
quickly stand straight and prepare to "settle"
the ball to the ground by using one of the foot
traps— SETTLE.
Learning Cues: Outside of Foot Trap < 1
1. Alignment to Ball. Same as Sole of the Foot Trap.
The path of the ball is to the outside of the
—
grounded foot approximately 6 to 12 inches.
2. Base. Body weight is totally supported by the
grounded leg while the contact leg is off the
ground.
3. Whole Body Position. The contact leg reaches
across and in front of the grounded leg reach
across, with the ankle rotated inward and down
preparing the outside of the foot for contact. The
—
upper body leans LEAN, at an angle in the di-
rection the ball is to be deflected. The arms are
away from the body for balance.
4-5. Absorption and Line of Receiving Force. The
sweeping action of the contact leg from one side
of the body to the other —
SWEEP, absorbs force
and controllably deflects the ball in the desired
direction (approximately 90° away from the ap-
) keeps the ball close, contacting near the middle
proaching flight of the ball. The ankle rotates
out with a flicking action ankle flick.
6. Ball Contact. The contact surface is the outside
of the foot and the contact is high on the ball.
The ankle which is rotated inward and down-
ward before contact makes a forceful outward
rotation at impact —
ANKLE FLICK, flicking the
FIGURE 18-21 Outside of the foot trap.
ball to the side of thebody as the whole contact
legsweeps across the body (Figure 18-21).
7. Follow-Through. The contact leg sweeps across
and in front of the body in the direction that the
body is leaning providing controlled re-direction
to the ball.
DRIBBLING
The skill of dribbling involves very controllably
propelling the ball with the feet in an effort to move
the ball to another area without relinquishing pos-
session to another player. Different surfaces of the
foot can be used to dribble.
Learning Cues: Inside of Foot Dribble <Bi
1. Alignment to Ball. The body is directly behind
the ball prior to contact.
2. Base. The grounded foot is behind and to the in-
side of the ball while the other foot is slightly off
the ground for contact.
3. Whole Body Position. The body is in a continuous
running action making repetitive contacts with
either foot (Figure 18-22).
4. Power/Absorption. The contact surface (inside of
the foot can provide either force or absorption
I
depending upon how close to the body one wants
to keep the ball.
5. Line of Giving/ Receiving Force. The speed of the
running action provides force at contact. Con-
tacting high on the ball takes away force and
applies, and contacting low on the ball lifts the
ball which is not desired.
6. Ball Contact. The toe of the contact foot is
pointed out; knee out, foot slightly off the
ground, and sole parallel to ground. The angle of
the contact surface depends upon the path de-
sired for the ball after impact.
 SOCCER 267

..*'

FIGURE 18-22 Inside of the foot dribble.

7. Follow -Through. There is a continuous running

action with repetitive contacts by either foot,
TAP-TAP, propelling the ball along the ground in a
controlled action.

Learning Cues: Outside of Foot Dribble (B)

1-3. Alignment to Ball,Base, and Whole Body Posi-

tion. All sameas Inside of the Foot Dribble.
4. Power/Absorption. The contact surface (outside
of the foot) can provide either force or absorption
depending upon how close to the body one wants
to keep the ball.
5. Line of Giving/ Receiving Force. Same as Inside of
the Foot Dribble.
6. Ball Contact. The toe of the contact foot is
pointed in and extended down with the knee in-
wardly turned. The contact surface is high on
the outside of the foot near the ankle joint. The
angle of the contact surface depends upon the
path desired for the ball after contact (Figure
18-23).
7. Follow-Through. Same as Inside of the Foot
Dribble.

Learning Cues: Screening (I) FIGURE 18-23 Outside of the foot dribble.

1-2. Alignment to Ball and Base. Same as Inside of

the Foot Dribble.
or sole of the foot) the player decides to use to
3. Whole Body Position. The body and ball are
keep away from the opponent. These techniques
under definite control as the body is used to
are often used in combination to feint the oppo-
screen the opponent from the ball. Slight leaning
nent prior to breaking away.
contact against the opponent aids in protecting
the ball plus determining the path the opponent
desires to take to reach ball (Figure 18-24).
Heading
4. Power/Absorption. None.
5. Line of Giving/ Receiving Force. Light leaning The head is used to play the ball when shooting,
force against the opponent. passing or clearing the ball. Beginners use the
6-7. Ball Contact and Follow -Through depends — standing approach; intermediates use the jumping
upon which dribbling technique (inside, outside, play.
268 SOCCER

FIGURE 18-25 Power heading— standing

position
FIGURE 18-24 Screening. Note leaning body
contact.

Learning Cues: Power Heading, Standing (B)

1. Alignment to Ball. Quickly position as near as

possible to a direct line (180°) with the path of
the ball.
2-3. Base and Whole Body Position. Same as Chest
Trap (see Figure 18-20).
4-5. Power and Line of Foree. From the foregoing
position the whole body snaps forward SNAP —
(Figure 18-25). The upper body starts forward as
the arms are vigorously thrust backward
ARMS, the weight transfers more to the front foot
—
and the neck snaps NECK SNAP, thrusting the
head toward the ball. All are directed in a
straight line toward the approaching ball.
6. Ball Contact. The contact surface is near the
hair line on the forehead. The contact on the ball
is dependent upon the desired trajectory and
target. Low ball contact propels the ball upward,
middle contact propels the ball straight forward
parallel with the ground, while high ball contact FIGURE 18-26 Power heading —jumping.
downward to the ground.
propels the ball
7. Follow-Through. All power components continue
provides height in jumping. Use both where de-
forward following contact providing continued
sirable.
force and direction.
3. Whole Body Position. The arms are close to the
side, the back arches, and the neck cocks in
Learning Cues: Power Heading, Jumping (
1
preparation for contact.
1. Alignment to Ball. Same
as Power Heading. 4. Power. The proper contact surface, back, neck,
Standing. Position in the arc of the trajectory and proper jump timing assist with power as the
where the ball can be contacted with a maxi- upper body snaps forward to meet the ball while
mum height jump (Figure 18-26). suspended in mid-air.
2. Base. A two-foot takeoff provides stability while 5-6. Line of Giving Forceand Ball Contact. Same as
suspended in air. A running one-foot takeoff Power Heading, Standing.
 SOCCER 269

7. Follow -Through. Same as Power Heading,

Standing. A two-foot landing after execution of
the skill is necessary for stability.

Tackling

The a skill used for taking the ball away

tackle is
from an opponent and maintaining control of the ball
following that confrontation. Beginners use the fron-
tal approach; for intermediates tackling may be from
the side.

Learning Cues: Front Tackle (B)

1. Alignment of Ball. Quickly position as near as

possible to a direct line (180°) with the path of
the approaching player and ball (Figure 18-27).
2. Base. From a running approach the grounded
foot is positioned near and to the side of the ball
as the full body weight is supported by that foot.
3. Whole Body Position. The head
is above or
grounded foot and
slightly in front of the ball,
FIGURE 18-27 Front tackling.
flexed knee. The arms are down and close to the
body, and the hips are behind the ball. All are in
a forward learning position. The contact foot is
slightly raised backward with the toe and knee
out.
4. Power. The knee of the contact leg snaps forward
as the contact foot blocks the ball —
BLOCK, at the
exact same instant that the opponent makes
contact. Do not kick ball but block it attempting
to both simultaneously tie-up the ball.
5. Line of Giving Force. At that instant of contact
the near shoulder contacts the opponent with a
gentle nudge. The straight contact leg is
pushed/pulled forward from the groin DRAG, —
as the whole body leans into the opponent at-
tempting to knock him off balance.
6. Ball Contact. The ball is contacted exactly in the
middle with the inside of the foot (see Figure 18-
12) at the exact time the opponent makes con-
tact, blocking the ball.
7. Follow -Through. The whole body leans into the
opponent as the contact foot lightly rolls over the
top of the ball causing it to roll over the oppo-
nent's foot and propelling it behind the oppo- FIGURE 18-28 Side tackling. Note 90-degree
nent. approach angle prior to pivot and contact.

Learning Cues: Side Tackle (I) 4-7. Power, Line of Giving Force, Ball Contact, Fol-
low-Through. Same as Front Tackle.
1. Alignment to Ball. The approach angle is from
the side at approximately 90° with the path of Throw-In
the player (Figure 18-28).
The throw-in is the only time that players, other
2. Base. Same as Front Tackle. The grounded foot
than the goalkeeper, can use their hands to propel
is firmly planted in a direct line (180°) with the
the ball. This is allowable only when the ball goes
path of the player and ball.
out of bounds over the touch line.
Whole Body Position. The firm plant of the
grounded foot and transfer of total body weight
Learning Cues: Standing Throw-in (B)
to that foot allows the body to correct itself, fac-
ing the oncoming player as in the front tackle. 1. Alignment to Field. Face in the direction that you
(Refer to Front Tackle.) intend to deliver the ball.
 FIGURE 18-29 Throw-in — standing or running
2. Base. Either a parallel or staggered stance can
be used. The staggered stance (Figure 18-29)
provides best stability for a forceful throw.
3. Whole Body Position. From the stance the back
arches and arms raise the ball directly over and
to a position behind the head.
4. Power. The snap forward of the arms, wrists, and
upper body provides power.
5. Line of Giving Force. All power factors are deliv-
ered in a straight line as the body weight
transfers to the front foot. The back foot must
stay in contact with the ground throughout the
throw.
6. Ball Contact. The hands must be on the side of
the ball and the ball delivered equally with both
hands.
7. Follow-Through. See =5.
Learning Cues: Running Throw-in 1
1. Alignment to Field. Same as Standing Throw-in.
2. Base. A run prior to delivery with a skip step fol-
lowed by a stride staggered stance is used.
i
I
3-7. Same as Standing Throw-in.
Goalkeeping
The goalkeeper uses skills for fielding
clearing the ball. The hands may be used while in
the penalty area. Catches are made in different posi-
tions, depending on how the ball arrives. Clearing
involves either throwing or kicking skills.
Learning Cues: Kneeling Catch — Roll or Bounce
1. Alignment to Ball. Quickly position in a direct
c
line 180
( with the path of the ball.
I
270
FIGURE 18-30 Kneeling catch — roll or bounce ball.
2. Base. Kneeling (Figure 18-30 the knee of one
1,
leg and foot of the other are placed on the ground
on opposite sides of the path of the ball for stabil-
ity and blocking purposes. Standing (Figure 18-
31 the feet are placed together in a direct path
1.
with the flight of the ball.
3. Whole Body Position. Kneeling, the hands and
arms are extended downward in front of the
body to receive the ball. The lower leg of the
kneeling limb is placed at an angle <45° or
greaten directly behind path of ball to block it if
it gets past the hands. The head is directly above
the ball and the shoulders are 90 degrees to the
path of the ball. Standing, the upper body bends
over at the waist with both legs straight. The
hands and arms are extended downward in front
of the legs to receive the ball. The head is di-
rectly over the ball and the shoulders are 90 de-
grees to the path of the ball.
4. Absorption. The soft contact surface hands (
i
makes initial contact as the ball is curled to the
forearms, biceps, and chest.
5. Line of Receiving Force. The movement of the
contact surface and absorption factors away
from the line of flight at about the same speed as
and for
the ball assists in receiving the force.
6. Ball Contact. The little fingers of both hands are
close together, all fingers are spread and palms
are facing the approaching ball. This surface
contacts the ball below its center bringing it to
the forearms, biceps, and chest in one smooth
B
curling action.
7. Follow-Through. Immediately stand up for bal-
ance and stabilitv.
 SOCCER 271

FIGURE 18-32 Catch — waist or chest

high ball.

the impact immediately on the body while si-

multaneously curling the hands and arms
around the ball as in catching a rolling ball. A
slight jump in the air at contact also aids in ab-
sorption.
5-6. Receiving Force and Ball Contact. Same as
catching a rolling or bouncing ball.
7. Follow -Through. Bring the knee forward for pro-
tection against approaching players, if neces-
sary (Figure 18-32).

Learning Cues: Catch — Ball Head High or Above (B)

1. Alignment to Ball. Same as catching a rolling or
bouncing ball (Figure 18-33).

FIGURE 18-33 Catch — ball head high or

above.

FIGURE 18-31 Standing catch— roll or

bounce ball (front and side views).

Learning Cues: Catch— Waist or Chest High Ball (B)

1. Alignment to Ball. Same as catching a rolling or

bouncing ball.
2. Base. The feet are even in a parallel stance.
3. Whole Body Position. The hips and shoulders are
parallel with the goal line. The hands and arms
are extended together in front of the body reach-
ing forward for the ball
4. Absorption. A ball traveling at a slower seed is
cushioned the same way as when catching a roll-
ing or bouncing ball by first contacting the
hands, forearms, biceps, and finally chest. A fast
approaching ball is cushioned by taking some of
272 SOCCER

2. Base. From a parallel stance raise the knee of

one leg forward while the weight is supported on
the other (exactly the same if a jump is re-
quired).
3. Whole Body Position. The hips and shoulders are
parallel with the goal line, while the arms ex-
tend upward and forward to the desired height
for fielding the ball.
4. Absorption. Thesoft contact surface (hands)
makes contact as the ball is quickly
initial
brought to the chest area for protection.
5. Line of Receiving Force. Movement by the contact
surface and arms is away from the line of flight
at the same speed as the approaching ball.
6. Ball Contact. The thumbs of both hands are
close together, all fingers are spread apart and
the palms are facing the approaching ball. This
surface contacts the ball near its center and
brings the ball to the chest area in one smooth
action.
7. Follow-Through. Land with two feet in a wide
stride stance and lower the hips to a medium
standing position for balance and stability.
FIGURE 18-35 Tip — one or two hands
Learning Cues: Catch — Fall to Side (I)

1. Alignment to Ball. With the ball rapidly ap-

proaching to the side, drop to the ground on the
side of the body, attempting to place either the
hands or body in alignment with the ball block-
ing it (Figure 18-34).
2. Base. From a parallel stance the ball-side leg is
folded and extended behind the other foot drop-
ping the whole body to the ground on its side.
3. Whole Body Position. The body weight is sup-
ported on its side and the arms are extended as
far as necessary for intercepting the ball.
4-6. Same as catching the ball above the head.
7. Follow-Through. As the ball is brought to the
chest area, both knees are brought forward curl-
ing around the ball for protection.
Learning Cues: Tip (I)
1. Alignment to Ball. Same as catching a rolling or
bouncing ball.
2-3. Base and Whole Body Position. Same as catch-
ing a ball above the head.
4-5. Power and Line of Giving Force. The contact
surface (one or two hands) thrusts upward and
backward deflecting the ball over the crossbar.
6. Ball Contact. The ball is contacted on its bottom
area with the heel of the palm(s) as the wrist(s)
is flexed for deflecting the ball upward and
backward (Figure 18-35).
7. Follow -Through. The knee is brought forward for
protection, and the landing is on two feet for sta-
bility.

Learning Cues: Punt <Bi (Figure 18-36)

1. Alignment to Ball. The ball is held with both

hands in front of the body.
2. Base. From a walking or running motion the
body weight is transferred to one foot while the
other prepares to kick the ball.
3. Whole Body Position. The kicking
leg is brought
behind the body with a high heel raise as the
arms are extended in front with the ball in the
hands preparing to drop it.
4. Power. The proper contact surface, height that
FIGURE 18-34 Catch— fall to side. Note hands behind ball. the contact foot is raised behind the body, speed
 SOCCER 273

[#/>^i
WK
WBHaSS^^
Ljfj^ -
^^r?S^s

1 £ vl

!»
#--
— §H^^^
'*»

^ »i_"

fr

FIGURE 18-36 Punt. FIGURE 18-37 Overhand throw.

that the contact leg is snapped forward to meet
the ball as it is dropped, and amount of follow-
through all provide power.
5. Line of Giving Force. The foregoing power factors
applied as near as possible to a 180° angle with
the intended flight provide the line and amount
of force.
6. Ball Contact. The ball is contacted in the
bottom area. The closer to the
ball falls prior to contact the lower
The contact surface is the top hard area of the
foot (instep).
7. Follow-Through. The contact leg continuing to
liftfollowing contact provides both height and
force as the body weight is supported by the
grounded foot.
Learning Cues: Overhand Throw (I)
1. Alignment to Ball. The ball is held near the
shoulder at the side of the thrower.
2. Base. A medium stride stance is used.
3. Whole Body Position. The ball is held in one hand
and brought behind the body about head high
with the arm flexed (Figure 18-37). The non-
throwing arm is extended in front of the body for
balance. The knees are slightly flexed. The hips
and shoulders are slightly rotated toward the
throwing arm.
4. Power. The distance that the ball is brought be-
hind the body, speed that the throwing arm is
brought forward and the non-throwing arm is
brought back, and follow-through of the throw-
ing arm plus upper body all provide power.
Line of Giving Force. The foregoing power factors
applied in a straight line provide maximum
forceand the desired direction.
Ball Contact. The ball is held in the palm of the
throwing hand and at the back /bottom of the
ball.
Follow -Through. As the ball is released over-
back/ hand, the throwing arm continues forward and
ground that the the body bends forward providing force and di-
its trajectory. rection.
PLAYING STRATEGY
Skilled execution of the techniques blended with
knowledge of principles, tactics, and systems lead to
a winning combination in soccer. Principles are fac-
tors which lead to skillful organized controlled play.
Tactics denotes the execution of techniques and ap-
plication of principles in a competitive situation.
These fall into categories of individual, group, and
team. Systems refer to the formational placement of
players on the field where they apply techniques,
principles, and tactics.
Principles
The basic principles are possession and space.
Possession can be by one's own team (attack) or by
the opponents (defend). The knowledgeable use of
space when attacking or defending is the basis for
successful play. The field size (space), understanding
of the importance of each third of the field, attack
274 SOCCER

principlesand defense principles provide the initial Attack

foundation for team play.
1. Wide passes for control plus spread defense.
Space. The
position of players on the large (75
2. Penetrate with ball when possible.
yd. X 120 yd.) field area presents a variety of avail-
3. Center or cross ball in front of goal mouth, pref-
able spaces. When in possession of the ball, the ob-
erably in the air.
jectives are to attack the space behind, between, or
4. Short passes, one/two touch contact.
in front of the opponents or to create new spaces by
5. Back pass to maintain possession.
forcing them to move. The defensive objective is to
6. Shoot whenever possible.
deny the use of these spaces. The larger the space 7. Pressure the ball when it is lost.
the more time a player has to maintain possession
Offensive Principles. As illustrated in the
leading to more controlled play.
diagrams Figure 18-39 the following principles aid
< ),

Strategic Field Areas. The field is divided

the attacking team:
into thirds (Figure 18-38). The following factors,
when applied in each area, lead to systematic team 1. —
Width distributing the ball wide spreads out
coordination. the defense, opening larger areas for penetrating
by either the ball or another player.
Defend
2. —
Depth/ Support 10- to 15-yard positioning
1. Ball is distributed wide immediately upon pos- ahead or behind the ball provides additional pos-
session. sible passing angles and enhances possession.
2. Always provide support behind teammate with 3. Penetration —
the ball that penetrates past an op-
ball. ponent toward the end line is the most threaten-
3. Do not pass ball across goal mouth. ing pass to him. The deeper the controlled
4. Do not give the ball away. penetration the better.
5. Control pass to midfield area as quickly as possi- 4. —
Mobility the movement by players without the
ble. ball to different positions can provide superior-
6. When in trouble clear ball: (a) to midfield, (b) out ity around the ball, create surprise, and create

of bounds over sideline, (c) to goalie, (d) over end new situations to which the opponents must ad-
line (as a last resort). just.

Midfield
5. Improvisation — theadjust to ever-
ability to
changing situations during the course of the
1. Slow down tempo of ball and players. play.
2. Maintain control. Defensive Principles. As illustrated in the
3. Diagonal cross field flow of ball. diagrams Figure 18-40
( ), the following principles aid
4. Back pass to supporting players — reverse field the defending team:
to opposite side.
5. Penetrate to attack zone.
1. —
Delay positioning in front of the player with
the ball so that the ball cannot make immediate
6. Keep ball wide.
penetration, thus gaining the important defen-
7. Overlap extra players for numerical superiority.
sive ingredient: time.
2. —
Depth/Support positioning beside and behind
teammates restricting the space that the ball/
opponent might move.
3. —
Balance the spread of players across the field
Attack Midfield Defend protecting all areas.
4. Concentration —
retreating by all defensive
players tunneling to the goal scoring area caus-
ing congestion.
5. —
Pressure forcing mistakes through aggressive
play.
6. Control /Restraint — applying all other principles
of defense, awaiting the best opportunity for
winning the ball; also not committing and being
beaten by either the ball or the player.

Tactics and Practice Suggestions

The execution of techniques and application of
principles in a competitive situation is called tactics.
FIGURE 18-38 Strategic field areas. These may be either individual, group, or team.
 SOCCER 275

WIDTH DEPTH/SUPPORT

PENETRATION MOBILITY
1 5

• /

FIGURE 18-39 Offensive principles.

FIGURE 18-40 Defensive principles.

DELAY SUPPORT/DEPTH

BALANCE CONCENTRATION
276 SOCCER

Individual. A player with the ball has the op-

portunity to dribble, pass, or shoot, and only has pos-
session of the ball approximately two minutes of a
90-minute game. Developing technique and profi-
ciency in the foregoing skills is important; however,
it is more important to learn what to do for the other

88 minutes when one does not have the ball. One

must learn how to use the available space for receiv-
ing the ball, how to create new space for either the
ball or a teammate, and how to apply the principles
of attacking or defending.
Group. The
basic soccer objective of superior-
ity around the group tactics. When su-
ball initiates
periority is gained, the factors of using space,
creating space, restricting space, and controlling FIGURE 18-41 A systems alignment at kickoff. Number
tempo (time) are applied in small side games. Small 2-3-5 (W) versus 3-3-4.

side games 2 on 1, 2 on 2, 3 on 1, 3 on 2, 3 on 3, etc.

( >

in restricted areas provide excellent opportunities

for learning individual and group tactics.
strengths and weaknesses. Each evolved due to the
Team. The grouping of a larger number of and knowledge of the players in-
specific abilities
players leads to team tactics. Organizing restrictive volved. The choice of which system to use should
games often with two lines of players (for example, 4
attackers and 3 midfielders versus 2 midfielders, 4
always depend upon those two factors abilities and —
knowledge.
defenders, and the goalkeeper) requires additional
Style. Within a system there are varying
continuity.
styles of play. Offensive styles are long pass, short
Playing within the boundaries of the suggested
pass, fast, slow, static positioning, improvisational
one-third field areas (see Figure 18-38), the players
movement, and dribbling. Defensive styles are zone,
can concentrate upon the factors governing system-
man to man, switching man to man, rotational, and
atic team coordination. Communication becomes
diagonal.
critical since more players are involved. Short one-
Many current coaching books discuss principles,
word cues aid in communication. Using cue words
tactics, and systemsin more detail. The Selected
such as square, back, through, lead, leave, touch.
References section lists several books for those re-
carry, turn, settle, etc., lets teammates know what to
quiring additional information.
do with the ball.
Special rules in such competitions help reinforce
specific tactics.Examples of special rules are: allow-
only one or two touches per player; a back pass must
Dead Ball Situations

be used before a penetrating pass; no passes over 15
yards; after receiving a pass the player must dribble
past an opponent; all passes must be longer than 15
yards; no passes above knee high; all passes above
the head; etc.
The next step in developing playing strategy is
the application of principles and tactics within a spe-
cific system.
When the ball goes out of play or there is an in-
fraction of the rules the game restarts from a dead
ball situation.This allows a team the opportunity to
initiate set plays. Goal kick, corner kick, kickoff,
throw-in, indirect and direct free kicks provide such
an opportunity. The defending team also has time to
prepare. There are many such plays and plans.
References in coaching books can provide a vari-
ety of set plays for dead ball restart situations.

Systems
Player Positional Responsibilities
The formational placement of players on the
field is called a system (Figure 18-41). The players Traditionally the player positions were called
are numbered starting with the defenders (full- forwards, halfbacks, fullbacks, and goalkeeper. In
backs), midfielders (halfbacks) and then attackers recent years the three basic lines are referred to
(forwards). The goalkeeper is not included in the more commonly as attackers, midfielders and de-
numbering. The first attempt to develop new sys- fenders. Each line has specific responsibilities re-
tems occurred when the five forwards of the 2-3-5 lated to that particular position. Listed below are the r

system changed their relative positions thus forming basic responsibilities for each line. It is pointed out
either a Wor M
due to their alignment with each that differing systems of play demand varying re-
other on the field. Since that first change many new sponsibilities, and Selected References can provide
systems have evolved, and all systems have further information.
 SOCCER 277

Attackers 10. Forming walls for protecting against free kicks.

11. Assisting or taking goal kicks.
(The forward line players who include wings, in-
12. Overlapping occasionally for added superiority
sides (strikers), center forward, or other teammates
or surprise.
who overlap into the attacking area.)
13. Defending against corner kicks.
1. Scoring by shooting (head-foot). 14. Taking free kicks in defensive one-third.
2. Setting up scoring opportunities by dribbling to 15. Sprinting to goal when beaten by both the ball
commit an opponent; center or crossing the ball and man.
in the air into the penalty area; running to
create a new space for the ball or a teammate
and to receive the ball; distributing the ball stra- MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
tegically and quickly wide, backward, or for-
ward. Orthopedically Impaired
3. Performing offensive restarts such as direct, in-
direct, and corner kicks in scoring area. 1. Contact the United States Cerebral Palsy Ath-
4. Pressuring the opponents immediately upon leticAssociation (USCPAA) in Westland, Michi-
their gaining control. gan for the rules of Wheelchair Team Handball.
5. Positioning for counterattacks upon regaining This game originated as Wheelchair Soccer.
possession of the ball. 2. Allow students using crutches, canes, and/or
walkers for ambulation to move the ball up and
Midfielders down the field or court with their assistive de-
vices.
1. Supporting the attackers on offense. 3. Modify the soccer game using a large cageball
2. Redistributing the ball wide, forward, or back- instead of the regular soccer ball. The large
ward upon gaining possession for sustaining of- cageball can be moved up and down the court by
fense.
students in wheelchairs.
3. Shooting outside the penalty area.
4. Overlapping into attack area for additional Mentally Impaired
strength or surprise. 1. Contact local Special Olympics for their soccer
5. Retreating, delaying the opponents upon their
manuals.
gaining definite control of the ball. 2. Move from simple to complex instructions and
6. Challenging for a loose ball when there is a 50/ rules of the game as the unit develops. Follow
50 chance of gaining possession. similar guidelines for skill development.
7. Receiving goal kicks, both offensive and defen-
3. Keep playing sessions short allowing for fre-
sive.
quent rest periods. Fitness levels are generally
8. Taking a majority of the throw-ins. low for the student with mental retardation.
9. Defending against opponent's corner kicks.
10. Positioning for counter attacks upon regaining Sensory Impaired
control of the ball by one's own defenders or
1. See modification for Orthopedically Impaired,
goalkeeper.
#3 above.
2. Use sighted peer teachers and play as tethered
Defenders
partners. Tether the students at the wrist.
1. Supporting midfielders when attacking. 3. Minimal modifications are needed for the deaf
2. Challenging for ball at midfield when there is a and/or hearing impaired.
60/40 chance of gaining possession.
3. Retreating, delaying the opponents upon their
gaining definite control of the ball in midfield TERMINOLOGY
area.
4. Funneling toward the goal and concentrating in Center A pass from the outside of the field near the side
the scoring area. line into the center.
5. Supporting each other when challenging for the Charge The body contact between opponents which may
ball. be either illegal or legal.
6. Clearing (kick or head) the ball out of the scoring Chip The lofting of the ball into the air using the instep
area and when possible out of the defensive one- kick technique: contacting the ball very low causing it
third. to loft quickly with back spin.
7. Keeping balance across the field; not allowing Clear Playing (kick or head) the ball a great distance at-
weakened areas. tempting to move it out of a danger area.
8. Positioning wide for counterattacking. Corner kick A direct free kick awarded to the attacking
9. Protecting the goal when the goalkeeper leaves player on the corner arc when the defending team last
the goal mouth. played the ball over their own end line.
278 SOCCER

Cross A pass from the outside of the field near the end gettingit settled on the ground so that it is rolling and

line to a position in front of the goal. no longer bouncing.

Dead ball situation The organized restarting of the game Square pass A pass that is directed toward the side of a
following the stopping of play. player.
Direct free kick A free kick from which the kicker may Tackle A technique for taking the ball away from the op-
immediately score from that initial contact. ponents.
Dribble The technique of the player self-propelling the Through pass A pass that penetrates between and past
ball with the foot so that he maintains control while the defenders.
moving from one spot to another. Throw-in The technique used for restarting the game
Drop ball The method used for restarting the game after when the ball goes out of play over the side line.
temporary suspension of play when the ball is still Touchline The side line of the field.
playable. Trap The technique used for receiving the ball, bringing
Goal area The rectangular area in front of the goal where it under control.
the ball is placed for a goal kick. Two-touch-receiving (Trap) a ball and immediately re-
Half-volley Contacting the ball just as it hits the ground passing it.
after being airborne.
Head The technique of playing the ball with the head.
Indirect free kick A free kick from which player other SELECTED REFERENCES
than the kicker must contact the ball before a score
can result. Coerver, W. Soccer Fundamentals for Players and Coaches.
Kickoff The free kick that starts play at the beginning of 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986.
the game, after each period, or after a score. Hargroves, A. Skills and Strategies for Coaching Soccer.
Obstruction The illegal use of the body to shield an oppo- Champaign, IL: Leisure Press, 1990.
nent from reaching the ball. Lurbacher, J. A. Fun and Games for Soccer Training.
One-touch Immediately passing a ball being received Champaign, IL: Leisure Press, 1987.

without stopping it. Nelson, R. Soccer. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1986.
Penalty area The large rectangular area in front of the Robson, B. Soccer Skills. New York: Sterling Publishing
goal where the goalkeeper is allowed to use the hands Co., Inc., 1989.
to play the ball. Schellecheidt, M. Youth League Soccer Skills. North Palm
Penalty kick A free kick awarded Free Kick
for a Direct Beach, FL: The Athletic Institute, 1989.
foul in the penalty area against the defending team. Thomson, W. Teaching Soccer. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess
Settle The act of taking a ball that is off the ground and Publishing Co., 1980.
 SOFTBALL
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Identify the basic equipment needed in softball and understand the rules
pertaining to it.

Understand the rules of slow-pitch and fast-pitch games.

Demonstrate the skills of batting, baserunning, sliding, fielding, throwing,
pitching, and catching; and of playing the infield and outfield positions.
Identify drills and lead-up games for the teaching of skills.
Identify the terminology necessary to understand the game.
Observe the procedures to make the game safe for participants.

NATURE AND PURPOSE
In 1887 an indoor version of the game of baseball
was developed by George Hancock of Chicago, Illi-
nois. He used smaller playing dimensions and a
larger and softer ball. The game became extremely
popular and was moved outdoors. This game, soft-
ball, is now played by over 30 million adults and
youths in the United States as well as in many na-
tions throughout the world. Almost 5 million youths
are estimated to participate in youth softball pro-
grams, making softball the most popular youth
1
sport. Participation in softball games ranges from
informal games at picnics, in parks, in backyards,
and on the streets to formal leagues sponsored by
schools, playgrounds, recreation departments,
churches, and industrial organizations. The tradi-
tional forms of softball games included in league
play are fast pitch, 12-inch slow pitch, and 16-inch
slow-pitch games. With the variety of types and
modifications of the basic game of softball, the game
can be enjoyed by men and women of all ages. Soft-
ball is considered to be one of the safest sports for all
2 legal.
ages.
EQUIPMENT AND CLOTHING
Bats. The official softball bat is round and
made
of one piece of hardwood or bonded wood. Plas-
tic, bamboo, or metal are also acceptable. The bat's
maximum measurements are 34 inches in length,
2V4 inches in diameter at its barrel end, and 38
1
S.D. Houseworth and F.V. Rivkin. Coaching Softball Effec-
tively (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1985),
p. 3.
2
M.E. Kneer and C.L. McCord. Softball: Slow and Fast Pitch,
4th ed. (Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1987), pp. 1-2.
ounces in weight. Bats must be free of rivets, pins,
rough or sharp edges, or any form of exterior fas-
tener; metal bats must be free of burrs. The handle
requires a safety grip of cork, tape (not smooth plas-
tic tape), or composition material, and the bat must
be marked "Official Softball" by the manufacturer.
Balls. A 12-inch ball is used for fast-pitch and
men's and co-ed slow-pitch softball. An 11-inch ball
is used for women's slow pitch games. A larger 16-
inch ball is also used for some slow-pitch games. The
official 12-inch ball must be a smooth-seam con-
cealed-stitch or flat-surfaced ball from ll 7/8 to 12%
inches in circumference, and weigh from 6V4 to 7
ounces. [The official 11-inch and 16-inch balls have
relative size and weight specifications.]
Gloves. Gloves (which have fingers) may be
worn by any player, but mitts (which have no
fingers) may be used only by the first baseman and
catcher. The pitcher's glove must be a solid color
other than white or gray. Multicolor gloves are ac-
ceptable for all other players, but gloves with white
or gray circles on the outside resembling a ball are il-
Shoes. Shoes may have canvas or leather
uppers or similar materials. The soles may be either
smooth or have soft or hard rubber cleats. Ordinary
metal sole and heel cleats may be used if the spikes
on the plates do not extend more than % inch from
the sole or heel of the shoe. Shoes with rounded
metal spikes are illegal. No metal spikes are allowed
in any division of youth or co-ed play.
Protectors. Masks, throat protectors, and hel-
mets must be worn by all catchers during a game
and by anyone who is warming up a pitcher. Masks
should be checked to be sure the wire eye opening is
smaller than the bat barrel. Youth fast-pitch softball
catchers must also wear shin guards and body pro-
tectors. Body protectors are recommended for slow-

279
 280 SOFTBALL

pitch games aswell. Helmets are required to be worn
by adult fast-pitch players and youth fast- and
all
slow-pitch offensive players. The helmets must be of
similar color with double ear flaps. Helmets are not
allowed for defensive players except the pitcher and
the catcher and for medical purposes.
Uniforms. All players on a team must wear
uniforms identical incolor, trim, and style. Ball caps
are considered part of the uniform and are required
for all playersunder U.S. Slow-Pitch Softball Associ-
ation (USSSA) rules and in Amateur Softball Associ-
ation (ASA) rules for male players including the
catcher. Caps, visors, and headbands are optional for
female players but may not be mixed on a team. All
female players are not required to wear headwear,
but for those players who do so, the headwear must
be alike. Plastic visors are not allowed as headwear.
PLAYING FIELD
The regulation playing field is 60 X 60 feet square
(Figure 19-1). The accompanying indications of the
required distances for fast pitch and slow pitch are
used in the majority of age groups. For official dis-
tances for specific age groups, consult a current ASA
softball rule book. Ground or special rules establish-
ing the limits of the playing field may be agreed
upon by leagues or opposing teams whenever back-
stops, fences, stands, vehicles, or other obstructions
are within the prescribed area.
The home plate is made of rubber or other suit-
able material and is a five-sided figure, 17 inches
wide across the side facing the pitcher, 8Vi> inches
long on the sides parallel to the inside lines of the
batter's box, and 12 inches long on the sides of the
point facing the catcher.
The pitcher's plate is made of wood or rubber
and measures 24 inches long and 6 inches wide. The
top of the plate must be level with the ground; the
front line of the plate measures the following dis-
tances from the outside corner of home plate: male
fast-pitch and slow-pitch and female slow-pitch 46 —
feet;female fast-pitch —
40 feet.
The bases other than home plate must be 15
inches square and made of canvas or other suitable
material and not be more than 5 inches thick. The
bases should be securely fastened in position. A dou-

COACHER
^ /<X COACHER'S
BOX
//
BOX

BENCH
BENCH HOME PLATE DETAIL HOME PLATE AREA DETAIL
r*-17"-*J 6" 17*: 6"
8V
BATTER'S ON DECK CIRCLE BATTER'S ON DECK CIRCLE
8%'

24'
sQ,
Distances

Bases
Fast Pitch Slow Pitch
I-
PITCHER'S PLATE
Male 60 feet 65 feet
Female 60 feet 60 feet
DETAIL
BATTER'S ON DECK
—
3'
I

***
2'5"
I

»+•-
3'
| i

Pitchinq CIRCLE DETAIL

Male 46 feet 46 feet 10'
Female 40 feet 46 feet 8' 5'

Fences radius
Male 225 feet 275 feet
Female 200 feet 250 feet

FIGURE 19-1 Softball field, official dimensions.

 SOFTBALL 281

ble base may be used at first base. This base is 15 by 6. Baserunning

30 inches. The half of the base in fair territory is 7. Sliding
white and the half of the base in foul territory is 8. Pitching and catching
orange. F. —
Rules start with those essential to play the
game and expand in depth and comprehensive-
Laying Out a Diamond
ness as playing ability increases.
The following directions are for laying out a dia- 1. Terminology
mond with 60-foot bases and a 40-foot pitching dis- 2. Playing field
tance. Determine home plate position by running a 3. Equipment
line in the direction desired for the diamond. Place a 4. Players and substitutes
stake at the corner of home plate nearest the catcher. 5. The game
Tie a cord to the stake with knots or other markings 6. —
Pitching regulations fast- or slow-pitch, for
at the following distances: 40 feet, 60 feet, 84 feet whichever game is being taught
lOVi inches, and at 120 feet. 7. Batting
Place the cord along the direction line without 8. Baserunning
stretching it. Place a stake at the 40-foot mark. This 9. —
Dead ball ball in play
is the front edge of the pitching rubber. Also drive a G. Playing strategy. The fast-pitch game utilizes
stake at the 84 feet-10V4 inches mark. This is the many strategies of baseball, whereas the slow-
center of second base. pitch game is the adaptation of field positions to
Now place the 120-foot mark on the center of sec- batting strengths and/or weaknesses.
ond base. Hold the cord at the 60-foot mark and walk
to the right of the direction line. When the cord is
taut, drive a stake at the 60-foot mark. This is the SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
outside corner of first base. Walk across the field and
do the same thing to mark the corner of third base. While adaptable for general recreational use, soft-
ball is a game demands a good performance of
that
certain fundamental skills and techniques. Enjoy-
ment from participation in the game intensifies as
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
skills improve. Skill techniques are described fol-
A. Nature and purpose of softball lowed by short cues to use in teaching each of the
B. Conditioning —
exercises and drills for develop- skills. Practice suggestions include drills and lead-
ing muscular strength, speed, agility, coordina- up games to enhance skill development.
tion, and balance.
C. Safety suggestions. Moving people and moving
Catching
objects can create hazards; therefore, from the
first day, safety precautions must be adhered to Catching the ball is a fundamental skill that
without fail. must be mastered before other skills are attempted.
D. Basic game concepts
1. Field of play and player positions Learning Cues
2. Equipment
1. Watch the ball into the hands or glove.
3. Safety
2. Fingers up and thumbs together for balls chest
E. Skills and techniques
high or higher. Fingers down and little fingers
1. Catching
together for balls waist high and lower.
2. Throwing
3. Relax the fingers and arms.
a. Grip on ball
b. Arm motion
4. On contact with the ball absorb the force by
bringing the ball close to the body: "give with the
c. Body movement
ball."
3. Fielding the ball
a. Ground balls
Practice Suggestions
b. Fly balls
4. Batting 1. Provide each student with a ball. The students
a. Grip on bat toss the ball up in the air and catch it, trying to
b. Stance toss the ball higher and higher and still be able
c. Stride to catch it.
d. Rotation of body and arms 2. A student tosses the ball up in the air and every-
e. Follow-through one claps and counts until the ball comes
5. Bunting down and is caught. Take turns to see who can
a. Grip on bat get the most claps.
b. Stance 3. Catch balls thrown by a partner from short
c. Direction of bunt range. Initially use foam balls or whiffle balls to
 282 SOFTBALL

eliminate fear of being hurt. Gradually increase

the distance.
4. Catch balls a partner throws high, low, and to
each side.

Throwing
Throws should be made quickly, accurately, and
to the correct base or fielder. Players should be able
to throw using an overhand, sidearm, or underhand
motion. But spend more time on the overhand throw
because with it one can attain the greatest accuracy.
The sidearm throw imparts a side spin on the ball
that causes it to curve.

Learning Cues

1. Grip ball across a seam with index and second

fingers (all four fingers if hand is small), thumb
underneath, and third and fourth fingers to the
side (see Figures 19-2 and 19-3).
2. Point elbow away from body as arm moves back- FIGURE 19-4 —
Overhand throw as arm moves
backward, point elbow away from the body.
ward (Figure 19-4).
3. Move body weight to foot on same side rear ( foot i

and rotate trunk in that direction. Practice Suggestions

4. Keep wrist extended until just before release. 1. Throw with a short distance
to a partner. Start
5. Push off with the rear foot and step with the and then increase that Throw to a
distance.
other foot in the direction of the intended throw. specified target on the partner such as the chest.
6. Rotate hips, trunk, and shoulders as arm comes Vary the target and the speed of the throw. Stay
forward.
at a distance until accurate for four out of five
7. Lead with the elbow and snap the wrist as the throws (preferably all five).
ball is released opposite the peak of the cap.
2. Throw at a target from various distances.
8. Throwing arm continues across the body for the 3. Throw to different bases from different field po-
follow-through.
sitions.
9. Use a natural rhythmical movement. 4. Play "Beatball." A runner stands at home plate
and a catcher has a ball, preferably a soft ball.
On a signal the runner begins running the
bases. The catcher throws the ball to third base.
The ball is relayed from third to second base and
then to first base and home plate. The runner
scores one point for each base touched before the
ball returns to home plate. Variation: Allow the
runner to continue around the bases until the
ball reaches home plate prior to the runner on
the same trip around the bases. Place a maxi-
mum of three trips around the bases.

Fielding Ground Balls

The ground balls is crucial to the

ability to field
success of any defense. With proper guidance most
players can learn to field routine ground balls suc-
cessfully and improve their ability to field cleanly
hard hit balls and bad bounces.

Learning Cues

FIGURE 19-2 Two-finger FIGURE 19-3 Four-finger grip for 1. Prior to the pitch assume ready position with the
grip for adults. children. feet parallel and wider than shoulder width
 SOFTBALL 283

ter hits the ball on the ground and runs to first

base. If the batter reaches first before the ball,
one point is scored. All members of the batting
team bat before teams change positions.

Fielding Fly Balls

Catching fly balls can be a difficult skill for be-

ginners to learn. Once the basic catching skill is
mastered, judging the ball's speed and distance must
be learned in order to field fly balls.

Learning Cues

1. Get under the ball as quickly as possible. Use two

hands.
2. To catch a ball hit over the head and to the right
or left, pivot on the foot on the ball side, turn and
run diagonally backward, and watch the ball
over the shoulder opposite the ball side.
FIGURE 19-5 Fielding ground ball position.
3. Relax the fingers slightly and have the hands
and arms give with the ball as it is caught to re-
duce the force of impact.
apart. Flex the knees and hips and place the 4. Catch the ball, when possible, close to the throw-
hands close to the ground. ing side so that the throwing arm can move into
2. When possible, move forward ("charge") the ball position for the throw as soon as possible.
when it is hit. 5. Watch the ball into the glove.
3. Stay in front or get in front of ground balls. This 6. Know where to throw the ball before you catch
enables you to handle them if they take bad it, and then move quickly to accomplish the

bounces to the left or right. throw after the catch.

4. Field ground balls with the feet in a stride posi-
tion, knees slightly bent, and the body crouched
(Figure 19-5): wide stance. On hard-hit balls it
may be advisable to close the feet or drop to one
knee to block the ball.
5. Catch a ground ball just as it leaves the ground
on a bounce or after it has reached the peak of its
bounce.
6. Keep the body and glove low on ground balls and
move upward to make the catch. One can move
more quickly upward and since the body is al-
ready low, more bad bounces may be blocked by
the body or glove.
7. Keep the glove open and watch the ball into the
glove.
Practice Suggestions
1. Catch fly balls thrown by a partner. Gradually
increase the distance.
2. Catch fly balls hit by a partner. Throw to a relay
person, or directly to a catcher next to the hitter,
or to a player at a base.
3. Play "Five Hundred." Using a fungo bat, one
player hits to a group of fielders. Fielders score
successful catches. A fly ball is worth 100 points;
a ground ball, 50 points; and a catch on a first
bounce, 50 points. If a catch is tried and missed,
the respective number of points is deducted. A
player scoring 500 points exchanges with the
batter.

Practice Suggestions

1. Slowly roll ground balls between partners. Batting

2. Increase the speed of the rolls and then increase
The key to offensive softball lies in effective bat-
the distance between partners.
3. Toss ground balls to the right and to the left of
ting —
a complex motor task — coupled with base
running.
the partner.
4. Field ground balls with a partner tossing balls at
Learning Cues
varying speeds and in different directions.
5. Field ground balls hit by a partner at varying 1. The basic position has the batter standing in the
speeds and directions. Throws can be made to a batter'sbox with feet slightly more than hip
catcher next to the hitter or to a base. width apart, knees relaxed and flexed slightly,
6. Play "Pegging First." One team is at bat and the and with the body bent slightly forward at the
other is in the field. Using a fungo bat, each bat- hips.
284 SOFTBALL

2. The bat gripped by the handle in such a man-

is 9. Watch the ball from the time the pitcher has it
ner that the second joints of each finger on each until just before hitting the ball.
hand are in alignment (Figure 19-6). 10. Swing only at pitches in the strike zone.
3. Before hitting, the bat is held in a position over
the rear shoulder with the forearm (closer to
pitcher) fairly straight and raised so that the Practice Suggestions

elbow is chest high. The back arm is bent 1. Strike the ball from a stationary tee or from a
slightly with the elbow away from the body (Fig- rope suspended overhead.
ure 19-7).
2. Using a fungo bat, hit fly balls, line drives, and
4. The forward leg should step forward toward the
ground balls.
pitcher, and during the swing the weight should
shift over to the front leg which should be 3. Have partner toss ball from a distance of two to
straight. three yards to the side (about a 45-degree angle).
5. In executing the swing, the body, arms and bat Can hit the balls into the playing field or into a
first rotate slightly away from the pitcher. This fence.
gives the bat more distance over which to gain 4. Get in groups of four or five with batter, pitcher,
momentum and enables the body to exert more and two or three fielders. Hit ten or fifteen
torque in hitting. pitches and rotate. Position groups for safety.
6. Rotate the hips as the bat comes forward, the
arms should straighten, the wrists should
straighten forcefully just before the ball is hit,
Bunting
and should continue to straighten very forcefully
as the ball is hit. This is an effective offensive weapon in the fast-
7. The trunk and hips rotate until the batter al- pitch game but is illegal in slow-pitch Softball. Al-
most faces the pitcher, and the ball is struck though the fielders are closer to the batter in Softball
about half an arm's length in front of the than in baseball, it takes just as much time to field
shoulder that is closer to the plate (Figure 19-8 1. and throw a softball as a baseball. Therefore, the
8. The rear foot initiates a push forward but should batter in softball should have a slight advantage
maintain contact with the ground as the ball is over the baseball player in using the bunt as a
hit. means to reach first base safely.

FIGURE 19-6 Batting grip. FIGURE 19-7 Batting stance. FIGURE 19-8 Batting position at contact with
ball.
 SOFTBALL 285

bat to keep the ball from rebounding too far into

the playing field.
8. Keep the bat higher than the ball and hit the top
half of the ball so that the ball is more likely to
be hit downward.

Practice Suggestions

1. In front of a mirror, practice turning from bat-

ting stance to bunting stance.
2. Bunt balls that a partner tosses slowly.
3. Bunt to a glove placed on the ground at various
positions.

Baserunning
In running the bases, follow the base lines and
avoid making wide turns when rounding a base. The
proper method is to pull out about three feet from the
base line a couple of strides before reaching the base,
and then by timing your steps, hit the inside corner
of the base with the left foot. As the left foot hits the
base, the body twists slightly to the left so that the
right foot will land just beyond the next base line.
The runner comes back to the base line and con-
tinues (see diagram, Figure 19-10).
FIGURE 19-9 Bunting position.
When advancing from first to second, watch the
third base coach for directions. The coach is usually
in a better position to see the entire field of play and
tell the runner whether to stop at second or continue
Learning Cues on to third base. Since the runner must remain on
The his or her base until the ball leaves the pitcher's
1. initial stance is the same as for hitting be-
cause it is most effective as a surprise maneu- hand (fast pitch) or reaches home plate (slow pitch),
ver, and its declaration must be withheld as long a sprinter's stance (Figure 19-11) should be taken
as possible.
2. Just before the pitcher releases the ball, the bat-
ter should pivot on the front foot and bring the
back foot forward parallel with the front foot so
that the batter is facing the pitcher and is near
the front of the batter's box.
3. The knees should be bent and the body should
crouch low, especially on low balls. Move the
body up and down and maintain bunting stance
rather than moving the arms for high and low
pitches.
4. The arms bring the bat downward to a position
parallel with the ground in front of home plate
and perpendicular to the ball's line of flight. As
the bat comes down, slide the top hand up the
bat to a position beyond the center of the bat
where the thumb and index finger grasp the bat
on the rear side to avoid having the fingers hit.
Arms should be half flexed (Figure 19-9).
5. By flexing one arm a little more while extending
the other arm, the ball may be guided down ei-
ther the first or third base lines.
6. The ball should contact the bat slightly above
the top hand.
7. The arms should give slightly as the ball hits the FIGURE 19-10 Path for running bases.
286 SOFTBALL

FIGURE 19-11 Sprinter's stance.

with one foot on the base in readiness for a quick de- FIGURE 19-12 Hook slide.

parture (whether on a steal or a batted ball I.

Practice Suggestions

1. Run the bases after hitting in batting practice.

2. Practice hitting the ball and starting for first
base.
3. Practice starting from a base with the sprinter's
stance.

Sliding

To avoid injury, no one should attempt sliding

without prior instruction and practice in the tech-
nique. Knowing how to slide correctly will also pre-
vent overrunning a base.
The hook slide, which is the most popular, is per-
formed by sliding on a thigh and hip with the body
leaning away from the base. When sliding on the
right hip and thigh, the base is hooked with the left
toe, and the right leg is either bent under the left leg
with the right toe pointing backward (to keep from
getting caught in the ground) or is extended forward
in the air (to prevent the spikes from catching in the
ground and injuring ankles and knees). The left leg
is raised slightly off the ground and as the body,
which is slightly to the right of the base line, ap-
proaches the base the toe hooks onto the base (see
FIGURE 19-13 Bent-leg slide.
Figure 19-12). It is important to start the slide soon
enough so that by the time the toe hooks the base,
 SOFTBALL 287

the body's momentum is slow enough to avoid pull-

ing the toe off the base.
The bent-leg slide is used by players who wish to
get to their feet quickly in order to advance to an-
other base on an overthrow or misplay. In this slide
the player slides on the bent underneath leg with the
upper leg making contact with the base (Figure 19-
13). The forward momentum of the slide is utilized to
raise the body to an upright position after making
contact with the base.
The head-first slide is often used when it be-
comes necessary to return to a base. The use of a
head-first slide in any other situation should be
strongly discouraged.

Practice Suggestions

1. Practice in a gym, on wet grass, or in a sliding

pit. Wear long pants and socks, no shoes.
2. Judge one another on technique.
3. Slide for a square marked on the grass.
4. Slide into a base opposite catch made by a
partner who receives toss from another player.
Rotate.

Pitching FIGURE 19-14 Pitching delivery, slow pitch.

The success of a winning team depends largely

on the consistency of its pitching. A good pitcher
must have control and command a variety of pitches
that can be used whether playing slow-pitch or fast-
pitch softball. Special movement requirements are
outlined under "Pitching Regulations" in the Basic
Rules given below.
Slow Pitching. Place the foot on the throwing
arm side on the front of the pitching rubber. The op-
posite foot is behind the throwing arm-side foot. The
throwing arm is brought behind the body in an un-
derhand, pendulum motion. The opposite foot steps
toward home plate. The arm is swung forward with
the fingers under the ball. The ball should be re-
leased about shoulder high, which helps to attain the
12-foot arc and to drop the ball over the plate (see
Figure 19-14). Lower releases tend to flatten the
pitch and give it more velocity. Varied spins as well
as different speeds on the ball should be developed to
keep the batter mixed up in the timing of the swing.
Fast Pitching. Several different types of de-
liveries are possible including a sling shot or half
windmill and a windmill. The beginning stance for
each delivery is the same as for slow pitching except
that the back foot must be in contact with the pitch-
ing rubber. The half windmill is the same motion as
slow pitching but faster and the release is by the hip
with a snap of the wrist. A windmill involves moving
the pitching arm through a full circle. The body is
twisted away from the batter at the top of the swing.
As the arm begins the downward swing, the hips are
rotated to a position facing the batter. The leg on the
throwing side pushes forcefully against the pitching
rubber as the ball is released at the hip with a strong
wrist snap (see Figure 19-15).
Practice Suggestions.
1. Throw to a partner who moves the target around
the strike zone.
2. —
Throw to a target such as an old mat tacked on
a wall, fence, or backstop. In slow-pitch place an
empty bucket, milk crate, or circle on the ground
as a target.
3. Play "Pitcher vs. Pitcher." Two players work to-
gether. One pitches and the other catches. The
pitcher pitches to an imaginary batter. The
catcher calls balls and strikes. The "batter" is ei-
ther struck out or walks. "Runners" advance as
additional "batters" become "runners." One
player continues to pitch until three "batters"
are out then the players exchange positions. The
winner is the pitcher with the fewest "runners"
scoring.
Playing Catcher
The catcher is frequently called the "defensive
center of the infield" because the catcher handles all
the pitched balls and is in a position to see all the in-
field proceedings. The catcher should call the
player's name on infield flies, tell the fielder of a
288 SOFTBALL

FIGURE 19-15 Windmill pitching sequence

bunt where to throw, and keep players informed

all
of the number of outs. He or she gives the pitcher the
signal for the type of pitch to be thrown, gives a tar-
get to throw to, makes every effort to block wild
pitches with runners on base, and makes plays at
home plate. The catcher assumes a squat position as
close to the batter as possible without interfering
with the swing and with the weight forward on the
balls of the feet so that quick movements in any di-
rection can be made. In making a throw, bring the
ball up to a position behind the ear, step forward
with the left foot, and throw by bringing the arm for-
ward quickly and with a strong wrist snap just prior
to release.
Playing First Base
The first-base player in fast-pitch softball must
always be alert for fielding a bunt as it is used fre-
quently. The field position for this is in toward home
plate 10 to 20 feet; a greater distance is used with no
one on base and a shorter distance with a runner on
first and a double-play possibility. In slow-pitch the
 SOFTBALL 289

playing position is approximately 10 feet behind the Practice Suggestions

base but varies in depth and distance from the foul
1. Field ground balls hit to various positions and
line according to the strength or weakness of the bat-
with varying speeds.
ter. To be in a position to receive a throw from an-
2. Move across the bag and throw to first base.
other fielder, run quickly to the base when the ball is
3. Make the step-back-and-throw maneuver.
hit and assume a position facing the fielder with the
4. Complete the double-play situation after field-
heels touching the inside edge of the bag. The first-
ing ground balls.
base player should shift the body according to the di-
5. Make the double-play with a runner moving
rection of the throw. When the throw is to the left
with the hit ball.
(toward home plate), bring the toe of the right foot to
6. Tag runners stealing second base.
the edge of the bag by the left heel and then step to-
7. Catch infield fly balls.
ward the ball with the left foot. Reverse the proce-
dure for a throw on the right (toward the outfield).

Practice Suggestions Playing Third Base

1. Do the footwork without catching until it is an The position of the third-base player in fast-
automatic response. pitch is similar to that of the first-base player be in —
2. Have partner toss balls to both sides of the base. a position to field bunted balls by playing in toward
3. Have fielders throw balls to base. home plate 10 to 20 feet, depending on the game sit-
4. Have coach hit ground balls to fielders and let uation. Attempt to field all batted balls hit down the
them throw to first base. third-base line and as many as can be reached hit to
5. Field bunts and ground balls hit to various spots the second-base side, as the momentum developed by
in the first base area. moving in that direction should aid the throw to first
6. Practice catching fly balls in the vicinity of first base.
base.

Practice Suggestions
Playing Second Base and Shortstop 1. Field bunted balls and throw to first base and
The fielding position for the second-base player second base.
is approximately 15 feet from second base toward 2. Field batted balls hit to various positions and
first base and about 12 feet behind the baseline. The with varying speeds. Throw to first base and to
position varies with the strength and weakness of second base.
the batter. One should attempt to field all batted 3. Field batted balls and practice the double-play
balls to the first-base side of second base. On a dou- situation.
ble-play situation from the third-base side, one 4. Catch pop-ups in the vicinity of third base.
should move quickly toward the base in a path that 5. Tag runners stealing third base.
puts second base between the person fielding the
ball, and the second-base player. Time the move so
that the ball is caught as the right foot hits the bag; Playing the Outfield
step forward with the left foot toward the infield and
first base to avoid the baserunner; and with a pivot,
The position of the outfielders should enable
throw to first base. them to cover their area from the infield to the fence,
The shortstop takes a field position similar to and it should vary according to the strength and
the second-base player's position but closer to third
weakness of the batter. The overhand throw is used
base; the position varies with the strength and
when throwing to the infield because it is usually
weakness of the batter. One should attempt to field more accurate due to the fact that side spin is not put
all batted balls to the third base side of second base.
on the ball, which causes it to curve. Use the tech-
On a double-play situation, move quickly to the base niques for fielding ground balls and fly balls.
in a direct line with second base and the player field-
ing the ball. Time the move to catch the ball just be-
Practice Suggestions
fore reaching the bag; step to the outfield side with
the left foot; drag the right foot across the bag; and 1. Catch fly balls hit to various positions, including
pivot and throw to first base. Both the shortstop and over one's head.
second-base player can stop just before they reach 2. Field ground balls hit to various positions.
second base, catch the ball and touch second base 3. Make throws to second base, third base, home
with the left foot, push back with that foot, landing plate, and to a relay player. Do the same with
on the right foot, and then pivot and throw to first players running the bases.
base. 4. Throw to targets at the various bases.
290 SOFTBALL
PLAYING STRATEGY
Fast-pitch Softball permits most of the team
strategies used in baseball. It is varied according to
any given game situation and the philosophical be-
liefs of the coach. One difference is that the second-
base player covers firstbase on bunts rather than
the pitcher. The winning team will be the one that
not only masters individual fundamentals but func-
tions as a unit in the execution of team plays. In
slow-pitch softball there are no offensive plays, since
a baserunner cannot leave the base until the pitched
ball reaches home plate and cannot advance until
the ball is hit or the batter is walked.
BASIC RULES
The rules of softball are patterned after those of
baseball, making it very similar to the parent game.
Pitching and several rules concerning field dimen-
sions and equipment are different. A brief summary
of the rules is given below, but players should study
a copy of the Official Rules in order to become famil-
iar with all regulations governing the game.
The games of slow-pitch softball and fast-pitch
softball have many similarities: the ball must be
pitched underhand, the game is 7 innings long, the
purpose is to get on base and score runs. The major
difference, as the names imply, is in the speed of the
pitched ball. In slow-pitch softball, the ball must be
thrown underhand with a specific arc (6 to 12 feet
whereas in fast-pitch softball the ball is thrown un-
—
derhand in a straight line with great velocity much
like a baseball. Other differences are noted below.
Slow -Pitch Fast-Pitch
No bunting Bunting
No stealing bases Stealing bases
Runners may leave the Runners leave base
base after the ball after the pitcher
crosses home plate releases the ball
10 players per team 9 players per team
65-foot base paths 60-foot base paths
(Males)
60-foot base paths
(Females)
Recommend a mask Require a mask and
and chest protector chest protector for
for the catcher the catcher
Game Regulations
The purpose of the game is to score more runs
than the opponent. A regulation game consists of 7
innings or 6V2 innings if the team second at bat has
scored more runs than its opponent. The umpire
may call (terminate) a game if five or more complete
innings have been played or the team second at bat
has scored more runs than the other team has scored
in five or more innings. The score of a forfeited game
shall be 7-0 in favor of the team not at fault.
Players and Substitutes
A team consists of 9 players in fast-pitch, 10
players in fast-pitch with a Designated Player (DP),
and 10 players in slow-pitch. A team must have the
required number of players to start or continue a
game. A substitute may take the place of a player
whose name is on the team's batting order. Any of
the starting players, including a DP, may be with-
drawn and re-enter once, provided such a player oc-
cupies the same batting position whenever he or she
is in the line-up. A player, other than the starting
line-up, removed from the game may not participate
in the game again except as a coach. The DP may be
used for any player provided it is made known prior
to the start of the game and his or her name is indi-
cated on the line-up sheet. The DP must remain in
the same position in the batting order, may enter the
game on defense, and may be substituted for at any
tune by a player who has not yet been in the game.
Pitching Regulations
Fast-Pitch. In fast-pitch, the pitcher must
take a position with both feet firmly on the ground
and in contact with, but not off the side of, the
pitcher's plate. Before pitching, the pitcher must
I,
come to a full and complete stop for a least one sec-
ond and not more than ten seconds, facing the batter
with both shoulders in line with first and third base
and with the ball held in both hands in front of the
body. The pitcher may not take the pitching position
without the ball. The pitcher may use may wind-up
in the delivery provided there is no stop in the for-
ward motion or reverse in the direction of the arm
swing. The release of the ball and the follow-through
of the hand and wrist must be forward past the
straight line of the body, and, when the arm passes
the body in the forward swing, the hand shall be
below the hip and the wrist not farther from the body
than the elbow. The pitcher shall not take more than
one step which must be forward toward the batter
(within the length of the pitcher's plate), simultane-
ous with the delivery of the ball, and the pivot foot
must remain in contact with the pitcher's plate until
the stepping foot has touched the ground.
Slow-Pitch. In slow-pitch, the pitcher can
take the pitching position with one or both feet
touching the pitcher's plate, but both the pivot and
non-pivot foot must be within the length of the
pitcher's plate. A full stop must be made for
second
1
and not more than 10 seconds with one or both
hands holding the ball in front of the body and the
shoulders in line with first and third base prelimi-
nary to pitching. The pivot foot must remain in con-
tact with the pitcher's plate until the pitched ball

leaves the hands. It is not necessary to step, but if a
step is taken, it must be forward toward the batter
within the length of the pitcher's plate. The pitch
shall be released at a moderate speed (umpire's deci-
sion— if warned about excessive speed and the act is
repeated, the pitcher shall be removed from the
pitcher's position for the remainder of the game),
and at a perceptible arc of at least 6 feet and no
higher than 12 feet from the ground.
Batting Regulations
The batter shall take a position within the lines
and may be called out for stepping
of the batter's box
on home plate or having the entire foot touching the
ground completely outside the lines of the batter's
box when the ball is hit. A batter is removed from
further participation in the game if an illegal bat is
used. Players must bat in regular order as indicated
in the starting line-up. Batting out of order is an ap-
peal play, and if the error is discovered while the in-
correct batter is at the plate, the correct batter must
replace the incorrect batter and assume the ball and
strike count. If the error is discovered after the incor-
rect batter has completed the turn at bat and before
there has been a pitch to another batter, the player
who should have batted is out, and the next batter is
the player whose name follows that of the player de-
clared out. Any runs scored are cancelled, and base
runners must return to bases held when the incor-
rect batter came to plate. If the error is not discov-
ered until after a pitch is made to the next batter, no
one is declared out and all play is legal.
A strike (fast-pitch) occurs when the ball passes
over any part of home plate and is between the bat-
ter's armpits and the top of the knees when in a nat-
ural batting stance. In slow-pitch the strike zone is
over any part of home plate between the batter's
higher shoulder and the knees when in a natural
batting stance.
A foul tip is a foul ball which goes directly from
the bat, not higher than the batter's head, to the
catcher's hands and is legally caught. In fast-pitch
the ball is in play and baserunners may advance at
their own risk. In slow-pitch the ball is dead.
The batter is declared out when an infield fly is
hit with baserunners on first and second or on first,
second, and third with less than two out (infield fly
rule). The batter is also called out in slow-pitch when
the ball is bunted, is hit with a downward chopping
motion, or is hit foul after the second strike.
Baserunning Rules
Baserunners must touch the bases in regular
order and if forced to return while the ball is in play,
the bases must be touched in reverse order. Two
baserunners may not occupy the same base simulta-
neously. The runner who first legally occupied the
SOFTBALL 291
base shall be entitled to it and the other baserunner
must return or be put out. A baserunner is out when
he or she: (a) runs more than three feet from a direct
line between bases in regular or reverse order to
avoid being touched by the ball in the hand of a
fielder; (b) passes a preceding baserunner before
that runner has been put out; (c) leaves a base to ad-
vance before a caught fly ball has been touched pro-
vided the ball is returned to a fielder who touches
that base while holding the ball, or a fielder with the
ball touches the baserunner before returning to the
base; (d) fails to keep contact with the base until a le-
gally pitched ball has been released by the pitcher in
fast-pitch (whether on a steal or batted ball); (e) fails
to keep contact with the base until a legally pitched
ball has reached home plate in slow-pitch (batted
ball only). A pitcher in slow-pitch who desires to
walk a batter intentionally may do so by notifying
the Plate Umpire who shall then award the batter
first base.
Dead Ball Rules
The dead and not in play under the follow-
ball is
ing circumstances: (a) on an illegally batted ball; (b)
when the batter steps from one box to another as the
pitcher is ready to pitch; (c) on an illegal pitch; (d)
when a pitched ball touches any part of the batter's
person or clothing; (e) when a foul ball is not caught;
(f when a baserunner is called out for leaving a base
)
too soon; (g) when any part of the batter's person is
hit with a batted ball while in the batter's box; (h)
when a blocked ball is declared; (i) when a wild pitch
or passed ball in fast-pitch goes under, over, or
through the backstop; and (j) in slow-pitch after
each strike or ball.
Scoring Regulations
A base hit results when a batted ball permits the
hitter to reach first base safely when no fielding
error involved. A base hit shall not be recorded
is
when a baserunner is forced out by a batted ball, or
would have been forced outside, except for a fielding
error.
Sacrifices are scored when with less than two out
the batter advances one or more baserunners with
a bunt and is retired at first base, or when a run
is scored by advancing runners after a fly ball is
caught.
Assists are scored to each player who handles
the ball in any play or series of plays which results in
a put-out, but only one assist is credited to a player
in any one put-out.
Put-outs are credited to players who catch a bat-
ted fly ball, catch a thrown ball that retires a base-
runner, or touch a baserunner with the ball while
the runner is off the base.
Errors are recorded for the player who commits a
292 SOFTBALL

misplay that prolongs the turn at bat of the batter or SAFETY PROCEDURES
the life of the baserunner.
A run batted in (RBI) is a run scored because of: The following procedures should be observed to min-
(a) a safe hit; <b> a sacrifice bunt or fly; <c> an infield imize the possibility of accidents and injuries.
put-out or fielder's choice; <d> a baserunner forced
home because of interference, or in fast pitch the 1. Organize throwing and catching warm-up drills
in parallel lines. Adjacent players should be a
batter being hit with a pitched ball, or the batter
being given a base on balls; and <e> a home run and safe distance apart. When a ball is missed, it
all runs scored as a result.
should be retrieved and the student should re-
turn to the line before making a throw to the
partner.
Winning and Losing Pitcher 2. The receiver should indicate the target before
A pitcher is credited with a win if he or she starts any ball is thrown.
3. Players should wear proper protection (helmets,
and pitches at least 4 innings and the team is not
masks, gloves, at all times.
etc.
only in the lead when the replacement occurs but re-
>

4. Perfect sliding techniques before using them.

mains in the lead the remainder of the game. When a
Always avoid unnecessary slides.
game is ended after 5 innings of play and the start-
ing pitcher has pitched at least 3 innings and the
5 Anchor bases firmly to the ground.
6. Students should swing bats only in designated
team scores more runs than the other team when the
areas, and no one should be allowed to enter bat-
game is terminated, he or she shall be declared the
ting areas.
winner. A pitcher shall be charged with a loss re-
gardless of the number of innings pitched if replaced
7. Have batting practice organized so that one
group does not hit toward another group.
when the team is behind the score and the team
8. Grip the bat tightly so it will not slip from the
thereafter fails to tie the score or gain the lead.
hands. Keep the hands dry and only use bats
with the proper safety grip. After batting, drop
the bat. do not throw it.
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS Players of teams waiting to bat should be in a
specific safe area.
Orthopedically Impaired 10. Keep equipment organized and in the dugout.
Do not leave it scattered around or in the playing
1. Contact the National Wheelchair Softball Asso-
area.
ciation (see Paciorek and Jones, 1989).
Keep the playing area clear of rocks, depres-
11.
2. Allow students using crutches, canes, and/or
sions, obstructions, or any foreign objects.
walkers to strike the ball from a stationary posi-
12. To avoid collisions, learn the correct procedure
tion, e.g., batting tee balanced on a traffic cone.
for calling for fly balls and for covering bases.
3. Use plastic bats and balls, e.g.. whiffle ball.
Organize drills so that students are facing away
13.
from the sun.
Mentally Impaired

1. Contact local Special Olympics for their softball

manuals.
TERMINOLOGY
2. Play "one-base" softball, where batter runs to
Appeal play A play upon which an umpire cannot make a
only first base and not first, second, third, and
decision until requested by a player or a coach.
home. Add additional bases as skills and con-
Assist Fielding credit for a player who throws or deflects
cepts of the game improve.
a batted or thrown ball in which a put-out results, or
3. Do not play "three out": allow all players from
would have resulted except for a subsequent error.
one team to hit before exchanging offensive and
Battery The pitcher and the catcher.
defensive positions.
Batting average The number of hits divided by the times
at bat.
Sensory Impaired
Blocked ball A batted or thrown ball that is touched or
1. Contact the United States Association for Blind stopped by a person not engaged in the game, or which
Athletes for the rules of "Beep Baseball." touches any object that is not part of the official equip-
2. Construct modified guidelines with jump ropes ment or official playing area.
from home plate to first base for blind and /or vi- Blooper A batted fly ball that goes just over the head of
sually impaired. the infielders and just in front of the outfielders.
3. Strike the ball from a stationary position, e.g., Cleanup hitter The number four batter in the batting
batting tee, and instruct the runners to move to order, a position usually occupied by the team's heavi-
an auditory cue. e.g., bell or buzzer at first base. est hitter.
4. Minimal modifications are needed for the deaf Control The ability of a pitcher to throw the ball to a de-
and/or hearing impaired. sired area when pitching.
 SOFTBALL 293

Count The number

of balls and strikes on the batter. SELECTED REFERENCES
Cut-off A
throw from the outfield that is intercepted by
an infielder for the purpose of throwing out a runner Blakemore, C, Hawkes, N., and Burton, E. Drill to Skill:
other than the intended runner. Teacher Tactics in Physical Education. Dubuque, IA:
Double play Two consecutive put-outs occurring between Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1991.
the time the ball leaves the pitcher's hand and its re- Craig, S. and Johnson, K. The Softball Handbook. Cham-
turn to the pitcher. paign, IL: Leisure Press, 1985.
Error A misplay or mistake by the defensive team that Houseworth, S.D. and Rivkin, F.V. Coaching Softball Effec-
results in prolonging the turn at bat of the batter or tively. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publisher, Inc.,
the time on base of the baserunner. 1985.
Fielder's choice The batter is safe because the defensive Ivankovich, M. The Strategy of Pitching Slow Pitch Soft-
player elected to retire a preceding baserunner. ball. Maple Glen, PA: Author, 1985.

Force out An out as a result of a defensive player with Johnson, C.P and Wright, M. The Woman's Softball Book.
the ball tagging a runner or the base to which the New York: Leisure Press, 1984.
baserunner must go because the batter became a Kneer, M.E. and McCord, C.L. Softball: Slow and Fast
baserunner. Pitch. 4th ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publisher,
Fungo bat A lightweight bat used in hitting balls to 1987.
fielders during practice. Linde, K. and Hoehn, R.G. Girl's Softball: Complete Guide
Grand slam The batter hits a home run with the bases for Players and Coaches. West Nyack, NY: Parker Pub-
loaded. lishing Company, Inc., 1985.

Hit A such a way that the batter or preceding

ball hit in NAGWS Softball Guide. Current ed. The American Alli-
baserunners are not retired by good defensive play. ance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and
Dance. 1900 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091.
Hot corner The third base area.
Infield fly A fair fly ball that can be caught by an in- (current ed.). The International
Official Softball Rules,
Joint Rules Committee on Softball. P.O. Box 11437, Ok-
fielder with runners on first and second, or first, sec-
lahoma OK.
City,
ond, and third, before two are out. The batter is
declared out by the umpire.
Paciorek, M.J. and Jones, J. A. Sports and Recreation for
the Disabled. Indianapolis, IN: Benchmark, Inc., 1989.
Keystone sack The second base area.
On deck The player in line to follow the batter at the Potter, D.L.and Brockmeyer, G.A. Softball: Steps to Suc-
cess.Champaign, IL: Leisure Press, 1989.
plate. The place for waiting is the "On-deck circle."
Overthrow A thrown ball that goes into foul territory Reach, J. and Schwartz, B. Softball Everyone! Winston-
Salem, NC: Hunter Textbooks, Inc., 1989.
beyond the boundary lines of the playing field on an
attempt to retire a runner who has not reached or is Whiddon, N.S. and Hall, L.T. Teaching Softball. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company, 1980.
off a base.
Passed ball A legally delivered pitch that should have
been held or controlled by the catcher, which allows a
baserunner to advance. A dropped third strike that
permits the batter to reach first base in fast pitch is an
error, not a passed ball. Audio-Visual Aids
Put-out An out credited to the fielder who last handles
Athletic Institute, 200 Castlewood Dr., N. Palm Beach, FL
the ball on a play that retires the batter or a baserun-
33408 (16mm films, 3/4" and 1/2" videotapes, and film-
ner. strips. )

Running squeeze A play where the runner on third base

Aims Media, Inc., 6901 Woodley Ave., Van Nuys, CA 91406
starts for home with the pitch because he knows the (16mm films, 3/4" and 1/2" videotapes, 8mm silent car-
batter going to bunt the ball.
is tridges)
Sacrifice bunt A play where the batter bunts for the ball Champions on Film, 745 State Circle, Ann Arbor, MI
to advance a baserunner and is thrown out at first 48104 (S8mm silent cartridges)
base, or would have been if the ball was played prop- Clearvue, Inc., 5711 N. Milwaukee Ave., Chicago, IL 60646
erly.
Eye Gate Media, 3333 Elston Ave., Chicago, IL 60616
Sacrifice fly A fly ball that is caught and after which a Phoenix/BFA Films and Video, Inc., 470 Park Ave. South,
baserunner crosses home plate to score a run. New York, NY 10016 (16mm films, 3/4" and 1/2" video-
Safety squeeze A play where the baserunner on third tapes, S8mm silent cartridges, S8mm cartridge with op-
base starts for home after the batter bunts the ball. tical sound)
Switch hitter A batter who bats both right- and left- Universal Education and Visual Arts, 100 Universal City
handed. Plaza, Universal City, CA 91608 (S8mm silent car-
Texas leaguer Same as a Blooper. tridges)
Wild pitch A legally delivered pitch so wide or low or high University of Nebraska, Instructional Media Center, Uni-
that the catcher cannot stop or control the ball, which versity of Nebraska Extension Division, Lincoln, NE
allows a baserunner to advance. 68508 (16mm films)
 SPEEDBALL
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Identify and put into practice the rules governing the game.
Practice and then execute the basic skills including kicking, passing, catching.
trapping, dribbling, and aerial ball conversions.
Identify differences and similarities of skills, rules, and strategies found in other
sports.
Discuss and employ basic offensive and defensive strategies and tactics.
Identify and use basic terminology associated with the game.

NATURE AND PURPOSE (uprights extending from the ground up) are most
often available. The regulation goal is 18 feet wide
The game of speedball is a combination of the skills, for women and 18 feet 6 inches for men.
rules, and strategies of soccer, basketball, and foot-
ball. It is a vigorous, continuous-motion activity in-
volving running sprinting and jogging) and changes
<

of direction (dodging, cutting, stopping, restarting). FIELD OF PLAY

It is played outdoors on a football or soccer size field

by teams of 11 players, yet with limited modifica- A football, soccer, or field hockey field can be used.
tions it can be played indoors in smaller areas and The regulation fields for men and for women are
with fewer players. shown in Figure 20-1. The field consists of a middle/
Originally a men's activity, the game was modi- halfway line, restraining lines, end zone/penalty
fied for women's participation and has evolved into a area, penalty kick mark, end lines, goal lines, and
sport that men and /or women can play by the same sidelines.
set of rules. Speedball is an adaptable game and the Middle/ Halfway Line. This line is used on the
leader can alter the rules to meet individual prefer- kickoffs to insure that the team taking the kick is in
ences. its own half of the field.
The object of the game is to propel a ball to the Restraining Line. The opponents of the team tak-
opponent's end of the field and score points. The ball ing the kickoff must stay behind this line until the
is propelled either as a ground ball (soccer skills) or ball is contacted. In men's rules the ball must travel
an aerial ball (basketball and football). The skills in- beyond 10 yards) the restraining line on kickoff, or
<

volved are kicking, passing (hands or feet), catching,
trapping, and dribbling.
In advancing the ball the offense attempts to
score either by a field goal, touchdown, drop kick,
penalty kick or end goal. The defenders attempt to
be touched by an opponent before those taking the
kickoff can replay the ball.
End Zone/Penalty Area. The size of this area
varies in men's and women's play. The area has four
purposes: 1 A ball thrown from the field of play,
( >

impede the attack by guarding. Players on both
teams are organized into forwards, halfbacks, full-
backs, and a goalkeeper as in soccer.
EQUIPMENT
The only necessary equipment is a ball and two
goals. The regulation speedball is slightly larger
than a soccer ball, but a soccer ball, which is more
across the goal line, and caught in the end zone by
the team attacking that end results in a score (touch-
down as in football). (2) Any "contact foul" (women)
or "personal foul" (men) committed in this area and
against the team defending that end results in a
penalty kick. (3) On a penalty kick no player from
the defending team except the goalie can be in this
zone. (4) A legal attempt to score on a ground ball
within this area by the offense results in an end goal
if it crosses the end line but not in the goal men's (

readily available, most often used. Any type of goal

is rules only).
(soccer, football, field hockey, team handball, etc.) Penalty Kick Mark. This is the spot to place the
can be used, but the soccer and football goals ball for taking a penalty kick.

294
 SPEEDBALL 295

U — 53V 3 yds. 60 yds.

H
CO
CO 5 yds.
>• End zone / Penalty area >»
o C\]

Penalty kick mark

Restraining line

Restraining line
D CO
0)
c Middle line o o
c/)
5 yds. T3
Halfway line
(4.57 m'
o
o O
o
g g
(75 CO

Penalty kick mark

Goal line

o>> t
o
v r
End line End line

-^L_>-G ° 5="
al 18' Goal
18-6"

MEN'S WOMEN'S
FIGURE 20-1 Men's and women's speedball fields.

End Line. This line serves as a boundary, and A), separate rules are no longer necessary. The fol-
when the ball goes out of bounds without scoring, it lowing is a combined and simplified set of rules.
is put back in play by the opposing team from that
spot. The end line can also determine an end goal in
men's rules (see End Zone /Penalty Area, purpose
Scoring
#4). On a penalty kick the defensive players stand
behind this line. The regulation methods for scoring are listed in
Goal Line. This line separates the field of play Figure 20-2 and described below. The points can be
from the end zone/penalty area. On a penalty kick adjusted to meet the needs of varying age groups or
players stand behind the goal line so that they are for emphasizing specific skill usage. From experi-
not in the penalty area. ence most individuals elect to overuse the "touch-
Sideline. This is a boundary line, and when the down" method of scoring. Adding a higher point
ball goes out of bounds it is put back in play with a value than the one listed for a "field goal" leads to
throw by the opposing team from that spot. players using their kicking skills more often, thus
de-emphasizing throwing and catching. Another
suggestion is that the "end goal" method of scoring
BASIC RULES be eliminated.
Field Goal: propelling the ball with the feet or
Although there are two sets of official rules for men's body (no hands or arms) into the goal identical to a —
and women's competition (for sources, see Appendix legal soccer score.
296 SPEEDBALL

FIGURE 20-2. Speedball scoring — official and 7. The offense throwing the ball to a teammate
recommended when both are in the defense's penalty area (W).

Men's Women's Recommended Violation Penalties

Field goal 3 2 3
Drop kick 2 3 2 1. A violation outside the penalty area results in an
Touchdown 1 2 1 indirect free kick at the spot of the infraction
Penalty kick 1 1 1 (W). See Soccer, "Fouls— Indirect Free Kick."
End goal 1 X X 2. A violation inside the opponents' end zone/pen-
alty area gives the opponents a free kick or
throw from the end line nearest the infraction
(W).
Touchdown: throwing the ball across the goal 3. A violation inside one's own end zone/penalty
line to a teammate who catches it in theend zone/ area results in an indirect free kick by the oppo-
—
penalty area similar to a football touchdown. nents at the spot of the infraction (W>.
Drop Kick: drop kicking the ball over the goal
crossbar from outside the end zone/penalty area. Fouls
Penalty Kick: free kicking the ball as a result of a
personal contact foul against the defending team (M = Men's; W= Women's rules prior to combining.)
when in their own penalty area. The ball is kicked 1. Illegal contact with opponents
from the penalty kick mark into the goal. It is sug- a. Kicking (M&W)
gested that the ball be placed on the ground (men's b. Pushing (M&W
rules) similar to a soccer penalty kick rather than c. Tripping (M&W)
drop kicked (women's rules). d. Holding (M&W)
End Goal: the offense kicking the ball over the e. Blocking (M&W)
end line from within the end zone/penalty area f. Charging (M&W) — see Soccer, Charge for le-
without the ball going into the goal (men's rules). It gality
is suggested that this method of scoring not be used, Hacking (W)
g.
but instead the opponents receive a pass/kick-in h. Obstruction (W) — See Soccer, "Obstruction"
from the spot where the ball went over the end line. for legality
i. Unnecessary roughness (M)
Violations, Fouls, and Penalties 2. Illegal substitution (M&W)
3. Unnecessary delay of game (M&W)
There are some variations and some similarities 4. Taking more than three time-outs (M&W)
in the official rules for men and women pertaining to 5. Having more than 11 players on the field
violations, fouls, and penalties. Men's rules classify (M&W)
infractions as violations, technical fouls, and per- 6. Unsportsmanlike conduct (M&W)
sonal fouls, while women's rules identify individual
fouls and team fouls. Many of the infractions are
Foul Penalties
identical but are listed according to their own spe-
cific classification. The penalties for infractions vary 1. A body contact foul (#la-li) by the defending
according to the severity of the infraction. The fol- team in their own penalty area/end zone results
lowing list combines the infractions and classifies in a penalty kick by the opponents (M&W).
them as either fouls (severe) or violations (less se- 2. A body contact foul (#la-li) occurring other
vere). than in one's own penalty area/end zone results
in an indirect free kick by the opponents (W).
Violations
3. A non-contact foul (»2-=6) results in a penalty
(M = Men's; W= Women's rules prior to combining.) kick to the offended team (M&W).
4. A double foul results in a jump ball
at that spot
1. A ground ball touched with the hands or arms unless the fouls were behind the goal line. When
(M&W). behind the goal line, the jump ball takes place on
2. Taking too many steps with ball two steps if — the goal line nearest where the fouls occurred
received while running and one step while (W).
standing (M&W).
3. More than one aerial dribble per possession
(M&W). Game
Length of
4. Holding the ball more than three seconds (W).
5. Kicking or kneeing a fly ball before catching it Speedball is played in quarters with intervals
(M). between each quarter and at the half. The time for
6. The offense drop-kicking the ball in the de- each play period and for intervals can be modified to
fense's penalty area (W). suit the physical abilities of the participants.
 SPEEDBALL 297

Kickoff (overhand, underhand, two hands, one hand, etc.). A

ball over the end line is either thrown or kicked into
The ball is kicked from the ground forward from
play.
the middle line. All members of the kicking team re-
Free Kick. Certain identified infractions result in
main behind the middle line until the ball is con-
a free kick which is identical to soccer (See Soccer,
tacted. The receiving team remains behind the
"Fouls") except that the opponents only need to be 5
restraining line until contact.
yards from the ball. The kick is taken at the spot of
Men's and women's rules differ on the kickoff
infraction. It can be turned into an aerial ball. Indi-
and either choice is acceptable. Men's rules dictate
rect free kick means that someone must touch the
that the ball must be kicked forward beyond the re-
ball prior to a score.
straining line or touched by an opponent before the
Penalty Kick. Certain foul situations previously
kicking team can play it. Women's rules are identical
identified result in a penalty kick which is a free
to a soccer kickoff (see soccer, "Kickoff"), but also
kick. The ball is placed on the penalty kick mark
allow the play to be turned into an aerial ball by lift-
(line), and one of the offended team members is
ing it with the feet to the hands of a teammate (not to
allowed a free kick to score a field goal against
self).
the opposing team goalie. The offensive team mem-
bers position outside the defenders' penalty area.
The defensive players, aside from the goalie, position
Playing the Ball
either behind the end line or outside the penalty
Ground Ball. The ball, when on
the ground (roll- area.
ing, bouncing, or stationary), played as in soccer
is Goalkeeper. The goalie primarily defends the
with skills of dribbling, kicking, heading, or trap- goal against the field goal attempts. The goalkeeper
ping. In order for the ball to be thrown it must first is bound by the same rules as all other players with
be brought from the feet immediately into the hands. no special privileges or rules.
Aerial Ball. The legal conversion of a ground ball
using the feet to lift or kick it into the hands is called
an aerial ball. When in the hands it can be thrown,
passed, and caught as in football and basketball. The
ball can be air dribbled to oneself only one time each SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
new possession. The air dribble consists of throwing
the ball in the air and relocating to regain possession A. Stretching and running
by catching it. On the air dribble, steps do not count B. Basic rules
while the ball is in the air. A player is legally allowed C. Fundamental skills
one step with the ball when holding it if obtained 1. Passing
while standing, or two steps if running prior to re- a. Soccer —
inside of foot, instep kick, lofting
ceiving it. Additional steps are illegal and are called the ball and punt
traveling. Holding the ball with the hands for more b. Basketball — chest, overhead and baseball
than three seconds without giving up possession is c. Football — forward
illegal. This speeds up the game and is a rule which d. Speedball — drop kick
can be modified. 2. Catching/Trapping
Physical Contact. Rules allow for the same body a. Soccer — sole of foot, inside of foot, outside
contact as in soccer (see Soccer, "Physical Contact") of foot and chest
when the ball is on the ground. With the ball in the b. Basketball — two hands above and below
hands, guarding as in basketball (see Basketball, the waist, pivoting
"Fouls") is appropriate. Other personal contact fouls c. Football — over the shoulder
were identified in the foregoing listing of speedball 3. Heading
fouls. a. Soccer — standing and jumping
JumpBall (toss-up, tie-ball). Two opponents si- 4. Dribbling
multaneously holding the ball results in a jump ball. a. Soccer — inside and outside of foot
Likewise, if it is not possible to decide which team b. Speedball — aerial
put the ball out-of-bounds, a jump ball is held. The 5. Individual defense
format is the same as in basketball with two oppo- a. Soccer — tackling from the front and side
nents facing each other and jumping to tip the ball b. Basketball — guarding and denial of ball
which is tossed between them. All other opponents c. Football — pass defense
must be at least 5 yards away on the toss-up. The 6. Personal conversion to aerial
ball remains as an aerial ball off the tip provided it a. Speedball — up, two foot
roll and one
lift

does not contact the ground in which case it is con- foot lift

sidered a ground ball. 7. Goalie

Out-of-Bounds. A ball going off the field of play a. Soccer — catch waist, chest and above head;
over the sideline is put back in play with a throw falling catch; tip; throw and punt.
298 SPEEDBALL

D. Strategies these sections will prepare the speedball player for

1. Offense skilled participation.
a. Soccer —
possession, superiority around the Basketball Skills: pivoting; chest pass; over-
ball, creating space, tempo, communica- —
head pass one-hand overhead pass baseball two- ( >;

tion, depth/support, width, penetration, hand catch and holding the ball; cutting; individual
mobility and improvisation. defense against a player with the ball, player with-
b. Basketball —
cutting, fakes/feints, attack- out the ball and denial defense.
ing a man to man and zone defense, fast
Soccer inside of foot pass; instep kick;
Skills:
break.
and outside of
lofting the ball; sole of foot trap, inside
c. Football —
dodging, faking and change of
foot trap; chest trap; inside and outside of foot drib-
pace.
ble, heading, standing, and jumping; tackling from
Soccer — pressure, depth/support, width,
2. a.
balance, delay, concentration and control.
front and side; goalkeeping catching ball waist, —
chest and above head plus falling to side, tip, punt
Basketball — player to player, fast break
b.
and overhand throw.
and zone.
Football Skills: forward pass and over-the-
Football — pass defense.
c.
shoulder catch.
E. Systems
1.Style — long or short pass, static positioning,
aerial or ground man to man or zone.
ball,
Aerial Conversions
2.Formations — (M or W as in soccer), V or in-
verted V. Ball control and scoring opportunities are en-
F. Restarts hanced by having the ball in the hands. The ball
1. Kick off must go from the feet directly into the hands for it to
2. Throw-in be a legal aerial ball. This may happen as a result of
3. Free kick punts, soccer style kicks, and drop kicks. An individ-
4. Penalty kick ual can convert a ground ball to an aerial ball by
using either a roll-up, two-foot lift, or one-foot lift.

SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES Learning Cues — Roll-Up

Only a few skills are specific to speedball. The major- 1. Stand erect with the ball wedged evenly between
ity of the skills needed are described in the basket- the feet (Figure 20-3A».
ball, soccer, and football chapters. The skills from 2. Bend at the waist so the back is parallel with the
these sports are identified below, and a review of ground.

FIGURE 20-3
ABC
Roll-up: (A) wedged ball. (B) rolling ball up leg. (C) converting to an aerial ball by grabbing it with hands.
 .

SPEEDBALL 299

3. Extend the arms downward and perpendicular

to the ground.
4. Place pressure on the bottom half of the ball
with the inside of one foot, rotate the knee out-
ward and roll the ball up the inside ankle and
calf of the opposite leg (Figure 20-3B).
5. Grab the ball off the foot and leg with the hand
converting it to an aerial ball (Figure 20-3C).

Practice Suggestions

Wedge the ball with the inside of both feet and

rollthe ball up and down one lower leg by applying
more pressure with the foot opposite that leg. Do not
attempt to pick up the ball at this point, but repeat-
edly roll it up and down the leg to get the feeling so
that control is not lost. Progress next to bending over
to grab the ball off the foot and leg with the hands.
Gradually attempt to speed up the whole process.

Learning Cues — Two-Foot Lift

1. Stand erect with the ball wedged evenly between

the feet as in Figure 20-3A.
2. Hop up, keeping the ball wedged evenly between
the feet and lifting it higher toward the hands.
3. In the air, lean forward extending the arms and
hands downward to grab the ball from the feet
(Figure 20-4A).
4. Catch the ball and land on two feet with the con-
verted aerial ball ready to pass it (Figure 20-4B).

Practice Suggestions

Wedge the
ball with the inside of both feet and
hop attempting to lift the ball as high as
in the air
possible. Keep the body erect and do not yet attempt
to lean over to grab the ball. Continue this exercise,
attempting to bring the ball higher each time. Pro-
gress next to leaning over to grab the ball with the
hands before it drops to the ground.

Learning Cues — One-Foot Lift

1 Stand erect with one foot extended in front of the

body and the sole of that foot applying light
pressure on the top of the ball (Figure 20-5A).
2. Apply more pressure on the top of the ball with
the sole of the foot, and roll the ball quickly to-
ward the body.
3. Place the toe of the foot rolling the ball under the
rotating ball to lift it upward.
4. Bend forward at the waist, extend the arms and
hands downward and lift the ball with the toe
toward the hand (Figure 20-5B).
B
5. Catch the ball with two hands as it is lifted waist
high into the air (Figure 20-5C) converting it to FIGURE 20-4 Two-foot lift: (A) lifting the ball to
an aerial ball. convert to an aerial, (B) catching the ball from lift.
300 SPEEDBALL

FIGURE 20-5
ABC
One-foot

Practice Suggestions
lift: (A) rolling ball

In an erect position, reach forward with an ex-

tended leg and apply pressure with the sole of the
foot on the ball. Roll the ball backward and forward
backward, (B) lifting backward rolling ball with toe. (C) catching the ball from the toe

upon the ball touching the ground (bounce). The

contact is in the back/bottom surface of the ball.
The higher the contact surface on the ball, the
lower the trajectory of the ball, and vice-versa.
lift.

7. Follow-Through. A short follow-through by the

keeping foot pressure on it to get the feeling of roll-
contact leg results in a low trajectory, and a long
ing. Gradually, on the backward roll, apply more
one results in a higher trajectory.
pressure causing rapid rotation on the ball as that
foot releases from the ball. Next, attempt to place the
toe of that foot quickly under the ball and lift the ball Practice Suggestions
as high as possible into the air without catching it.
Face a wall 10 yards away and drop the ball, at-
Try to lift it at least waist high. Finally, repeat all of
tempting to drop kick it with a low trajectory (no
foregoing and lean forward to catch the ball. Once
higher than the head). Allowing the ball to bounce
consistency is obtained, attempt to use the one-foot
too high from the ground results in a high trajectory,
lift on an approaching ball that is already rolling to-
so attempt to contact the ball the instant it contacts
ward the participant.
the ground. Gradually attempt to kick the ball
higher without sacrificing accuracy. Alternate be-
Drop Kick
tween high and low trajectories to reinforce the tim-
The drop kick is used as one method for scoring. ing of ball /ground /foot contact.
Itcan also be used to kick the ball a great distance
similar to punting, except that a drop kick tends to
have a lower trajectory, which adds distance to the
PLAYING STRATEGIES
kick.

Learning Cues The placement of players on the field assists conti-

Refer to the Soccer chapter learning cues on
punting (see Figure 18-36). Cues 1-5 apply to speed-
ball. The following techniques differ for drop kick-
ing.
6. Ball Contact. The ball is contacted with the in-
step (hard top surface) of the foot immediately
nuity in offense and defense. Speedball players
consist of forwards, halfbacks, fullbacks, and a goal-
keeper, and their responsibilities are the same as in
soccer. The basic strategies are for the players to po-
sition systematically on the field, maintain posses-
sion of the ball, propel the ball toward the opponent's
goal line, and score points.
 SPEEDBALL 301

Offense ized is dependent upon what the opponents use and/

or the strengths and weaknesses of one's own team.
A quick reference to the Soccer chapter will pre-
pare participants for offensive play. Note especially
the information on space; strategic field areas; offen-
sive principles; individual, group, and team tactics; MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
and styles of play.
One difference in speedball offense is that there See modifications listed in Soccer and Team
are several methods for scoring. One method (touch- Handball.
down) can be accomplished any place along the en-
tire width of the field while others (field goal and
drop kick) can only be accomplished at the goal in
TERMINOLOGY
the middle of the field. Converting an aerial ball to a
ground ball for a field goal attempt provides an op-
Aerial ball A ball that has been thrown or propelled into
portunity to score more points. Due to this, the ball
the air by the feet and that can legally be played with
in the middle of the field near the goal is a good of-
the hands.
fensive strategy specific to speedball.
Air dribble A ball tossed to oneself in an attempt to relo-
Since ball control and possession are easier in
cate.
speedball than soccer, and there is no offside rule, it
Double foul Two opponents simultaneously committing
is an advantage to have many players in front of the
a foul which results in a jump ball (toss-up).
ball to increase penetration and scoring opportuni-
Dribble Propelling the ball with the feet (soccer) so that
Passers should immediately attempt to locate in
ties.
the individual maintains control while moving.
advance of the ball upon relinquishing possession.
Drop kick The skill of dropping the ball from the hands to
Varying the ways the team attempts to score
the ground and kicking it upon ground contact; also a
makes it more difficult for the opponents to defend
method of scoring.
against the offense.
End goal A score resulting from the offense kicking the
ball across the opponent's end line while in the pen-

Defense alty area (men's rules).

Field goal A score resulting from the offense propelling
The Soccer chapter identifies defensive princi- the ball, as in soccer (no hands or arms), into the oppo-
ples that apply to speedball.The player-to-player de- nent's goal.
fense is imperative in speedball since the offense can Foul An infraction of the rules that is penalized severely.
use the aerial ball, which leads to ball control. De- Free kick An unguarded kick from the ground such as
fenders must be close to their assigned individual to penalty kick, kickoff, or indirect free kick.
disrupt the offensive advantage. Quick transition Goalkeeper The player responsible for protecting the
from offense to locating the assigned individual one goal against the field goal.
is to guard extremely important. The defenders
is
Ground ball A ball that cannot be touched by the hands
need to know where their opponents are at all times but must be propelled as in soccer by dribble, kicking,
and be close enough to protect against a pass. heading, etc.
The aerial ball rules in speedball make it impor- Guard The an opponent.
act of defending against
tant that the defender positions far enough away A which someone other
free kick in
Indirect free kick
from the player with the ball so that the player can- than the individual making that kick must touch the
not air dribble quickly getting behind the defender. ball before it can go into the goal.
The offensive player cannot move very far on one air Infraction A breach of the rules.
dribble and has only three seconds to get rid of the Jump ball (Toss-up)Tossing the ball between two players
ball. If the aerial ball is converted to a ground ball by
who jump to tip the ball restarting play.
the offense, the defender should immediately pres- Kickoff A free kick at the middle line at the start of the
sure the opponent and get closer so as to destroy con- game, following a score, following suspension of play
trol and reduce the chances of making a long kick or
each period.
shot on goal. Kick-up The conversion of a ground ball to an aerial ball.
One-foot lift The skill of converting a ground ball to an
aerial ball by rolling and lifting it with the foot.
Systems
Pass Propelling the ball, with either the hands or feet, to
The placement of players on the field and their another player.
responsibilities reflect systematic cohesion among Penalty kick A free kick to attempt a field goal as a result
teammates. The team systems indicated in the of a foul.
Soccer chapter are appropriate for speedball. Field Punt The skill of immediately kicking the ball after drop-
balance is important for either offensive or defensive ping it from the hands.
success and a system provides this. The system util- Roll-up The skill of converting a ground ball into an aer-
302 SPEEDBALL

by rolling it up the leg with the foot and grab-

ial ball Violation An infraction of the rules that is not severely
bing with the hands.
it penalized.
Throw-in Putting the ball back in play after it has gone
out of bounds over the sideline.
Touchdown A score made when a teammate throws the
ball to a partner who catches it in the opponent's end SELECTED REFERENCES
zone/penalty area.
Trapping The skill of receiving (catching) the ball with Meyer, M. and Schwarz, M. Team Sports for Girls and
the foot or body to bring it under control. Women. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Co., 1980.
Traveling Taking too many steps with the ball in the Musher, C. Team Sports for Girls and Women. Princeton,
hands: one step if received while standing and two if NJ: Princeton Books. 1983.
while running. Phillip, J. and Wilkerson, J. Teaching Team Sports. Cham-
Two-foot lift The skill of converting a ground ball to an paign, IL: Human Kinetics. 1990.
aerial ball by hopping to lift the ball to oneself.
 SWIMMING, DIVING,
AND WATER EXERCISE
THIS CHAPTER WILL EHABLE YOU TO:
Understand and apply the principles of safety involved
activities.
Understand the fundamental skills, biomechanics of swimming and progressions
utilized in the beginning through intermediate levels of swimming and diving.
Identify and correct common
Understand and participate in the benefits
Participate in and contribute
NATURE AND PURPOSE
Aquatic activities are among the leading forms of
recreation in the United States. Over 75 million
Americans enter the water in some form of recre-
ational aquatic activity each year. An estimated
7,000 drownings occur annually in the United
States. Many of these result from the inability to
swim or from preventable accidents. These statistics
indicate the importance of knowing how to swim; in
fact, a knowledge of basic swimming skills may be
life saving. The goal of physical educators who teach
swimming and diving in our schools is to provide
sound information to students who wish to utilize
our nation's recreational aquatic facilities.
There are other advantages to be derived from
swimming in addition to increased safety in the
water. Participants may improve their cardiorespi-
ratory fitness levels. Many aquatic activities may
benefit those unable to jog or otherwise restricted
from land activities due to physical handicaps, be-
cause the body's natural buoyancy in water reduces
strain in the knee and hip region. Flexibility, agility,
balance, and strength can be improved with regular
participation in water activities.
EQUIPMENT
Most equipment needed for instruction, activi-
of the
and aquatic games is generally found in and
ties,
around aquatic facilities. A well-equipped aquatic
program would include but is not limited to the fol-
lowing: kickboards, pull buoys, float belts, Personal
Flotation Devices (PFD's), masks, fins, snorkels,
water volleyballs (rubber) and net, water polo equip-
ment (balls, hats, flag, goals), inner tubes, rescue
equipment (reaching pole, ring buoys throw bag,
backboard, head immobilizing device, cervical col-
in aquatic- related
errors of learning swimmers and divers.
of water exercise.
to aquatic games and contests.
lars, pocket masks, first aid kit, rescue tubes, rescue
board, shepherd's crook, whistles), water basketball
and goals, various types of floatable toys, hula
hoops, rubber diving bricks and rings, resolite mats,
and net bags for equipment storage.
A hose or water source other than the pool's
should be available to rinse all equipment at the end
of each session, and a preventive maintenance pro-
gram should be developed to help keep all equipment
in good working order. A planned equipment re-
placement and expansion budget should be insti-
tuted.
AQUATIC SAFETY STANDARDS AND ACCIDENT
PREVENTION
1. Instructor Certification. In most states the Board
of Education requires that the public school
teacher teaching in the pool be currently certi-
fied as an American Red Cross Water Safety In-
structor or equivalent. An acceptable equivalent
is the YMCA's progressive swimming instructor
certification.
2. Lifeguards. A trained lifeguard certified through
the American Red Cross or YMCA
lifeguarding
program must be on duty at water side for the
duration of the activity, and may not be assigned
any other duties than guarding the participants
during the time they are in the water. If the
school budget does not provide for a lifeguard,
the teacher or coach may not also act as a life-
guard, which requires a specific certification.
3. Risk Assessment. The Aquatic Council to the Na-
tional American Association of Health, Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance established
risk assessment procedures for aquatics in the
AAHPERD publication, Principles of Safety in
Physical Education and Sport. Some of the
303
304 SWIMMING. DIVING. AND WATER EXERCISE
topics to be considered in a risk assessment
include: design safety, hazard identification,
maintenance, state regulations, pool checklists,
remedial maintenance protocols, supervision /in-
struction, record keeping, insurance, and emer-
gency accident management procedures.
4. Pool Safety Checklist. Pool safety is achieved only
through a continuous program of quality super-
vision, maintenance, and inspection by trained
and knowledgeable aquatic professionals. A pool
safety checklist should be developed for the facil-
ity and should be used on a regular basis. The
different areas of responsibilities may be as-
signed to different individuals according to their
daily duties.
5. Emergency Accident Plan and Equipment. a The I I
pool must have: a telephone accessible to the
lifeguard and instructor with emergency num-
bers posted, a first aid kit. towels, blankets, and
an easily accessible emergency entrance exit
able to accommodate ambulance personnel and
equipment. b A written emergency plan should
I I
be posted, and records of staff rehearsals kept on
file. The Emergency Medical Services S
local
tern should be consulted and utilized in tho
development of the emergency plan and sul
quent rehearsals
6. Attention. The
instructor should have all equip-
ment for the lesson moved to the pool edge prior
to the participants' entry into the water The
lifeguard or instructor should not handle phone
calls or other interruptions until the exit of all
students from the water. It only takes 20 to 60
seconds for a swimmer to drown.
7. Divide and Conquer. In classes with swimming
students of many different skill levels, the in-
structor should test students along the shallow
end of the pool and divide them into groups ac-
cording to their skill level; beginner, interme-
diate, or advanced. The advanced students can
then assist the instructor. The advanced stu-
dents will gain valuable insight to their own
swimming by assisting in the instructional proc-
ess. This may also entice these students into
moving toward obtaining their water safety in-
structor certification in the future. The instruc-
tor should set aside time at the end of the class
period to work with the advanced students on
advanced skills, while beginners and interme-
diates practice basic skills unassisted, yet super-
vised. This strategy works well with the middle
school ages and up. However, for the elementary
students, the divide and conquer strategy will
differ.
First of all. the swimming instructors should
request for prior grouping of students so that
they teach beginners in one class period, inter-
mediates in another class period and so forth.
Also, the instructors' should indicate what the
appropriate student instructor ratios are for the
different skill levels. Recommendation:
Beginners 10/1 Maximum
Advanced Beginners 15 1 Maximum
Intermediate 20 1 Maximum
If classes cannot be set up this way. the instruc-
tors must go to the divide and conquer method
within the class period. Since many students of
elementary age may not be able to stand even in
the shallow end. it once again becomes impera-
tive to have assistance in the pool classroom. A
rule to which there can be no exception is to
work with the student one on one. Stress that
the students may not leave the wall and main-
tain constant vigilance with the students on the
wall. If the school is combined with older grade
levels, utilize older volunteer students from
study hall or activity periods to assist the
teacher.
FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS. KNOWLEDGE.
AND TECHNIQUE PROGRESSIONS
The teaching of aquatic-related skills in our schools
since the advent of the YMCA
and American Red
Cross programs traditionally has been one of "as-
sembly line"' like instruction. A recent contrast to
this approach comes in the contemporary prescrip-
tive aquatic instruction or a developmental ap-
proach. This approach is based on the principles
common to movement education. Both of these ap-
proaches should be given consideration and aligned
with the goals of the particular instruction program
offered at the institution.
This section outlines basic knowledge which
many of the swimming aquatic skills utilize. This
section will include: methods of instruction, biome-
chanical hydrodynamic principles related to swim-
ming, effective pool use. water entry and exit, water
orientation, bobbing and safety bobbing, buoyancy
and floating, gliding, kicking, strokes, basic diving
mechanics, and basic dives.
Teaching Methodology
Teaching of swimming skills successfully is de-
pendent upon the instructor's knowledge of me-
chanics, student readiness, the student's desire to
practice, and the instructor's ability to communicate
constructive observations. The method used to teach
swimming is dependent on two factors: 1 the com- 1 1
plexity of the skill to be learned and 2 the motor
1
1
ability of the learner. For simple skills with average
toabove average ability, the whole method of teach-
ing is used 'verbal description, demonstration, and
swimming of the whole stroke For complex skills
I.
the part method breakdown of skill into body posi-
i

tion, kick,armstroke, breathing, coordination)
should be used. For assessment of swimmer's ability,
a whole method is recommended as it allows the in-
structor to establish the overall ability of the class
and ascertain levels of student fear. Where fear is
not evident and swimmers are of average ability,
swimming skills would be classified as simple and
the whole method of instruction should be used.
Biomechanical Principles of Swimming
It is essential that the instructor understand
how the biomechanics of the stroke affect swimming
efficiency. A swimmer's forward progress through
the water is affected by many factors —in particular,
propulsion, resistance, and buoyancy.
Propulsion. The propulsive force is created by
the different hand positions, pulls, and kicks utilized
by the swimmer. Regardless of the stroke used, the
hand should be held firm, slightly cupped and the
fingers relaxed but close together. The hands follow
an elliptical pattern as opposed to a straight line. In
the underwater phase of all strokes, the pull
arm(s) come to a bent arm position, minimizing up
and down movements in the water. Propulsion in all
strokes must be optimized to overcome the laws of
inertia. Other important laws of movement include
the law of acceleration whereby the swimmer must
apply an equal force (even stroke) in the direction in
which the force acts. A variation in application of
force will be required in strokes other than the front
and back crawl strokes. The law of action /reaction
which states that every action has an equal and op-
posite reaction, is also critical to the swimmer. For
example, if a swimmer's armstroke in the front or
back crawl is wide and sweeping, then the swim-
mer's legs and trunk will move in the opposite direc-
tion thereby creating more resistance.
Resistance. Often referred to as drag resis-
tance is the combination of forces which slows a
swimmer's forward progress. Frontal resistance is
created by the water directly in front of the body:
The more vertical the body is in the water, the
greater the frontal resistance. Skin function resis-
tance is created by the water that is flowing immedi-
ately next to the body. Tail suction, or "eddy"
resistance is caused by poorly streamlined body
parts creating a momentary void in the water, mak-
ing the body pull or suck water with it. All three of
these resistance factors can be reduced by streamlin-
ing the body during all phases of strokes and turns.
Buoyancy. Various physical factors affect an
individual's ability to float, among them bone size,
fat tissue,muscular development, weight distribu-
tion, and lung capacity. A swimmer with dense bone
structure and heavy muscle tissue will tend to sink
lower in the water than a person with a higher body
fat percentage. This explains why some swimmers
will float better than others.
SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE 305
The center of buoyancy is that point of the body
around which it rotates in the water. The center of
buoyancy is located higher in the body than the
center of gravity. In general, on land a female's
center of gravity is in the hip region and a male's is
in the lower rib area. In the water, however, the
center of buoyancy is generally located much higher
in males than in females, likely due to the more
dense leg structure of the male. This information is
important when teaching floating and gliding skills,
and explains why men find it more difficult to float
and glide horizontally than do women. Another rea-
son is that men float lower in the water, which re-
quires them to overcome greater frontal resistance
and skin friction due to the greater submerged body
surface.
Getting Started — Effective Pool Use
Efficiency of pool use is necessary when classes
are large. Beginner classes offer more restraints
than advanced classes due to the use of only shallow
water. The instructor will need to be in the water
with the beginning level swimming, while in teach-
ing more advanced swimmers, he or she may wish to
be on the deck. In both situations, it is recommended
that instructors utilize the width of the pool for
teaching and making corrections. Demonstrations
should be done while swimmers are standing on the
deck with the demonstrator in the water. If the pool
has windows, the students watching the demonstra-
tion should have their backs to the windows. These
two recommendations allow students to get a better
view of the demonstration by reducing glare.
Students need to be reminded that most acci-
dents in the pool area occur on the pool deck and
during water entry and exit. Reminders should be
given at the beginning and throughout each pool
session that students should enter by sitting on the
pool side and slipping into the water or jumping in
feet first facing outward. Students should exit the
pool by using the ladders.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
Beginning Swimming
A. Water orientation
B. Holding positions
1. Entry
2. Front
3. Back
4. Drafting
5. Streamlining on front
6. Streamlining on back
C. Skills
1. Bubble bobs
2. Safety bobbing
3. Front float
306 SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE

4. Back float 1. Sit on pool side with feet and lower legs in the
5. Front glide water.
6. Back glide 2. Use hands to splash water on themselves.
7. Front glide with kick 3. Slide into shallow water and remain holding the
8. Back glide with kick wall. Instructor may need to assist students into
9. Front beginner stroke the pool.
10. Back beginner stroke 4. Sink into water and pull the warm blanket of
11. Jump from wall (shallow water) water over the shoulders.
Intermediate Swimming
5. Instructor —
demonstrate bubble blowing with
chin and lips in the water. Student's turn!
A. Strokes 6. Bubble blowing from mouth and nose.
1. Front crawl 7. —
Face completely immersed with bubbles.
2. Elementary backstroke 8. Head under.
3. Back crawl
NOTE: The student should be asked to do these
4. Breaststroke
skills, never forced. Remember fear levels
5. Sidestroke
may be high, the peer pressure of classmates
Diving doing the skill should be ample external mo-
tivation. Student readiness will determine
A. Types of dives (in order of difficulty i

the level of accomplishment.

1. Slide-in dive

2. Sitting dive
3. Kneeling dive
4. Scale or tip-in dive Holding Positions
5. Shallow push dive
1. Entry. The beginning swimmer may need
6. Deep push dive
assistance entering the water. This is particularly
7. Forward standing dive (1 meter)
true if they cannot touch the bottom. The instructor
8. Standing back dive (1 meter)
reaches under the armpits of the student and lowers
him or her from a sitting position on the deck into
the water. Students should be reminded to hold onto
BEGINNING SWIMMING the wall.
2. The front holding position, to be
Front.
Water Orientation
used when instructing the front float, front glide,
Beginning students may approach their first etc.. is best accomplished by having the student
swimming session with great anxiety. It is impor- cross one hand over the other and place both hands
tant that the instructor create an atmosphere condu- in one of the instructor's hands. The student's arms
cive to learning under these circumstances. The are then extended at the elbow and as the student
following gradual steps should be taken with the be- stretches to the glide position, the instructor places
ginner swimmers. Instructors should demonstrate his or her opposite hand on the student's hip (Figure
all skills immediately prior to students' attempt. 21-1).

FIGURE 21-1 Holding position for front/prone glide.

 SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE 307

FIGURE 21-2 Holding position for back/supine glide.

3. Back. The back holding position provides termittently reduces support or, depending on the
the student with security when
learning the back student's confidence level, lets go. The student's
float, back glide, etc. The student places both hands body will be pulled by inertia toward the instructor
on the wall, pushes the abdomen toward the wall, and follow in his or her wake (Figure 21-3).
and places the head back toward the instructor. The 5. Streamlining on the Front. Streamlining
instructor cradles the head in one hand while reach- helps reduce water resistance. The most important
ing to the small of the back with the other. The stu- part of this skill is the grab of the hands. While
dent is instructed to straighten the elbows and to standing, students place both hands over their
keep an arch in the back (Figure 21-2). heads. Without grabbing their hands, they should
4. Drafting. This helps students gain
skill try to squeeze their ears with their arms. Then, con-
confidence in their ability to float. The student is trast this by having students place one hand over the
held in either the front or back holding position di- other and lock the thumb of the top hand over the
rectly perpendicular to the instructor. The instructor bottom hand. Now, squeeze the ears again. Students
begins to move backward while pulling the student should note that they are much stronger with hands
along. Once the student is moving, the instructor in- locked into position. Once accomplished, have stu-

FIGURE 21-3 The transition from backglide holding position to drafting.

308 SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE
dents sink into the water, push off into a front or
prone glide keeping arms straight, hands locked,
finger tips pointed,and body in line.
6. Streamlining on the Back. This can be
accomplished in the same manner as the frontal
streamlining, just turned over. However, when float-
ing on the back, most beginning students find it eas-
ier to leave hands and arms straight down at the
sides. This is acceptable at the beginning level.
Beginner Skills
1. Bubble Bobs. The student holds the
with both hands approximately shoulder width
apart. Submerge and blow bubbles toward the wall.
This should be done systematically at the beginning
of each class, and students should build to about two
sets often rhythmic bubble bobs. Emphasis is placed
on blowing out under water, taking a breath above
water, keeping eyes open during both phases, and
not wiping face with hands.
2. Safety Bobbing. Once the student
fortable with bobbing, safety bobbing can be taught.
The instructor takes students one at a time into
water slightly over their head. Practice at 5 feet from
the wall and have student bob to wall systematically
and rhythmically, bouncing from the bottom and
pushing toward the wall. The instructor should as-
sist as much as needed.
3.Front Float. Students can achieve a front
float once they are comfortable putting their face in
the water. With minimal support from the instruc-
tor, student allows legs and arms to dangle in the
water with the face in. Breath should be exhaled
slowly from mouth and nose.
FIGURE 21-4 Flutter kicking with
4. Back Float. With minimal support from
the instructor, the student lays head back in the
water while pushing hips and abdomen toward sur-
face gently; arms are extended laterally and knees
are bent.
5. Front Glide. From the front holding posi-
tion have student push gently away from the wall.
Once moving, remove support hand from hip and
then from hands. If student is comfortable in at-
tempting, and can push from the wall in the stream-
line position and can maintain glide for 5 to 10
seconds, move on to the front glide with kick.
wall
6. Back Glide. Generally, students are less
comfortable in the supine position. The instructor
needs to assess student readiness before attempting
any removal of support from the back holding posi-
tion. To start, have student ease off the wall in the
back holding position; request that the student make
eye contact with the instructor and keep the belly up.
Drafting can be used to increase student's confi-
is com- dence.
7. Front Glide with Kick. The flutter kick
on the wall using
(freestyle) should be first practiced
the wall holding technique shown in Figure 21-4. Si-
multaneous practice of the kick and head position for
breathing can be done as shown. Once a satisfactory
kick is established, the student may push off the
wall in the streamline position, glide (5 feet) and
begin kicking. The kick should generate from the hip
area with knees flexing slightly and toes pointed
on the downbeat; kick is finished with a straight
leg. The foot then moves upward until the heel
breaks the water surface. Legs are alternated. The
kick should not splash water. Proper head position is
head in breathing position.
 SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE 309

accomplished with the water line at the middle of the

forehead.
8. Back Glide with Kick. The backstroke
kick (flutter) is accomplished by allowing the foot to
first sink in the water about 12 inches by bending
the knees. The upbeat, which is the propulsive
phase, is done by straightening the leg. The foot
should not come out of the water but the leg and toes
do come near the surface. This maintains proper
body position. The student eases off the wall on the
and begins a gentle backstroke
back, glides (5 feet)
kick. Arms should remain at side. Proper head align-
ment is indicated by the chin being slightly up and
the water line just over the ears.
9. Front Beginner Stroke. This stroke is
taught when the front glide with kick can be done for
10 seconds. The stroke consists of the front glide
with kick and an armstroke. The armstroke is ac-
complished by alternating arms from the stream-
lined position to the thigh. The arms are moved in
perfect alternation with an underwater recovery and
pull, push, slice, reach action. The pull phase is ini-
tiated by pulling down and back on the water with
the hand from the overhead position. Then, keep the FIGURE 21-5 Instructor assisted jump from wall.
elbow high and begin a bend at the elbow. The hand
then passes down the centerline of the body. Once
the hand passes mid-chest a pushing action is made
toward the feet. The hand should be angled so that few jumps. The instructor stands facing the student,
the palm is facing and pushing toward the feet. holds hands with the student, either right to left or
Breathing can be accomplished by turning the chin left to right, then turns so that the student does not

to either shoulder. The breathing is timed so that
when the hand of the desired breathing side is in the
push phase, the chin should be turned to the
shoulder of the breathing side. The breath pattern
should be such that the student blows bubbles into
jump on top of the instructor (Figure 21-5). Students
should look at the area where they are going to enter
the water. The instructor can enhance this by plac-
ing the free hand in this area so that the student
may spot it.

the water with the face in, completes the exhaling

phase when the mouth exits the water, and inhales
with the mouth out of the water. Immediately after
INTERMEDIATE SWIMMING
taking the breath the student turns the head so that
Before moving on to the intermediate level, students
the face is in the water and begins to exhale. The
breath is not held.
must thoroughly understand and be able to demon-
strate the beginner skills in the previous section,
10. Back Beginner Stroke. The student and be able to swim approximately 2 widths of the
streamlines from the wall in the back streamline po-
pool. The intermediate skills described in this sec-
sition (arms down), glides (5 feet) and begins the
tion will enable students to be more proficient in the
backstroke kick. Simultaneous arm movement is
water.
started by running the thumbs up the sides of the
body to the shoulders and then extending laterally.
Palms should face the wall the body came from and Stroke Skills
using straight arms, push the water toward the feet
It would be helpful to review the section on the
and hands to the hips, the start position. Arm cycle biomechanics of swimming and apply the principles
is repeated after a short glide. ARM CUE: Up, Out, To-
to the teaching of the strokes. Similarities will be
gether, Glide.
found among the strokes in propulsive force, pull
11. Jump from the Wall (Shallow Water). patterns, rhythmic breathing patterns, and high
This activity can be very exciting for the beginner. elbow positions.
Although the skill is relatively easy, safety precau- Front Crawl. The fastest of the strokes and
tions must be given. Advise students not to turn also the one preferred for fitness swimming activi-
around toward the wall when jumping into the pool. ties is the front crawl (freestyle). This stroke is char-
It's a good idea to assist the swimmer for the first acterized by the crawling motion of the arms.
310 SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE
1. The arm cycle is similar to that described in the
beginner stroke, except that the arm recovery is
above the water. The hand enters the water in
front of the head, extending straight up from the
shoulder and entering with the thumb and fore-
finger side first (30-40 degrees pitch). Upon
entry the arm should be extended fully forward
and slightly downward. The catch of the stroke
fastest competitive stroke
begins with the fingers pointing downward to-
the crawling motion in the supine position.
ward the bottom as the wrist and elbow begin to
flex. Keeping the elbow above the hand the
swimmer begins to pull the body forward across
the hand. The palm of the hand should face the
wall the swimmer came from, the hand should
move down the centerline of the body, and the
elbow should bend to approximately 90 degrees
to provide maximum leverage. The push phase
is the final underwater stage and is accom-
plished by extending the elbow and pressing the
hand to the thigh.
2. The recovery begins with the hand turning to the
little finger side, by the thigh, and slipping out
of the water. The elbow is lifted to a 90-degree
angle at the elbow joint above the water, and the
finger tips are carried close to the water surface
to the entry point. ARMSTROKE CUES: Slice, Down
the Hill, Up the Hill, Push to Thigh, High
Elbow, Slice.
3. The freestyle kick is identical to the front kick in
the beginner section with a six-beat rhythmical
pattern to stroke cycle.
4. Breathing is accomplished to either side with
as a resting stroke although it is one of the four com-
the head beginning the turn during the push
petitive
phase of the armstroke to that side. The breath
should not be held during any part of the stroke
cycle.
Elementary Backstroke. The elementary
backstroke is a resting stroke that provides the
swimmer with an opportunity to relax and breathe
continuously.
1. The arm cycle is identical to that described in the
beginner backstroke. The kick now becomes an
inverted breaststroke kick instead of a flutter
kick.
2. The inverted breaststroke kick is learned by sit-
ting on the edge of the pool with legs together
and extended over the water. Drop the heels to
the pool wall by bending the knees. Keeping the
knees close together (less than 6 inches) curl
ankles away from each other and toes toward
surface of the water. The propulsive phase is ac-
complished by straightening the legs and push-
ing water with the insoles of the feet. KICK CUES:
Drop, Curl, Together.
3. Overall coordination begins with the thumbs up
the side of the body to shoulder level while the
heels drop at the knee (Up); the arms reach lat-
eral while the ankles and toes curl up and out
(Out); the pull begins slightly ahead of the ex-
tension of the legs; and hands touch thighs as
toes come together (Together). CUE: Up, Out, To-
gether, Glide.
Note: Hips, knees, and chest should remain in
alignment throughout the entire stroke.
Back Crawl. The back crawl is the second
and is characterized by
1. The armstroke of the back crawl begins with a
straight arm entry of the little finger side of the
hand, arms length, above the head (Karate
Chop). The fingertips turn toward the bottom
and sweep downward. The catch of the water
takes place by an upward rotation of the hand
and a bend of the elbow. The pull is an elliptical
pattern and can be described as arm wrestling
the water. The final underwater phase is a push
downward and toward the feet. Arms alternate
simultaneously.
2. The recovery begins by letting go of the water
and bringing the hand out of the water with
thumbs up. The arms remains straight during
the above water phase, and the shoulder shrugs
past the cheek. CUE: Karate Chop, Fingertips
Down. Catch, Arm Wrestle, Push, Let Go,
Thumb Up, Straight Arm, Shrug, Little Finger.
3. The kick is a six-beat flutter on the back similar
to the beginner backstroke.
Breaststroke. The breaststroke can be used
swimming strokes.
1. The armstroke of the breaststroke differs from
the front and back crawl in that the arms do not
alternate, and the recovery is underwater. The
armstroke begins with the body in the stream-
lined position. The hands separate and press
outward in a sculling motion. The hands rotate
as the elbows bend slightly and move to an in-
ward sweep. This phase ends as the hands come
together beneath the chin. The hands then move
upward and forward to the streamlined position
with forearms close together. This movement
can be described as drawing a heart on the pool
bottom with the finger tips and then cutting the
heart in half as the arms recover and extend for-
ward.
2. Breathing takes place during the pull phase of
the armstroke and is done simply by lifting the
chin to water level. The breath should not be
held during any phase of the stroke.
3. The kick is accomplished by taking the inverted
breaststroke kick that was learned for the ele-
mentary backstroke and turning it over. A slight
difference to be noted is the heels should be
pulled to the buttocks and the knees should not
be pulled toward the abdomen.

4. The coordination of the stroke starts with the
streamline, arm pull, breathe, extend arms and
recover heels to buttocks simultaneously, kick
and glide into the streamlined position. Hint:
Students may have trouble getting back to the
streamlined position and holding it for the glide.
Have students grab the thumb on the extension
phase of the arms and hold the thumb until their
toes touch from the kick, then glide, then sepa-
rate and angle hands for pull. CUE: Hold Thumb,
Pull, Breathe, Grab Thumb, Extend Arms, Kick,
Toes Touch, Glide, Pull.
Sidestroke. The side stroke is the stroke of
choice used in lifeguard rescues. The side stroke
uniquely allows a rescuer to carry a victim comfort-
ably and efficiently.
1. The arm cycle begins with the body on either
side with the top arm arm) extended
(trailing
over the hip and the bottom arm (leading arm)
extended forward. The ear in water (bottom ear)
lies on the shoulder of the leading arm, and the
water line runs down the cheek with the mouth
out of the water. Arms move simultaneously
with leading arm sweeping downward and in-
ward (Pull) in line with the body while the trail-
ing arm slices to position under the chin. The
hands near each other, and the leading arm
begins to slice forward as the trailing hand
sweeps downward, backward, and upward
(Push) in close proximity to the abdomen and
finishing at the thigh.
2. The kick used in the sidestroke is the scissors
kick, characterized by the scissor motion. The
standard scissors kick begins with top leg rest-
ing on the lower with knees straight and toes to-
gether and pointed. This is the start and end
position. Legs are bent at the knees and drawn
in line to the hips with heels toward buttocks.
FIGURE 21-6 Sequence illustrating slide-in dive, sitting dive,
shallow push dive.
dx '^Pt^^V
SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE 311
The top leg and bottom leg separate simultane-
ously, with top leg forward, bottom leg back-
ward, knees slightly flexed, and toes pointed, to
the stride position. Legs can then be straight-
ened to the glide position, producing propulsion
with the back of the top leg and the front of the
bottom leg.
3. The overall timing begins in the glide position
on the side; as the pull takes place the heels are
drawn up, as thehands meet the legs separate to
stride, then the push and kick occur together,
and the stroke finishes with a glide. CUE: Pull
and Draw, Push and Kick, Glide.
Diving
Diving from the pool deck, dock, springboard, or
platform can be exciting and exhilarating. Unfortu-
nately, diving can also be dangerous if not taught
and executed properly. It is estimated that 95 per-
cent of all the diving injuries each year occur to the
untrained diver and in less than 5 feet of water. This
fact should make students and instructors follow
proper progressions and make sure of the proper
water depth in diving. The recommended depth for
teaching diving from deck level is 9 feet or greater.
The recommended depth for teaching from a 1 meter
springboard is 12 feet or greater with the board ex-
tending 6 feet over the water and a landing area of
the 12-foot depth extending forward 20 feet from the
end of the board.
The following dives should be taught in sequence
to ensure diving safety among participants. Dives
must be taught in appropriate depth water.
1. Slide-in Dive (9 feet deep). This is the most
basic of all dives. The instructor has the student lie
face down on a smooth resolite mat (preferred) or on
the side of the deck with arms extended overhead
and body slightly arched (Figure 21-6). The instruc-
kneeling dive, and
-
w*'
372 SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE
tor then holds the student's ankles, lifts the legs and
slides the student into the water. The student holds
the body rigid and adjusts angle of entry by raising
or lowering the arms and hands. If the student
points the fingertips to the bottom, a deep dive will
result; if the student raises fingertips and points to
the other side of the pool, a shallow/distance dive
will result.
2. Sitting Dive (9 feet deep). The sitting dive
is the next in the sequence shown in Figure 21-6.
Head and arm position are essential. The
position
early learning phase should consist of the chin being
on the chest, arms over ears and should remain in
this positionthroughout the dive. This position will
minimize the probability of smacking the chest and
abdominal area. As the student becomes more ac-
complished, he or she will be able to adjust head and
arm position to achieve desired depth or distance of
dive. The instructor may assist from in water by
holding the student's fingertips and leading them
down into the water.
3. Kneeling Dive (9 feet deep). The student
positions on one knee with toes of opposite foot over
the pool edge (Figure 21-6). Arms are extended over-
head in the streamlined position, and the chin is
placed on the chest. Initially the student simply
pivots over the knee and enters the water. As skill
and readiness increase, the student can push with
the foot of the non-kneeling leg. Instructor can assist
in the same manner as the sitting dive.
4. Scale Dive or Tip in (9 feet deep). The
scale dive begins from the standing position with
arms placed overhead and in the streamline posi-
tion. The diver then performs a gymnastic type scale
and balances with one leg vertical and one leg hori-
zontal. The instructor may assist the student by lift-
ing the horizontal leg. The student pivots around the
foot of the vertical leg and while keeping knees
straight, brings legs together with toes pointed as he
or she enters the water fingertips first. Emphasis
should be placed on keeping the chin on chest and
keeping the vertical pivot leg straight.
5. Shallow Push Dive (9 feet deep) The
shallow push dive starts with hands together in
front of the body at waist level. The toes of both feet
are over pool edge and knees are bent (Figure 21-6).
The student begins the dive motion by extending the
arms over the water surface, extending legs straight
and pushing with the ankles. Emphasis should be
placed on getting heels higher than the head to
achieve a fingertip head first entry.
6. Deep Push Dive (9 feet deep). The deep
push dive used for reaching the bottom of the pool
is
rapidly. As in all dives emphasis should be placed on
keeping the arms overhead entering the water to
prevent the head from striking the bottom or an-
other object in the water. Additionally, the diver
should always check the areas for swimmers or other
obstacles before diving.
The diver begins in a morevertical position than
in the previous dive. Arms are overhead in the
streamline position, knees and hips are flexed, and
toes are over the edge of the pool. The emphasis is on
springing or jumping the hips up as the head and
arms move downward toward the water. Once the
diver is in the air, he or she must extend the body
into a straight position to enter the water vertically
and be projected to the pool bottom. It is helpful if
the diver maintains a very slight pike at the hips
upon entry so that the legs are not flopped over and
the back arched.
7. Forward Standing Dive from the One-
Meter Spring Board 12 feet deep). This dive is
<
performed in a similar manner as the deep push dive
from the deck. The only notable difference is instead
of jumping forcefully, the diver should utilize the
spring of the board by extending the legs and riding
the board to achieve maximum height. Body position
upon entry should be stretched and rigid as shown in
(Figure 21-7).
8. Standing Back Dive from the One-Meter
Spring Board (12 feet deep). The back dive may
cause some anxiety among students and instructors.
But if proper safety precautions and instructional
techniques are followed carefully, attempts will be
more successful and less subject to trial and error or
injury. The diving board must extend 6 feet over the
water, and the depth from the end of the board back
to the wall must be at least 12 feet, the distance of
the diver's underwater path. Backward and inward
dives should not be attempted from the pool side or
from backyard pool diving boards because the diver
may hit the pool wall.
The diver needs to understand that he will pivot
around the tip of the board at his heels and that it is
essential to keep straight legs. Also, the diver must
realize that the body will follow the head and that
the head must stay back with eyes looking for the
water. The diver then places the arms above the
head, arches the lower back slightly, looks up at
the hands, and falls head and shoulders first while
keeping legs straight.
The instructor assists the diver by placing stu-
dent in proper body alignment. The instructor then
places one knee against one of the student's knees to
keep him from bending the leg, and assists him in
clearing the board. To maintain balance the instruc-
tor must stand in the stride position. The instruc-
tor's hands are placed on the student's sides level
with the small of the back. The student is cued with
Fall, and the instructor manages rate of fall by ex-
tending the arms. The instructor then moves hand
positions to spot the diver by going to the back of the
calf and adjusting the diver for a vertical entry (Fig-
ure 21-8).
 3

SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE 31

FIGURE 21-7 Standing dive from 1 -meter board; water depth, 12 feet.
374 SWIMMING. DIVING. AND WATER EXERCISE

FIGURE 21-8 Standing back dive with instructor spotting from 1 -meter board: water depth. 12 feet.
 SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE 315

WATER EXERCISE 2. Participants may wish to wear aqua sock type

footwear to support the arches and protect the
Water exercise one of the nation's fastest grow-
is balls of the feet.
There are many advantages to
ing fitness activities. 3. Participants should take a soap shower and
this exercise venue. It is only in water that three- discard any chewing gum, candy, etc., before
dimensional resistance to movement is possible. entering pool.
This provides improved muscle tone and joint stabil- C. Teaching Techniques
ity.Water also provides smooth resistance that is ac- 1. Water should be approximately chest level for
commodating over the full range of motion. The most exercises (3V2 to 5 feet deep).
participant in water exercise is buoyed up by the 2. Some participants may prefer to remain in the
water which provides protection from injuries often shallower water and squat down to chest level,
associated with land exercise. This factor allows al- this will increase their stability. Others may
most complete elimination of injurious ballistic wish to reduce stability by standing in deeper
stress on joints, connective tissues, and muscles. water. Each participant should find a comfort-
Water training allows the participant to simulate al- able depth in which to achieve maximum de-
most any sport movement, and if proper program is sired results.
adhered to for 20 to 30 minutes, three times a week, 3. When exercising, the body weight should
there can be an aerobic training effect for the heart move in the same
direction as the motion of
and circulatory system. Clearly, therefore, water ac- desired area being exercised; i.e., if arms are
tivity holds great value for rehabilitation, and in fact moving forward, body weight should be mov-
many individuals who cannot walk, run, or make ing forward.
ballistic movements on land can do so in the water. 4. Leg position is the key to stability. Depending
Although it is recommended that participants on the exercise goal, the feet should position
know how to swim, it is not necessary that they have either shoulder width apart (straddle) or one
deep water swimming ability, since water exercise foot in front, one foot in back (stride).

can be taught completely in the shallow water. How- D. Exercises

ever, if water exercise classes wish to utilize deep
water for conditioning, it is recommended that the
instructor screen participants for deep water swim-
ming ability.
Equipment
Cassette player, audio cassette, battery micro-
phone, and amplification equipment.
Table 21-1 lists a number of common exercises
that can be done in the water to work out muscle
groups affected by each. Many other variations are of
course possible. Water exercises are limited only by
one's imagination and creativity. Instructors can
readily select or design exercises to meet specific
needs.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE FOR WATER
EXERCISE
All swimming activities require a lifeguard on duty.

A. The Instructor A. For Progressive Swimming Levels

1. The instructor should teach from the pool 1. Encouraged behavior:
deck. This allows students to see the tech- Soap shower
niques and allows the instructor to see stu- Proper swimwear
dents' performance. Additionally, this enables Care for others' safety
the instructor to access any audio-visual Cooperation with lifeguards
equipment which may be in use. 2. Discouraged behavior:
2. The instructor's demonstration on deck must Diving from starting blocks
be slowed to allow the students who are in the Diving from poolside into less than 9 feet of
water to keep pace with the instructor. water
3. Select music with lyrics appropriate for the Running, pushing, or other unsafe acts
students' age group. Swimming in spring board diving area
4. Music tempo should correspond to the stu- Food, gum, or drinks in pool area
dents' ability to keep pace and to the desired B. For Spring Board Diving
physiological response, i.e., warm-up, aerobic, 1. Divers must pass deep-water swim test.

etc. 2. Check area in front of diving board.

B. The Participant 3. One person on diving board at a time.
1. Appropriate swimwear should be worn (bath- 4. No excessive bouncing.
ing suits). Cut-offs, gym shorts, and T-shirts 5. Exit diving area promptly to nearest ladder.
should not be allowed. 6. Difficult dives must be supervised.
376 SWIMMING, DIVING. AND WATER EXERCISE

TABLE 21-1 Water Exercises for Various Muscles

Name Muscle Group Body Position Foot Position

UPPER BODY
Push / pull Chest / back / arms Standing / wall Straddle
Push-down / pull-ups Shoulders / upper arm Squat Straddle
Lateral pull / press Shoulders / upper chest & back Squat Straddle
Horizontal flys Shoulders / upper chest & back Standing Stride
Front raise / press back Shoulders / upper chest & back Standing Stride
Water punches Upper arms Squat Stride
Arm circles Shoulders / trunk Squat Straddle
Arm rowing Upper back / trunk Squat Stride
Single arm circle Shoulders Standing / wall Straddle

TRUNK
Trunk rock Abdomen / lower back Standing Straddle
Waist circles Abdomen / lower back Standing Stride
Grapevine / cross kick Abdomen / lower back Standing / wall Straddle

LEGS
Walking / running Buttocks Standing / wall Stride
Alt. leg kick-straight Buttocks / thigh Standing / wall Stride
Alt. leg kick-bent Buttocks / thigh Standing / wall Stride
Lat. leg kick-straight Inner / outer thigh Standing / wall Straddle
Lat. leg kick-bent Inner /outer thigh Standing / wall Straddle
Squat-tuck jumps Abdomen / thigh Squat Straddle
Knee lifts Abdomen / thigh Squat / wall Straddle
Roundhouse hor. kicks Buttocks / abdomen / lower back Standing / wall Straddle
Leg circles front / back Buttocks / thigh Standing / wall Straddle
Hamstring / quad, curls Thigh Standing / wall Straddle
Shuffle / run Abdomen / thigh Standing Stride

Reserve 3-meter diving boards for competitive

7. 3. Provide assistive stability with peer teachers po-
use only. sitioned behind student stabilizing the trunk at
C. For Water Exercise the waist
1. Permanently attach the pool safety life line 4. Use hand paddles attached with elastic for strik-
which separates the shallow and deep water ing games.
sections.
2. Before embarking on any physical fitness pro- Mentally Impaired
gram, participants should consult a physician.
1. Keep all activities in the shallow end until stu-
3. Minimal instructor certification includes:
dent has complete understanding of the rules of
WSI, First Aid, and Cardiopulmonary Resus-
the game or task.
citation Certification.
4. Instructor must understand physiological con-
2. Keep your instructions very short and to the
point, avoiding excessive directions.
cepts of conditioning as they pertain to the
aquatic environment which differs consider-
3. Use peer teachers providing manual assistance
until student has complete understanding of the
ably from land aerobic activity.
rules of the game or task.
Failure to comply with the above stated safety
considerations may result in serious or fatal injury! Sensory Impaired

1. Use peer teachers see =3 in Mentally Impaired

i >.

2. Visually impaired should be allowed additional

MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS practice prior to initiating game or task.
3. Use cue cards (symbols) to change directions for
Orthopedically Impaired
the deaf and 'or hard of hearing.
1. Use flotation devices, e.g.. inner tubes, to play 4. Use color codes icue cards' to represent change
water games in shallow depths. in sequence and /or directions for the game or
2. Use kickboards for stability in vertical positions. task.
 SWIMMING, DIVING, AND WATER EXERCISE 317

SELECTED REFERENCES

American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recre- Johnson, R.L. YMCA Pool Operation on Location, YMCA of
ation and Dance (1987). Principles of Safety in Physical the USA. Chicago, IL, 1990.
Education and Sport. Reston, VA, 1987. Maglischo, E.W. Swimming Faster: A Comprehensive
American Red Cross. Swimming and Aquatics Safety. Guide Science of Swimming. Chico, CA: Mayfield
to the
Washington, D.C.: Author, 1981. Publishing, 1982.
American Red Cross. Lifeguard Training. Washington, Torney, J. and Clayton, R. Aquatic Organization and Man-
D.C.: Author, 1983. agement. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess, 1982.
Gabrielsen, M.A. Swimming Pools, A Guide to Their Plan- United States Diving. U.S. Diving Safety Manual. Indian-
ning, Design, and Operation. Human Kinetics, Cham- apolis, IN, 1990.
paign, IL, 1987.
22 TEAM HANDBALL
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Identify and demonstrate the basic skills associated with team handball.
Develop at least one practice formation for each of the basic skills: pass, catch,
throw, and dribble.
Understand and demonstrate simple rules and regulations.
Understand and demonstrate free throw, penalty throw, corner throw, throw-in,
and throw-off.
Identify and name the positions of players.

NATURE AND PURPOSE

Goal Line
Team handball may be played indoors or outdoors by
children or adults of both sexes. Team handball em-
ploys fundamental motor skills such as running,
throwing, catching, jumping, and defensive and of-
fensive strategies similar to the motor skills used in
basketball, soccer, and hockey.
The object of the game is to pass and /or dribble
the ball toward the opponent's goal and then shoot
the ball into the goal. The ball is played primarily
with the hands; however, any portion of the body
above the knee can be used to play the ball.

COURT, EQUIPMENT, PLAYERS

The Playing Area

1. The playing area (indoors or outdoors) should be
a rectangular surface with dimensions of 126 to
147 feet in length, and 60 to 73 feet in width
(Figure 22-1). For a physical education class, a
basketball court can easily be adapted to an in-
door playing court by taping the goal-area line
and the free-throw line.
2. The goal area is a semicircular space marked off
by the goal-area line which is drawn in front of
the goal at a distance of 20 feet, with a radius of
20 feet from the back inside edges of the goal
posts.
3. The free-throw line is drawn as a broken line
parallel to and 10 feet beyond the goal-area line.
4. The penalty-throw line is 3 feet 3 inches long
and is drawn at a distance of 23 feet from the
goal.
5. The goal is in the middle of each goal line and
measures 6 and 10 feet in
feet 7 inches in height FIGURE 22-1 Team handball court and players
width. If possible, a loose net, measuring 2 feet 8 positions.

318
 )
inches at the top and 3 feet 3 inches at the bot- 3.
tom, should be attached behind the goal post.
For a physical education class, two poles, such as
volleyball or badminton poles, with a rope tied 4.
across them will serve as a goal.
The Ball
5.
A round ball is used that will vary in weight and
circumference according to the age and sex of the 6.
players. For males over age 15, the ball should weigh
from 15 to 19 ounces and be 23 to 24 inches in cir- 7.
cumference; for females and boys under age 15, the
ball should weigh IIV2 to 14 ounces and measure 21 8.
to 22 inches around. For physical education classes,
a playground ball or volleyball will serve the purpose
of the game. However, basketballs and soccer balls
should not be used. 9.
Players
Each team consists of 7 players (6 court players
and 1 goalkeeper) with 5 additional players for sub-
stitution. The positions of players are designated as
goalkeeper, center half, right and left backs, center
forward, and right and left wingers (see Figure 22-
1.
1).
2.
BASIC RULES
Duration of the Game 3.
1. Playing times for a regulation game will vary
depending upon the age and sex of the players:
for men — two periods of 30 minutes with an in-
terval of 10 minutes; for women and junior
—
males two periods of 25 minutes with an inter-
val of 10 minutes; and for all other players —two 1.
periods of 20 minutes with a 10-minute interval.
2. The winning team from referee's coin toss has 2.
the choice of either the end, defense, or offense.
3. By referee's whistle, the game must start at the
center of the court only by passing the ball to an-
other teammate. All players must be within 3.
their own half of the court at the beginning.
4. After each goal is scored, the other team will 4.
always start the game at the center of the court.
5. A goal cannot be scored directly from the throw-
on.
5.
Playing the Ball
1. The ball can be played in any manner with any 6.
part of the body except below the knee. (For vio-
lation of this rule a free throw is awarded to the
opposition.)
2. The cannot be held for more than three sec-
ball
onds if the player is not moving. (Otherwise, a 1.
free throw is awarded to the opposition.
TEAM HANDBALL 319
The can be bounced once or repeatedly with
ball
either hand while moving or standing like a—
dribble in basketball.
Once the ball has been seized with one or both
hands, it must be played off within three sec-
onds or after three steps have been taken. (Oth-
erwise, free throw is awarded to the opposition.)
Any ball that touches a referee and/or goal post
is still playable.
Players cannot dive for rolling balls that are on
the ground.
The ball may be continuously rolled on the
ground with one hand.
When the ball has passed the touch line, the ball
can be put into play by the other team as in bas-
ketball, and the throw-in should take place from
the point where the ball crossed the touch line.
If the ball is touched by a defensive player except
the goalkeeper, and travels across the goal line
outside the goal, a corner throw is awarded to
the attacking team.
Approach to Opponent
Players are not permitted to:
Block an opponent with arms, hands, or legs.
(Free throw is awarded to opposition.)
Hold, hit, push, run into, or jump at the oppo-
nent, throw oneself down in front of or endanger
an opponent in any other way. (Free throw is
awarded to opposition.)
Throw the ball intentionally at an opponent or
execute a dangerous feint by moving the ball to-
ward the opponent. (Free throw is awarded to
opposition.)
The Goal Area
No player except the goalkeeper may enter the
goal area.
A player of the defending team, providing the
entry is intentional and for the clear purpose of
defense, shall have a penalty throw (23 feet)
awarded to the attacking team.
There shall be no penalty if a player enters the
goal area after playing the ball.
Inside the goal-area line the ball belongs to the
goalkeeper. No other player shall touch a ball
that is lying, rolling, or being held by the goal-
keeper inside this area.
The ball shall neither be thrown into one's own
goal area nor to the goalkeeper. (Penalty throw
is awarded to the opposition team.)
A ball in the air is not considered to be in the
goal area.
The Goalkeeper
So long as the goalkeeper remains inside the
goal area, the goalkeeper is allowed to defend
320 TEAM HANDBALL

the goal in every possible way, including kicking
the ball with the feet while the ball is moving to-
ward the goal or is inside the goal area.
2. The goalkeeper is allowed to leave the goal area
without the ball. When he or she does, the same
A. Purpose of the Game
B. Skills and Techniques. The skills of passing,
shooting, and dribbling are best taught in combi-
nation with each other.
1. Passes for short distances

rules apply to the goalie as to the rest of the a. Bounce

team. b. Close Hand-Off
3. The goalie may not touch a ball that is lying or c. Hook
rolling outside the goal area. d. Chest
e. Shovel
f. Overhead
Scoring
2. Passes for medium distances
1. A goal is made when
the ball has passed the goal a. Ground
line inside the goal with its entire circumference. b. Jump
2. A goal made by the defending team is also scored c. Shoulder (baseball)
as a goal. d. Side Arm
3. After every goal is made, the other team should 3. Catching
start the game from the center of the court. 4. Dribble
5. Shooting
a. Jump Shot
Penalty Throw
b. Dive Shot
1. When the offensive player has lost a clear c. Underhand Shot
chance of scoring by the defensive player's foul, Reverse Shot
d.
the offensive player shall be awarded a penalty Side Throw
e.
throw from the 23-foot line. f. Lob Shot
2. During a penalty throw no other player except g. Penalty Throw
the goalkeeper shall be allowed between the goal 6. Goalkeeping. Goalkeeping should be started
area line and the free-throw line. early in the sequence. A few minutes practice
3. The penalty throw shall be aimed directly at the each day will add to the quality of the game.
goal. C. Playing Strategies
1. Offensive

2. Defensive
Free Throw
D. Rules. Discuss the rule when most applicable to a
1. All violations of the rules, except the penalty given situation or skill.
throw, shall have a free throw awarded to the E. Terminology. Terms should be discussed as they
opposing team. arise in the normal progression.
2. All free throws are taken from the point where
It is recommended that scrimmage time be in-
the violation occurred except a violation between
cluded in early lessons. The length of scrimmage
the free-throw line and the goal-area line, in
time will increase as the unit progresses.
which case the free throw shall be taken at the
free-throw line.
3. During a free throw, players of the defending
team shall stand 10 feet away from the player
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
having the free throw.
The basic skills to be discussed in this section are
4. A goal may be scored directly from a free throw. passing, catching, dribbling, and shooting.

Passing
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
Passing is the most important element of team
handball. It allows a player to move the ball quickly
Team handball is an activity that can be learned
and accurately so as to advance the ball and set up
very quickly. It may be played at all levels by both
scoring opportunities. Team handball passing funda-
sexes and on a coeducational basis. A basic game can
mentals are quite similar to those utilized in basket-
be played at an early stage of the physical education
ball.
class; offensive and defensive formations and styles
of play may be added as the level of skill increases. It
Learning Cues
is important to discuss terminology, rules, skills,
and strategies at a time when most appropriate and 1. The speed of the receiver as well as the distance
meaningful to the discussion of a particular concept. between the receiver and the passer will deter-

mine how hard the ball should be thrown and
the type of pass to be used.
2. For practice purposes the non-throwing arm
should be pointed in the direction of the throw.
(In actual game situations, more deception must
be used so that the individual does not "tele-
graph" his pass.)
3. Use finger-tip control to ensure a more consis-
tently accurate pass.
4. Maintain proper balance and distribution of
body weight to ensure a more accurate pass.
Shift your weight from the back to front foot,
maintaining momentum behind the ball for a
crisp pass. (Don't throw a pass when you are off
balance except in improvised or emergency situ-
ations.)
5. Step forward with the leg opposite to throwing
arm.
6. Snap your wrist upon release.
7. Select a pass which is appropriate for a specific
situation.
8. After you pass always be ready to penetrate the
defense and await a return pass.
9. A properly thrown pass will usually enable your
teammates to catch the ball more easily.
10. A generalized rule to keep in mind when passing
the ball is always to make a threatening motion
(feint) to score before passing to a teammate.
Passes can be divided into three categories char-
acterizing the distance, trajectory, and type (arm
form) of the throw.
Short Distance Passes. Passes which are
normally used in short distances include:
1. —
Bounce The ball should be thrown so that it
bounces approximately three feet in front of the
receiver. The receiver should move toward the
ball and try to catch it on the short hop (as in
baseball) in such a manner that he is immedi-
ately prepared to throw the ball.
2. —
Close Hand-Off (front and back) In this pass
(which usually occurs in close quarters around
the goal area) the player merely hands the ball
to a teammate in a manner similar to an "end-
around" (reverse) play in football. Deception is of
utmost importance in this pass. It should be
used only after considerable practice and by
players who are very familiar with each other
since the chance for error is much greater than
most other passes.
3. —
Hook This pass is very useful when a player is
closely guarded by two or more players. It can
also be used when a player is in the air for a
jump shot. The player simply releases the ball at
the top of his or her jump to a teammate who
might be penetrating toward the goal. This pass
is the same as the "hook shot" in basketball.
4. —
Chest (push) This pass should be one of the
most frequently used in short distances. It is one
TEAM HANDBALL 321
of the most accurate passes and relatively sim-
ple to learn. The same fundamentals can be ap-
plied as the two-hand chest pass.
5. —
Shovel (scoop) This pass is less frequently used
than those passes described thus far. The player
picks a low ball upon the short hop and remains
in a crouched position while quickly tossing the
ball (underhand) to a teammate.
6. —
Overhead (two hands) One of the methods of
putting the ball back into play after it has
crossed one of the side lines. The throw is taken
by a player of the team which did not cause the
ball to go out. The player making the throw
must have both feet touching the surface outside
the sideline and throw in to the playing area
with one or two hands in any manner.
Medium Distance Passes. Passes which are
normally used in medium distances include:
1. Ground ("roller") — When other passing lanes
all
are blocked it may, on occasion, be appropriate
to roll the ball between a defender's legs. Also,
when there is a "scramble" for a loose ball on the
court and a player can't control the ball com-
pletely, he or she can roll it to a nearby team-
mate.
2. —
Jump When normal passing lanes are im-
peded, a player can use this pass by jumping
into the air and releasing the ball in a manner
similar to the shoulder throw.
3. —
Shoulder (baseball) When throwing, the player
should not attempt to grip the ball as if it were a
baseball. Rather, allow the ball to rest in the
hand with a flexed wrist and fingers spread
wide enough to cover as much of the ball surface
as is comfortably possible.
4. —
Side Arm This pass is the same as the
shoulder pass except the positioning and action
of the throwing arm may be likened to a three-
quarters and/or "submarine" pitching motion as
in baseball. The length of stride for the lead leg
should correspond (approximately) to the length
of the pass. For a right-handed throw the right
foot can remain in place (with weight back), and
the left foot can stride forward simultaneously
with the arm-throwing motion.
Catching
An accurate throw will result in an accurate
catch.
Learning Cues
1. Whenever possible, players are to catch the ball
with two hands to ensure best control.
2. The player should always attempt to catch the
ball with his finger tips spread. Whenever possi-
322 TEAM HANDBALL

ble the ball should not be allowed to make
tactwith the palms.
3. The elbows should be flexed and the body re-
laxed to absorb the impact of a hand-thrown
ball.
4. Whenever possible the player should move for-
ward to meet the ball, maintaining eye contact
with the ball as it comes into the hands.
5. Upon receiving a pass, a player should be imme-
diately prepared to shoot, dribble, or pass the
ball again.
Dribble
In team handball the dribble is used to advance
the ball up the court when a player is not closely
guarded and to gain "rhythm" when attempting to
move the ball for purposes of attacking the goal or
setting up a possible scoring play. Because of their
strong basketball orientation, most Americans have
a tendency to dribble too much in team handball.
The dribble is similar to that used in basketball
except that the player may take three steps when the
ball is seized by either one or both hands. When the
con- a. The ball is held behind the head with the arm
cocked to hide the ball from the goalie and
make it more difficult for defensive players to
take the ball away.
b. The non-shooting arm remains forward to
ward off defenders and assist in maintaining
balance.
c. The shot should be released with a snap of
the wrist and follow-through (as in throwing
a football or baseball).
5. Many foot movement patterns can be utilized in
team handball shots, including hop steps, cross-
over steps, and running steps. New players are
encouraged to experiment with different step
and dribble combinations which fit their indi-
vidual abilities.
Specific Shots and Their Uses
Jump Shot. This shot simply involves the use
of the shoulder throw (pass) in which the ball is re-
leased at the height of the jump, with the momen-
tum of the body directed toward the goal rather than
falling away. By jumping highin the air the player is

ball is seized, it must be played off within three steps able to see the goal more clearly and determine the
or three seconds. direction of his shots (Figure 22-2).

Dive Shot. This shot also utilizes the shoulder

throw. The shooter stretches his body out and directs
Shooting his momentum toward the goal. The ball is released
The primary objective of attacking the goal in
team handball is to score. Shooting will not occur in
team handball as frequently as in basketball.
Players must learn to be patient and work for a good
opportunity to score a goal. This does not mean that
players should be overcautious, as team handball is
an aggressive game in which the offense must con-
tinuously attack the goal and generate its own scor-
ing opportunities.

Learning Cues: Basic Shooting Principles

1. The shooter must have a definite throwing di-

rection in mind prior to releasing the ball. Shots
blocked and easily caught by the goalie often
result in fast-break 2-on-l situations for the
opposing team. The most vulnerable shooting
lanes are the high and low corners of the goal
mouth. It is generally agreed that shots directed
to the lower corners of the goal have greater
scoring percentages.
2. The momentum of the shooter should always be
toward or perpendicular to the goal.
3. The use of deception is of utmost importance.
The shooter should attempt to draw the goal-
keeper toward one corner of the goal and
depending upon the commitment of the goal-
keeper, the player should aim his shot for the
opposite corner.
4. The shoulder pass is the most frequently used in
team handball shooting. FIGURE 22-2 The jump shot.
 TEAM HANDBALL 323

at the last possible moment and as close to the goal

mouth as possible.

Learning Cues

1. The weight is evenly distributed on both feet

as the shot is initiated.
2. The body is leaning, moving in a position paral-
lel with the floor.
3. The upper body is thrust upward in a diving ac-
tion toward the goal.
4. Snap the wrist and release the ball quickly.
5. Break the fall with your chest and both hands
positioned at your side about chest level.

Underhand Shot. The side arm or three-

quarter pitching motion is used in this shot. The
right-handed thrower turns (twists) the left side to-
ward the goal. To generate increased power, a cross-
over step is used with the push-off coming from the
rear foot. This shot is used when upper scoring lanes
are cut off by the defense. The shot is on a low trajec- FIGURE 22-3 Setting up for the reverse shot: fake to one side.

tory with a continuous follow-through.

Reverse Shot (circle). This shot is used
around the goal area when the defender is playing
behind and/or overplaying to the shooting side (Fig-
ure 22-3). When you are unable to execute a normal
shoot, lower your center of gravity (bend knees), fake
to the strong (normal shooting) side, turn and
quickly pivot away from the strong side on your
right foot (if you are right-handed), releasing the ball
in a side-arm motion (Figure 22-4). (This is similar
to the initial backward motion in the discus throw.)
As the ball is released, body momentum should be
directed toward the goal.
Side Throw (twister). This is a relatively
weak shot, but with the proper element of surprise it
can be successful. Most frequently it is used in close
to the goal area when an attempted shot with a regu-
lar shoulder throw is stopped by a defender. If you
are right-handed, drop your left shoulder, step
across your body with your right foot, then execute
the same arm motion described for the reverse shot
with body momentum directed toward the goal. FIGURE 22-4 Reverse shot, release with side-arm motion.

Lob Shot. This shot is often used in a 1-on-l

fast break situation and also in certain 2-on-l situa-
shot normally utilized in this situation is the
tions. When the goalie comes out to challenge, the of-
shoulder or side throw. The other players must re-
fensive player lobs the ball over his head into the main outside the free throw line area until the shot
is taken. They should strategically position them-
goal, or to his teammate if this is a 2-on-l situation.
Timing selves around the goal to be ready for a blocked shot
is of utmost importance in the execution of
this shot.
which might possibly rebound out into the area of
play.
Penalty Throw. This throw is taken at the
23-foot penalty-throw line. It is a 1-on-l situation
with the goalie as the only defender. The goalie may
Practice Suggestions — Basic Skills

move about and come within 10 feet of the penalty Drills for team handball basic skills — passing,
line. The player who is awarded the penalty throw catching, and dribbling the ball — are
similar to
cannot move his foot or touch the penalty line until those in basketball. Therefore, basketball drills
the ball is released. The offensive player has three should be utilized to practice the basic skills, partic-
seconds in which to shoot from the time the referee ularly passing, catching, and dribbling the ball with
blows the whistle to begin the throw. The type of the following points in mind:
324 TEAM HANDBALL
1. The ball is much smaller than the ball used in
basketball. Therefore, the ball can be easily han-
dled by either one or both hands.
2. It is permissible to take a maximum of three
steps or three seconds with the ball in either one
or both hands. For example, after catching the
ball from another player, you may take three
steps and start dribbling. When you stop drib-
bling, you must either pass or shoot after taking
no more than three steps or three seconds.
Goalkeeping
The goalkeeper is the most important defensive
player in team handball. The goalie should have
quick hands and feet, be fearless of the ball, and be
able to throw the ball well in initiating fast break
plays. The main task of goalkeeping is to stop the
ball by any manner possible. The goalie can use any
part of the body to deflect shots. Within the goal area
there is no restriction on how many steps the goalie
may take or the time the ball may be held. Without
the ball, the goalie may become a court player at any
time; in that case all rules applying to court players
apply to the goalie.
Learning Cues: Goalkeeping Fundamentals
1. The goalie should know the position of the ball
on the court at all times.
2. The goalie should maintain a low center of grav-
ity with weight evenly distributed on the balls of
the feet.
3. In blocking shots, the goalkeeper's palms should
always face out toward the field of play. The
hands should be relaxed enough to "give" with a
shot to keep it under control in the area and not
allow the ball to rebound back out onto the field
of play.
4. Low shots in close to the goalie's legs should be
fielded (blocked) in a manner similar to an in-
fielder fielding a ground ball.
5. On shots that are low and to the side, the goalie
should stride to the side with hands and outside
foot stretching simultaneously to block the ball.
6. Similar to the goalkeeping used in hockey or
soccer, the goalie should move out away from the
goal mouth in an attempt to cut down the best
shooting angles.
7. On high hard shots the goalie should not try to
catch the ball, rather he should deflect the ball
over the top of the goal.
8. In defending against the penalty shot, the goalie
should move out toward the 23-foot penalty line
to cut down the shooter's angle.
9. The goalie should always play one foot out from
the goal line to avoid a self-scored goal.
10. When the goalie recovers a blocked or missed
shot, he returns the ball to play by means of a
"throw-out." In this instance, the ball is free and
the defense can try and intercept the pass out
and score directly.
11. It is recommended that the goalie wear a protec-
tive supporter, long pants, and a long-sleeved
shirt to cut down on the "sting" of blocked shots.
PLAYING STRATEGIES
Various defensive and offensive strategies are de-
scribed below. These can be understood better and
developed further with reference to similar team
sports such as soccer, basketball, field hockey, and
football.
Defensive Formations
When the ball players of the team be-
is lost, all
come defensive players with certain defensive re-
sponsibilities according to the defensive strategies
employed. Generally, defensive strategies are di-
vided into (1) man-to-man defense; (2) zone defense,
and (3) a combination of the two. In defensive play, a
player should always attempt to keep the opponent
in front of him or else the opponent should be
slightly overplayed to the shooting arm side. ("Stay
between your man and the goal" is a general rule to
follow.)
Man-to-Man Defense. Each defensive player
must cover one designated player of the attacking
team regardless of whether he has the ball or not.
The offensive player is continually blocked off and
hindered in attacking actions.
Zone Defense. Each defensive player is re-
sponsible for protecting a particular area against the
attacker. Zone defense may require less running, but
it requires more teamwork to be effective.
Combinations
6-0 Defense (Figure 22-5). Six court players
stand alongside and in front of the goal-area line,
each having the specific responsibility to protect a
certain area. The players must coordinate with each
other to cover any space that may be left uncovered
when a defensive player attempts to attack an oppo-
nent with the ball. Taller players should be placed in
the center of the defensive zone and shorter players
on the outside.
5-1 Defense (Figure 22-6). The 5-1 concept is
similar to that of a box and 1 defense used in basket-
ball. Five players stand in front of the goal-area line.
One player, pulled out to the free-throw line, has the
two assignments of covering the man with the ball
and /or covering a good shooter. This player, who fre-
quently originates the fast break, must be an all-
round athlete.
4-2 Defense (Figure 22-7). Four defensive
players are positioned on the goal-area line and shift
 TEAM HANDBALL 325

J L
as a unit. Two defensive players move out to the free-
throw line in order to concentrateon intercepting
passes and harassing the ball handlers to prevent
their taking the most advantageous routes toward
the goal area. These two players not only have to
protect the central axis, but also are responsible for
filling in gaps between defensive players behind
them.
Q Defensive Player 3-3 Defense (Figure 22-8). Three defensive
— Player's movement players stand on the middle of the goal-area line, and
the other three players stand in front of the free-
throw line. These three players as a unit have to
FIGURE 22-5 The 6-0 defensive formation. shift toward the attacking point of the offensive
team to protect against long-distance shootings. This
formation is vulnerable against the team having
J L
shots from angles, and requires a capable goal-
keeper.

Offensive Formations

\ / In the deployment of any offensive alignment,

/ every effort should be made to utilize the entire of-
fensive floor area. Fast continuous movement must
be maintained at all times. Upon receiving a pass,
Man-to-man defense on out- every player should make a motion of threatening to
standing shooter or playmaker. score whenever in scoring range. In order to spread
out the defense as much as possible, it is important
FIGURE 22-6 The 5-1 defensive formation. that players maintain good spacing and that most
plays be initiated from approximately 40 feet. Drib-
bling should be avoided if possible and the ball
J L
should be passed quickly between players. Effective
screening (similar to that used in basketball) is a key
to the success of most offensive patterns. Screens
and double screens can be improvised from any of
the offensive formations presented. The following
represent some common offensive formations.
2-4 Offense. This is the most frequently uti-
lized offensive formation in team handball. In this
formation, the two backcourt players are situated at
around 40 feet. The wing players are spread out wide
for the best possible shooting angles. The circle run-
ners are strategically positioned between the two
wing players at 20 feet. A variety of offensive maneu-
FIGURE 22-7 The 4-2 defensive formation.
vers can be initiated from this basic offensive pat-
tern. This offense will spread out most zone defenses
and allow opportunities for scoring between the de-
fensive players.
3-3 Offense. This offense is also effective in
spreading out the coverage of a zone defense. If a
team possesses three strong shooters, this is an ex-
cellent offensive formation to employ. Constant
movement of the ball is essential, and each player
must threaten to score each time he receives a pass.
1-5 Offense. This offensive formation can best
be employed by a team which has some strong inside
players who are very physical. Effective inside
screening is the key to a successful 1-5 offense. It is
of utmost importance that one player always stays
FIGURE 22-8 The 3-3 defensive formation. back to guard against a possible fast break.
326 TEAM HANDBALL
1-3-2 Offense. One back court player is situ-
ated around 40 feet as a playmaker; three players
are placed around the middle of the free-throw line;
and two players become outside and circle runners
between the free-throw line and the goal-area line.
The back court player passes the ball to make a
play. The three middle players attempt to block de-
fensive players by whatever means to create an op-
portunity for the two circle runners to make effective
shooting chances. The two circle runners must con-
stantly move and feint to confuse defensive players
and at the same time make a good shot into the goal.
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
Orthopedically Impaired
1. Contact the United States Cerebral Palsy Ath-
letic Association in Westland, Michigan for the
rule book on Wheelchair Team Handball.
2. Set up a stationary game for those students with
severe mobility problems.
3. Use a balloon or beachball instead of a handball
for those students unable to catch and throw.
4. Place able-bodied students on scooters.
Mentally Impaired
1. Create smaller groups to avoid confusion.
2. Allow students to move the ball up the field in
any possible manner; e.g., with one or two
bounces.
3. In early sessions, emphasize offensive and de-
fensive transitions rather than playing skills.
Sensory Impaired
1. Blind players may be tethered with sighted
partners.
2. Do not allow defensive players within 10 feet of
offensive partners; this will help promote more
movement.
3. Designate blind or visually impaired students as
attackers in stationary positions. They must at-
tempt a shot on goal once every two trips down
the field by their team.
4. Minimal modifications are needed for the deaf or
hearing impaired.
TERMINOLOGY
Corner throw When the ball is played over his own goal
line by a defending player (except the goalkeeper) on
either side of the goal, the game is restarted by means
of a throw from the corner of the court by one of the at-
tacking players. The player must place one foot on the
corner and throw the ball in, using either hand.
Court player Member of the handball team actually play-
ing on the court, except the goalie.
Dive shot A means of trying to score a goal by launching
the entire body into the air toward the goal in an at-
tempt to gain more distance.
Free throw A throw awarded to the opposing team when
the other team is in violation of certain rules of the
game.
Free-throw line The broken line parallel to the goal-area
line atan extra distance of 10 feet; from this line, free
throws awarded near the goal area are taken.
Goal A goal is considered scored when the ball has
passed wholly over the goal line between the uprights
and underneath the crossbar of the goal.
Goal area The area of the playing court inside and in-
cluding the goal-area line.
Goal-area line The semicircular line drawn in front of
and on either side of the goal.
Goalkeeper (goalie) The player who is allowed to play
freely inside the goal area to defend the goal.
Goal line The line forming the end of the court which
runs between the uprights of the goal and meets the
sidelines at the corners of the court.
Penalty throw A shot attempted by any offensive player
when an offensive player is prevented from making a
clear goal-scoring chance by foul means. The player
attempting the penalty throw is required to make a di-
rect attempt to score a goal from the penalty-throw
line.
Referee's throw A
bounced by the referee to restart
ball
the game an interruption of play caused by
after
players of both teams committing simultaneous in-
fractions of the rules or if the game has been inter-
rupted for some other reason.
Throw-in The method of putting the ball back into play
after it has crossed one of the sidelines. The throw is
taken by a player of the team which did not cause the
ball to go out. The player making the throw must have
both feet touching the surface outside the sideline and
throw the ball into the playing area with one or two
hands inany manner.
Throw-off The means the goalkeeper takes of throwing
the ball onto the court after obtaining possession of
the ball in his goal area.
Throw-on The method of putting the ball in play at the
start of the game and after a goal is scored. The throw
is made from the center of the court.
Throw-out Same as a throw-off except that defensive
players may place themselves at the goal-area line.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Handbook of the International Handball Federation. Basle,
Switzerland, I.H.F., 1960, p. 88.
International Handball Federation. Information Bulletin.
Basle, Switzerland: International Handball Federation.
Nos. 16 and 95, 1972.
 TEAM HANDBALL 327

Korsgaard, R., and Park, S.J. "Codified Rules of Team United States Team Handball Federation (USTHF), 10
Handball." Ball State University, Muncie, IN, 1970. Nottingham Road, Short Hills, NJ 07078.
Neil, G.I. Modern Team Handball: Beginner to Expert. United States Team Handball Federation Business Office,
Montreal, Canada: McGill University, 1976. 1750 E. Boulder, Colorado Springs, CO 80909.
Official U.S. Team Handball Rules. Jayfro Corp., P.O. Box
400, Waterford, CT 06385.
 TENNIS
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Select tennis equipment that will be appropriate for you.
Demonstrate the proper grips and techniques for the following strokes: serve,
return of serve, approach shot, forehand, backhand, volley, lob, overhead.
Understand the scoring procedures and the basic rules of play.
Identify the playing courtesies, safety considerations, and basic terminology
associated with tennis.
NATURE AND PURPOSE
Tennis has always appealed to both sexes, young and
old. Many consider it to be one of the best forms of
corecreational sports. The pace can be adjusted to
the players' abilities ranging from a mild form of ex-
ercise, to a strenuous test of strength and endurance.
Speed, agility, coordination, and endurance can be
developed, and indeed are needed, to play even a rec-
reational gameof tennis.
The game of tennis can be played either as sin-
gles or doubles. The singles game has two partici-
pants, one individual opposing the other. The
doubles game has four participants, two individuals
teaming up tocompete against another team of two.
The doubles court is 9 feet wider than the singles
court, having a AV2 foot alley on each side of the sin-
gles court (Figure 23-1).
The basic rules are the same for men's and
women's tennis. To start the game, the server stands
just behind the baseline to the right of his or her
center service line, and puts the ball into play by
striking it in the air in such a manner that it lands in
opponent's right service court. The server has two
chances to put the ball into play. The ball that does
not land in the proper service court is called a "fault"
and is not played. A served ball that touches the net
during flight and lands in the proper service court is
called a "let"; a let is not counted as a fault nor is it
played, but is served again.
The receiver must return the serve to the
server's court on its first bounce. The rally continues
until one of the players fails to return the ball, either
on the fly or after the first bounce within the bound-
aries of his court.
When the point has been completed, the server
stands just behind his baseline and to the left of the
center service line and serves to his opponent's left
service court, continuing to alternate left and right
328
after each point until the game is completed. Upon
completion of the game, the server becomes the re-
ceiver. Players change sides at the completion of
each odd-numbered game.
In doubles, each player serves a game in turn
first a member of one team, then a member of the
other team, and so on. The same order of serving is
kept throughout the set.
Scoring
Points in tennis are called Love, 15, 30, 40,
Deuce, Advantage, and Game.
0, or nothing, is called Love.
First pointwon by a player is called 15.
Second point won by a player is called 30.
Third point won by a player is called 40.
Fourth point won by a player gives him Game,
provided his opponent does not have more than 30 (2
points).
each player has won three points (40-all), the
If
score Deuce. The next point won by a player gives
is
him Advantage. However, if he loses the next point,
the score is again deuce. When either player wins
two consecutive points following the score of deuce,
the game is won by that player. The server's score is
always given first. The score should be called loudly
and clearly after every point.
In scoring, the player who first wins six games
wins a set, unless both players have won five games;
then it takes an advantage of two games to win, so
the score could be 7-5, or 8-6, or 9-7, and so on.
In scoring the match, the player first winning
two sets is generally declared the winner. In profes-
sional tennis matches, the winner of three sets is de-
clared the winner of the men's match, while in the
women's game the winner of two sets is declared the
winner of the match. For example, match scores
could be 6-0, 6-3, 6-2; 9-7, 4-6, 10-8; 2-6, 6-4, 6-4;
 1

CENTER MARK

18'

CROSS SERVICE
LINE

-36'

CENTER SERVICE
LINE

27'-
M Q A
| | | | |
3'6"
42'
78' 13'6" 4'6" y ll 1 1

A
NET

FORE COURT
ALLEY

LEFT RIGHT SINGLES

SERVICE SERVICE SIDELINE
COURT COURT

DOUBLES
SIDELINE

BACK COURT
BASE LINE

FIGURE 23-1 Lawn tennis court, singles and doubles.

6-1, 6-1, 6-3; 4-6, 6-4, 6-4, 6-4; 6-0, 5-7, 7-5, 2-6,
8-6.
The VASSS scoring system (Van Alen Simplified
Scoring System) is used today in most tournaments.
There are two major aspects to this system. The
first, and most popular, is the "nine-point sudden
death tie-breaker," which takes effect when the
game score is tied at 6 games all. At such times, the
best 5 of 9 points are played to determine the winner
of the set. The serving order continues, but now each
player serves two points at a time until one player
wins five points. Players change sides of the court
after the fourth point. If the score becomes tied at
four points all, the receiver dictates into which serv-
ice court the ninth point is served. The second aspect
of VASSS is termed the "no-add" rule: when the
game score is tied at deuce (3-3) the next point wins
the game. Again, the receiver dictates into which
service court the no-add point should be played.
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
The selection of proper equipment of utmost im-
is
portance to the beginning tennis player as well as to
the professional player. With good equipment the
beginning player can eliminate many handicaps,
and thereby get more enjoyment from mastering the
fundamental skills.
Tennis Rackets
In selecting the racket, give consideration to the
weight, balance, grip size, stringing, and quality of
the frame (Figure 23-2). Rackets are manufactured
in three different weights: light, medium, and heavy;
they range from about 11 to 15 ounces. Women tend
to prefer light rackets while men usually select me-
dium or heavy racket frames. The "feel" of the racket
as you swing it should be the most important consid-
eration in choosing a new racket. When shopping
you should make this comparison test and also take
into account differences in materials and manufac-
ture.
Most rackets are 27 inches long and measure 9
inches across the racket face. Currently, tennis
rackets are being manufactured in different lengths,
with oversized racket heads, and using various com-
binations of wood, aluminum alloy, steel, magne-
sium, fiberglass, and graphite. Choose a racket of
good quality, with a frame sturdy enough to with-
stand at least four or five restringings. Cheap

329
330 TENNIS
FACE
RACKET EDGE
THROAT
HANDLE
GRIP
BUTT
FIGURE 23-2 Parts of a tennis racket.
rackets soon lose their shape and are usually not a
good long-term investment.
Basically, there are two types of strings: gut and
nylon. Gut strings are more expensive but also more
resilient and pliable. This type is preferred by most
tournament players. Gut requires more care than
nylon and is vulnerable to humidity and wetness.
Nylon strings do not have the elasticity of gut, but
still are very comparable in play. Also nylon strings
are more durable, impervious to dampness, and less
expensive. Nylon is very adequate for the beginning
player.
When you are purchasing a racket, the retailer
will usually want to know your preference for string
tension. The greater the tension (or tightness), the
less control the player tends to have. Also, the racket
frame cannot withstand as many restringings when
it isstrung tightly. The recommended string tension
for beginning and intermediate players is between
55 and 57 pounds.
Rackets are manufactured to be evenly balanced,
head-heavy, or handle-heavy. Head-heavy rackets
are preferred by players inclined to be ground
strokers or base line players. Handle-heavy rackets
are used by individuals who are predominantly net
players. It is suggested that beginners select an
evenly-balanced racket to start with.
Another important factor in choosing an appro-
priate racket is the size of the grip. Grips usually
range in circumference from 4 to 5 inches. The
proper grip size depends upon the user's hand size,
and selection may
require professional assistance. If
the individual grips the racket in an Eastern fore-
hand grip (described below), the thumb should come
just past the first knuckle of the middle finger. Cor-
rectly fitting a grip is of the utmost importance.
Tennis Balls
Most tennis balls are pressure-packed with com-
pressed air and marked with numbers for identifi-
cation. Manufactured according to United States
Tennis Association (USTA) specifications, a ball
must weigh two ounces, measure 2V£ inches in diam-
eter, and have a wool-felt covering.
Tennis balls are also produced to be court spe-
cific. Some are made especially for hard courts (as-
phalt or cement) by having more felt on the ball's
cover. Others are made for soft court play on such
surfaces as clay or grass.
OFFICIAL RULES
1. Server and Receiver. The players shall
-land on opposite sides of the net; the player who
first delivers the ball shall be called the server, and
the other the receiver.
2. Delivery of Service. The service shall be
delivered in the following manner. Immediately be-
fore commencing to serve, the server shall stand
with both feet at rest behind the baseline, and within
the imaginary continuations of the center-mark and
sideline. The server shall then toss the ball by hand
into the air and before it hits the ground strike it
with his racket. The server is not permitted to touch
the court inside the baseline until after the racket
has made contact with the ball.
3. From Alternate Courts.In delivering the
behind the
service, the server shall stand alternately
right and left courts, beginning from the right in
every game. The ball served shall pass over the net
and hit the ground within the service court, which is
diagonally opposite.
4. Faults. The service is a fault if the server
commits any breach of rules 2 or 3; if he misses the
ball in attempting to strike or if the ball served
it;
touches a permanent fixture (other than the net) be-
fore it hits the ground. However, if he tosses the ball
without making an effort to hit it, there is no fault.
5.Ball in Play Until Point Decided. A ball
is from the moment at which it is delivered in
in play
service. Unless a fault or a let is called, it remains in
play until the point is decided.
6. Player Hinders Opponent. If a player
commits any act, either deliberately or involuntarily,
which, in the opinion of the umpire, hinders his op-
ponent in making a stroke, the umpire shall in the
 TENNIS 331

case award the point to the opponent, and in the

first should be introduced to all strokes as quickly as pos-
second case order the point to be replayed. sible; much time will be spent developing consis-
7. Ball Falling on Line. A ball falling on a tency in both the stroke and return of the tennis ball.
line is regarded as falling in the court bounded by The following outline includes everything one
that line. Good ball. would need to cover; the sequence might vary from
8. Good Return. It is a good return:
teacher to teacher.
a. If the ball touches the net, posts, cord or A. Basic Racket Skills
metal cable, strap, or band, provided that
it passes over any of them and hits the
1. Stance and basic foot movement — side-to-
forward and backward
side,
ground within the court; 2. Grips —
Eastern and Continental
b. If a player's racket passes over the net B. Strokes
after he has returned the ball, provided 1. Forehand and Grip
the ball passes the net before being played 2. Backhand and Grip
and is properly returned; 3. Service
c. If a player succeeds in returning the ball, Return of Service
4.
served or in play, which strikes a ball lying C. Rules and Etiquette (best to introduce when di-
in the court. rectly related to skill or strategy being taught)

9. When Players Change Sides. The play- D. Volley

ers shall change sides at the end of the first, third,
E. Lob
and every subsequent alternate game of each set, F Singles Game —
focus on consistently returning
and at the end of each set unless the total number of the ball into the court
games in such set be even, in which case the change G. Doubles Game —
regular and mixed
is not made until the end of the first game of the next

set.

Doubles, Order of Service. Decided at

10.
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
the beginning of each set. The pair who have to serve
The Grip
in the first game of each set shall decide which
partner shall do so and the opposing pair shall de- The importance of a proper grip cannot be
cide similar for the second game. The partner of the stressed enough. There may be adjustments made in
player who served in the first game shall serve in a player's swing, but a proper grip will last a player
the third; the partner of the player who served in the for a lifetime.
second game shall serve in the fourth. The order of Special names have been given to the forehand
serving may be changed following the completion of grips, based upon the position of the palm against
any set. the racket handle:
11. Doubles, Order of Receiving. Decided When the palm sits upon the top right side, the
at the beginning of each set. The pair who have to re- grip is called the Continental Figure 23-3). This grip
(

ceive the first game shall decide which partner shall requires a strong wrist and is used by some profes-
continue to receive the first service in every odd sionals for both forehand and backhand strokes.
game throughout that set. The opposing pair shall
likewise decide which partner shall receive the first
service in the second game and that partner shall
continue to receive the first service in every even
game throughout that set. The order of receiving
may be changed following the completion of any set.
A
complete staff of officials for a tennis match
includes a referee, an umpire, a net-court judge, and
at least seven linesmen. However, most dual
matches are played with only a referee or, at most, a
referee and an umpire.

SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE

In the beginning stages it is important to stress that
the learner acquire the ability to hit the ball consis-
tently across the net. Early drills and skill develop-
ment should focus on gaining familiarity with the
basic stroke mechanics and racquet skills. Students FIGURE 23-3 Continental grip (front and back views).
332 TENNIS

When the palm

sits on the back side of the han- throat of your racket with your left hand so that the
dle, it is an Eastern grip (Figure 23-4). The
called racket face is vertical to the ground. Then hold the
palm and the racket face are on the same plane, racket at waist level with the right palm vertical and
which gives the sensation of hitting the ball with the your fingers pointing slightly downward at approxi-
palm of your hand. This is the most common grip mately a 45-degree angle. The thumb should overlap
and the one strongly recommended in this chapter. and lie next to the middle finger, with the index
When the palm rests on the bottom of the han- finger spread. Now hold the racket out away from
dle, so that the palm points at the sky, it is called a you and look at the top edge of your racket and the
Western grip (Figure 23-5). This is the least common top edge of your right palm to see if they are both ab-
grip,although some players use it to great advan- solutely vertical. If you play this game correctly
tage. you'll rarely hit a shot that requires the racket to
Eastern Grip. This being recommended for vary more than 10 degrees from the vertical position.
the forehand, it willbe the only grip described in de- Eastern Backhand Grip. The backhand grip
tail. A teacher without an extensive tennis back- advocated in this chapter is the Eastern backhand
ground can't go wrong by suggesting this grip. grip. This is attained by putting the palm on the top
If you are right-handed, start by holding the of the racket; the knuckle of the index finger rides
the top right ridge, and the thumb can be placed ei-
ther behind the racket or underneath. This grip po-
sition provides the most stability and requires the
least amountof wrist adjustment in order to provide
a vertical racket head at impact.

Strokes
terms of a right-
All the strokes are described in
handed There are some general
player's actions.
principles that the player must be aware of:

1. Spin of the Ball. The direction in which the ball

spins is determined by the trajectory taken by
the racket before and after contact with the ball.
If the racket comes from below the ball, is verti-
cal at impact, and finishes above the ball, top-
spin (low to high) will be attained. If the racket
starts above the ball and sweeps down to the
ball, underspin (high to low) will be attained.
2. Nearly every successful hit is accomplished with
FIGURE 23-4 Eastern grip (front and back views). a vertical racket head. A player does not come
over the ball for topspin or under the ball for un-
derspin!
3. With the exception of the serve and overhead, all
strokes in this chapter will be hit with a locked
wrist. The swing will come from the shoulder
and not the wrist.

The Serve
The serve is the first ball hit in every point. The
motion is very similar to that of a baseball pitcher's
throwing motion. A good way to start teaching the
serve is just to watch the student throw the ball over
the net. Have the student pretend the ball is the
racket and don't be satisfied until the perfect motion
is attained.
Many beginners prefer to use the regular fore-
hand grip to hit a basic "flat" serve, but intermediate
and advanced players should use the Continental
grip, halfway between the Eastern forehand and
Eastern backhand, in order to facilitate greater ball
FIGURE 23-5 Western grip (front and back views). rotation with less stress on the wrist.
FIGURE 23-6 The service sequence.

To attain a good service motion it is necessary to of the ball on an almost horizontal plane thus
coordinate two movements simultaneously the ball — producing sidespin. Using the face of a clock as a
toss and the action of the racket. The toss is made by reference, the righthander would hit from 9
holding the ball near the finger tips, with the palm o'clock to 3 o'clock.
up, and then releasing the ball upwards with all 3. Topspin. The principle of applying topspin on a
fingers letting go at the same time. serve is basically the same as on a forehand or
Achieving spin on the ball is an important aspect backhand. Swing from low to high and brush the
of serving. There are three kinds of serves recom- back side of the ball at about a 45-degree angle.
mended: On the imaginary clock hit from 8 o'clock to 2
o'clock.
1. Flat. A totally flat serve is a myth because every
ballhas some amount of spin. This serve has the
The Serve Motion. Figure 23-6 shows the se-
leastamount of spin and is attained by snapping
quence of motions involved in the service (refer to
the wrist up and forward through the middle of
views A-E):
the ball.
2. Slice. Very much like a curveball in baseball. A. Ready Position. It is important to be totally re-
The racket face must move across the backside laxed before attempting to serve. The feet are

333
334 TENNIS

shoulder width apart, and the front shoulder is back foot a step into the court. If the player
pointing in the direction the ball will be served. wishes to serve and volley, this will naturally
B. To start the motion, the player's arms go down to- become the first step toward the net. If not, the
gether and then start up together. Also begin to participant may step back and rally off of the
lean forward slightly. baseline.
C. Position C is crucial. At this point the ball is re- Serve and Volley. The footwork recom-
leased and shoulder rotation must begin. The mended for serve and volley are to step with the
racket is slightly above the shoulder, and the right foot, left foot, right foot, and then bring both
tossing arm is pointing toward the right net post feet into alignment (Figure 23-7). The closer you can
so the toss will be 10 to 12 inches to the player's get to the service line the better.
right. Height of the toss is 18 inches out of out-
stretched tossing arm. The object of the shoulder
Learning Cues
rotation is to let the right shoulder replace the
position of the left shoulder. Weight at this point 1. No fancy movements. Just relax and take your
is mainly over the front foot with both feet still in time.
contact with the ground. 2. To toss the ball, hold the ball with the finger tips
The racket is forming a loop behind the and not the palm.
player's back. The racket does not scratch the 3. The toss must fit into the motion.
back but forms a loop. This loop is accomplished 4. Chin up and hit up and out. This is true for all
by maintaining a loose arm and rotating the serves.
shoulders at the proper time. If the racket is hit- 5. Think positive. Picture in your mind a success-
ting or touching the student's back at any time, fulserve before starting the motion.
the motion is out of sync. 6. Shoulder rotation and not the strength of the
D. Point of Contact. At impact the arm should be ex- arm is the main source of power.
tended but not necessarily at the peak of one's 7. Hit the second serve with the same motion as
reach (depending on spin desired). The chin is —
the first just with more topspin.
held upward, and for optimal power both feet
should be in contact with the ground though
Practice Suggestions
weight should have transferred forward. Notice
that contact is made to the right of the player's 1. Hit buckets of balls at specific targets to each
head and in line with the hitting shoulder. service court.
E. Follow-through. The right shoulder has replaced 2. Before serving, determine the spin to be desired
the position of the left shoulder, and the player's 'flat, slice, topspin), and then evaluate your suc-

momentum following impact has brought the cess accordingly.

FIGURE 23-7 Footwork for serve and volley.

 TENNIS 335

EL

lA

°\

KJ

—— <' "3
(*^

FIGURE 23-8 Loop backhand sequence.

Loop Backhand B. Backswing. The first move, once determining

Figure 23-8 illustrates the sequence of motions
involved in executing the loop backhand (refer to
views A-F).
A. Ready Position. In a good ready position the
player's feet are shoulder length apart and knees
slightly bent. Elbows are winged out, and the rac-
ket position is at a 45-degree angle to the ground.
Note that the player is now holding the racket
with an Eastern forehand grip.
the ball is coming to the backhand side, is to turn
the shoulder and change the grip simultane-
ously. The grip recommended is the Eastern
backhand. The body should be turned enough so
that the back of the shoulder is pointing at the
oncoming ball.
C. Position viewed from behind. Notice how low the
racket is and also that the racket face is slightly
tilteddownward. The arm is a radius and if the
racket is to be vertical at impact and the wrist re-
336 TENNIS

main locked throughout the swing, the racket
face must be tilted downward at this point. The
left hand may be used to help push the racket
downward, but this is optional.
D. Three movements happen simultaneously in this
photo. The right foot steps into the ball, the
racket drops to the bottom of the loop, and the
knees bend to a crouch position. The racket must
be below the level of the oncoming ball if topspin
is to be achieved.
E. Impact with the Ball. The racket face is vertical
and the arm is extended well in front of the body
(8 to 10 inches in front of the right foot). Eyes are
focused right on the point of contact. Knees have
lifted upward so as to help lift the ball up (top-
spin), and the hips have rotated toward the net.
Body weight has transferred forward slightly be-
fore impact.
F. Follow-through. Following impact let the racket
face and knuckles follow the flight of the ball
until the arm is fully extended. Freeze at this
point and check to make sure that your weight is
forward and over your front foot, and also the
racket should form an archway. If one were to
drop the shoulder straight down, the racket
should still form a perfect hitting position.
Learning Cues
1. Change grip and pivot body as early as possible.
and the racket is at a 45-degree angle to the
out,
ground. The player is holding the racket with an
Eastern forehand grip.
B. Backswing. Turn the shoulders so that the back
of the left shoulder is pointing toward the oncom-
ing ball. It is important that this movement hap-
pens well before the ball crosses the net. Note
that racket head is at eye level. The left hand is
held in front of the body for balance and may also
be an aid on the follow-through.
C. The backswing as seen from behind. The racket
should never go back any farther than as shown.
D. Bottom of the Loop. Three movements happen si-
multaneously in this photo. The left foot steps
forward, the racket and knees drop down to-
gether. Notice that the racket face is turned
slightly downward. The arm is a radius, and if
the wrist is to remain locked and the racket be
vertical at impact, then the racket face must be
tilted slightly downward at this point.
E. Impact with the Ball. The racket face is vertical,
and the player eyes are focused on the point of
s
contact. Legs are lifting upward and hips are
turning forward. Body weight has been trans-
ferred forward to the left foot.
F. Follow-through. There are two important points
on the follow-through. One, the palm of the hit-
ting hand should be pointing toward the intended
target. Two, the hitting arm should be extended

2. Cradle the throat of the racket with the left until the shoulder and chin touch, as shown in

—
hand don't let the hitting arm take a solo. the photo. Also, the legs are totally extended, and
all weight is on the left foot.
3. Concentrate on bending the knees and getting
low. The legs are a tremendous source of power.
4. Work hard to swing easy. Learning Cues
5. Reach forward and out away from the body for
contact.
1. Rotate both shoulders together when turning
6. Keep the wrist locked.
the body.
7. Let the knuckles of the hitting hand be the guide 2. Keep the wrist firm and let the palm be the
for direction. As the knuckles go, so goes the
guide for direction.
racket head. 3. Synchronize the movement of the racket and
body.
8. Reach out and upwards for the follow-through.
9. Always check the follow-through at the comple-
4. Keep the swing short. Don't let the racket get

tion of a swing.
lost behind the body.
10. While the body is lifting, the head must remain
5. Power is generated from the leg lift and hip rota-
stationary. Leave head and eyes glued on point tion —
not just the arm.
of impact.
6. On completion of the follow-through, the palm
should face the intended target and the player's
Practice Suggestions chin and hitting shoulder should touch.
7. Always check the follow-through at the comple-
1. Hit backhands toward a specific target area ei- tion of the swing.
ther from a ball machine or from someone feed- 8. While the body is lifting, the head must remain
ing from across the net. stationary. Leave head and eyes glued on point
2. Hit off of a backboard. of impact.

Loop Forehand
Practice Suggestions
Figure 23-9 shows the loop forehand sequence
1. Hit forehands toward a specific target area ei-
(A-F):
ther from a ball machine or from someone feed-
A. Ready Position. The feet are shoulder length ing from across the net.
apart and knees slightly bent. Elbows are winged 2. Hit off of a backboard.

FIGURE 23-9 Loop forehand sequence.
Lobs
With some practice the lob stroke should resem-
ble the forehand and backhand ground strokes as
much as possible. To conceal the lob, remember to
turn the front shoulder and have a loop swing identi-
cal with the forehand and backhand ground strokes.
This also means running to the ball with the racket
head up and already back. But instead of turning the
TENNIS 337
racket face down as the racket drops, work on a bevel
(slight backward tilt) and lifting the ball high into
the air using the opponent's baseline as a target.
Figure 23-10 shows the ready position for the
overhead smash. The motion from this point is ex-
actly like that of a flat serve. When teaching, stress
keeping the chin up through contact and also reach-
ing up for the ball.
338 TENNIS

Backhand Volley

The sequence of motions recommended for back-

hand volley are illustrated in Figure 23-11.

A. Ready Position. The player is waiting to deter-

mine the direction of the ball; he is holding the
racket with an Eastern forehand grip.
B. Backswing. The player pivots the body and
changes his grip. Actually, there is little or no
backswing. The racket should always remain out
in front of the body. Notice how the left elbow is
held high to keep the racket face on line with the
ball.
C. Contact and Follow-through. The key points here
are:
1. The racket head must remain above the wrist.
2. The ball is contacted well in front of the body
— 8 to 10 inches.
3. The arm and racket form a V.
4. The player's head, racket head, and ball
should all be on the same plane. During the
follow-through, the racket head should remain
above the wrist and ideally the racket face
should follow the flight of the ball to gain
FIGURE 23-10 Ready position for overhand depth on the volley. The follow-through is very
smash. short. From an instructional standpoint, it is
good technique to try to have the student
freeze the racket right at the point of impact to
assure that the wrist isn't breaking.

W^r

^^^

FIGURE 23-11 Motion recommended for backhand volley.

 TENNIS 339

FIGURE 23-12 Motion recommended for forehand volley.

Forehand Volley 4. Keep the wrist locked.

5. Finish with racket head above the wrist.
The sequence of motions recommended for fore-
hand volley are shown in Figure 23-12 (A-C).
6. Use the knuckles for direction guidance on the
backhand and the palm on the forehand.
A. ReadyPosition. The player assumes a ready posi-
he is holding the racket with an Eastern
tion; Practice Suggestions
forehand grip.
1. Hit off a ball machine or a feeder with a specific
B. Backswing. The player pivots the body striving to
target in mind.
get the shoulders sideways to the net. The racket
2. Alternate hitting a forehand and then a back-
should go back as far as the body turn takes it,
yet never be out of the player's peripheral vision.
hand to get used to changing the grip.
3. Hit off of a backboard.
The less backswing the better.
C. Contact and Follow-through. Reaching forward to
the ball, impact should take place slightly in Backhand Return of Serve
front of the left shoulder. The nature of the swing
The suggested technique for backhand return of
will give the ball natural underspin. Do not break
serve is analyzed in Figure 23-13.
the wrist or chop at the ball. The arm and the
racket form a V and the player's head, racket A. Ready Position. Player should beup on his toes,
head, and the tennis ball should be at the same slightly leaning forward, and holding an Eastern
height at contact. During the follow-through keep forehand grip.
the wrist firm, try to keep the racket face in line B. Player pivots the body sideways while changing
with the ball. Do not let the racket head drop if at the grip to an Eastern backhand. The backswing
all possible. is very short, the emphasis being on a blocking
motion similar to the volley.
Contact and Follow-through. At this point it is
crucial that the returner has stepped forward and
Learning Cues for Volleys
is reaching out to contact the ball 8 to 10 inches
1. Always step forward and attack the volley. Also, in front of the body. This shot is hit with under-
change the grip when necessary. spin. Concentration should be on putting the ball
2. Use little or no backswing. back in play rather than on hitting a winner. The
3. Contact well out in front of the body especially follow-through is the same archway as described
on backhands. in the backhand ground stroke.
340 TENNIS

A B

FIGURE 23-13 Suggested technique for backhand return of serve.

Forehand Return of Serve PLAYING STRATEGY

The suggested technique for forehand return of
To be effective, strategy must be an automatic re-
serve is illustrated in Figure 23-14.
sponse to a given set of conditions. The problem with
A. Ready Position. Remember to keep the elbows beginners is that there are no "givens." Therefore, it
raised and be ready to move forward. is suggested that beginners not worry about strategy
B. Rotate both shoulders sideways while limiting and concentrate on getting the ball back over the net
the length of the backswing. Hold the racket face one more time than their opponent. This sounds ter-
on the level of the ball and remember that a ribly feeble but that's how Bjorn Borg's and Chris
blocking motion similar to a volley is desired. Evert's coaches explained it to them at an early age.
C. Contact. The ball is met just in front of the A player needs to "own" or "control" certain shots be-
player's left shoulder. A step forward as well as fore he or she can become worried about strategy. Of
body weight transfer is important. The shot is hit course, if at all possible you should hit to your oppo-
with slight underspin with emphasis on putting nent's weakness whenever the chance arises. The
the ball back in play. best advice for beginning players is to be able to
D. Follow-through. This position is the same as de- laugh at the mistakes they make and have fun learn-
scribed on the forehand ground stroke. ing. Things we learn with pleasure we don't forget!

Learning Cues

1. Start with a forehand grip rather than in be- MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
tween the two grips.
2. Short backswing, long follow-through. Orthopedically Impaired

3. Wrist locked. 1. Follow rules from National Wheelchair Tennis

4. Always try to have feet forward, never back- Association and allow wheelchair users two
ward. bounces before a return shot is required.
5. Contact ball in front of body, especially on the 2. Tether a ball to an assistive device, e.g., walker,
backhand. crutch, for mobility impaired students.
6. Follow-throughs are the same as ground strokes. 3. Use a larger size ball or one made of different
material, e.g., nerf ball.
Practice Suggestions
4. Use velcro strapping to secure racquets to hand
Have a fellow participant practice serves while during play.
you hit returns to a specific target area. Alternate 5. Use flat paddle-type boards secured to hand
between both service courts. with a velcro strap during play.
 TENNIS 341

FIGURE 23-14 Suggested technique for forehand return of serve.

6. Commercial extension devices are available for 3. Use one- walled courts or stations in the gymna-
amputees and others with grip limitations. sium.
7. See modifications mentioned for Handball/
Sensory Impaired
Racquetball, Chapter 14.
1. Individual considerations need to be made on
Mentally Impaired
the appropriateness of tennis for the blind.
1. Have students throw the ball back and forth Lead-up games such as Goalball help the stu-
across the net to develop the concept of the dents develop the concept of defending their side
game. of the court. Similar to modifications for rac-
2. Reduce the court size, net height, and court cov- quetball, the instructor might allow the student
erage responsibility. to roll or throw an audio ball against a wall to
342 TENNIS

practice movement and appropriate positioning. 14. The follow-through of the racket is in the direc-
Place small bells inside whiffleballs and use as tion of the intended flight of the ball.
audio ball. 15. After completing each stroke, return to a ready
2. Minimal modifications would be needed for the position, facing the net and loosely grasping the
deaf or hard of hearing. Instructional considera- throat of the racket with the left hand to facili-
tions include use of sign language, videos, pic- tate change of grip if necessary.
tures. 16. Well-placed lobs out of reach of the net rusher
will help keep him or her away from the net.
17. When serving, attempt to get the first serve in
ETIQUETTE the proper court as often as possible. Stress con-
trol and accuracy if a second serve is necessary
To make the game more enjoyable for yourself and and concentrate on getting the ball into the
for others, you should follow certain court courtesies proper service area.
or rules of etiquette. If one of your tennis balls rolls 18. The server should always have two balls in his
into another court, wait until the players on the or her possession before starting the service.
court have finished their rally before asking for your 19. The receiver should not retrieve or return the
ball. When you return someone's ball that has rolled ball if the opponent's first serve is a fault, but
into your court, roll the ball back to the player ask- should remain in receiving position so the server
ing for instead of trying to gain some stroking
it can immediately follow with a second attempt.
practice. If they are engaged in playing a point, roll 20. Devote periodic practice sessions to correcting
the ball back against the screen out of their field of specific weaknesses.
play. If your opponent interfered with in any way
is
during the play for a point, stop the play, call a "let,"
and then play the point over. You call lines on your
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
side of the net and let your opponent call lines on his
side. When leaving or entering the courts, do not
walk behind a player playing a point. Wait until the
1. Warm up sufficiently before starting strenuous
play.
rally is over,then quickly cross the rear of the court
2. If injured, stop and report injury to the instruc-
close to the back screen.
tor.
3. Remove rings, bracelets, watches, and other ob-
which may cause bruises and
jects cuts.
HELPFUL HINTS
4. Check the playing surface for glass, nails,
stones, slippery spots, etc.
1. Keep your eye on the ball at all times.
5. Stay in line, on mark, or in your own area when
2. Strive for accurate placement rather than speed.
swinging or hitting.
3. Always play the game to win, but if you go down
6. Control your emotions; do not throw the racket
in defeat, give your opponent due credit.
or hit a ball in anger.
4. Play to your opponent's weaknesses.
7. Shout a warning when there is danger of a ball
5. When calling the score, always call the server's hitting someone.
score first.
8. Avoid showing off and "horseplay."
6. Keep your weight on the balls of both feet so you
9. Be aware of the distances between the baselines
can move in any direction with ease and speed.
and walls, fences, screens, etc.
7. Acquire an understanding of the fundamentals
10. When playing in excessive heat, make sure to
of stroking, and practice faithfully to master
drink plenty of fluids.
them.
8. Notice how your opponent
strokes the ball so
when he or she uses the chop or slice stroke you
can play the bounce accordingly. TERMINOLOGY
9. Turn your body sideways to the net on all ground
strokes. Ace A ball served and untouched by the opponent's
10. When stroking the ball, avoid stiff leg action by racket.
keeping the knees loose and relaxed. Advantage (Ad) Scoring term: the next point won after
11. On ground strokes, return the ball deep into the the score is "deuce."
opponent's back court near the baseline. Alley The 4% foot strip on either side of the singles court,
12. On ground strokes, attempt to hit the ball at used to enlarge the court for doubles.
waist level and on the rise. Approach shot A shot hit inside the baseline while ap-
13. Hit the ball squarely on the strings of the racket proaching the net.
face by hitting "through" the ball instead of Backcourt The area between the service line and the
chopping under it. baseline.
 TENNIS 343

Backhand Strokes hit on the left side of a right-handed the ball has been contacted, and running along the
player. baseline before serving.
Backspin Spin acquired on a ball dropping from a verti- Forecourt The area between the net and the service line.
cal position, which forces the ball to bounce back to- Forehand The stroke hit on the right side of a right-
ward the hitter. handed player.
Backs wing The beginning of all ground strokes and serv- Frame The rim of the racket head plus the handle of the
motion requiring a backswing to gather energy for
ice racket.
the forward swing. Game when a player wins 4 points before
Scoring term
Baseline The end line of a tennis court, located 39 feet his opponent and holds a minimum 2-point lead.
from the net. Grip That portion of the racket which is grasped in the
Break Relates to the act of winning a game in which the player's hand.
opponent serves. Ground stroke Any ball hit after it has bounced.
Center mark Short mark that bisects the baseline. Half-volley A ball hit only inches away from the court's
Center service line The line perpendicular to the net surface after the ball has bounced.
which divides the two service courts. Hold serve To win your own serve. If you lose your own
Center strap A strap placed at the center of the net and serve, your serve has been "broken."
anchored to the court to facilitate a constant 3-foot Let (ball) A point that is played over because of some
height for the net at the center. kind of interference.
Center stripe Same as the center service line which di- Let serve A serve that touches the net tape and falls into
vides the two service courts into halves. the proper square and is played over.
Chip Refers to the short chopping motion of the racket Linesman A match official who calls balls "in" or "out."
against the back and bottom side of the ball. Lob A ball hit sufficiently high to pass over the out-
Chop Used in the same manner as "chip" by many. stretched arm position of the net player.
Refers to the placement of backspin on the ball with a Lob volley A shot hit high into the air from a volleying
short high to low forward swing. position.
Cross-court A shot hit diagonally from one corner of the Love Scoring term: zero points or games.
court over the net into the opposite corner of the court. Match A contest between two or four opponents.
Cut off the angle To move forward quickly against an op- Match point The point immediately preceding the final
ponent's cross-court shot, allowing the player to hit The player who holds this point
point of a match. is

the ball near the center of the court rather than near said to be serving for match point.
the sidelines. Midcourt The area in front or in back of the service line of
Deep (depth) A shot that bounces near the baseline on the playing court.
ground strokes and near the service line on serves. Net ball A ball that hits the net and falls back on the
Default A player who forfeits his or her position in a tour- same side as the hitter.
nament through failure to play a scheduled match. Net man The player who has gained position at the net
Deuce Scoring term used when the game score is 40-40. and is prepared to volley.
Dink A ball normally hit very softly and relatively high to No man's land A general area within the baseline and
ensure its safe landing. proper net position area; when caught in that area,
Double fault When the server has served two serves out the player must volley or hit ground strokes near his
of bounds on the same point. feet.
Doubles line The outside sideline on a court used in — Offensive lob A ball hit just above the racket reach of an
doubles only. opposing net player.
Down-the-line A shot hit near a sideline which travels Open face racket A racket whose face is moving under
close to, and parallel to, the same line from which the the ball. A wide open racket face is parallel to the
shot was initially hit. court surface.
Drive An offensive shot hit with extra force. Overhead A shot hit from a position higher than the
Drop shot A ground stroke hit in such a manner as to player's head.
drop just over the net with little or no forward bounce. Overhead smash A shot hit extremely hard from a posi-
Drop volley A volley hit in such a manner as to drop just tion higher than the player's head.
over the net with little or no forward bounce. Overhitting Putting too much force into each shot.
Error A mistake made by a player during competition. Pace The speed
of the ball.
Face The hitting surface of the racket. Passing shot A shot that passes beyond the reach of the
Fault A serve that lands out of bounds or is not hit prop- net player and lands inbounds.
erly. Placement A shot hit inbounds and untouched by the op-
Flat shot A such a manner as not
ball hit in to rotate ponent.
when traveling through the air. Poach To cross over into your partner's territory.
Foot fault Illegal foot movement before service, penalized Racket face The hitting surface of the racket.
by the loss of that particular serve. Common foot Racket head Top portion of the racket frame which
faults are: stepping on or ahead of the baseline before houses the strings.
344 TENNIS

Rally The act of hitting balls back and forth across the Brown, J. Tennis: Steps to Success. Champaign, IL: Leisure
net. A rally includes all shots other than the serve. Press, 1989.
Receiver The player about to return the opponent's Gould, D. Tennis Anyone? 4th ed. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield
serve. Publishing Company, 1986.
Retrieve Normally refers to a fine defensive shot in re- Kraft, E. The Tennis Teachers Guide to Group Instruction.
sponse to an opponent's well-placed offensive shot. Princeton, NJ: United States Tennis Association, 1989.
Server The player initiating play. Kriese, C. Total Tennis Training. Grand Rapids, MI: Mas-
Service line The end line of the service courts running ters Press, 1988.
parallel to the net. Parks, B.A. Tennis in a Wheelchair. National Foundation of
Set Scoring term: The first player to win six games with Wheelchair Tennis, 1988.
a minimum two-game lead has won a set. USTA Schools Program. Princeton, NJ: United States
Set point The point which, if won, will give the player the Tennis Association. Latest ed.
set. USTA Recreational Tennis Curriculum. Princeton, NJ:
Sidespin A ball hit and rotating on a horizontal plane. United States Tennis Association, 1989.
Signals in doubles Signaling your partner that you are
going to poach at the net. Audio-Visual Materials
Singles line The first sideline closer to the center mark Brentwood Productions, P.O. Box 49956, Los Angeles, CA
and running the entire length of the court. 90049. (203) 472-0868. Strokes (Tennis fundamentals).
Slice Motion of the racket head going around the side of 12.5 minutes, 16mm film.
the ball and producing a horizontal spin on the ball. Oklahoma State University, Audio Visual Center, Still-
Tape The band of cloth or plastic running across the top water. Oklahoma 74078, <405> 624-7216, or Pennsylva-
of the net. nia State University, Audio Visual Services, Special
Telegraphing the play To indicate the direction of one's Services Building, University Park, Pennsylvania
intended target before actually hitting the ball. 16802, (814) 865-6314. Tennis: Basic Tactics for Doubles
Topspin The clockwise rotation of the ball at a 90° angle. and Tennis: Basic Tactics for Singles. (Basic strategy for
both singles and doubles.) 13 minutes each, 16mm film.
Touch The ability to make delicate soft shots from sev-
eral positions on the court. United States Tennis Association National Film Library,
707 Alexander Road, Princeton, NJ, provides many
Twist A special rotation imparted to the ball during the
—
rentals: The Winners Edge Tennis (45 minutes, VHS);
serve, causing the ball to jump to the left (of right-
Fair Game: Tennis Played by the Rules (basic rules, scor-
handed server). ing, customs and traditions covered —
18 minutes, VHS
Umpire The official used in tournament play to call lines. or 16mm Tennis (drills and methods
filmi; Practice for
Underspin A counterclockwise spin placed on the ball by for improving stroke production —
20 minutes, 16mm
catching the backside and bottomside of the ball with film); Tennis in a Wheelchair 18 minutes, VHS); Tennis
<

the racket head. Our Wax with Vic Braden, Stan Smith and Arthur Ashe
I

Volley To hit the ball in the air before it has bounced on — 2M> hours, VHS); and many others. Write to the USTA
the court. for complete listing of rental tapes and films.
Vic Braden Tennis College, 22000 Piano Rd., Trabuco Can-
yon, CA 92670. Vic Braden Tennis Training Films: Fore-
hand Drive (5V4 min.i; Backhand Drive (4Va min.); Half
SELECTED REFERENCES Volley (4V4 min.);Approach i4V* mini; Forehand Volley
(5 mini; Backhand Volley 14% min.); Basic Serve (5Vi
Braden, V. and Bruns, B. Tennis for the Future. Boston: mini; Overhead (4 min.); Advanced Serve (5V4 mini;
Little, Brown and Company, 1977. The Lob (4 min.); Ball Rotation (4% min.); Footwork (4
Teaching Children Tennis the Vic min.); Singles Strategy (3V4 min.); Doubles Strategy <3K4
Braden Way. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1980. min. i.
 TRACK AND FIELD
THIS CHAPTER WILL EHABLE YOU TO:
Understand the learning sequence for the hurdling, jumping, and throwing events.
Demonstrate and perform basic skills and techniques of various running, hurdling,
jumping, and throwing events.
Set up a training program for a participant in various running and hurdling
events.
Identify the basic terminology used in the sport of track and field.
Identify the basic rules of the sport.

NATURE AND PURPOSE Spiked shoes must be worn not only for safety
but for optimal performance, particularly in the
The more than thirty different track and field events jumping events. For the elite performer, shoes de-
in the Olympic Games involve walking, running, signed specifically for the various events may be
jumping, and throwing. Each requires different com- purchased.
binations of sports fitness (endurance, strength, Track and field shorts, shirts, and warm-up suits
speed, flexibility) and motor skills to be successful. vary in price depending upon the quality of the ma-
Yet this great variety of events requiring these dif- terial. These can be purchased from catalogue sup-
ferent combinations of natural and acquired abilities pliers, sporting goods or department stores.
gives practically every individual, no matter what
body size, shape, or form, the opportunity to partici-
pate successfully. Often young boys and girls do not
realize they have the natural ability to become suc-
BASIC RULES
cessful in track and field until they give it a try.
Sprinting
Many track and field stars "discovered themselves"
in a physical education class or intramural sport. In 1. One false start disqualifies a runner.
fact, participants can easily assess their natural 2. A starter may not touch on or over the line be-
abilities of strength, speed, endurance, and power by fore the firing of the gun.
performing specific tests. These talent tests could in- 3. Some part of each foot must be in contact with
clude a 30-meter timed sprint, standing long jump the track in the blocks.
for distance, vertical jump for height, five alternate
Relay Races
leg bounds for distance, 5-kg shot tossed backward
overhead for distance, or an 800-meter timed run. 1. The baton must be passed inside the 20-meter
passing zone.
2. The baton must be carried in the hand through-
EQUIPMENT out the race.
3. After passing the baton, the runner may not in-
The equipment required in track and field varies terfere with an opponent.
with the events. Proper equipment is important and
Hurdling
can affect the learning of skills and technique as well
as help to reduce injuries. Lighter-weight throwing 1. Entire body must pass over the hurdle.
implements for shot or discus should be used for 2. A hurdler may not interfere with a hurdler in
smaller and younger athletes. For the beginning another lane.
hurdler, modified hurdles using light-weight wooden
High Jump
rods placed upon small cones or bricks and easily
displaced should be used instead of heavy solid hur- 1. The jumper must make a jump from one foot.
dles. In the high jump, a soft foam pit made from 2. Three allowed at each height.
trials are
gymnastic mats or high jump mats is essential. The 3. Displacing a bar, passing under it, crossing the
cross bar should be of soft plastic rather than solid line of the bar extended, or leaving the ground
metal. shall count as a foul and trial.

345
346 TRACK AND FIELD

Long Jump D. Field Events

1. High Jump Flop i
Style >

1. Touching in front of scratch line or passing the

2. Long Jump
line extended shall count as a foul and trial.
The jump
3. Triple Jump
2. shall be measured at right angles to
4. Shot Put
the board and at the point of landing closest to
5. Discus Throw
the take-off.

Triple Jump
SPECIFIC SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS
1 During the hop and step phase the free leg must
not touch the ground. Sprinting
2. The legal measurement of a jump is the same as
1. Warm up thoroughly before starting.
described in the long jump.
2. Don't jump or lunge at the finish tape.
3. A scratch jump is the same as described in the 3. Don't take starts after a hard training session.
long jump.
Relay Races
Shot Put
1. After passing the baton, remain in your lane
1. Touching on top or outside of circle or toe-board
until all others have passed.
with any part of the body constitutes a foul.
2. Pass the baton to opposite hands, right to left or
2. The thrower must enter and leave by the back of
left to right, to avoid a collision.
the circle.
Hurdling
Discus Throw
1. Warm up and stretch well before hurdling.
1. The discus must be thrown within a 60-degree
2. Never attempt to go over a hurdle from the
sector 45-degree in college). As in shot put, after
(

wrong direction.
entering the ring, the thrower must pause before
starting. High Jump
2. The thrower may not touch any part of a painted
1. Make certain the pit is positioned correctly.
the top of a band used to outline part of
line, or
the ground outside the circle.
2. Don't jump without spiked shoes, to prevent
slipping.
3. Use a heel cup or heel pad to prevent bruises.

SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE Long Jump

1. Keep the landing pit area soft and smooth.

The running and events described in this
field
2. Wear jumping shoes with heel cups or rubber
chapter may be taught in any order, taking into
pads in take-off heel.
account the particular student needs, the time avail-
able, and the type of facilities available. It is, how- Triple Jump
ever, important to follow a simple-to-complex
1. Wear heel cups or rubber pads in both jumping
progression leading up to the completion of a skill.
shoes.
Other important keys to successful learning include
2. Keep the landing pit area soft and smooth.
positive reinforcement through feedback and using
good learning cues. Shot Put
In all instances, rules, hints, cues, and terminol-
ogy should be introduced only when significant to
1. Roll the shot back to the circle — don't throw it

back.
the learning progression and when dealing with the
2. Practice in a protected area.
particular event. Safety considerations are of prime
importance during the initial stages of learning. Discus Throw

A. Orientation 1. Make sure the implement and the throwing sur-

1. Safety considerations face are dry.
2. Discussion of equipment 2. Never throw the discus in any other than the
3. Importance of warm-up and cool-down specified direction.
B. Rules, Skill Development. Terminology. Specific
Safety Instructions are given in connection with
the particular event. SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
C. Running Events
Sprinting
1. Sprinting
2. Middle /Long Distance Running While speed or sprinting ability is largely deter-
3. Relays mined by inherited — the white muscle fiber
traits
4. Hurdling composition of the body — a sprinter's innate speed
 TRACK AND FIELD 347

can be greatly improved through technique work

and training. Technique work involves improving a
sprinter's start, ability to lift ("change gears"), and
ability to relax, thereby sustaining speed.
The Start. The placement of the starting
blocks is essential to a good start. Most sprinters
favor the medium start. In this start, the front block
is set in approximately 2-foot lengths from the start-
ing line, and the back block 3- to 4-foot lengths.
These distances may vary according to the sprinter's
body structure, height, and length of limbs.
The starting commands are "on your marks" and
"set" and the firing of the gun.
In the on-the-mark position, the hands are par-
allel to the starting line, the arms are shoulder width
apart, the dominant leg is forward in the blocks with
the opposite knee resting on the track, and the head FIGURE 24-1 An excellent "set" position is demonstrated by the
two sprinters.
is relaxed. After assuming this position, the sprinter
will then slide or roll forward until the shoulders are
over or in front of the starting line with the pressure
being on the knee and finger tips.
On "set" the sprinter raises the hips until
slightly higher than the shoulders. In this position
the knees are parallel or at a slight angle to the
track. The sprinter feels good power in both legs in
this position if the blocks are spaced properly. The
head is relaxed with no tension on the neck (Figure
24-1).
At the gun the sprinter concentrates on good
sprint form: opposite arm/opposite leg action while
keeping the driving angle low and forward (Figure
24-2). It is important that the sprinter's movement
be forward, not upward, which is the result of the
proper "set" position.
Lifting. After coming out of the blocks, the
sprinter concentrates on lifting, or "shifting gears," FIGURE 24-2 At the gun, these two sprinters demonstrate good
sprint form and drive forward out of the blocks.
by driving the knees high, which will continue accel-
eration. This action continues until the sprinter has
reached maximum speed, somewhere between 30 to
40 meters, at which time an upright running posi-
tion and full running stride length will have been
achieved.
Free-Wheeling. In this phase, which is also
referred to as floating, the sprinter works to sustain
speed through total body relaxation. Total relaxation
is achieved by running tall while keeping the hands,
arms, and jaws loose, and the shoulders down to re-
duce tension in the antagonistic muscle groups of the
neck (Figure 24-3).
The Finish. The sprinter drives or runs
through the tape at the finish in regular sprint form
and does not attempt to jump or lunge.

Practice Suggestions — Training Workout

In training for the sprinting events, quality work
isimportant over quantity work. Basic sprint train-
ing should include: long sprints consisting of 200 to
FIGURE 24-3 Free-wheeling. A 400-meter
250 meters for the 100 meters, 250 to 300 meters for sprinter displays total relaxation, which is important
the 200 meters, and 500 to 600 meters for the 400 in sustaining speed.
348 TRACK AND FIELD

TABLE 24-1 A Weekly Training Program for Sprinting Events

1 00 Meters 200 Meters 400 Meters

Monday 4 x 250m at 95% effort/ 3 X 300m at 95% effort/ 2 X 600m at 90% effort/

walk 8 min. walk 10 min. walk 15 min.

Tuesday baton work; 8-10 X baton work; 8-10 X 75m 8-10 X 150m gun starts
30-40m gun starts gun starts (around turn) (around turn)

Wednesday 5-6 X 75m at allout/ 6 X 1 50m at allout/ 2-3 X 300m at race pace
walk back for recovery walk back for recovery

Thursday baton work; 5-6 X baton work; 6-8 X 50m 5-6 X 1 00m at 95% effort

20-30m gun starts gun starts

Friday Meet Meet Meet

Saturday 1-2 miles easy distance 1-2 miles easy distance 2-4 miles easy distance
golf course golf course golf course

Sunday Rest Rest Rest

meters; medium sprints consisting of 50 to 75 meters
for the 100 meters, 100 to 150 meters (around turn)
for the 200 meters, and 300 to 350 meters for the 400
meters; and short sprints with the gun consisting of
20 to 30 meters for the 100 meters, 50 to 75 meters
for the 200 meters, and 100 to 150 meters for the 400
meters. A weekly competitive season training pro-
gram is given in Table 24-1. Each of the workouts
should be preceded by a good warm-up which in-
cludes stretching and flexibility exercises, easy run-
ning, and sprint drills, and should be followed by a
good cool-down of easy running and stretching.
Practice Suggestions — Sprinting Skills
1. High Knee Drill. Running 20 to 30 meters with
knees lifted so that thighs are at least parallel to
the ground. Emphasize quality lifting; the drill
should not be hurried. The vertical action is fast,
but the horizontal movement forward is slow.
2. Block Drill. Sprinter A gets into the blocks in the
"on the mark" position. Sprinter B stands facing
him with hands on shoulders of sprinter A.
Upon continued hand pressure, sprinter A
comes to "set" position. On the command "go"
from sprinter B, sprinter A drives out of the
blocks, concentrating on driving the arms and
lifting the knees while sprinter B continues to
offer resistance.
3. Figure Four Drill. Running 20 to 30 meters,
sprinter concentrates on the heel coming
under the buttocks as the foot comes off
track, this will elevate the knee parallel with
track.
4. Sprint -Float -Sprint Drill. The sprinter runs 150
meters, running the first 50 working hard, the
next 50 meters floated (relaxed running), and
the last 50 meters working hard. The sprinter
runs the floated 50 meters within one second of
the hard 50 meters by concentrating on good
sprint form and relaxation, so as not to deceler-
ate.
Middle and Long Distance Running
Middle distance races include the 800-meter,
1500-meter, and mile races. Long distance races in-
clude the 3000-meter steeplechase, 5000-meter,
10,000-meter, and marathon races. Running form in
these events is not significantly different from the
sprinting events except that as the speed of a runner
is reduced, the stride length becomes shorter, the
body is more erect, and the foot strikes more on the
heel in landing.
In training for these events it is important to
train both energy systems of the body the aerobic —
and anaerobic.
Aerobic Training. This type of training,
which improves a runner's endurance or stamina by
increasing the ability to take in and utilize oxygen, is
accomplished through runs of 3 to 10 miles or longer
at different tempos (speeds). An easy tempo involves
relaxed recovery running; a brisk tempo involves
running at steady state or oxygen balance; and hard
tempo involves running beyond steady state but not
allout. Using all three tempos in a run produces a
type of training called Fartlek (Swedish for "speed
the play") or playing with speed. Early training should
up include only easy and brisk tempo runs for several
the weeks; later, hard tempo and hard Fartlek runs with
the hills may be alternated with easier runs. An example
of this pattern of training is given in Table 24-2.
Anaerobic Training. This type of training,
which improves the body's ability to run while under
oxygen debt, is best developed through intermittent
or interval type training. Interval training consists
of running a number of short distances at a given
 -

TRACK AND FIELD 349

TABLE 24-2 An Aerobic Training Program fly zone located beyond the 20-meter zone (see Fig-
ure 24-4). The runner stands on the low side of the
Sunday Long and easy (10 miles, easy tempo) lane if the baton is to be received in the right hand,
Monday Intense (6 miles, hard tempo) and the high side of the lane when the baton is to be
Tuesday Active rest (5 miles, brisk tempo) received in the left hand. When the incoming runner
Wednesday Intense (7 miles, hard Fartlek) hits a predetermined mark on the track, called the
Thursday Active rest (4 miles, brisk tempo) "go mark," the outgoing runner leaves, concentrat-
Friday Intense (5 miles, hard tempo) ing on good sprinting action. This "go mark" may
Saturday Active rest (8 miles, brisk tempo) vary by 5 to 8 meters and is established by a trial
and error method. The baton is exchanged at a given
point in the zone, preferably in the last 10 meters of
minutes of rest or jogging
pace, interspersed by 1 to 5 the 20-meter passing zone, without the receiver look-
fixed distances. For example: 8X 200 meters at 30 ing back. The exchange is made by the incoming
sec/jog 200 meters. Interval training is used basi- runner extending the baton forward as far as possi-
cally to develop race rhythm and for sharpening
speed.

Training Workout Suggestions

20 Meter < 1 Meter >
A weekly competitive season aerobic/anaerobic Passing Zone Fly Zone Go Zone
training program is outlined in Table 24-3.

Relays Go Mark for the

Outgoing Runner
There are two types of relays: sprint relays (400,
800, 1600 meters) and sprint medley (200, 400, 800 /
meters) and distance relays (3200, 6000) and dis-
X-
tance medley (400, 800, 1200, 1600 meters). Four
runners compete for a team, each running an equal
distance (except in medley relays), and pass a baton
to the next runner. The baton must be exchanged
within a 20-meter exchange zone. There are two gen-
eral methods of exchanging the baton, the blind pass
Outgoing runner Outgoing runner's stance
and the visual pass. receives baton in takes off at full speed

Blind Pass. The blind pass is used in sprint this area of passing zone when incoming runner's foot
hits go mark.
relays. In this exchange the outgoing runner stands
in a good sprint position at the back of the 10-meter FIGURE 24-4 The blind pass, used for all sprint relays.

TABLE 24-3 A Weekly Competitive Season Aerobic/Anaerobic Training Program

800 Meters 1 500 Meters 5000 Meters

Sunday 6 miles (easy tempo) 8 miles (easy tempo) 1 miles (easy tempo)

Monday 1 mile (easy tempo) 2 miles (easy tempo) 3 miles (easy tempo)
2 X 600m at race pace/ 5 X 800m at slower than 4 X 200m
1 at race pace/
walk 5 min.; race pace/jog 400 m; jog 600m;
1 5 min. (easy tempo) 20 min. (easy tempo) 25 min. (easy tempo)
Tuesday 40 min. (brisk tempo) 50 min. (brisk tempo) 60 min. (brisk tempo)

Wednesday 2 miles (brisk tempo) 3 miles (brisk tempo) 4 miles (brisk temno)
4 X 400m at faster than 8 X 400m at race pace/ 1 2 X 400m at faster than

race pace/walk 4 min.; jog 200m; race pace/jog 200m;

15 min. (easy tempo) 25 min. (easy tempo) 35 min. (easy tempo)

Thursday 20 min. (brisk tempo) 30 min. (brisk tempo) 50 min. (brisk tempo)
4 X 200m at 90% effort/ 6 X 200m at 90% effort/ 8 X 200m at 90% effort

jog 200m jog 200m

Friday 20 min. (easy tempo) 30 min. (easy tempo) 40 min. (easy tempo)
Saturday Meet Meet Meet
350 TRACK AND FIELD
FIGURE 24-5 These two relay runners demonstrate excellent
hand-off technique in the 400-meter sprint relay.
ble and placing the baton downward into the re-
ceiver's opposite hand, which has been extended
backward, palm up (Figure 24-5).
Visual Pass. The visual pass is used in all dis-
tance relays. It enables the outgoing runner to judge
the speed and fatigue of the incoming runner. In this
exchange, the outgoing runner, who is turned to-
ward the inside of the track facing the pole lane,
stands on the high side of the lane and receives the
baton in the left hand, palm up. Upon receiving the
baton the runner immediately transfers it to the
right hand.
Practice Suggestions — Sprint Relay Drills
1. Standing Hand-Slap. Two relay runners stand-
ing in their hand-off positions and moving their
arms in a running motion slap or touch hands on
command "reach" or "hand."
2. Running Hand-Slap. This drill is the same as
the standing hand-slap, but with the two relay
runners now running at a slow pace. With ex-
tended practice the runners gradually progress
to running at a faster pace through the exchange
zone practicing this technique.
3. Four Runner Baton Drills. After mastering the
first two drills, progress to using all four relay
runners and a baton. First standing still and
then running, the runners gradually increase
the pace. The relay runners should be staggered
to the right or left, according to the receiving
hand. Care must be taken to keep the proper
spacing between runners to allow good extension
of the passing and receiving arms.
4. One-on-One Drill. Two relay runners, first start-
ing at 10 meters apart and running at 75 percent
speed, move through the passing zone using a
hand-slap. The outgoing runner takes off when
the incoming runner hits a "go mark." This drill
progresses by gradually increasing the speed of
the two relay runners and their distance apart
from each other. This drill teaches the runners
to "attack" the passing zone and helps to estab-
lish a correct "go mark."
Hurdling
Hurdling is rhythmical sprinting and should be
done with as little deviation from sprinting as possi-
ble. Clearing a hurdle is a run over action, not a
jumping movement, and all hurdling is taught with
this concept in mind. (Figure 24-6 1.
The physical attributes of height or good leg
split, speed, flexibility, and coordination along with
the mental qualities of courage, patience, and con-
centration are important for success in hurdling.
Learning Sequence
One of the best ways to teach hurdling is the
'sticks and bricks" method developed by Geoff Dyson
of Great Britain. Different size cones using dowel
rods could also be used. In this method the hurdler
progresses through the following steps:
1. Each individual sprints asfast as possible for 20
to 25 meters maintaining a consistent rhythm
and stride pattern.
2. Teach each person the proper foot positioning at
the starting line: left foot back and right leg for-
ward, which results in alead leg over the
left
hurdle. Using this position the hurdler sprints
the entire distance once again.
3. Teach the beginners to run 8 steps to the first
hurdle. Have every person sprint allout, count-
ing aloud through 13 steps. The 8th step will be
on the right foot. This is done three times to de-
velop a constant stride pattern.
4. After the third sprint, place a stick midway be-
tween the 8th and 9th strides. Have everyone
run through again; place a stick on the ground
between the 12th and 13th strides. Emphasize a
smoother, unbroken rhythm. Have them run
through once again; place a stick between the
16th and 17th strides.
5. Place two bricks flat on the ground for each
stick, putting the ends of the sticks on the
bricks. Have each person sprint over these twice,
gradually increasing the height by turning the
bricks and adding a second brick.
6. When the stick reaches 24 inches above the
ground, introduce specific hurdling techniques:
proper lead leg, trail leg, and arm action, by
means of a wall drill.
7. —
Wall Drill first part: work on the proper lead
leg and arm action. The hurdler, standing a few
feet from a wall, starts by lifting the lead knee
and leg toward the wall, letting the weight fall
forward. The leg is planted on the wall at hurdle
height, the chest drops down toward the knee,
and the opposite arm is driven toward the oppo-
site leg.
 TRACK AND FIELD 351

The head rises very The arm action leads „ A Ij-arm forward style:
above height
little
back with the elbow -""
lead arm forward and down;
e II *L-l
Excellent balance andJtForward
j me eeyes
The " es are already
aireaa y focused
Tocusea «>

lean into the next stride on the next hurdle . ^ when spiting The lead foot points straight
ahead with no inversion
off arm ahead of hip

A distant take-off (about 7j')

The heel touches the ground ' permits a low-angle take-off
but weight is forward on the toe Landing distance - about 4 feet
and time for the lead foot to
clear the hurdle

FIGURE 24-6 Recommended form in the high hurdles. (From J. Kenneth Doherty, Modern Track and Field. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1953.)

8. Wall Drill —
second part: work on the trail leg. Learning Cues
Standing facing the wall, the hurdler leans for-
1. In the lead leg action, lead with the knee, not the
ward with both hands against the wall, the trail
foot.
leg is brought up under the armpit and reaches
out for a long step forward.
2. Keep the trail leg flat, toe out, and bring it up
high under the armpit and out.
9. The next step is to walk over a 24-inch hurdle
using these proper lead leg, trail leg, and arm
3. The opposite arm/opposite leg action is used
over the hurdle.
actions.
4. Sprint through the hurdle, rather than jumping
10. The last step is to run over a 30-inch hurdle
over the hurdle.
gradually increasing the speed of running into
full effort as correct hurdling form is executed.
Practice Suggestions — Hurdling Drills
Hurdle Start. The hurdle start differs from
1. Wall Drill. (See Learning Sequence: 7 and 8,
the regular sprint start in that the hurdler must
above.)
come up to the running position sooner. A high
hurdler will take 7 or 8 steps to the first hurdle; an
2. Lead Leg Over Hurdles. Performed with the lead
leg over the side of four to six hurdles spaced 7 to
intermediate hurdler 21, 22, 23, or 24 steps. The
9 meters apart for the three-stride rhythm or 9
hurdler who takes an odd number of steps to the first
to 13 meters apart for a five-stride rhythm. The
hurdle will have the same leg forward in the blocks
hurdle height varies from 12 to 36 inches.
as leads over the hurdle. With an even number of
3. Trail Leg Over Hurdles. Same as the preceding
steps, the lead leg over the hurdle is the back leg in
lead leg drill, except only the trail leg passes
the blocks. The hurdler determines the lead leg by
over the hurdle.
attempting to hurdle with each leg. The one most
comfortable should be the lead leg. Table 24-4 presents a weekly competitive season
Running Between the Hurdles. In the training program for hurdling. Each of these work-
highs a hurdler must take 3 steps and in the inter- outs is preceded by a good warm-up consisting of
mediates 13, 15, or 17 steps. The intermediate specific hurdling flexibility and stretching exercises,
hurdler can use a 14- stride pattern if the lead leg is easy running, and sprint work, and is followed by a
alternated. The hurdler must concentrate on good good cool-down of easy running and stretching.
sprint action between the hurdles, running up on the
balls of the feet, knees high, and arms driving hard
High Jump (Flop Style)
with relaxation. Good sprint rhythm between the
hurdles is important. The hurdler should never gal- The flop or back layout style of jumping, origina-
lop or overstride, which often is caused by not get- ted by the 1968 Olympic champion Dick Fosbury, is
ting a good step off the hurdle with the trail leg. currently used by the majority of high jumpers. The
352 TRACK AND FIELD

TABLE 24-4 Hurdling — A Weekly Competitive Season

Training Program

110m Hurdles 400m Hurdles

Sunday 2 miles (easy tempo) 3-4 miles (easy tempo)

Bar 13'6'
Monday Go over flights of 7, 6, Go over flights of 8, 6,

5, 4, and 3 hurdles 3 4, and 2 hurdles,

times each 1 x 400m from blocks, working
at full effort on stride pattern at
race pace

Tuesday "Five-step" 5 hurdles, 2 X 300m at full effort

2-3 times 3-4 x
1 50m at 90% effort/

walk back for

recovery

Wednesday Go over 5 flights of Go over flights of 5, 4,

hurdles (70 meters) 3, 2, and 1 hurdles at

5 times at full effort race pace
1 X 300m at full

effort

Thursday 5-6 gun starts over 2 4 x 200m at 90% effort

hurdles 3-4 x 100m

at 90% effort/walk
back for recovery

Friday Easy stretching and 3-4 gun starts over 1 st V

jogging "Five-step" hurdle working on
3 hurdles, 2-3 times stride pattern Start

Saturday Meet Meet FIGURE 24-7 The "J" approach

used in the back layout (flop style)
high jump.

technique can be broken down into three phases: ap-

an arching of the back until the bar passes along
proach, plant/take-off, and bar clearance.
the back and hips. At this point the chin is
1. Approach. The "J" approach is used by most tucked down to the chest so that the body folds
jumpers. This is a run of 3, 4, or 5 strides up in an L-position.
straight ahead, then 3, 4, or 5 strides on a curve
(see Figure 24-7). Speed is important in the ap- Learning Sequence
proach, so the jumper must lean to the inside of
1. The important plant/take-off techniques are
the arc in order to maintain velocity into the bar.
learned firstwith the jumper performing a
2. Plant! Take -Off. The next-to-last stride is longer
series of 3- and 5-stride approach jumps away
to enable the jumper to lower the center of grav-
from the pit on a curve. The center circle on a
ity for the jump. The last stride (take-off) is from
basketball court or the arced lines on the turns
the outside foot farthest from the bar and is
of the running track can be used.
shorter so that the body is in a lean back posi-
2. The jumper then transfers the same 3- and 5-
tion. The free knee leg is kicked upward and co-
foot approach to the pit with the bar set at a
ordinated with an upward swing of the arms.
lower height. The take-off is approximately one
The kick combined with the curved approach
arm's length from the bar.
and the take-off foot planted toward the left
3. The approach is developed next with the jumper
standard causes the jumper's back to rotate to-
running the "J" approach gradually building
ward the bar at take-off. As the take-off is being
from 7 to 9 strides. After take-off from this ap-
executed, the jumper should look over the inside
proach, the jumper can execute a scissors jump
shoulder.
to a sitting position, followed by a back landing
3. Bar Clearance (layout position). During bar
position and an upper back landing position.
clearance, the lead knee remains up with the
plant by catching up to it. The legs are spread
Learning Cues
with the knees out in a "frog" position and the
feet together. The hands are placed alongside 1. Approach the bar fast but relaxed with good
the body. There is a laying back of the head and sprint technique.

2. Use the same speed for all heights.
3. Quicken the last two strides and lower the
4. Plant the foot farthest from the cross bar, heel
first,and at an approximate 15-degree angle to
the bar.
5. Drive the lead knee upward at take-off.
6. At clearance keep the legs apart, "frog" position,
and squeeze the buttocks muscles together.
7. Drop the chin to the chest after the hips pass
over the bar.
Practice Suggestions — Drills
1. Plant/Take-off Drill (described in Learning Se-
quence)
2. Approach Drill (described in Learning Se-
quence)
3. Clearance Drill. Stand on a small box at the edge
of the pit with your back to the pit. Jump up and
backwards, working on the clearance technique.
Long Jump
The long jumper must possess good sprinting
speed, a rhythmic, consistent stride pattern, and
powerful jumping ability. The basic technique of the
long jump can be broken down into four phases: the
run-up, plant/take-off, flight, and landing.
1. The Run-up or Approach. During the approach
the jumper must get to the take-off board with
maximum controlled speed and be in a position
to lift. Therefore, relaxation and consistency of
stride length are important during the ap-
proach. To ensure that the jumper hits the take-
off board with consistency, checkmarks are
established in the following manner:
a. The jumper, one stride from the take-off
board, runs 12 to 16 strides in the opposite di-
rection of the jumping pit until the
that is to hit the take-off board lands on the
track.
FIGURE 24-8 Recommended form in long jump, using a modified hitch kick.
TRACK AND FIELD 353
b. The jumper continues with 4 to 5 run
hips. throughs in this direction until the take-off
foot hits consistently at thesame point.
c. The jumper then places a checkmark at that
point and standing one stride away hits the
mark with the take-off foot.
d. Now running toward the jumping pit the
jumper makes 4 to 5 run throughs until hit-
ting the board consistently.
e. The checkmark may be moved forward or
backward depending on whether the jumper
is over or under the take-off board.
2. Plant/ Take -off. Like in the high jump, the next-
to-last stride is a longer, settling stride prepar-
ing for the lift. The last stride is shorter, and the
take-off hits in a heel-toe action. The free leg
comes through as in a normal running stride.
3. The Flight. After leaving the board the jumper
can use one of three types of techniques in the
air: the hitch kick, hang, or sail. The hitch kick is
done with a run-in-the-air action (see Figure 24-
8). The hang is performed by letting the legs
hang down, the hips are forward, and the upper
body back. In the sail the legs are tucked up
under the body. The purpose of these flight posi-
tions is to prevent forward rotation and to get
good leg extension in landing.
4. The Landing. Important in landing is getting
good leg extension. This can only be achieved
when the flight positions are done correctly.
Upon landing impact the jumper must work
through the jump in order not to sit back. This is
accomplished by dropping the chin to the chest
and driving the arms back forcefully behind the
body.
Learning Sequence
same foot 1. Begin by teaching the plant/take-off rhythm. To
practice this rhythm the jumpers work on 3-step
approach jumps, counting out loud as they step
354 TRACK AND FIELD

1 — 2-3 (long, short, short), which gives them 3. Landing and Extension Pop-ups. Repeat 3- to 5-
the proper rhythm. stride jumps from a box, concentrating on cor-
2. Next, a split leg jump into the pit is added to the rect landing procedures as to leg extension,
3-step approach jumps. collapsing of the knees, and driving the arms
3. Progress to a 5-step approach with the split back forcefully.
landing.
4. The last step is jumping off an 8- to 10-inch box
on the plant/take-off, followed by flight and
Triple Jump
landing. Formerly called the "hop, step, and jump," the
triple jump is an event requiring good speed, great
Learning Cues leg strength, and excellent coordination. Proper knee
action, with thighs parallel to the ground, and equal
1. Work for a consistent stride pattern in the ap-
rhythm, are the keys to good performance.
proach using a gradual, uniform acceleration.
The technique in the triple jump can be broken
2. Run-up off the take-off foot with 1—2-3 rhyth-
down into the approach, plant /take-off, flight, and
mical last 3 strides.
landing.
3. At take-off, drive the free leg knee up and push
the hips forward. 1. Approach. To ensure hitting the take-off board
4. After take-off the hips remain forward, and the with consistency, check marks are established
arms are used for good balance (Figure 24-9). using the same method as in the long jump.
5. Work through the jump and land with good leg However, the approach is slower and more con-
extensions, sweeping the arms backward to pre- trolled than in the long jump.
vent falling back. 2. PI ant I Take -off. Since the movement at take-off is
more forward than upward as compared to the
Practice Suggestions long jump, the jumper does not need to settle or
gather at take-off. The take-off foot is planted
1. Fop-ups. Repeat 3- to 5-stride jumps working on
flat with the center of gravity directly over the
the 1—2-3 rhythm.
foot.
2. Flight Pop-ups. Repeat 3- to 5-stride jumps from
3. Flight The phase of the flight is the hop.
first
a box, working on the flight in the air technique,
The hop. or jump, is performed by bringing
first
the sail, hang, and hitchkick.
the take-off leg forward after it has fully ex-
tended from the take-off board. The thigh of the
hopping leg is held parallel to the ground; the
hopping foot lands flat in preparation of the next
phase. The step, or second jump, is performed by
bringing the free leg forward and parallel to the
ground, riding it forward until there is a good
thigh split (Figure 24-10). The third phase, or
jump, utilizes the same technique as described
in the long jump. However, the hang or sail
should be used rather than the hitch kick as
there is less time to perform the action.
4. Landing. The landing techniques are the same
as those used in the long jump, except that some
jumpers sit out in landing rather than falling
forward as in the long jump.

Learning Sequence

1. Standing on one foot, the jumper performs a

standing triple jump saying out loud "same,
other, both," which refers to the landing leg or
legs.
2. The jumper progresses and then 5-
to 3-stride
stride short approach run jumps. Cones are
placed at equal distances for each phase of the
jumps so that the jumper keeps a rhythmical
pattern and equal distances.
3. Once proper technique is mastered, these short
FIGURE 24-9 This NCAA Ail-American long jum-
per uses excellent in-flight technique after leaving run jumps are transferred to the runway and
the take-off board. jumping pit.
 TRACK AND FIELD 355

Glide Style. With the putter facing opposite

the direction of the throw, the thrower glides (shifts)
across the circle, lifts the shot with the back, hips,
and legs, and then explodes with the arm. In learn-
ing this technique, it is important to keep the legs
and hips ahead of the upper body and throwing arm,
thus utilizing the stronger, larger muscle groups of
the lower body.
In learning this shot technique, it is helpful to
think of the circle as the face of a clock with the
twelve o'clock position at the back, and two lines di-
viding the circle in four equal parts: one a line of di-
rection, the other, a cross line.

1. Grip. The weight of the shot is placed where the

fingers meet the palm of the hand. The thumb
and little finger support and guide the shot. The
three middle fingers are used for power.
2. Shot Placement. The shot is held against the
neck under the jaw bone underneath the ear.
3. Starting Position. The putter stands at the back
of the circle with the right foot in the eleven
o'clock position on the line of direction. The put-
ter keeps the eyes focused on a focal point in the
back of the circle, with the non-throwing arm
and shoulder kept square and held back.
FIGURE 24-10 Excellent technique in the second
4. Glide. From the starting position, the body
phase of the triple jump ("the step") is

demonstrated by this triple jumper.

weight drops down over the right leg, raising the
left leg. The left leg makes an easy swinging mo-
tion toward the throwing direction. At the same
Learning Cues time the right leg begins its pushing action
across the circle. This is a ball-to-heel motion
1. Run-off the board emphasizing jumping out, not
that causes a stretching action, not a hopping or
up, and keeping the legs low.
jumping movement. As the body weight moves
2. The body remains upright throughout the jump.
toward the front of the circle, the right leg snaps
3. Work through each phase of the jumps with ac-
underneath the thrower to the middle of the cir-
tive heel first or mid-foot landings.
cle in the nine o'clock position. The left leg lands
4. Coordinate the arms with the leg action to main-
at the same instant in the five o'clock position
tain speed throughout the jumps.
just to the left of the line of direction.
5. Keep the rhythm even during all three phases of
5. Throwing (Power) Position. This position at the
the jump.
front of the circle is called the power position; it
is the key to a successful throw. Hitting this
Practice Suggestions
position correctly for a right-handed thrower
1. Rhythm Drills. Use short 5- to 7-stride approach means the feet and hips are turned to the left
runs working on the equal length of each phase side of the circle, the head faces the back of the
and overall rhythm. circle, body weight is over the right leg, and the
2. Power-Bounding Drills. Short 25- to 50-run in- right and left legs are bent.
tervals, on soft surfaces, hopping on either one
leg or the other. Learning Sequence
3. Box Drills. Box are done jumping on or
drills
1. Since 80% of the distance in the throw comes
over various size boxes. As technique improves
from the leg and the trunk, begin with standing
the boxes can be moved farther apart.
power position throws emphasizing the rotation
of the right foot-knee-hip.
Shot Put
2. Next, the glide across the ring is developed with
The world record put distance has been
for shot concentration on getting the bent right leg up
increased through improved techniques and greater under the body, and keeping the shoulders
emphasis on speed, strength, and explosive power square to the back of the circle, which insures a
training. Today, putters use one of two styles of leg/trunk throw.
throwing: the glide (O'Brien) and the spin (discus- 3. The finish of the throw emphasizes an explosive
turn). right leg drive over a braced left leg.
356 TRACK AND FIELD
Learning Cues
1. Keep the shot against the neck in the movement
across the circle.
2. Leg and hips lead and shoulders remain square
to the back of the circle in the glide across the
circle.
3. Right leg is snatched up under the body quickly
in the glide across the circle and must remain
bent.
4. Use concentration and explosive action from the
—
power position with the force coming from
the ground up, legs, hips to shoulders, and then
the arm.
Practice Suggestions
1. Standing Throw Drill. Execute standing throws
from the power position concentrating on perfect
technique and leg/trunk force.
2. T-Drill. From a standing position, the thrower
drops down in a T-position as if starting the
throw.
3. A-Drill. From the standing T-position. the
thrower drops down and kicks the left leg until
the thrower's body is in the A-position.
4. Cross Bar Drill right leg). With arms draped
<
over a cross bar, the putter snaps the right leg
under; the cross bar prevents the shoulders from
turning.
5. Cross Bar Drill (left leg). With arms draped over
a cross bar, the putter concentrates on driving
the left leg low and to the toe-board without
turning the upper body.
Spin Style. In the spin (discus-turn) style, the
thrower makes a 1% spin as in the discus throw. The
thrower must accelerate across the circle gradually
in order to hit the power position. As in the glide
style, the legs and hips lead the throw, and the shot
is held against the neck at the jaw.
Discus Throw
As in the shot put. world distance records for the
discus have increased with improvement in tech-
niques and greater emphasis on speed, strength, and
explosive power training.
1. Grip. The thrower holds the discus on the last
crease of the fingers with the fingers spread or
the first two fingers placed together.
2. Preliminary Swings. The thrower begins by
standing at the back of the circle with the back
opposite to the direction of the throw. With the
legs bent slightly and the weight on the balls of
the feet, the thrower initiates several prelimi-
nary swings shifting the weight from the right
foot to the left as the discus is swung back and
forth in a horizontal plane.
3. Turn. At the end of the final swing to the right,
with the discus as far back as the thrower can
reach, the thrower prepares to enter the turn,
pivoting over the left leg. The right leg is picked
up and moves an arc toward the front of the
in
The legs and
circle as the left leg drives forward.
hips are kept ahead of the shoulders as the turn
is performed.
4. Power Position. After the right foot lands in the
middle of the circle, the thrower keeps pivoting
until the left leg lands slightly bent. The thrower
is now power position with the legs bent and
in a
the shoulders and the throwing arm back in a
torqued position.
5. Follow-Through. The right hip drives through as
the bent legs drive upward and the weight shifts
to the left leg. The throwing arm is whipped
through by this powerful leg/trunk action.
Learning Sequence
1. The grip and release are taught first. The
thrower, legs bent, flips the discus in the air or
bowls it on the ground, making sure the discus
comes off the index finger in a clockwise rotation
(for a right-handed thrower).
2. The standing throw is taught next. In the power
position, with the bent right leg at the nine
o'clock position and the left leg at the six o'clock
position, the thrower, shoulders torqued and
throwing arm back, performs a series of stand-
ing throws. Concentration is on a right foot/
right hip action beginning the initial movement
of the throws.
3. The step back throw is now introduced. The
thrower, standing in the center of the circle with
the feet together, steps back with the left leg
while sinking on the right, which achieves a
power position. From this power position the
thrower performs a series of throws.
4. The thrower is now ready for the IVi turn throw.
Standing at the rear of the circle sideways to the
direction of the throw, the thrower transfers
weight to the left foot, pivots, and using a run-
ning sprint across the circle, lands in a good
power position. From this position the thrower
performs the throw.
5. After mastering this progression, the thrower
can learn the 1% turn discus throw.
Learning Cues
1. Keep the throwing arm up at shoulder level
throughout the turns.
2. Before starting the turns, the shoulders and
throwing arm are torqued back as far as possi-
ble.
3. The shoulders remain level during the turns and
the legs bent.
4. Legs and hips always lead, which creates a "leg
throw."
 TRACK AND FIELD 357

Practice Suggestions Blind pass A nonvisual baton exchange used in sprint

relays.
1. Flip and Bowling Drills. Used to teach the re-
these
Crossbar The bar which a high jumper or pole vaulter
lease, drills are best learned with
must clear.
partners.
Discus One of the field events in track and field in which
2. Swing Drill. With discus taped hand,to the
a cylinder-like object is thrown. The weight and size of
practice the weight shift for the preliminary
the discus may vary according to the age of the partici-
swings and getting the discus all the way back.
pants.
3. Line-Turn Drill. Facing the direction of the
False start Moving or jumping before the gun is fired.
throw, the thrower pivots or turns on the right
Fartlek Swedish term for "speed play," a type of training
foot ending up for a power position throw. To
in which a runner varies running speeds over a long
simulate the discus throw, cones may be used in
distance, usually in a forest, golf course, or other non-
this drill.
track area.
4. Standing Throw Drills. With a traffic cone or
Flight The in-the-air techniques for the long jump and
any other soft, weighted object, the thrower,
triple jump.
with feet together and back facing opposite to
Flop style The style of high jumping in which the
the throw, steps with the right foot into the
jumper's back passes over the bar.
power position, practicing leg/hip pop throws.
Fly zone The 10-meter zone outside the passing zone
used by the outgoing runner to get a flying start.
Gather In jumping events, the settling or lowering of the
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS hips during the last few strides prior to take-off.
Heat Preliminary race whose winners qualify for the
Orthopedically Impaired semi-finals or finals.
Hitch kick A running-in-the-air action during flight in
1. Contact the National Wheelchair Athletic Asso-
the long jump, used to prevent forward rotation.
ciation (NWAA), United States Cerebral Palsy
Interval training A type of running training containing
Athletic Association (USCPAA), United States
four variables: the number of repetitions, distance,
Les Autres Sports Association (USLASA) for
tempo of run, and rest interval.
their information on track and field.
Passing zone The 20-meter zone in which the baton in a
2. Hold mock track and field meets in the gymna-
relay must be exchanged (passed).
sium using modified equipment, e.g., toss bean
Relay leg The distance each runner travels in a relay.
bags instead of shot puts; suspend a rope be-
TAC The Athletics Congress, the governing body of track
tween two standards and throw nerf balls over
and field in the United States.
rope to simulate the high jump; vary the height
Take-off board The board from which the long jumper
of the rope.
takes off.

Mentally Impaired Throwing sector The specified arc in which a thrown im-
plement must land.
Contact local Special Olympics for their track
Toe-board A board, in the form of an arc, on which or
and field manuals.
over which the shot-putter must not step.
Sensory Impaired Trial An attempt in a field event.
Visual pass The pass used in the distance relays in
Contact the American Athletic Association of the
which the outgoing runner visually watches the in-
Deaf (AAAD) and/or United States Association of
coming runner during baton exchange.
Blind Athletes (USABA) for their track and field
manuals.

SELECTED REFERENCES
TERMINOLOGY Gambetta, V. Track and Field Coaching Manual. 2nd ed.
Champaign, IL: Leisure Press, 1989.
Aerobic running Running done at low intensity speeds so Bowerman, W.J. and Freeman, W. H. High Performance
that oxygen intake and oxygen output are the same; Training for Track and Field, 2nd ed. Leisure Press,
therefore, this type of running can be sustained for a 1991.
long period. Doherty, J.K. Track and Field Omnibook, 4th ed. Los
Anaerobic running Running done at great intensity Altos, CA: Track and Field News Press, 1985.
speeds so that oxygen intake is less than oxygen out- National Collegiate Athletic Association. Official Track
put; therefore, this type of running can only be sus- and Field Guide, current ed. New York: National Colle-
tained for a short period. giate Athletic Bureau.
Anchor leg The last leg for a runner on a relay team. National Federation of State High School Athletic Associa-
Baton The stick that is passed from one relay runner to tions. Track and Field Rules, current ed. Washington,
another. D.C.
358 TRACK AND FIELD

Powell, J.T. Trackand Field Fundamentals for Teacher and Audio-Visual Materials
Coach, 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: Stripes Publishing Com-
The following videos and cassettes can be ordered through
pany, 1971.
Track and Field News:
Periodicals
1988 Olympic Track and Field (Men)
Track and Field News. 2570 E. Camino Real, Suite 606, 1988 Olympic Track and Field (Women)
Mountain View, CA 94040. Bill Dellinger's Championship Track and Field (17 cas-
Track and Field Quarterly Review. 1705 Evanson St., Kal- settes )

amazoo, MI 49008. Women's Track and Field Video Series (9 videos)

Track Technique. (Available through Track and Field Rick Sloan's Men's Track and Field guides
News)
 VOLLEYBALL
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Describe the nature and adaptability of volleyball.
Apply basic skills in modified practice games.
Describe and execute in game play the skills of overhand pass, forearm pass,
serve, spike, and blocking.
Describe, discuss, and put into practice the rules of power volleyball during a game
or match.
Describe play in power volleyball using the correct terminology associated with
the sport.

NATURE AND ADAPTABILITY normally performed in the attack area near the net
while the ground skills of forearm pass, overhand
Volleyball is an adaptable team sport which may be pass, and serve are utilized while in contact with the
played by various numbers of players (from 2-on-2 to playing surface.
6-on-6); by all-male, all-female, or mixed teams; with Teams involving six players use organized sys-
net height adjustments for men, women, co-ed, or tems for serve reception, attack coverage, defense,
age group differences; and using a variety of playing and offense. The organized game involves specializa-
surfaces (wood, rubberized material, sand, or grass). tion using the individual talents and skills of the
Volleyball is a net game and a rebound sport in players such as setters, attackers, passers, etc.
which, following the initiation of play (serve), the The flexibility in number of players, sexes,
ball may not visibly come to rest. Each team is al- equipment adjustments, and playing surfaces allows
lowed a maximum of three contacts before the ball is for individual preference and for selecting a variety
returned across the net. A player may not play the of competition levels. Due to its adaptability volley-
ball twice in succession. ball may be played on any level — from recreational
The basic objective of the game is to keep the to national, international, and professional.
ball, which is served over the net, from contacting
the floor on your side and to return it so that it con-
tacts the floor on the opponents' side before they can
EQUIPMENT
return it. Skillful, organized play involves using the
three allowable contacts to pass, set, and attack
Volleyballis an inexpensive activity. The player's
the ball (offense). The opponents attempt to block
equipment is minimal requiring only rubber-soled
the ball at the net before it crosses, dig it if the ball
shoes and possibly knee pads (individual preference)
evades the block, or pass a nonforcefully returned
for hard playing surfaces or for safety. A ball, net,
ball skillfully making the transition back onto of-
and net supports are the only other equipment nec-
fense. The continuous cycle repeats until the rally is
essary. Volleyballs are available in different sizes,
terminated; hence, either a point is scored (serving
weights, and coverings. The recommended covering
team only) or a side-out is awarded with the oppo-
is either synthetic leather or leather with a molded
nents earning the right then to serve. The sequence
carcass. Care should be taken in selecting a ball that
is repeated until one team reaches 15 points with at
is not too hard and that meets the abilities of the
least a 2-point advantage.
players.
Since all players on the team must rotate one po-
sition clockwise each time they earn a side-out as-
sures that one-half of the time individual players
have restrictions concerning net play. This controls THE COURT
domination of the net by taller players and requires
that each individual become a more complete player The court (Figure 25-1) is divided into equal halves
possessing a variety of skills and techniques. separated by a center line and net. Each half has a
There are five basic skills, each having a variety front court attack area which restricts back row
of techniques. The air skills of attack and block are players from attacking or blocking in that area.

359
360 VOLLEYBALL

VOLLEYBALL COURT

[* 29V

FIGURE 25-1 The official volleyball court markings and dimensions.

There a serving area in the right back of each half

is NET
court for determining where the serve is legally ini-
tiated. The boundary lines are considered a part of
the court; thus, a ball landing on these lines is con-
sidered inbounds.
Nets should extend at least one foot on each side
of the court (32 feet), have 4 inch square mesh open-
ings, and a flexible cord or cable running through a 2
inch wide white band at the top. The net supports
should be located at least 19V<2 inches outside the
sideline, and be anchored securely enough to allow
the net to be safely stretched tight without any sag
below the required height. Supports with easily ad-
justable settings assist in quickly varying net
height.
The net height is adaptable for differences in
player size, sex, and team composition. Men's regu- FIGURE 25-2 Team position and
lation height is 7 feet 11% inches and women's is 7 rotation.

feet 4Vs inches. A ball contacting the net within the

boundaries of the court is considered playable except
if it is on the serve. In regulation play, antennas ex-
tend upward from the net directly above the sideline
to assist in determining whether the ball crossed the
net within the court. A ball contacting the antenna is
out of play.
BASIC RULES
Players and Rotation. When the ball is not
must remain in the proper rota-
in play, the players
tion order which establishes the sequential service
order. Proper rotation order (6 on 6) establishes
three front row and three back row players (Figure
position on the opposite row (example: center back
with center front), plus the teammate(s) next to that
player on the same row (example: center back with
both left back and right back). The players all rotate
one position clockwise following a rally in which they
win the right to serve (side out).
Serve. The player who rotates to the right
back position serves or if at the start of the game is
the first server. The serve is initiated from within
the serving area (see Figure 25-1) and behind the
boundary line. The objective is to serve the ball
across the net into the opponent's court. It is a fault
(illegal) if the ball contacts the net, or the antenna,

25-2). The back row players may not legally enter
the front court attack area to block or attack the ball
over the net. When the ball is dead, players may not
overlap with a player who is in an adjacent position
"Adjacent" refers to the player in the corresponding
or does not land in the court.
Playing the Ball. Each team has a maximum
of three contacts each time the ball crosses into their
. court. A ball contacting the block does not count as
one of the three allowable contacts. No player may
 —

VOLLEYBALL 361

play the ball twice in succession, except if they con- 3. Forearm Pass
tacted the ball as a blocker. a. Serve reception
The ball may
not visibly come to rest; if it does it b. Free-ball pass
is considered a held ball (fault). A held ball fre- c. Side to target
quently results when a player uses the hands in exe- d. Back to target
cuting an overhand pass. The ball may not be 4. Overhand Pass
guided, lifted, or pushed in an effort to redirect it, a. Set forward
nor may the ball contact any part of the body below b. Free-ball pass
the waist. 5. Attack
Net Play. A player may not contact any part of a. Spike roll

the net or it is a fault. A ball contacting the net is b. Spike

considered playable other than on the serve. A E. Strategies

player may reach across the net to contact the ball on 1. Use 3 contacts
the opponent's side provided it was attacked by the a. Pass to center front — 8' X 8'

opponent. Likewise, a player may cross the net when b. Set to left front
attacking the ball provided part of it was on the at- c. Spike roll /spike
tacker's side when it was contacted. Opponents si- 2. Make opponents play the ball
multaneously blocking the ball may result in a held 3. Serve in court 80%-90%
ball, which is then replayed with no point scored F. Systems
(play over). Five-person, "W" serve reception pattern
1.

A player may contact the ball on the opponent's 2. Free-ball defense

side underneath the net while attempting to save the 3. 6-6 or 4-2 offense

ball. The boundary line below the net separating the G. Play Modified Games (instant winner)
court restricts players from stepping into the oppo- 1. 1 on 1, 2 on 2, 3 on 3

nent's area. Standing on the line is legal as long as 2. Small court Vi wide front court

part of the foot is in contact with the line. Any other 3. Toss on serve

part of the body on the floor and across the line is il- 4. Vary type of contact required

legal.
Intermediate Level
Scoring. The serve starts play, and the objec-
tive is to keep the ball from contacting one's own
A. Running, partner stretching, and explosive

floor and without violating the rules, rally until the

sprinting/jumping
opponents fail. When the team serving wins the rally B. Review Beginning Unit
a point is scored. If not serving and the rally is won C. Fundamental Skills
by the nonserving team, they earn a side out, rotate, 1. Serve
and serve next. The first team to score 15 points and a. Overhead floater
1. Deep
ahead by at least 2 points, wins the game. A match
consists of either winning 2 out of 3 or 3 out of 5 2. Short
games. 2. Forearm
a. Dig
1. Stride and slide
3. Overhand Pass
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
a. Set backward

4. Attack
Beginning Level
a. Spike
A. Running, stretching and explosive sprinting/ 1. Power angle

jumping. b. Lob
B. Introduction — Nature and Purpose 1. Dink

C. Basic Rules 2. Roll

D. Fundamental Skills 5. Block
1. Movement skills a. One blocker
a. Low Position b. Two blockers
1. Shuffle step D. Strategies
2. Forward /backward 1. Serve-weak opponent/deep corners
b. Medium Position 2. Dig to middle of court 15 X 15 ft.
1. Shuffle step 3. Set forward and backward 12 to 15 — ft. high
2. Run lateral /forward to 3 X
3 ft. target
3. Backpedal 4. Spike cross court and lob over block-short.
2. Serve 5. Block
a. Underhand a. Take away cross court
b. Overhand floater b. No hole between blockers
362 VOLLEYBALL

E. Systems
1. Repeat beginning unit

2. Spiker coverage
3. 2-1-3 defense
4. 4-2 or 5-1 offense
F. Play modified games and 6 on 6
1. Modifications (point on each serve — 5 points
winner stays.
a. Court h wide,
x
fulllength 3 on 3 — must use
3 contacts.
b. Full court 4 on 4 (3 back, 1 at net) — no
block.
2. Full game — 6 on 6 with no modifications.
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
Volleyball comprises five basic skills: forearm pass,
FIGURE 25-3 Body position for the forearm pass.
overhand pass, serve, attack, and block. Each skill
uses a variety of techniques which players need as
they progress from beginning to advanced levels of
competition. thumbs even and level. The grip is relaxed with

The ball handling skills forearm pass and over-
—
hand pass and their associated techniques consti-
tute at least two-thirds of the ball contacts during
play. The sera? often dominates play both positively
and negatively at the beginning to intermediate
levels and is a crucial skill because the rules allows a
team to score only while serving. The attack adds of-
fense and power to the game but can only be utilized
when the ball handling skills become accurate and
consistent. The block is used only when the opposing
team consistently attacks the ball from a point near
or above the net, forcefully driving it downward into
one's court.
Forearm Pass
The forearm pass (also called "pass," "bump," or
"dig") with its associated techniques is the most fre-
quently used ball handling skill. It is utilized to pass
the serve, play balls below the waist, play hard
driven balls, and contact balls located far from the
player. Employing this skill avoids official ball han-
dling violations.
Learning Cues
1. Feet are shoulder width apart, in a stagger
stance (heel-toe relationship), and the body
weight is forward on the inside front half of each
foot with the heels slightly off the ground Fig- ( forward and bunt a controlled tossed ball back to a
ure 25-3).
2. Knees are flexed approximately 90 degrees, in-
side the feet and in front of the toes.
3. Upper body is in a front leaning position with
waist flexed approximately 90 degrees and the
shoulders in front of the knees.
4. Hands are connected by pressing the pads of
both thumbs together with the base of the
the hands extended downward. Several methods
for clasping the hands together (back of one
hand across palm of other, interlock fingers, fist
of one hand cupped by fingers of other) are ac-
ceptable as long as they follow the foregoing
(Figure 25-4).
5. Arms reach out in front of the body, elbows ro-
tate inward together and are locked exposing the
fleshy part of the forearm. The arms are parallel
with the thigh of the leading leg. Attempt to
align with the approaching ball as near as possi-
ble to the midline of the body.
6. Ball contact is on the fleshy part of the forearm
approximately 2 to 6 inches above the wrist. The
trajectory angle of the rebound is dependent
upon the angle of the forearms. The eyes focus
on the ball until contact and following rebound.
7. Force is provided to the ball when needed by a
slight bunting action of the arms, extension of
the legs, and body lean toward the intended tar-
get. A hard driven ball from the opponents
might require absorption of the force at contact
by dropping of the forearms upon contact as a
cushioning effect.
Practice Suggestions
Use the part method for learning to isolate and
reinforce correct contact. Start on one knee, leaning
partner standing 10 feet away. Establish accuracy
standards to check progress and to motivate. Repeat,
except from the correct whole body position. Next,
add lateral shuffle steps prior to toss. Finally, at-
tempt to pass the ball repeatedly back and forth be-
tween partners who are 15 feet apart. When control
is achieved, move to small court to play modified
small side competitive games (see Modified Games).
 VOLLEYBALL 363

B^

t ^H

FIGURE 25-4 Hand position and forearm surface.

Overhand Pass
The overhand pass is the most controllable of the
ballhandling skills. It is used for accurately passing
any ball above the head to a teammate and for the
setting technique of passing the ball to an attacker
with specific height, trajectory, and placement. Ball/
hand contact and precise alignment with the ball
make the skill more susceptible to official ball han-
dling violations.

Learning Cues

1. Feet, knees, and upper body (same as Forearm

Pass, # 1, 2, and 3).
2. Align ball with the forehead hairline (Figure 25-
5).
3. Arms are raised, elbows flexed (90 degrees) at
approximately chin height, and the hands are
equally positioned six inches above the forehead
with the wrist flexed back (Figure 25-6).
4. Fingers and hands are spread into the shape of
the approaching ball, thumbs pointing toward
the nose and wrist flexed back. The thumbs are
approximately three inches apart and the index
fingers about twice as far apart.
5. Ball contact is on the inside edge of the first digi-
tal areas of the thumbs, index, middle, and ring
fingers, and the ball is allowed to almost slide
through with the hands on the side.
6. Force is initiated by the thighs, ball/hand con-
tact is made and finally the arms are extended
fully. The synchronized action is THRUST
(thighs) — —
CONTACT (hands) EXTEND (arms) for
the correct, smooth, and sequential action. FIGURE 25-5 Body position and alignment to ball on overhand
Weight finishes forward on the front (right) foot pass.
with all body action directed toward target.
 FIGURE 25-6 Arms, hand shaping, wrist flex, and
finger/thumb position prior to overhand contact.
Practice Suggestions
The part method aids in the development of the
many aspects for skillful execution of the overhand
pass. Start on the left knee with the right foot for-
ward in a kneeling position. Place the arms and
hands in the correct position for receiving the ball
(see Learning Cues #3 and #4). The ball is tossed ac-
curately and gently into the hands by a partner who
is just three feet away. Play the ball six feet straight
up so it drops on the tosser's head. Use the "force" se-
quence of CONTACT- EXTEND to play the ball (see
Learning Cues #5 and #6). Next, assume a full squat
position and duplicate the foregoing playing it 10
feet high. The "force" sequence now entails THRUST-
CONTACT-EXTEND to play the ball.
When accuracy and synchronization are estab-
lished, stand in a medium ready position (Figure 25-
FIGURE 25-8 The overhand floater serve.
FIGURE 25-7 Whole body ready position prior to
overhand contact.
7) to receive a ball tossed from a partner 10 feet
away. Adjust to the tossed ball and play it 10 feet
high, returning it to the tosser. Finally, attempt to
volley the ball repeatedly with a partner and move to
modified small side competitive games (see Modified
Games) when control and accuracy is achieved.
Serve
A consistent serve is important because only the
serving team can score. The serve has an expected
success rate that is 80 to 90 percent higher than the
other skills because the server tosses the ball to him-
self rather than receiving the ball from another
player. Equally important is the fact that the serve is
the first opportunity a team has to put the opponent
at a disadvantage. The overhand floater serve pro-
vides both power and consistency (Figure 25-8).
 1

VOLLEYBALL 365

Learning Cues

1. Stand or step and stride with the opposite foot

from the striking arm (left foot for right-handed
RAISE
person). That lead foot is positioned 2 feet in
front of the back foot and is pointed directly to-
ward the intended target. The stride starts as
the ball tossed into the air.
is
2. The toss is made in front of the striking shoulder
and at contact is in front of the striding body
parallel to the front foot. The ball is tossed low (

to 2 feet above head height) for controlled accu-

racy. A two-handed spin free toss aids accuracy.
3. The striking arm action on the toss resembles an
overhand throwing motion (Figure 25-9). As the
ball is released (approximately shoulder level)
on the toss, the arm flexes, elbow draws back at
shoulder height, the upper body rotates so that
the non-striking shoulder is in a leading position
and the alignment of both shoulders is approxi-
mately 45 degrees with the back line of the
court. The elbow snaps forward ahead of the
wrist, and the forearm accelerates in prepara-
tion for ball /hand contact. BL80W
4. The wrist of the striking arm tense and
is TRAILS
locked, the hand open wide presenting a flat
contact surface, and the ball is aggressively con-
tacted with the bottom half (heel) of the hand at
a point slightly higher than head level.
5. Velocity is generated by the elbow snap throwing
the forearm forward, and the ball accelerates
rapidly as it is contacted with the hard surface
(heel) of the hand.
6. Body weight transfers to the front foot, and the
forearm of the striking arm is immediately
stopped at contact producing a recoil action.
7. Body balance is maintained as both feet remain
in contact with the floor and all movement is di-
rectly at the target on the follow-through.

Practice Suggestions
^nooo FLOAT
SPIN FREE
Practice the toss and stride (Cues #1 and #2),
letting the ball drop to the floor. Theshould land
ball LOCK EL
to the side of the body, in front of the striking WRIST
shoulder, and parallel with the front foot.
Progress to the whole skill with a partner. Stu-
dents stand 10 feet from the net on opposite sides.
The ball is tossed and served at the net 1 to 3 feet (
SERV£ ( FLOATER)
above) on a straight line using the up-stretched arms
and hands of the partner to check accuracy. Observe
the served ball to make sure it is not rotating in WHIP SL.AR
flight but floating spin-free.
Gradually move back from the net maintaining
(a) a straight line trajectory, (b) spin-free (floater)
flight, and (c) accuracy. The greater the distance the
more emphasis on providing force to ball contact

FIGURE 25-9 The striking arm action for the overhand serve and
the attack (ball/hand contact and wrist action are different). ATTACK f SPIKE')
366 VOLLEYBALL
(Cues 3-6). Continue moving back until the serve
can be initiated legally from behind the back line.
Spike Roll
Attack
The attack isused in aggressive play against the
opponents to keep them from returning the ball or
making a transition to return it aggressively. The
types of attack are the spike, lob, and drive, with the
emphasis on performing these techniques from as
high a position off the floor as possible.
Thespike is contacted above the midline and at
the back of the ball, attempting to impart top spin
and drive the ball downward into the opponent's
court. The lob is contacted below the midline and at
the back of the ball, attempting to play it up over the
block. The drive is contacted in the middle back of
the ball, attempting to propel it off the blocker's
hands.
In beginning to intermediate levels of play one
does not consistently receive a ball from teammates
in a manner which allows time to jump and attack
the ball. The technique of the spike roll provides an
intermediate step between returning the ball easily
(free ball) to the opponents and jumping to spike the
ball downward into the opponent's court. It also
gives a short player an opportunity to attack the op-
ponents even though that player may be unable to
contact the ball above the net.
FIGURE 25-10 Spike roll: (A) both arms positioned to strike, (B) non-striking arm pulls down and striking arm elbow snaps forward.
hand contacts the bottom back quarter of the ball, (D) SLAP ball, SNAP wrist and finish in high position.
Learning Cues
1. Align with the ball so that it is dropping directly
above the striking arm's shoulder.
2. The feet are in a stagger stance (see the first sen-
tence in Serve Learning Cues »1 >.
3. Both arms lift above the head. The shoulders
rotate approximately 45 degrees with the non-
striking arm in a leading position (Figure 25-
10A). The nonstriking arm fully extends and
points at the descending ball. The striking arm,
in a motion resembling an overhand throw,
flexes at the elbow as it draws back at shoulder
height.
4. The nonstriking arm starts the hitting action by
pulling toward the hip on that side as the strik-
ing arm's elbow snaps forward simultaneously
lifting higher. The hand and forearm of the
striking arm move from a lead position of the
elbow to a position trailing it. The hand is open,
fingers spread, and wrist flexed back fully 'Fig-
ure 25-1 OB i.
5. The firm, open hand is thrown at the ball with
initial contact made on the bottom back quarter
of the ball with the palm simultaneously snap-
ping the wrist forward (SLAP and SNAP). The
hand goes from a below ball initial contact to one
at follow-through, which is over the top. This
imparts the essential top spin on the ball (Figure
25-10C).
(C) open

6. Body weight transfers to the front foot, and the
striking arm finishes in an extended high posi-
tion with the wrist fully snapped forward,
fingers pointing toward the ground upon com-
pletion (Figure 25-10D).
7. Body balance (see Serve, Learning Cue #7).
Spike
The approach to jump is started
from a point ap-
proximately 12 feet from the net, depending on
the length of the attacker's stride. It is an an-
gular approach directly to where the ball is
descending, the angle dependent upon the ap-
proach position (left, center or right front) and
the handedness of the attacker. A right-handed
person's approach is 45 degrees toward the net
from the left front (LF) position and increases
moving to the remaining positions (CF & RF). A
left-handed player also makes a 45-degree angle
in approaching from the opposite side (RF), the
angle increasing when in CF and LF positions.
Figure 25-11 shows the approach to jump se-
quence.
The footwork consists of four final steps: a short
step with the same side foot as the striking arm
(Figure 25-1 1A), followed by an elongated run-
ning stride with the opposite foot (Figure 25-
11B), followed by an almost simultaneous step,
step/close gathering for a maximum vertical
jump (Figure 25-1 1C & D). The length of the sec-
ond step depends on the desired distance and
speed. The next step, step/close is a breaking
heel plant rocking to the balls of the feet for a
two-footed take-off in the jump. The feet are 8 to
10 inches apart on the step /close with the foot
opposite the striking hand ahead of the other
foot (Figure 25-1 ID). The legs flex approxi-
mately 90 degrees for maximum jumping thrust.
The arms assist in providing force for jumping.
They function identically during the approach
and are extended straight, behind and nearly
FIGURE 25-11
ABC
Spike. Approach footwork and arm positions
VOLLEYBALL 367
parallel to the floor at the two-footed take-off
(Figure 25-1 ID). The arms thrust vigorously for-
ward and upward for lifting force as the legs
thrust for the vertical jump (Figure 25-12Ai.
4. The take-off point aligns the body with the ball
so that it can be contacted 6 to 18 inches in front
of the body and in front of the striking shoulder.
5. The arm action for striking starts as the body
leaves the floor (see Spike Roll, Cues #3 and «4
and Figure 25-12B).
6. The firm open hand is thrown at the ball with
initial contact made on the top back quarter of
the ball (Figure 25-12D) with the palm simulta-
neously snapping the wrist forward (SLAP and
SNAP) (see Figure 25-9). This imparts top spin on
the ball and drives it downward toward the op-
ponent's court.
7. The simultaneous coordination of the arm and
leg action while suspended in air provide force
and body control. The arm action is performed as
the legs are flexed and then vigorously snapped
down providing a piking action by the upper and
lower body (Figure 25-12C).
8. The legs are flexed upon contacting the floor to
prevent injury and to regain stability.
Lob
1. The approach, footwork, arm action, alignment
to ball, upper and lower body coordination, and
landing are identical to the spike (see Spike,
Cues 1-5 and 7). The only difference is the ball/
hand contact.
2. Ball /hand contact is made in the lower back
quarter of the ball causing it to take an upward
trajectory over the block. As the hand comes for-
ward on the striking action, the fingers and
thumb are formed to make contact with the
surface of the ball with the first digital area of
each. The contact is referred to as a "dink,"
which is the most common type of lob used at the
beginning to intermediate level of play.
prior to jump in attack (right-handed).
368 VOLLEYBALL

FIGURE 25-12 Attack: (A and B) actions of whole body in take-off, (C) striking motion,
(D) ball/hand contact.

Drive and at head height.

1. As with the lob, the only difference between the
drive and the spike is the ball/hand contact.
2. The ball is contacted in the middle back causing
it to take a trajectory parallel with the floor and
deflecting off the blocker's fingers. The hand
contact as in the spike is with the firm open sur-
face of the palm but driving the ball straight
ahead instead of downward.
Practice Suggestions
The ball /hand contact (SLAP) is developed by
holding the bottom of the ball firmly with the
nonstriking hand. Position the ball at arms length
in front of the striking shoulder
With the striking arm hanging straight down at
the side, initiate the correct arm action by lifting
it straight forward and upward until it is beside
the ball. Use the throwing action (see Spike Roll,
Cues =?3 and #4) and ball /hand contact (see Spike
Cue »6> to aggressively "slap" the back/top quarter
area of the ball developing the feeling of the palm
contact.
Repeat the foregoing but hit the ball downward
out of the holding hand to the floor. Stand 6 feet
from a wall so that the ball hits the floor and then
rebounds off the wall. Emphasize the ball/hand con-
tact and power component (wrist snap) for force-SLAP
and SNAP. Finish with the striking arm high and

fully extended with the palm facing the floor
fingers pointing down.
Next, toss the ball in front of the striking
shoulder using both hands to toss it precisely 4 feet
high. Both arms extend up as if jumping (see Spike
Roll, Cue #3) and duplicate the complete arm action
(Cues #3 and #4) contacting the ball (see Spike Cue
#6) driving it to the floor as in the foregoing.
Next toss and jump off 2 feet, repeating the fore-
going arm lift, striking action (both arms), and ball/
hand contact.
Practice the approach footwork (see Spike Cues
# 1, 2, and 3) toward the net and mimic the correct
striking arm actions previously described without
using a ball. Next, place a tennis ball in the striking
hand and repeat the approach, footwork, jump, and
arm action throwing the tennis ball over the net with
an aggressive wrist snap. Emphasize the SNAP and a
high straight arm finish of the throwing arm.
Proceed to hitting a volleyball over the net. A
partner, with side to net and three feet from net,
tosses the ball 12 feet straight up so the attacker can
approach, jump, and attack the ball. The tosser
stands on the attacker's hitting arm side careful to
use a two-hand underhand toss such that the ball
goes straight up and down directly in alignment
with the attacker's striking arm. The tosser gradu-
ally moves laterally away from the attacker, tossing
higher 15 to 18 feet) with a trajectory that drops in
(
alignment with the approach path of the attacker.
Block
The block isused to counter a forceful attack de-
fensively. This is accomplished by jumping and posi-
FIGURE 25-13 Block: (A) ready position, (B) knee flex, (C)
A B
VOLLEYBALL 369
and tioning the hands above and over the net, decreasing
the area available for the attacker to drive the ball
downward forcefully into the blocker's court. The use
of two blockers on one attacker increases the area of
the block, conversely decreasing the court area avail-
able for a downward attack. Defensive systems are
developed around the block.
Not every attack calls for blocking since the at-
tacker controls the path of the attack. The objective
of the block, aside from reducing the area an oppo-
nent can attack, is to render the ball unreturnable
while it is in the opponents' court. The success rate
for effective blocking is low and negative outcomes
are possible. Therefore the decision on whether or
not to block is governed by the attacker's ability to
drive the ball downward into the court from a posi-
tion near or above the net.
Learning Cues
Ready Position (Figure 25-1 3A)
1. The feet are in a parallel stance, shoulders par-
the net. Stand 6 to 12 inches from the net
allel to
with knees slightly flexed for quick movement.
2. The hands are positioned between the net and
the body at shoulder height with fingers spread
and palms facing the net.
3. The elbows are flexed and touching the rib cage
with the forearms perpendicular to the floor.
4. The back is straight.
Jump
1. The knees flex to near 100-degree angle for a
quick and maximum jump (Figure 25-13B).
net penetration and piking action.
370 VOLLEYBALL

2. Thrust off from the floor equally with both legs whole skill, it is time to play modified games on the
and thrust the arms straight upward parallel court.
with the net. Modifications can be made in a variety of cri-
3. As the hands clear net height, gently push them height of net, number and align-
teria: court size,
across as far as possible, careful not to touch the ment of players, number of contacts allowed, type
net (Figure 25-13C). Position the outside hand and combinations of skills, special rules for desired
slightlytoward the court to deflect the ball in- outcomes, etc. The games should have an immediate
ward. winner/loser so that everyone is participating
4. Pike slightly at the waist for balance and power quickly without waiting.
(Figure 25- 13C). Games provide motivation, enjoyment, team-
5. Upon descending, gently withdraw hands, re- work, communication skills, strategy, and most of
turning them in front of the shoulders. all, immediate feedback on performance. Following
6. Upon floor contact, bend the knees to absorb is an example:
shock and for balance. Pivot away from the net
following the direction of the ball. Court: Vz court wide and 10 ft front ( 10 X 15).
Players: 2 on 2
Movement Footwork
Rules:
1. To adjust 3 to 6 feet laterally use one to two shuf-
1. Immediate winner of the rally; winner moves to
fles steps keeping hands up, feet parallel, and
winner s side of the net; losers move to end of
shoulders parallel to net prior to jumping.
waiting line; two new players challenge winners.
2. A longer adjustment requires a step, run, and 2. Play starts with an easy toss (serve) from the
plant footwork:
challengers to the winners.
a. Step. Take a step with the foot nearest the
3. Must make two contacts only.
ball, pointing the foot toward the sideline.
4. First contact must be forearm and second con-
b. Run. The shoulders rotate from a parallel po-
tact must be overhand.
sition to perpendicular as the trail leg takes a
running stride for distance and speed toward
5. On each contact that player must call "mine"
(communication) prior to contact.
the sideline.
c. Plant. Both feet hop into a plant with both re-
6. Rally continues play terminates
until rules —
broken or ball not returned.
turning to a parallel position of toes toward
the net. The hop is a breaking of momentum
7. A point is scored if the players on the "winner's
side of net" win. If challengers win rally, they
as knees flex for a vertical jump.
change to "winner's side of net" to have an op-
3. The hands remain in the "ready" position
portunity to score a point, and their opponents
throughout all footwork prior to jumping.
rotate out to the end of the waiting line (NOTE:

Practice Suggestions
Blocker stands facing a partner three feet away
who is holding a volleyball firmly with arms fully ex-
tended upward. In a standing "ready" position the
blocker thrusts the arms upward surrounding the
held ball to assume ball/hand contact. Next, dupli-
cate the foregoing with both players squatting to
jump prior to arm action and ball /hand contact.
Movement footwork can be added plus a net between
partners.
Using a net between partners, the blocker as-
sumes the "ready" position directly in alignment
with the partner who is standing three feet away
from net. The partner self tosses the ball and jumps
to spike (see Spike Practice Suggestions) the ball
into the hands of the blocker, who has jumped to in-
tercept it on the spiker's side of the net. Add two
blockers to the foregoing drill.
MODIFIED GAMES
It isnot necessary that a skill be mastered nor that
be taught before playing on the court. When
all skills
players can adjust to a moving ball and perform the
Have no more than 8 persons per V2 court two —
volleyball courts equal 32 players).
8. Losers chase the ball. Each waiting couple has a
ball.
9. First to accumulate 5 points wins game.
10. Option: Change partners each time the losers go
to end of line. Each player would then carry indi-
vidual score forward instead of a team score.
PLAYING STRATEGIES
Offensive Play
Offenses in power volleyball have developed
widely in the last several years. While the tech-
niques of passing and spiking have changed rela-
tively little, the methods by which the spike is
obtained vary greatly.
In most beginning programs or physical educa-
tion classes, the 6-6 offense would be the simplest to
administer. In this offense all six players spike when
rotating to the spiking positions and any of them will
also be setters when rotating into a setting position.
The 4-2 offense is very similar, except that four
members of the team are basically spikers and two

NET
©
(Spiker) (Setter)
(Spiker) (Setter)
SERVING I
FIGURE 25-14 The 4-2 offense: (A) serving, (B) receiving.
members are used essentially as setters. For the
alignment of the 4-2 offense, see Figure 25-14A.
The 4-2 offense can certainly be used in physical
eduation classes. It allows smaller players to develop
skills as setters and become an integral part of the
volleyball team. Although relatively simple, the 4-2
offense includes some of the concepts used in the
more complex 5-1 and 6-0 offenses.
In preparing to receive a serve (Figure 25-14B),
players face the server in a semi-crouched position,
prepared to return the ball with a forearm pass.
Every attempt is made to direct the first pass to the
center front position (setter, either with or without
switching) with an arc of 12 to 16 feet. This high
pass gives the setter ample time to get to the ball.
The setter positions under the ball and faces the di-
rection he or she plans to set the ball for the spiker.
The setter attempts to pass or "set" the ball 6 to
10 feet above the net, 2 to 3 feet from the net, and
near the sideline. This sideline set gives the spiker
three advantages: (1) the center blocker has a
greater distance to travel; (2) the spiked ball may re-
bound back out of bounds; and (3) a ball spiked diag-
NET
LEFT FRONT SPIKING I
FIGURE 25-15 Coverage for the spiker in the 4-2 offense
VOLLEYBALL 371
NET
(Spiker)
©
(Spiker)
1
RECEIVING
onally across court has a greater area in which to
land for a point.
Team coverages on the spike for the 4-2 offense
are shown in Figure 25-15.
It is necessary for the spiking team to form a
"cup" around the spiker to protect against a blocked
spike that returns immediately back into their court.
The players not in the cup follow the ball, looking for
a ball that is blocked high and deep.
When the offensive team is serving, the front
line players are close to the net in preparation for the
blocking of a spike (Figure 25-16).
Defensive Play
Defenses in power volleyball may vary as widely
as the offenses, but the primary job of the defense is
to offset the spiking action of the opponents. This
can be done by blocking and rejecting the ball or con-
trolling it on your own side of the court, which re-
sults in a passing-setting-spiking combination.
Players move to base defensive positions when
the ball goes into the opponent's court (Figure 25-
NET
RIGHT FRONT SPIKING
when serving.
372 VOLLEYBALL

NET

/Cv
© < -©

© ©
©
i i

SETTER AT LEFT FRONT SETTER AT RIGHT FRONT

FIGURE 25-16 Switichmg the setter in the 4-2 offense when serving

17A). Switching positions between players is usually protect more against the sideline spike by the posi-
done to capitalize upon any specialization skills. For tioning of the block. This defense is used by a team
example, at the beginning level the setter might whose players are not particularly tall but very
switch to the center front position to set. quick and agile.

Player-Back Defense Player-Up Defense

The player-back or 2-4 defense provides good
deep coverage with four players stationed near the
court's perimeter and two men blocking. The start-
ing positions and areas covered by each player are
shown in Figure 25-17B. The blockers attempt to
The player-up or 2-1-3 defense is shown in Fig-
ure 25-18. The player that is "up" is the center back
who moves to a position behind the block and covers
all dinks, or deflections that fall short. The blockers
attempt to protect against a crosscourt spike by es-

NET NET

© © ©
© ©
©
A. Base Positions B. Area Responsibilities

KEY:

9= Base position
—> = Movement from base position

FIGURE 25-17 The player back/2-4 defense: (A) base positions. (B) area responsibilities.
 VOLLEYBALL 373

NET MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS

Orthopedically Impaired

1. Contact the United States Amputee Athletic As-

sociation (USAAA) for information on sitting
volleyball for individuals with a spinal cord in-
jury.
2. Instead of volleyball use a beachball or balloons.
3. Use a rope for the net, and lower the height.
4. For students with severe mobility problems,
play a modified game of tetherball.

Mentally Impaired

1. Contact local Special Olympics for their volley-

ball manuals.
2. Play lead-up game of Newcomb to develop con-
FIGURE 25-1 8 The player up/2-1 -3 cept of the game. Newcomb is played like volley-
defense and area responsibilities.
ball except the players are allowed to throw and
catch the ball.
tablishing their block to the inside of the spiker. It is 3. See suggested modifications for Tennis.
hoped that the spiker will attempt to hit down the Sensory Impaired
line where the right back defensive player is waiting.
This defense would be used by a team that is tall and 1. Individual considerations must be taken into ac-
blocks well. count as to the appropriateness of volleyball for
the blind and visually impaired.
2. Minimal modifications are needed for the deaf
Serve Reception and /or hearing impaired.
The five-person "W" formation is used at the be-
ginning level. It provides complete coverage of the
court (Figure 25-19). The front row setter positions TERMINOLOGY
near the net in each of the three rotation positions in
order to set the second contact. The setter is careful Attack Any method used to return the ball across the
not to be out of position by overlapping with a team- net in an attempt to put the opponents at a disad-
mate who is in an adjacent position until contact is vantage.
made on the serve. Upon contact the setter quickly Ball handling Execution of any passing fundamental.
positions with the right side to the net approxi- Block The process of intercepting the ball, just before or
mately 12 feet from the right sideline, keeping the as it crosses the net. A block may be executed by any
middle of the court in front where the passed ball front row player.
descends. Bump (See Forearm pass)

NET NET

SETTER AT LEFT FRONT SETTER AT RIGHT FRONT

FIGURE 25-19 Five-person "W" formation serve reception.

374 VOLLEYBALL

Court coverage The court assignment of each player on SELECTED REFERENCES

defense.
Dig An emergency pass, usually used to defend a hard- Bertucci, B. The AVCA Handbook. Grand Rapids, MI: Mas-
driven attack. ters Press, 1987.
Dink A soft shot off the fingertips used to lob the ball over Bertucci, B. and Hippolyte, R. Championship Volleyball
the block. Drills Volume 1. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Pub-
Double foul Infraction of rules by both teams during the lishers, Inc., 1984.
same play. Frazer, S.D. Strategies for Competitive Volleyball. Cham-
Drive An attack contacted in the center that attempts to paign, IL: Leisure Press, 1988.
hit the ball off the blocker's hands. Goebel, K. and Kluka, L. and D. Competitive Volleyball
Fault An infraction of the rules. Drills. Logan, UT: Kelcon, Inc., 1989.

Forearm pass A pass made off the forearms. Used to play Gozansky, S. Championship Volleyball Techniques and
served balls, hard-driven spikes, or any low ball. Drills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1983.

Free ball A return of a ball by the opponent that may eas- lams, J. New, Competitive Volleyball Games. Evanston, IL:
ily be handled. Sports Support Syndicate, 1990.
Front court The playing area in which it is legal to block Kiraly. K. Championship Volleyball. New York: Simon &
or attack. Schuster Inc., 1990.
Held ball A ball that is simultaneously contacted above Pederson, J. and Loggins, V. Bump, Set Spike. Chicago, IL:

the net by opponents and momentarily held upon con- Contemporary Books. Inc.. 1986.
tact. Scates, A. Winning Volleyball. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,
Kill An attack that cannot be returned directly as a result Inc., 1990.
of that attack. Scates, A. Winning Volleyball Drills. Dubuque, IA: W.C.
Lob A soft attack that is contacted in the back bottom Brown Publishers, 1984.
quarter of the ball causing it to take an upward trajec- Schaafsma, F. and Heck. A. Volleyball for Coaches and

tory. Teachers. Dubuque, IA: W.C. Brown Publishers, 1985.

Overhand pass A pass made by contacting the ball above Selinger, A. and Ackerman-Blount, J. Arie Selinger's Power
the head with the finger pads. Volleyball. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986.
Overlap An illegal foot position, when the ball is dead, Viera, B.and Ferguson, B.J. Volleyball Steps to Success.

with an adjacent player putting one out of position. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1989.
Play over The replay of a rally due to a held ball or the
official prematurely suspending play. The server re- Periodicals
serves with no point awarded. American Volleyball. American Volleyball Coaches Associ-
Point A point is scored when the receiving team fails to ation, 122 Second Ave., Suite 201, San Mateo, CA 94401.
return the ball legally to the opponents' court. Coaching Volleyball. Human Kinetics Publishers Inc..
Rotation Shifting of the players clockwise upon gaining 1607 N. Market, Champaign, IL 61820-2200.
the ball from the opponents. Western Empire Publications, Inc., 950 Calle
Volleyball.
Serve The method of putting the ball in play over the net Amanecer, Suite C, Box 3010, San Clemente, CA 92672.
by striking it with the hand.
Set The placement of the ball near the net to facilitate at- Audio-Visual Materials
tacking. Beginning Girls' Volleyball — Individuals' Skills. Truckee
Setter Player assigned to set the ball. River Studios, P.O. Box 1040, Alamo, CA 94507. VHS or
Side out Side is out when the serving team fails to win a BETA.
point or plays the ball illegally. Beginning Girls' Volleyball —Team Tactics. Truckee River
Spike A with top spin and a strong downward
ball hit Studios, P.O. Box 1040, Alamo. CA 94507. VHS or
force into the opponents' court. BETA.
Spiker Player assigned to attack the ball. Men's Volleyball. Truckee River Studios, P.O. Box 1040,
Spike-roll An attack that first takes an upward trajec- Alamo, CA 94507. VHS or BETA
tory using the spiking actions (with or without jump- USA Volleyball. Athletic Institute, 200 Castlewood Dr., N.
ing). Palm Beach. FL 33408. W
VHS.
Topspin (Overspin) Imparting of a forward spin to the Women's Volleyball Series I. Truckee River Studios, P.O.
-

ball during the serve, spike, or spike roll. Box 1040, Alamo, CA 94507. VHS or BETA.
 WEIGHT TRAINING
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Identify and compare the key points associated with Olympic lifting, powerlifting,
athletic weight training, and bodybuilding.
Identify the differences and similarities among weight lifting equipment.
After practice, demonstrate the various skills and techniques necessary to execute
the various weight training lifts.
Identify and discuss facts and myths related to female weight lifting.
Identify the necessary safety concerns of weight training.
Become familiar with basic terminology required to carry out a successful weight
training program.

NATURE AND PURPOSE use of weight training is of greater benefit to gaining

During the past two decades, the effectiveness of
carefully planned weight training as a method of im-
proving body development and sports performance
has been accepted on the basis of well-controlled
studies. Although being musclebound, having re-
duced localized muscle endurance, and loss of speed
and agility were once thought to result from weight
training, such claims have no physiological basis.
Much may be gained from the systematic and in-
modern weight training prin-
telligent application of
ciples.Using the principle of overload (taxing the
muscles beyond their normal daily activities), cou-
pled with progressive resistance through a full range
of motion appears to be the most effective means of
acquiring dynamic strength. The closer the weight
lifting movement simulates the actions in sports, the
greater the transfer of strength to motor perform-
ance. Weight lifting is also an excellent way to de-
velop flexibility, provided the exercise is executed
through the entire range of motion. Muscle enlarge-
ment does not reduce muscle endurance, because an
increase in capillarization usually accompanies the
cross-sectional increase of muscle fibers, which helps
to delay the onset of fatigue. Weight training does
not necessarily affect cardiorespiratory endurance
unless movements are executed for this specific pur-
pose. Increasing the cardiorespiratory endurance re-
quires specific training. To achieve this, heart and
respiratory rates must be intensely increased and
maintained at higher than normal resting values for
a duration of time. Systematic weight training that
applies the principles of resistance, overload, and
specificity will have positive effects on motor per-
formance parameters and contribute to successful
participation in sports.
Many individuals become involved in weight
training as a means of gaining or losing weight. The
body weight than to losing it. This is due to the activ-
ities' physiological effect upon the body. The over-
load principle causes proteins to be readily
incorporated into the muscle thus increasing muscu-
lar mass (hypertrophy), while on the other hand the
energy expenditure of weight lifting is too low to be
of much benefit in body weight reduction. However,
the overweight person may want to include weight
training as part of a reduction program to increase
body tone while reducing with diet and an aerobic
program.
Many centers of rehabilitation find the use of
weights valuable in developing weak or injured mus-
cles, strengthening underdeveloped muscles, or re-
building muscles affected by atrophy following
casting or hospitalization.
EQUIPMENT
Variable Resistance Machines
This type of weight training machine is manu-
factured by many companies under a variety of trade
names. The most widely used are the Universal Gym
(Figure 26-1), Nautilus (Figure 26-2), Cybex (Eagle),
and Paramount. These units consist of weight stacks
connected by pulleys or cams to levers of lifting bars.
The levers and pulleys allow a variable resistance
through a fixed and oftentimes limited range of mo-
tion. While this type of equipment is available in
separate units, it may also be found in a jungle gym
arrangement on which several athletes can work out
at one time. Weight training machines offer a
number of conveniences and time saving features
which appeal to the coach as well as the lifter. These
machines may be placed within restricted space and
offer the safety of confined weight stacks which are

375
376 WEIGHT TRAINING

FIGURE 26-1 The Universal Gym, a widely used variable resistance machine.

weights and the lifters needed to balance or coordi-

nate movements while lifting. This interaction is of
greatest importance for maximum benefit to per-
formance. However, when time is a restricting fac-
tor, training on machines has been found by many
coaches to be an excellent way to maintain strength
in-season.

FIGURE 26-2 The Nautilus pullover
torso machine.
not features of traditional "free weights." Since the
amount of resistance can be changed rapidly by a
pull of a pin in the stack, the amount of time re-
quired to complete a training session is also greatly
reduced over free weights. One great disadvantage
to all machines is in the transfer of strength gains to
performance. While the machines can offer great
safety, they also remove the interaction between the
Isokinetic Equipment
Probably the most talked about and misunder-
stood equipment available today are isokinetic de-
vices. The term "isokinetic" means "moving at a
constant speed." These machines require no weights
as the resistance felt from this equipment is self-
generated. The machines are capable of being set at
a variety of training velocities. If the athlete is capa-
ble of moving through a range of motion which ap-
proaches this velocity, then resistance is felt through
that range. If the velocity is not reached, resistance
is not felt. For this reason to train on these devices
requires a highly motivated athlete with constant
supervision. The significance of training at a variety
of velocities is found in the physiology of the muscle
fibers. Since muscle fibers are of a fast and slow na-
ture, it is felt that training at fast and slow speeds
will increase recruitment of these fibers.
The value of isokinetic devices in rehabilitation
is well founded. The Orthotron (Figure 26-3) and
Cybex 340 (Lumex Inc.) are most commonly used for
rehabilitation while the Mini Gym is used for sports
training. One problem with isokinetic devices is that

FIGURE 26-3 The Orthotron isokinetic
machine.
they do not relate well with other forms of strength
training. There is also doubt as to their effectiveness
in building muscular bulk.
Free Weights
The
oldest forms of weight training have been
done with free weights. There are two types: the
Olympic form and the standard one-inch barbell.
well-equipped training room will have both types of
bars. The Olympic bar offers more balance, is more
durable, and is a must for power and Olympic lifts. If
properly used with supervision from an experienced
lifter, free weights offer the most substantial
strength program available. The cost of equipment is
low, but the risk may be high with improper acces-
sory equipment or lack of supervision.
Other Equipment
The following items may become necessary
the lifter of free weights as the training becomes
more intense.
Lifting Belt. The lifting belt is made of thick
leather and is used to give physical support to the
lower back and moral support to the mind. There are
two types of belts: training and competition. The
training belt is five inches wide and gives a wide
support to the lower back. The competition belt is
four inches wide and may not exceed this in Olympic
and power lifting. The belt is generally worn with
free weight squats and cleans.
Lifting Straps. Lifting straps are loops of
leather or canvas belting about one inch wide. The
straps are placed around the hands and then under
and around the bar. With an overhand grip the lifter
WEIGHT TRAINING 377
secures the strap, and the bar is held tightly to the
hand. Straps are used with dead lifts and cleans for
training only. Lifting straps may not be used in com-
petition.
Knee Wraps (Super Wraps). Wraps are long,
three-inch wide strips of tough elastic material.
They are worn extremely tight around the knee to
add spring to the rebound phase of the squat and
clean. They are needed only with heavy weights and
may be worn in competition.
Super Super suits are made of tough
Suits.
elastic material and look like wrestling gear. The
suit gives support and spring to the body during
heavy squats and cleans. They are generally not
worn in training but are normally always worn in
competition.
THE FEMALE WEIGHTLIFTER
The fundamentals, techniques, and training pro-
grams described in this chapter are directed at both
sexes. The female athletes need strength training
every bit as much as their male counterparts, if not
more. Competitive power lifting and bodybuilding
are also becoming very popular among women across
the country. Coeducational weight training classes
offer no problems in terms of training programs; in
fact, they are very effective ways of destroying
weight lifting myths concerning females.
Myth: Women are not as strong as men.
A Fact: Through elementary school, middle school,
and well into high school, females are as strong if not
stronger than their male counterparts, although
with age and training men will surpass women
pound for pound.
Myth: Women should execute lifts differently be-
cause they are built differently.
Fact: Anatomical differences in bone and muscle
are so slight that they have no bearing on lifting
technique.
Myth: Women will become extremely muscular if
to they lift heavy weights.
Fact: Women can increase strength up to 70 per-
cent with little change in physical appearance. It is
the male hormone (testosterone) which causes the
noticeable hypertrophy in men. Most women have
such small amounts of this hormone that bulk mus-
cularity is next to impossible. Women bodybuilders
who do show extreme hypertrophy have (1) very low
body fat, (2) unusually high levels of testosterone, or
(3) may take anabolic steroids (a testosterone-like
drug).
Myth: Women (as well as men) are concerned
that their muscles will turn into fat if they stop
working out.
Fact: Just as lead cannot turn into gold, muscle
cannot turn into fat. Muscle generally atrophies (be-
378 WEIGHT TRAINING

comes smaller) when training ceases. People who ap-
pear to have become fat after they stopped training
may not have changed their eating habits and conse-
quently may be gaining weight.
Myth: Women should not train during various
stages of the menstrual cycle.
Fact: The overwhelming majority of female ath-
letes report no adverse effects on performance due to
this physiological process.
Most women who have begun training with
weiights find they have gained the following benefits:
1. Increased physical strength improves their per-
formance in sporting events.
2. There is a decrease in overall body fat while de-
veloping muscular tone.
There is an improvement in self-image and a
feeling of well-being.
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE
Weight training as part of a physical education pro-
gram should be approached as a skill-oriented class
3. If the course meets five times a week, the non-
lifting day should be devoted to instruction
about related areas (stretching techniques, aero-
bic exercises, guest speakers or lifters).
4. Begin the lifting schedule as soon as techniques
have been demonstrated and safety tips have
been emphasized.
Outlined below is a basic plan which may be
adopted as is or with modifications. If this plan does
not meet the needs of your program, many different
lifting schedules may be found in the books listed in
the reference section. This program may be done
almost entirely on variable resistance machines
(Universal Gym), totally with free weights, or in
combination. Students should begin with an amount
of weight which can be handled through the recom-
mended number of repetitions. The first set should
be lighter than the second or third set. The student
may increase the weight in a set when there is no
longer difficulty in completing the last few reps of
the second or third set.
FW = Free Weights; VRM = Variable Resistance
Machines
Monday and Thursday Lifts:

and not merely as an activity. Weight training re- EXERCISE SETS REPS
quires an overall philosophy, the development of
techniques, and the ability to execute the skills of Back
each lift. Dead lifts (FW) 2 5

A four-day-a-week lifting program is recom- Bent over rows (FW) 2 10

mended which splits the various lifts into two Lat pull overs (FW) 2 10

groups. Monday and Thursday lifts emphasize legs Lat pull downs (VRM) 2 10

and back while Tuesday and Friday lifts emphasize Biceps and Forearms
upper body. If time restricts the number of lifts that Barbell curl (FW or VRM) 2 8
can be accomplished, then some leg and back lifts Reverse curl (FW or VRM) 2 8
may be done on Monday and some may be done on
Thursday. The same arrangement can be used with Legs
10
the upper body lifts. A practical approach for utiliza- Squats (FW) 1

5
tion of equipment would be to split the class into two 1

Leg lunge (FW) 2 10

groups containing subgroups of three students
Leg press (VRM) 2 10
(matched for strength, if possible). By doing this, one
Leg extensions (VRM) 2 10
group can do Monday /Thursday lifts on Tuesday and
Leg (VRM) 2 10
Friday, thus allowing the proper amount of time curls

needed to execute a proper program. The subgroups Calf

of three students lift as a team and are responsible Donkey calf raise 2 15
for spotting each other when this is required. Each Dorsal flexion 2 15
member of the subgroup should complete a set before
any member repeats a set. Abdominals
Sit-ups 2 1 5 (may vary)
The following instructional approach is recom-
mended:
Tuesday and Friday Lifts:
1. Students should be informed of the various
forms of strength training and how they differ. EXERCISE SETS REPS
2. Each lift should be demonstrated to the student
Power cleans (FW) 3 5
with emphasis placed on key points as well as
safety factors. Students should also understand Shoulders
the purpose of each lift. (Olympic lifts may be Military press front(FW or VRM) 2 10
omitted from the demonstration as they are not Military press back (FW or VRM) 2 10
part of the training program.) Dumbbell shrugs (FW) 2 10
 WEIGHT TRAINING 379

Chest
Bench Press (FW or VRM) 3 5
Incline Bench Press (FW) 3 5
if;

Triceps
Lying triceps extensions (FW) 2 1

Calf
Same as Mon/Thur

Abdominals
MMMHN0MWMQ
^~4*A*
Same as Mon/Thur

SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES

The correct lifting form is essential not only for ob- FIGURE 26-4 The overhand grip.

taining quick results but also for safety.

The Grip
The overhand, palms down, grip is used in prac-
tically all exercises.The thumbs may be hooked un-
derneath the bar or in some instances, as in the
bench press, may remain on the same side of the bar
as the other fingers. This requires more balance and
is not recommended to the novice lifter.
The underhand grip is the exact opposite of the
overhand grip, with palms placed upward under the
bar. This grip is used in executing the curl maneu-
ver.
The alternating grip, with one hand palm down
and the other hand palm up, is favored for dead lifts.
Regardless of style, the hands must be spaced evenly FIGURE 26-5 The underhand grip.

on the bar in order to execute the lift properly as well

as provide safety.
When involved in Olympic or power lifting, the
use of chalk on the hands is recommended. The
chalk will increase the bar/hand friction, thus facili-
tating a better grip.

The Feet
When the bar is being lifted from the floor, as in
cleans or dead lifts, place the toes approximately
under the bar with the feet spread about one foot
apart. The feet should always be in the same line al-
though the distance between them may vary. Many
beginners have the fault of not starting close enough
to the bar; consequently, when they start the lift the
FIGURE 26-6 The alternating grip.
bar swings toward the feet instead of going straight
up. Many experienced lifters find that a slight an-
gling outward, not more than 15 degrees, of the feet
is a more comfortable and efficient lifting style. This demand. Forced gasping and hyperventilating (rapid
is a technique which should be developed as the puff'sof breath) only interfere with proper breathing
lifter improves. and may even lead to lightheadedness. The best pat-
tern of breathing is to inhale during the lifting phase
and to exhale with the return movement. As the
Breathing
weight increases, many lifters find it more effective
Breathing should come naturally during the to take one deep breath and hold it through the repe-
course of the exercise, letting the body regulate the tition of the lift. The lifter should never hold a breath
380 WEIGHT TRAINING
for more than one repetition. This puts undue pres-
sure on the body cavities as well as the blood vessels
of the head. Getting a purple face in the weight room
will not improve your lifting ability.
The Bar and Body Placement
A technique which is of utmost importance in a
weight room is lifting a bar from a power rack or
squat stands. Injuries which occur during this phase
of lifting with free weights can most always be
traced back to carelessness on the part of the lifter.
To properly place your body under the bar to execute
a lift, check the following items:
1. The bar should be no higher than the shoulder
nor more than three to four inches below the
shoulder.
2. Grip the bar evenly and space your hands wider
than your shoulders.
Move under the bar in such a way that the mid-
3.
point of the bar is on line with your backbone.
4. The bar should rest on the base of the neck and
the shoulders.
5. If the muscles of the neck and shoulders lack
mass to cushion the bar, foam pads or towels
should be wrapped around the bar so as to pro-
tect the bony parts of the back. This is extremely
important for young lifters and as a rule is a
good policy for women to follow.
6. By bending at the knees, align your body as ver-
tically as possible under the bar.
7. With the head up, lift straight up with hip and
legpower to a vertical position.
8. Step backwards out of the rack no more than 2V^
feet.
9. With spotters on both ends of the bar, execute
the lift.
10. Rerack the weights by stepping back into the
rack, with alignment by spotters, and set the
weight down.
TRAINING PROGRAMS
As weight training has come of age and specificity
has become a recognized factor in a successful pro-
gram, it has become difficult to recommend training
programs without knowing what equipment is avail-
able and what purpose the program will serve. There
are recent publications which speak to many specific
programs weight training. For this reason specific
in
programs will not be proposed but rather comments
concerning programs will be presented. For training
manuals, refer to the references at the end of the
chapter.
Light Conditioning Programs
These types of programs cover the broadest
range of weight trainers from in-season athletic pro-
grams to the programs typically offered to the gen-
eral public at health clubs. The programs generally
consist of a three-day-a-week lifting routine. All of
the basic lifts would be done at this time with a brief
stretching and warm-up followed by one set of 10 to
15 reps of the various lifts. This is the "circuit or
circus" training approach, also known as the "get
—
them in get them out" routine. This approach is a
lifelong battle which gives non-dramatic results.
Heavy Conditioning Programs
Programs in this area are practiced by a smaller
group of lifters containing pre-season athletes,
power lifters, Olympic lifters, and bodybuilders. The
programs run from a four- to seven-day week with
muscle groups worked rather than the entire body.
The average workout would be around two hours;
however bodybuilders, prior to a contest, may actu-
ally train on a split-day routine, thus doubling the
workout time. This is a very effective program if you
can afford the time. The general rule followed in
heavy training is to thoroughly overload and ex-
haust the muscle each time it is trained with at least
one day between training of that muscle group
again. Overtraining in heavy programs is a real
problem, and it affects different people at different
times. Constant muscular pain with a loss in
strength are the warning signs. The large muscle
groups are the first to be affected, especially the
lower back.
A heavy training program, although there is
much variation,may consist of a 5 X 5 approach of 5
sets with 5 reps, not including a warm-up or stretch.
A current variation of the 5X5 approach is to in-
clude one day of extremely high rep work at around
50 to 60 percent of maximum.
An important point concerning heavy training
for sport specificity is that the movements of the
sport should also be done before or after the lifting.
This will allow new motor skills to develop with the
new strength gains.
DESCRIPTION OF TRAINING GROUPS
Olympic Lifting
Olympic lifting requires strength, power, and
quickness. In competition there are two lifts: the
two-hand snatch and the two-hand clean and jerk.
Training for competition requires explosive lifts such
as power cleans as well as bench press, military
press, and parallel squats for strength development.
Olympic lifters are also concerned with muscular en-
durance and often include running in a training re-
gime. Although Olympic lifting is an Olympic sport,
its popularity in this country has dropped off dra-
matically in past years. This drop-off is due to sev-
eral reasons:
 WEIGHT TRAINING 381

1. The reluctancy of lifters to adopt modern train- not an Olympic sport, it is very popular in the United
ing techniques. States with women as well as men.
2. The lack of experienced strength coaches.
3. A new emphasis on power lifting.
4. The acceptance of bodybuilders in society.
Bench Press (see Figures 26-7 and 26-8)
1. The horizontally with head, trunk, and
lifter lies
In competition the competitor attempts to lift the
buttocks on the bench.
heaviest weight he can in each lift, and the individ-
2. The palms are placed up against the bar with
ual with the highest total is declared the winner in
the thumb placed on the same side as the other
his body weight class as established by the Amateur
fingers or hooked on the opposite side. Place-
Athletic Union.
ment of the hands may not exceed 32 inches be-
tween forefingers.
Two-Hand Snatch 3. The bar is pressed vertically to straight arm
length and held for two seconds.
1. Place the bar on the floor horizontally in front of
4. The bar is lowered to the region of the chest but
the lifter. may not sink into the chest.
2. Grip the bar with both hands, palms down, at 5. The bar is then raised evenly to a vertical posi-
least shoulder width apart.
tion without moving the trunk, buttocks, or feet.
3. With the legs bent, drive with the legs and pull Movement is grounds for disqualification.
with the arms until the bar is supported verti-
cally above the head with straight arms.
4. The lifter may split the legs or squat with the
weight in order to achieve the vertical arm posi-
tion. The lifter must stand erect upon comple-
tion of the lift.
5. The lifter must stand motionless with feet in the
same line to be judged a good lift.

Two-Hand Clean and Jerk

1. Place the bar horizontally on the floor in front of
the lifter.
2. Grip the bar with both hands, palms down, at
least shoulder width apart.
3. The bar is brought to the shoulder from the floor
in one continuous motion with bent or split legs.
4. The bar may rest on the chest while the feet
must return to the same line with straight legs
before continuing with the jerk. FIGURE 26-7 Starting position for proper execution of the bench
press.
5. By bending the legs and then extending them
and the arms vertically, bring the bar to a verti-
cal extension above the head.
6. The lift is complete when the lifter is motionless
with the weight vertical above the head and feet
on the same line.

Power Lifting

While flexibility and explosive power are of ut-

most importance in Olympic lifting, power lifting
relies mainly on sheer strength. Although technique
is important, the power lifts are easier to master
than the Olympic lift. The power lifts are the bench
press, the parallel squat, and the dead lift. As in
Olympic lifting, the competitor attempts to lift the
greatest amount of weight in each lift. The largest
total lifted wins the individual weight class. The
competition begins with the parallel squat, and the
lifter must have one of three attempts judged good to FIGURE 26-8 The bar is lowered to the chest region with the back
continue into the other lifts. While power lifting is flat on the bench.
382 WEIGHT TRAINING

FIGURE 26-1 1 Begin the dead lift close to the bar, back
flat and head up.

FIGURE 26-9 Starting FIGURE 26-10 With the back flat,

position for the parallel the weight is lowered to a position
squat. where the thighs are parallel to the
floor.

Parallel Squat (see Figures 26-9 and 26-10)

1. Begin in an upright position with the bar resting
across the shoulders.
2. The head should be held up.
3. The back should be flat with the small of the
back kept arched.
4. The feet are 12 to 16 inches apart and in the
same line.
5. Keeping the back straight, squat slowly with the
weight until the tops of the thighs are parallel
with the floor.
6. From the squat position, drive with the legs and
hips to an upright position. The small of the
FIGURE 26-12 End the dead lift standing erect.
back should remain arched slightly so as to pre-
vent leaning, which may lead to injury.
Training includes a few other lifts besides those
which would strengthen secondary muscle groups
Dead Lift (see Figures 26-11 and 26-12)
involved in the power lifts. These lifts will be dis-
1. Place the bar on the floor horizontally in front of cussed in the next section. For information concern-
the lifter. ing training schedules for Olympic and power lifting,
2. Begin in the squat position, thighs parallel to consult the references listed at the end of the
the floor, head up, feet 12 to 14 inches apart and chapter.
back flat.
3. The palms are placed on the bar approximately
Bodybuilding
shoulder width apart, using a palms down grip
or an alternating palms up, palms down grip. Bodybuilding for men and women is an activity
4. The lift may also be done with the increasingly which is growing rapidly in this country. Reasons for
popular "sumo" style. The only difference is that this are many, although media coverage and the
the feet are spread widely apart, 36 to 40 inches, popularity of self-improvement are the main contrib-
with the hands placed about 14 inches apart. utors. Bodybuilding is as much an art form as it is a
5. With the arms straight and the back flat, drive sport and may well be called a form of kinetic sculp-
upward with leg and hip strength. ture. Bodybuilders are not concerned with muscular
6. Pull with the back once the bar is past the knees. strength, although all maintain a strength which
7. The lift is complete when an upright body posi- matches their muscular size. They do not train with
tion is attained. the specificity needed for a particular sport activity,
 WEIGHT TRAINING 383

yet all are athletic. Bodybuilders train with weights

to achieve muscularity with symmetry. This re-
quires a multitude of lifts which are variations of the
lifts described in the weight conditioning section.
Rather than attempt to describe each of these lifts in
detail, the reader is referred to the literature sug-
gested at the end of the chapter.

Weight Training Conditioning

Weight training in the pre-season and during the
season is important for every athletic team or condi-
tioning class. The key to a successful weight training
program is specificity and supervision. Specificity
means that the program should be designed to fit the
needs and movements of the athlete. Supervision by
a strength coach or a member of the teaching/coach-
ing staff is important from a safety standpoint as
well as a means of building morale. This section will FIGURE 26-14 Raise the bar to a vertical position
describe a number of the lifts commonly used in above the head.
building a strength program. It will not, however,
attempt to put together any programs for different
sports. For this type of information, the Selected Ref-
'

erences will be helpful.

,
Behind the Neck Press. This is an excellent
exercise for the development of the shoulders, espe-
cially the deltoid group. The exercise may be done
with a barbell or with a machine (Figure 26-13).
1. With the barbell resting behind the head on the
shoulders, inhale and press the weight to a ver-
tical position above the head (Figure 26-14).
2. Lower the weight until it nearly touches the
shoulders behind the head and exhale.
3. The exercise may be done standing or seated.
The Military Press. Again this is an excellent
lift shoulder development and may be done with
for
free weights or on a machine (Figure 26-15).

FIGURE 26-15 Starting position for the

military press.

1. With the barbell resting on the chest, inhale and

press the bar to a vertical position above the
head (Figure 26-16).
2. Lower the weight until it nearly touches the
chest and exhale.
3. The exercise may be done standing or seated.
Bent Over Rowing. Rowing has long been
used as an overall back developer. It will add thick-
ness and width to the "lats" while developing
strength very quickly. This exercise must be done
with a barbell.

FIGURE 26-13 Begin the behind the neck press with 1. Place the barbell horizontally on the floor in
the barbell resting in this position. front of the lifter (Figure 26-17).
384 WEIGHT TRAINING

FIGURE 26-16 Raise the bar to a FIGURE 26-17 Starting position for bent over FIGURE 26-18 Raise the bar to this height to
vertical position above the head. rowing. complete the lift.

2. Bend at the hips and grip the bar palms down, 2. Begin by standing with the bar held at the level
shoulder width apart. Bend the knees slightly to of the thighs.
remove hamstring tension. 3. Full the bar straight up the front of the body to
3. With the back stationary and flat, pull the bar to the area of the chin (speed may vary).
the chest (Figure 26-18). 4. Slowly return the bar to the front of the thighs.
4. Slowly lower the bar to near the starting posi-
tion (bar need not touch the floor). Dumbbell Lat Pullover. This is a lift for all
sports from tennis to the shotput. The exercise is de-
The Bench Press. Much controversy con- signed to work the musculature of the back and rib
tinues as to which muscle gains the principal benefit
cage. For this reason it should be included in all
from this exercise. Most biomechanic experts would training regimes for track events. The pullover
agree it primarily exercises the anterior deltoid and should be done with a dumbbell but may be done
triceps with the pectoralis major a secondary mover.
with a light barbell. Traditional lat work is done on
To put more emphasis on the "pecs," the incline some form of lat pull down machine and will not be
bench press may be incorporated in advanced train- described in this text.
ing programs.
The correct procedure for the bench press has 1. Lie crossways on a flat bench with only the
been outlined earlier under power lifting. It should upper shoulder region supported by the bench
be emphasized at this point that athletes, trainers, (Figure 26-19).
and coaches who recommend benching by bouncing 2. The knees should be bent with the feet flat on
the weight off of the chest or arching the back and the floor.
pushing with the legs to achieve the lift are toying 3. The buttocks should dip slightly to keep an arch
with injury. Many
coaches boost their athletes' in the small of the back.
bench press achievements by actually teaching the 4. Grip the weight by cupping the hands in such
bounce and arch as part of the lift. The athlete will manner that the palms are against the weight
gain more physiologically and mentally if taught the plates. This will cause the weighted ends to be in
proper technique in this exercise. The lift should be an up-and-down position.
done with free weights and spotters, but may also be 5. Extend the arms vertically so that the weight is

done on a machine. over the face (Figure 26-20).

Upright Rowing. often done to
This lift is
6. Lower the weight slowly in an arch so as to miss
the head until the weight is nearly touching the
supplement training for Olympic lifting. The front
floor behind the bench.
deltoids and the trapezius musculature are thor-
oughly exercised. The lift must be executed with a 7. Return the weight to the vertical position slowly
barbell and may be done explosively or at a slower
by contraction of the lats, keeping the arms
nearly locked out.
speed.

1. Grip the bar palms down, about shoulder width The Barbell Curl. The curl is well known to
apart. anyone who has ever touched a weight. The exercise
 WEIGHT TRAINING 385

FIGURE 26-21 Begin the barbell curl with the bar in front of the
thighs and the elbows at the sides.

FIGURE 26-19 Start the dumbbell lat

pullover with hips low and shoulders flat
on bench.

FIGURE 26-22 Contract the biceps and raise the bar in an arch
toward the shoulders.

2. Begin with the bar in front of the thighs and the

FIGURE 26-20 Keeping the hips low,
raise the arms to a vertical position
above the head.
builds the biceps, and is tremendously overused,
especially by teenage boys. It is most often used to
increase the size of the arms for visual rather than
functional reasons, and therefore should be consid-
ered a bodybuilding exercise. Coaches will generally
have little trouble getting males to do an arm work-
out. The lift may be done with a straight barbell, a
bent (E-Z curl) barbell, dumbbells, or machines. All
provide slightly different results in terms of appear-
ance.
1. Grip the bar palms up, about shoulder width
apart (Figure 26-21).
elbows kept at the sides.
3. Contract the biceps so that the bar moves in an
arch toward the shoulders (Figure 26-22).
4. Slowly lower the bar against gravity to ensure a
good stretch to the starting position and repeat.
The Reverse Curl. The reverse curl is done to
strengthen the forearm and biceps. The lift is most
effective when done with a barbell.
1. Grip the bar with palms down, about shoulder
width apart (Figure 26-23).
Start with the elbows at the sides and the bar in
front of the thighs.
3. Move the bar in an arch toward the shoulders
(Figure 26-24).
Lower the bar to starting position and repeat.
386 WEIGHT TRAINING

FIGURE 26-23 Begin the reverse curl with palms down.

FIGURE 26-25 Begin the donkey calf raise

with heels lower than toes.

FIGURE 26-24 Contract the biceps and raise the bar in an

arch toward the shoulders.

Donkey Calf Raise. When traditional calf

machines are not available, the donkey calf raise will
give the best all round calf development. This exer-
cise is done with a partner and does not involve
weights. The partners should be approximately the
same weight.
1. Place the feet on a calf board (2X4 on 2X4
blocks) with the balls of the feet on the board FIGURE 26-26 Complete the lift by raising up
on toes.
and the heels off the board (Figure 26-25).
2. Bend at the waist until the back is flat while
supporting the body weight on a chair or bench.
develop strength and size in the leg. Done properly
3. The partner should sit on the exerciser's back,
the parallel squat will give very quick results. The
on the hips if possible.
current belief held by many coaches that the parallel
4. The lifter should then lift up as far as possible
squat will damage the knees is both biomechanically
onto the toes (Figure 26-26).
and medically unfounded. The use of a bench for the
5. Once the toes are locked out, lower the heels
athletes to squat on is very popular but not neces-
until they pass beyond the calf board, and then
sary. In fact, bouncing up and down on the bench
repeat.
may lead to more serious injuries due to aggravation
The Parallel Squat. The parallel squat, de- of the spine. If safety is the reason for bench use, the
scribed in the power lifting section, is the ultimate problem can be eliminated by using spotters at both
exercise for leg development. It has long been used to ends of the bar or by the use of safety squat racks.
 WEIGHT TRAINING 387

Leg Lunge. The lunge is done to strengthen feet, so that the rear knee dips and touches the
the thigh and is an exercise that might be used as a floor (Figure 26-28).
means of stretching prior to doing squats. The mo- 3. Return then to an upright, starting position.
tion of the lunge should be mastered without weights 4. Balance is of utmost importance with this lift,
before actual weighted lifts. and any amount of weight should be worked up
to gradually.
1. Begin the lift with the bar resting across the
back (Figure 26-27). Dumbbell Shrugs. The shrug is probably the
2. Take a lunging step forward, about three to four best exercise for development of the trapezius and
neck muscles. It is a must for additional training in
the power lifts. The lift may also be done with a
straight bar; however, the best results are obtained
with the dumbbell.

1. Begin the exercise with dumbbells in both hands

and arms at the sides (Figure 26-29).
2. Raise the shoulders as far as they will go to-
wards the ears (Figure 26-30).
3. Hold that position for a three count and relax.
4. The lifter may also roll the shoulders while exe-
cuting the lift.

Lying Triceps Extensions. The triceps ex-

tensions work to strengthen the posterior portion of
the arm. This exercise should be done as a secondary
lift with the bench press. The exercise may be done
with a bar or a machine.
1. Lie on your back on a flat bench.
2. Grip the bar, which should be behind your head
on the floor, with a palms up position about 12
inches apart.
3. Raise the bar such that it is positioned vertically
over the face with the arms locked out (Figure
FIGURE 26-27 Begin the leg lunge in this
26-31).
position. 4. Lower the bar from the elbows while keeping the
upper arm in a near vertical position. The bar

FIGURE 26-29 Begin the FIGURE 26-30 Keeping the

FIGURE 26-28 Lunge forward with a straight shrugs with dumbbells at arms shrug the
straight,
back until opposite knee touches the floor. the sides. shoulders upward.
388 WEIGHT TRAINING

FIGURE 26-31 Triceps extensions begin with bar held vertically

over the face, arms locked out.
FIGURE 26-33 Begin the leg extension in

this position

FIGURE 26-34 Extend legs so they are parallel with the floor.
FIGURE 26-32 Bar is lowered to position behind the head and
then raised to vertical position.
put the quadriceps at the optimal angle for max-
should be lowered to the forehead or just beyond
imum extension.
2. Hold on to the sides of the bench and raise the
the head (Figure 26-32).
lower weighted bar so that your legs are parallel
5. Extend the forearm back to the vertical position.
to the floor (Figure 26-34).
Leg Extensions. The leg extension works di- 3. If the cannot achieve full extension, there
lifter
rectlyon the quadriceps muscle group. The exercise is too much weight on
the machine.
can be done with a weight boot but most workout 4. Slowly lower the weight to the starting position.
areas are now equipped with extension machines.
The LegCurl. The leg curl is a most effective
The leg extension generally part of a rehabilita-
is
way of strengthening the hamstring muscles of the
tion program for people who have weak knees or who
upper leg. Unless the athlete is on a good parallel
have recently undergone surgery.
squat program, there is a tendency for the "quads" to
1. Sit on the bench of the extension machine and become too strong in relationship to total quad/
put your feet behind the lower pad so that your hamstring strength. While the exercise may be done
toes point out. You should sit so that you are with weighted boots, most workout areas are
leaning slightly back (Figure 26-33). This will equipped with leg curl machines.
 WEIGHT TRAINING 389

no equipment other than what may already be found

around the home.
1. Begin in a seated position with the feet hanging
freely above the floor.
2. A weighted device is hung from the toes so that
resistance is felt. The weight may be as simple
as a bucket filled with water or sand, which
allows the amount of resistance to be altered
easily.
3. Contract the foot so as to bring the toes up (Fig-
ure 26-37) and point to the knee (active dorsal
flexion).
4. Relax the foot and repeat (Figure 26-38). Repeti-
tion is the key to this exercise.

The Power Clean. The power clean is proba-

FIGURE 26-35 Begin the leg curl in this position.
bly the most total body lift that can be successfully
executed short of the clean and jerk. More than any
other single lift, the power clean will significantly
improve the vertical jump with greater total body
strength. All training programs should include the
clean to some intensity. The lift must be done with
free weights, preferably Olympic weights. The se-
quence is shown in Figure 26-39, A-E.
1. Begin with the bar horizontally at the feet of the
lifter.
2. Grip the bar, palms down, about shoulder width
apart.
3. The feetshould be placed inside the hands so as
to provide a firm base of support.
4. Squat low as in the beginning dead lift position.
5. The head should be up with gaze fixed toward
the ceiling.
6. Drive with the hips and legs to lift the bar from
FIGURE 26-36 Flex the legs so they are vertical to the floor. the floor.

1. Begin by lying stomach down on the machine

and position the heels behind the heel pad (Fig-
ure 26-35).
2. Prop yourself up slightly with your elbow so as
to keep the hamstrings as prime movers of the
lift.

3. Contract the hamstrings and attempt to touch

the heels on the buttocks (Figure 26-36).
4. Slowly return to the starting position and re-
peat.

Dorsal Flexion of the Foot. A group of mus-

cles on the front of the lower leg are generally forgot-
ten about in training except by bodybuilders. Yet it is
this musculature that causes many athletes a great
deal of trouble in the form of shin splints. While the
exact cause of all shin splints is not known, it gener-
ally results from an overdeveloped calf muscle and
an underdeveloped anterior tibial muscle (front of
the lower leg). This condition is found in many run- FIGURE 26-37 Contract the foot FIGURE 26-38 Relax the
ners and may also result from prolonged wearing of and point the toes upward. foot and let the toes point
high heels. The exercise is simple and really requires downward.
 390 WEIGHT TRAINING

(A) The power clean starting position. (B) Initial pull phase should not be (C) Rapid acceleration phase — note
rapid extension onto the toes.

FIGURE 26-39
The power clean.

(D) The bar has lost momentum (E) The catch phase — knees are bent.
time to move under it.

7. Continue with the legs as the bar gains

to drive there was insufficient momentum in the drive
acceleration and as the bar passes the knees, phase.
pull with the back and shoulders. 10. The lifter will find it necessary to bend at the
8. As the bar reaches the chest region it will begin knees in order to achieve the correct catch posi-
to lose momentum. tion. When bending occurs, stand erect with the
9. At this point the body needs to move slightly weights before lowering them to repeat.
under the bar as the elbows drive forward under
the bar to catch the weights on the chest. This
Learning Cues
arm movement should be somewhat passive as
this is not a reverse curl. If the lifter must re- To ensure a successful training lift in the clean,
verse curl the weight, the weight is too heavy or be sure to follow these instructions:

1. The bar should move almost vertically up the
front of the body.
2. This is an explosive lift; therefore, rapid acceler-
ation of the bar is important.
3. Do not jerk the weight from the floor with the
arms, rather drive it up with the legs.
4. Extend up on the toes when possible to increase
leg drive force.
5. Do not actively reverse curl the bar back to the
chest.
Mentally Impaired
DRUG EDUCATION
Anabolic Steroids and Weight Training
Anabolic steroids are protein-building drugs
that are used by some weight training individuals
for effects that are believed to enhance performance.
These drugs may be legally prescribed only by physi-
cians and veterinarians. Anabolic steroids are used
in conjunction with weight training because they in- Sensory Impaired
crease weight and because there is evidence that
they help induce muscle hypertrophy (enlargement
of individual muscle fibers which results in in-
creased muscle mass). They are also credited with
enhancing endurance, improving recovery time, and
increasing aggressiveness, but none of these claims
has been objectively proven. Many of the drugs used
come from black market sources. Since there is no
regulation of these sources, counterfeit and deliber-
ately misidentified anabolic steroids have become a
widespread problem. The health risks of anabolic
steroid use are not well known. There is little medi- SAFETY IN THE WEIGHT ROOM
cal information on the effects of anabolic steroids at
the doses used by weight training individuals. How-
ever, their link with the development of liver tumors
and a consistent decrease in HDL-cholesterol with
increased LDL-cholesterol is well documented. The
change in cholesterol fractions has been identified as
a significant risk factor for heart disease. The health
risks associated with anabolic steroid use are likely
to increase the larger the dose and the longer the
use.
MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
Orthopedically Impaired
1. Follow the same guidelines used for able-bodied
students with the following adaptations:
a. Do not allow students with cerebral palsy to
move the resistance too ballistically. Ballistic
type movements will increase flexor tone for
students dominated by spasticity, therefore
concentrate on less resistance and more TERMINOLOGY
range of motion.
b. Make sure the brakes on all wheelchairs are Barbell
locked prior to lifting.
WEIGHT TRAINING 391
c. For spinal cord injured students be sure to
identify the level of injury and consult with
an adapted physical educator and/or physical
therapist prior to initiating a program.
2. Consult your local fitness clubs for commercial
equipment modified for the physically impaired.
3. Wrist weights, weighted sand bags, and other
homemade equipment make great modified
equipment for fitness training.
1. Fitness levels for the mentally impaired are gen-
erally very low; it is important to start a weight
training program very slowly. Take time to build
a solid base, and increase resistance very slowly
in the early stages of the program.
2. Minimal modifications are needed; however, use
of peer teachers, improvement charts, T-shirt
clubs, etc., are excellent incentives for the stu-
dent.
1. Maintain close supervision of blind or visually
impaired students during a lifting program.
2. Use weight machines for increased safety pre-
cautions with the blind or visually impaired.
3. Deaf or hard of hearing students require mini-
mal adaptations. Visual cues need to be estab-
lished for starting and stopping a lifting session
while working out with a large number of stu-
dents in a small area.
1. Stretching exercises and a warm-up should pre-
cede the training program.
2. Until you are familiar with the movements in-
volved with the lift, do not attempt a great
amount of weight on the bar.
3. Collars should always be used on the bars, and
they should be secure.
4. Keep adequate distance between the lifters and
the equipment in the training room.
5. Always use spotters on the squats and the bench
press.
6. Avoid dropping weights any place other than on
a lifting platform. Also avoid banging the weight
stacks on machines up and down.
7. It is always best to unload both sides of a weight
bar partially before removing the final batch of
weights.
8. When weight plate racks are available, replace
all weights after use.
A steel bar 5 to 7 feet long on which circular iron
plates of known weight may be placed.
392 WEIGHT TRAINING

Cheating A lift that is executed with the addition of mus- SELECTED REFERENCES
cle groups other than the prime movers involved in
the lift. and Kraemer, W.J. Designing Resistance Train-
Fleck, S.J.,
Clean The power clean or beginning phase of the clean ing Programs. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books.
and jerk. 1987.
Dumbbell A short barbell, 12 to 16 inches, with fixed or Lombardi, V.P. Beginning Weight Training. Dubuque, LA:
removable weight plates. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1989.
"Lats" The latissimus dorsi muscles of the back. Martens, R.; Christina, R.W.; Harvey, J.S.; and Sharkey,
Overload principle Progressively increasing the intensity B.J. Coaching Young Athletes. Champaign, IL: Human
of the workouts over the course of the training pro- Kinetics Books, 1981.
gram. Riley. D.P Strength Training by the Experts. Champaign,
"Quads" The four quadriceps muscles of the thigh front. IL: Leisure Press, 1982.
"Pecs" The pectoralis major muscles of the chest. Stone, W.J. and Kroll, W.A. Sports Conditioning and
Rep Repetition or the continuation of identical motions. Weight Training. Boston, MA: Allvn and Bacon, Inc.,
1980.
Set The completion of a predetermined number of repeti-
tions. Williams, M.H. Beyond Training: How Athletes Enhance
The development training program Performance Legally and Illegally. Champaign, IL: Lei-
Specificity of a
sure Press, 1989.
aimed at increasing one's ability to succeed in a partic-
ular skill.

Spotter An individual responsible for the safety of the Organizations

lifter. Generally two spotters are used, one at each end The National Strength and Conditioning Association, 300
of the bar, in lifts such as the squat and the bench Old City Hall Landmark, 920 O Street, Lincoln, NB
"

press. They are not used in Olympic lifts. 68508.

 WRESTLING
THIS CHAPTER WILL ENABLE YOU TO:
Identify and discuss the key features of a wrestling match.
Identify the differences in equipment, weight classes, and strategy between high
school and collegiate wrestling.
Identify rule differences between high school and collegiate wrestling.
Describe the offensive and defensive strategies utilized in wrestling.
Identify the basic terminology associated with the sport of wrestling.

NATURE AND PURPOSE
There are two worldwide styles of wrestling the
—
"Greco-Roman" and the "free- style" both of which
are represented in the Olympic games. In America
we use a variation of the free-style, in which the
wrestlers start in an upright position and one at-
tempts to pin the shoulders of the other to the mat
for one second (two seconds in high school). This
style of wrestling, as practiced in the schools and col-
leges of this country, is commonly called "catch-as-
catch-can."
All matches occur on a protective mat 32 ft.
square or 32 feet in diameter (Figure 27-1).
smaller circle 10 feet in diameter is located at the
center of the mat, and this is where the opposing
wrestlers begin to wrestle.
Matches last for 6 minutes in high school and 7
minutes in college. High school matches are divided
into three 2-minute periods; college matches are di-
vided into a 3-2-2-minute system. There are no rest
periods between periods.
The first period always begins with both oppo-
nents in a standing position and facing each other
with their lead foot in contact with the starting line
located within the small circle at the center of the
— mat. This is the "neutral position."
The second and third periods can begin in one of
three positions: (1) neutral, with both wrestlers
standing and neither in control of the other; (2) a
"referee's position," in which one wrestler is in a
down-man position and the other in a top-man posi-
an "optional offensive starting position,"
tion; or (3)
whereby the top man positions himself on either side
or to the rear of his opponent (supporting all his
weight on both feet, one knee or both knees) and
places his hands on his opponent's back with thumbs
A touching.
If during the course of the match neither wres-
tler able to successfully pin his opponent's
is
shoulders to the mat for the required one second (two
seconds in high school), the winner may be deter-
mined by a point system.
There are five ways to score points against an
opponent:
1. Takedown 2 points
2. Escape 1 point

< 42' — +~ 42'

Green Red
32' Square

©
Wrestling Area
10-Foot Circle
With
Starting Lines

FIGURE 27-1 Wrestling mat.

393
394 WRESTLING

3. Reversal 2 points If no fall (pin) is secured, the decision goes to the

4. Near fall 2 or 3 points contestant who has scored the most points during a
5. Time advantage (college) 1 point match.
Weight Classification. In order for two wres-
tling opponents to be evenly matched in size, weight
classifications have been developed to allow oppo-
THE MATCH: TIMING AND SCORING
nents to wrestle at the same approximate weight.
Contestants begin the match from a standing posi-
HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE tion, facing one another. When a contestant takes
his opponent to the mat within the first period limit
103 lb. 118 1b.
(3 minutes college, 2 minutes high school), they con-
112 126
tinue to wrestle until a fall is declared or until the
119 134
time limit is reached.
125 142
neither contestant secures an advantage posi-
If
130 150
135
tion (a wrestler who is in legal control of his oppo-
158
nent) before the time limit has elapsed, the
140 167
remaining time is divided into two periods of mat
145 177
wrestling. The referee flips a coin, and the winner of
152 190
the "call" chooses one of the three re-starting posi-
160 Heavyweight 177-275)
<

tions described above, or he can "defer" this choice to

171
his opponent. If he defers the choice to his opponent
189
at the start of the second period, he becomes the
275
wrestler with the "choice" at the start of the third pe-
Wrestling uses various types of holds involving riod. If a fall takes place during the second period,
throws, lifts, and twists. Strength is an important the match is ended and there is no third period.
asset but not a prerequisite. A wrestler must also
have quickness, physical conditioning, and a knowl-
edge of leverage points.
Team Point System for Dual Competition
(High School and College)

1. Fall pin) i 6 points

BASIC RULES 2. Forfeit 6 points
3. Default 6 points
Certain rules differ between high school and colle- 4. Disqualification 6 points
giate wrestling. To win a fall, the shoulder blades of 5. Technical Fall (by 15 points or morel 5 points
one's opponent must be held in contact with the mat 6. Decision
continuously for one full second in college wrestling (by 8-14 points) 4 points
and for two seconds in high school. (by less than 8 points) 3 points
Any hold may be used except the following, Draw 2 points
which are considered dangerous to the safety of one's
opponent:
Individual Scoring System
Illegal Holds
1. Takedown 1 2 points »
— For each takedown of op-
Hammerlock above a 90° angle ponent to mat and securing an advantage posi-
Twisting hammerlock tion.
Full nelson Escape point
( 1 )
—
Escape from a disadvantage
Front headlock without the arm position (a wrestler being legally controlled by
Headlock without the arm his opponent) to a neutral position.
Straight head scissors 3. Reversal (2 points) —
Reversal from a disadvan-
Overhead double arm bar tage position to an advantage position.
Over-scissors —
Near Fall (2 points) The defensive wrestler is
Strangle holds held in a high bridge or on both elbows for two
Body slams seconds; both shoulders of the defensive wrestler
Twisting knee lock are held within 4 inches of the mat or less; or,
Key lock when one shoulder of the defensive wrestler is
Bending, twisting, or forcing the head or any limb touching the mat and the other shoulder is held
beyond its normal limits of movement at an angle of 45 degrees or less, for less than 5
Locking the hands behind the back in a double arm bar seconds.
from the neutral position 5. Near Fall (3 points) —
Same situation as =4. but
Full back suplay from a rear standing position wrestler is held in this position for 5 seconds or
Arm holds used for punishment alone more.
 WRESTLING 395

6. Time Advantage (College: 1 point) — One minute of advantage over his opponent. When this occurs,
or more of net accumulated time in the advan- the wrestlers will be restarted from either the "ref-
tage position. eree's position" or the "optional starting position."
7. Points may also be scored if an opponent is stall- These positions may also be used to start the second
ing, commits certain technical violations, or ap- or third periods.
plies an illegal hold.
Referee's Position. The "bottom" man (de-
8. A terminates the match, and all points
fall
fensive wrestler) assumes a stationary position on
scored up to that point are disregarded. his hands and knees facing the referee and keeping
both knees on the mat at the rear starting line. The
heels of both hands must be on the mat in front of
SUGGESTED LEARNING SEQUENCE the forward starting line (Figure 27-2). The wrestler
on top being in legal control of his opponent is said to
A. Nature and purpose of wrestling have "a position of advantage" while the wrestler on
B. Conditioning aspects. Plan drills and exercises the bottom being legally controlled by his opponent
relating to wrestling movements. is said to be in "a position of disadvantage."
C. Basic wrestling aspects
1. Wrestling area
2. Equipment
3. Safety
4. Sportsmanship and courtesy
D. Rules
E. Skills and techniques. Any teaching sequence
may be followed, but skills should be taught in
combination whenever possible.
1. Escapes and reversals

a. Referee's position
b. Sit out and turn in
c. Outside switch
d. Sit out and turn out
e. Stand-up with inside leg
2. Breakdowns and rides
a. Near arm, tight waist, into double wrist
ride
b. Head lever and tight waist
c. Near ankle and cross face
d. Far ankle and near waist
3. Pinning combinations
a. Half nelson
b. Arm bar and half nelson
c. Cross face cradle

d. Near side cradle

4. Stance and Drop-step
a.Square stance
b.Lead foot
5. Takedowns
a. Double-leg
b. Single-leg
c. Fireman's roll
F. Strategies. Offensive as well as defensive wres-
tling concepts should be introduced as early as
possible so that skills can be practiced during the
wrestling match.
G. Wrestling matches

SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES

Starting I Restarting Positions

At some time during a match the contestants

may go off the mat with one contestant in a position FIGURE 27-2 The referee's position, right and left views.
396 WRESTLING

Optional Starting Position. The top man

positions himself on either side or to the rear of his
opponent supporting all his weight on both feet, one
<

knee, or both knees) and places his hands on his op-

ponent's back with thumbs touching (Figure 27-3 >.

On signal from the referee, both wrestlers begin.

The bottom man's objective is to execute a reversal
and gain a position of advantage. The top man's ob-
jective is to turn the opponent over and hold his
shoulders to the mat for the time required to secure a
fall. The systematic procedure for attaining this ob-

jective is to break his opponent down and then work

for a fall.

ESCAPES AND REVERSALS

There are numerous moves available to the wrestler

in the bottom position enabling him to escape from
or reverse an opponent. To facilitate these move-
ments the wrestler must possess an astute sense of
balance, timing, explosiveness, and deception. It is
particularly important to maintain a good base of
support, and to prevent getting one's arms or legs
"tied up." The wrestler who masters these skills will
have a distinct advantage over his opponents.

Sit Out and Turn In (Figure 27-4)

Learning Cues

1. Bottom man assumes referee's position.

2. Wrestler steps up with outside leg and grasps
wrist of opponent's far arm.
3. Sit through with inside leg and maintain grasp
of arm.
4. Pivot on inside shoulder and hip to face oppo-
nent.
5. Bring free arm upwards to prevent opponent
from following.
6. Grasp opponent around waist with free arm and
go behind.

Outside Switch (Figure 27-5)

1. Assume bottom man referee's position.
2. Bring inside arm across body to release grip of
opponent.
FIGURE 27-3 Optional starting position, front and 3. Shift weight to inside hand and outside foot
side views. while lifting knee of outside foot off mat.
4. Pivot on outside foot and sit through bringing
The "top" man (offensive wrestler) assumes a po- inside leg towards side of outside foot.
sition on one or both knees to the side of his oppo- 5. Throw outside arm over outside arm of opponent
nent. The near arm placed loosely around the
is and place into crotch of opponent, swinging wide
defensive wrestler's waist, and the palm of the other to apply pressure against opponent's shoulder.
hand is placed on the back of the near elbow. The 6. Pull opponent forward while pivoting on hip
chin and neck are placed on the midline of the oppo- that is closer to opponent, thereby coming to a
nent's back. top man position.
 WRESTLING 397

' '

*v
IB

#Tc» • *5% - ^^r^

^^P'

FIGURE 27-4 Sit out and turn in.

»TI

w Jar :
lU-

^^H J^!%>- ..-:,

W^^^7 /
E^7

FIGURE 27-5 Outside switch.

Sit Out and Turn Out (Figure 27-6)

1. Bottom man assumes referee's position. 4. Arch your back while pivoting on outside
2. Wrestler steps up with outside leg. shoulder and hip.
3. Sit through with inside leg. 5. Face opponent.
 398 WRESTLING

FIGURE 27-6 Sit out and turn out.

fc i

f
^ m
^% a
*W*k-
¥
iL ^^fl

J^B ** 1 'i

FIGURE 27-7 Stand-up with inside leg.

 WRESTLING 399

Stand-up with Inside Leg (Figure 27-7) A ride

is a method for maintaining the opponent
in aprone position by utilizing various holds and le-
1. Assume bottom man referee's position with
verage points.
partner on top.
2. On signal, thrust weight upward and backward
into opponent while stepping up with inside leg. Near Arm, Tight Waist Breakdown and Double
3. Grasp opponent's outside arm at wrist with your Wrist Ride (Figure 27-8)
outside hand, and come to a standing position
and push opponent's hand to side.
1. Assume a top man referee's position.
2. At the whistle, tighten waist control and break
4. Pivot away until facing opponent.
down opponent's near arm at elbow, pulling in
towards waist.
Practice Suggestions 3. Shift weight forward and against opponent's
hips to facilitate breakdown to prone position.
1. Without partner, assume bottom man referee's 4. Maintain weight on top of opponent and grasp
position. At reduced speed execute step-by-step
wrist of opponent's near arm with both hands
progression of the sit out and turn in, outside
(double wrist ride) to maintain control.
switch, side roll reversal, and stand-up.
2. Same as #1; on signal execute the escape, a re-
versal, or stand-up at normal speed. Head Lever and Tight Waist Breakdown (Figure
3. Assume referee's position, with partner assum- 27-9)
ing passive role. Execute the escape, a reversal,
1. Assume referee's position with partner.
or stand-up at reduced speed.
2. On signal, slide hand on elbow to wrist, and
4. Same as #3, except partner offers resistance. tighten waist control.
Execute on signal the escape, a reversal, or 3. Place head in opponent's near armpit and drive
stand-up at normal speed. forward, pulling arm backward and to side.
4. Shift weight forward and drive opponent to-
wards removed base of support to prone position.
BREAKDOWNS AND RIDES
Near Ankle and Cross Face Breakdown (Figure
Breakdowns are maneuvers pinning an oppo-
for
27-10)
nent. To secure a fall, the wrestler must be able to
break down his opponent and maintain control to 1. Assume referee's position.
prevent a reversal. Realizing that the opponent has 2. On signal,remove hand from waist and grasp
four bases of support, the wrestler must take away opponent's near ankle. With near arm execute
one of these bases in order to initiate a breakdown. cross face by reaching across opponent's face and
By breaking the opponent down to a prone position, grasping far arm above the elbow.
the wrestler destroys his opponent's base of support 3. Lift ankle and break down far arm, driving
and eliminates his likelihood of escape, thereby weight forward and towards removed base of
making a fall possible. support, to prone position.

FIGURE 27-8 Near arm, tight waist breakdown into double wrist ride.
 400 WRESTLING

FIGURE 27-9 Head lever and tight waist breakdown.

^r t

1
y
l '

J
^-

I I

1
^^v L^^V^^^,
I

FIGURE 27-10
1

Near ankle and cross face breakdown.

^
Far Ankle and Near Waist Breakdown (Figure 2. Same as #1, but execute breakdown at normal
27-11) speed.
3. Same as #1, except partner offers resistance; ex-
1. Assume referee's position.
ecute breakdown at normal speed.
2. On signal, reach with far arm to opponent's far
ankle and grasp.
3. Place near arm around waist of opponent, lift far Counters to Breakdowns
ankle.
4. Drive weight perpendicular to opponent towards Near Arm, Tight Waist. On whistle, defen-
removed base of support to prone position. sive wrestler moves near arm towards far arm and
"posts." Far hand grasps opponent's hand around
Practice Suggestions waist and wrestler sits out.

1. With partner, assume referee's position, partner Head Lever, Tight Waist. Defensive wrestler
in passive role. Execute breakdown in step-by- turns near arm inward with palm up. Drop elbow to
step progression at reduced speed. mat while pivoting inward to free arm.
 WRESTLING 401

FIGURE 27-11 Far ankle and near waist breakdown.

Near Ankle, Cross Face. Defensive wrestler Half Nelson (Figure 27-12)
straightens leg to free from grasp. With free hand
1. Assume a prone position with double wrist ride.
reach up and grasp arm of opponent at waist and
2. Wrestler crosses over to other side of opponent,
pull arm off, releasing grip.
but maintaining double wrist ride.
Far Ankle, Near Waist. Defensive wrestler 3. Slide near hand under opponent's near arm,
straightens leg or reaches back with far hand to place wrist on opponent's head, and move to po-
grasp opponent's hand. Then post the foot he con- sition perpendicular to opponent.
trols and push hips into him until grasp is released. 4. Pry opponent's arm upward sliding arm around
head and turning under.
5. Drive forward, turning opponent to his back and
lifting his head. Maintain wrist lock and prone
PINNING COMBINATIONS position.

Once the opponent has been broken down to a prone

position the wrestler's objective is to secure a fall in
Practice Suggestions
order to win the match outright. Various pinning
combinations are utilized to position the opponent 1. Assume prone position with partner in double
on his back to facilitate the fall. wrist lock. Execute step-by-step progression of
402 WRESTLING

FIGURE 27-12 Half nelson.

 WRESTLING 403

pinning combination at reduced speed with 2. Grasp opponent's far leg behind knee.
partner maintaining passive role. 3. Drive head of opponent towards his knee by
2. Same as #1, but execute pinning combination at walking around the head towards far knee and
normal speed. lock hands.
3. Same as #1, except partner offers resistance; ex- 4. Wrestler turns opponent towards him onto oppo-
ecute pinning combination at normal speed. nent's back.
5. With far leg, lock opponent's free leg. Slide near
leg under opponent's hips.
Arm Bar and Half Nelson (Figure 27-1 3)

1. Assume prone position in head lever ride or dou-

Near Side Cradle (Figure 27-1 5)
ble wrist ride.
2. With near arm, slide under opponent's near arm 1. Assume referee position.
until hand is on shoulder in perpendicular posi- 2. Wrestler moves near arm on elbow to a position
tion. over the opponent's head, with the elbow joint
3. Cross over to other side of opponent, while main- resting on the back of the neck.
taining arm bar, to perpendicular position from 3. Other hand moves from waist to around oppo-
opponent. nent's near leg at knee joint.
4. Slide free hand under opponent's near arm to a 4. Lock the hands in front of the opponent's chest,
half nelson. and force him downwards and leg upwards.
5. Drive weight forward, prying arm upwards and 5. Wrestler brings right leg up and sits through
turning opponent onto his back. onto hip, thereby turning opponent onto his
back.
6. Once opponent is on back, wrestler continues
Cross Face Cradle (Figure 27-1 4)
pivoting until on top of opponent, and then re-
1. Assume prone position with a cross face on oppo- turns to a prone position perpendicular to oppo-
nent. nent.

FIGURE 27-13 Arm bar and half nelson.

pp^r
^ * .. ,r ;#;
w • *te v

<
404 WRESTLING

FIGURE 27-14 Cross face cradle.

 WRESTLING 405

Practice Suggestions

1. With partner maintaining a passive role, as-

sume a referee's position. Execute the pinning
combinations in step-by-step progression at re-
duced speed.
2. Same as #1, but execute pinning combination at
normal speed.
3. Same as #1, except partner offers resistance: ex-
ecute pinning combination at normal speed.

Counters to Pinning Combinations

Half Nelson. Defensive wrestler locks arm of
offensive wrestler above elbow. Drive elbow to the
mat and throw near leg high and across top wres-
tler'sbody into a pinning situation.
Half Nelson and Arm Bar. Defensive wres-
tler turns body away from opponent and keeps head
high. Straighten far arm to counter arm bar. Pull
hand off neck to counter half nelson.
Cross Face Cradle. Defensive wrestler locks
his legs and then straightens legs while turning to a
prone position to break grip of opponent.
Near Cradle. Defensive wrestler brings free
leg forwardand plants near arm firmly on mat. Sit
through hand while throwing head back into oppo-
nent's armpit to break grip.

THE STANCE AND THE DROP-STEP

The stance may vary according to the individual

preference of the wrestler. Two basic stances are uti-
lized: the square stance and the lead-foot (stagger)
stance. It is important in the stance to use a sliding
step rather than a crossover step in execution of
movement from side to side.

Square Stance (Figure 27-1 6A)

1. Feet are shoulder width apart and parallel.
2. Knees and hips are flexed.
3. Head held in an upright position, the back
straight at a slight angle from the waist.
4. Elbows close to the sides, hands in front, with
palms facing the mat.
5. Weight on the balls of the feet, and equally dis-
tributed.

Lead-foot (Stagger) Stance (Figure 27-1 6B)

1. One foot slightly forward of the other foot,
shoulder width apart.
2. Knees and hips flexed.
3. Head and back in same position as in square
stance.

FIGURE 27-15 Near side cradle.

406 WRESTLING

FIGURE 27-16 (A) Square stance, (B) lead-foot stance.

4. Hands in front with elbows close to body, palms

facing downward.
5. Weight on the balls of the feet, and equally dis-
tributed.

Practice Suggestions -Stances

1 Place class in evenly spaced lines. Assume a

square or lead-foot stance. On the signal, move
them to the right, left, forward, or backward.

Drop-step (Figure 27-1 7)

In order for a wrestler to be effective on his feet
and to gain control over an opponent he must be able
to penetrate the defense of the opposing wrestler.
Penetration allows the wrestler to lift an opponent
off his base of support, thereby neutralizing his bal-
ance and power. The drop-step is an effective maneu-
ver used to penetrate the opponent's defense.

1. Using a lead foot, step and stretch as deep and

as far as possible.
2. Lower chest down near knee of front leg.
3. Move back foot up behind front foot.
4. Head in upright position, back straight over
front knee.
5. Weight over front foot. FIGURE 27-17 Drop-step
 6. Elbows next to body, hands in front, palms
pointing downward.

Practice Suggestions

1. Align wrestlers in line, shoulder to shoulder, all

facing the opposite side of the mat. On signal,
wrestlers lead with one foot and steps into drop-
step pattern. Trail leg follows and stomps mat,
then proceeds to step through with that leg.
Continue drill across entire length of the mat.
Do 8 to 10 repetitions.
2. Facing a partner standing 6 feet away, begin
drop-step pattern and penetrate into partner,
chest against partner's thighs. Straighten back
and lift partner off mat; still on your knees,
carry him four or five steps.

TAKEDOWNS
The takedown is a maneuver used by a wrestler in a
neutral position to take his opponent to the mat and
gain control. Takedowns are frequently used in wres-
tling offense, and good wrestlers are very proficient
at this skill. The takedown consists of three compo-
nents: the set-up, penetration, and the follow-
through.

Double-Leg Takedown (Figure 27-1 8)

1. Drop-step towards opponent, penetrating as

deep as possible.

^^A.

FIGURE 27-18 Double-leg takedown.

<^j W^^i^ 4
408 WRESTLING

Single-Leg Takedown (Figure 27-19)

1 From wrestling stance, perform drop-step, step-

ping to side of opponent.
2. Place head to inside of hip, shoulder against leg,
arms locked around leg.
3. Lift leg of opponent and come to a standing posi-
tion,head against inside of opponent's thigh.
4. Exert force downward and away from opponent's
one base of support, causing opponent to fall to
mat.
5. Move to a position of control.

Practice Suggestions

1. With partner in passive wrestler role, execute

double-leg and single-leg takedown maneuvers
in step-by-step progression at reduced speed.
2. Same set-up, execute double-leg or single-leg
FIGURE 27-19 Single-leg takedown. takedown at normal speed.
3. Same set up, execute series of feints prior to per-
forming the double-leg or single-leg takedown.
Partner offers resistance.

2. Place chest against opponent's thighs, head to

Fireman's Roll Takedown (Figure 27-20)
outside of legs against the hip.
3. Wrap arms around thighs and lock hands. 1. Assume collar-bicep tie-up position with
4. Lift opponent and turn towards side opposite of partner.
head; return opponent to mat on his side. 2. Execute drop-step into partner, lead leg between
5. Move to a position of control. partner's legs, knee of trail leg on mat.
 WRESTLING 409

FIGURE 27-20 Fireman's roll takedown.

3. Duck head under arm of partner, cradling neck Practice Suggestions

into armpit.
4. Maintain grasp of bicep, place other hand 1. With partner, place hand on collar of partner,
around near leg, and lift off mat. with other hand grasping bicep on opposite side.
5. Pivot onto outside hip and side, carrying partner Maintain a side stance and move about using
over your shoulders. hands to maneuver partner from side to side and
6. Turn partner to his back and maintain a chest- forward and backward as set-up prior to take-
to-chest, perpendicular position. down.
470 WRESTLING

2. From bicep-collar tie-up, execute fireman's roll 4. Keep the nails short and the hair clean and at
to point of lift, at reduced speed, then at normal appropriate length. Do not wear jewelry of any
speed. kind or other objects that might injure you or
3. Same set-up, execute entire fireman's roll at re- your opponent.
duced speed, then at normal speed. Partner 5. Be sure there is adequate room for the workout;
offers resistance. more injuries occur as a result of rolling onto or
falling over other pairs than from wrestling with
an opponent.
Counters to Takedowns
6. Be sure the surrounding areas are properly pad-
One another wrestler is
effective defense against ded and that no physical hazards exist in the fa-
by utilization of the hands to ward off attempts at cilities or equipment.
control. As another maneuver, once the opponent 7. Be sure you are properly conditioned before be-
penetrates the hands the wrestler must sprawl on ginning to compete.
top of the opponent whereby the hips are dropped 8. Warm up properly. The neck muscles especially,
and the legs are thrown back. This reduces the effec- should be exercised prior to wrestling, as they
tiveness of the opponent's penetration. A third line of are ordinarily little used.
defense calls for the wrestler to maintain a square 9. Do not compete in an obvious mismatch. This
position to the opponent, and execution of a cross applies both to size and ability.
face or quarter nelson will enhance this maneuver. 10. Remember the basic rule: Anything that endan-
gers life or limb is illegal in amateur wrestling.
11. Roll when you fall, learn which maneuvers are
STRATEGIES likely to be most hazardous, and, insofar as pos-
sible know when to resist the opponent's pres-
1. Warm up thoroughly prior to the beginning of sure and when not to.
your match. 12. Be sure all injuries are promptly and properly
2. Sound knowledge of fundamentals, top physical treated.
condition, and a strong desire to win are the in- 13. Keep mat and clothing as clean as possible.
gredients necessary for success in wrestling.
3. Learn to wrestle in series; that is, if one move
does not work, try another immediately, or if it PLAYING COURTESIES
does work, follow-through to the pin.
4. Be aggressive. 1. Refrain from engaging in excessively rough play
5. Make the opponent wrestle your style of wres- as it may cause injuries and ill feelings.
tling. 2. Refrain from questioning the referee's decisions.
6. Explosive moves are more effective than slower 3. Don't swear or throw equipment.
ones. Learn not to rely on strength when it can 4. Always shake the opponent's hand at the conclu-
be avoided, or else you will tire yourself unneces- sion of the match regardless of the outcome.
sarily. 5. Encourage other team members to do as well as
7. Learn up your maneuvers. Your chances
to set they can during their matches.
of making them work are many times better
when you surprise your opponent.
8. Move in the direction in which your opponent MODIFICATIONS FOR SPECIAL POPULATIONS
has the least support.
9. The best time to gain an advantage is just as
Orthopedically Impaired
your opponent relaxes or is slightly off-balance
from countering another move. 1. Students using wheelchairs might arm wrestle.
10. Stay off your back. 2. Mobility limited students might engage in some
form of Tug-of-War.
Mentally Impaired
SAFETY
Minimal modifications would be needed.
1. A physical examination prior to the wrestling
Sensory Impaired
season is imperative.
2. Do not participate when you have infections or 1. Try blindfolding the sighted students in class
injuries. Wait until they are cleared by a compe- and start in the referee's position.
tent physician. 2. Minimal modifications would be needed for the
3. Use protective equipment as needed, such as blind, visually impaired, and/or deaf and hard of
headgear and kneepads. hearing.

TERMINOLOGY
Advantage position A wrestler being in legal control of
his opponent is said to have "a position of advantage."
Bottom position A four-point stance assumed at the start
of a period or when the referee signals a restart.
sition of disadvantage.
Breakdown A maneuver in which the wrestler in the po-
sition of advantage forces the opponent flat to the
mat.
Bridge Supporting one's weight on the feet and head,
with the back arched, thus keeping the shoulders
away from the mat.
Control One wrestler is positioned in such a way that his
opponent is immobilized or restrained.
Counter A block or a movement that prevents the execu-
tion of a maneuver by the opponent.
Cradle A pin hold executed by pulling the opponent's
head and leg together and holding his shoulders to the
mat.
Cross face A maneuver used either as a counter or as an
offensivebreakdown by reaching across the side of the
opponent's face and grasping his opposite arm just
above the elbow.
Disadvantage position A wrestler being legally con-
trolled by his opponent is said to be in "a position of
disadvantage."
Double-leg takedown A takedown performed by gaining
control of both of the opponent's legs.
Escape Coming from a position of disadvantage to a neu-
tral position.
Fall Holding both of the opponent's shoulders to the mat
simultaneously for one or two seconds. Same as a pin.
This terminates a match.
Half nelson A means of turning the opponent to his back
by prying an arm upward, using his head as a ful-
crum.
Head lever A means of breaking the opponent to the mat
by exerting pressure with the head on his arm at the
armpit, at the same time pulling backward on the cor-
responding wrist.
Near fall A position in which the offensive wrestler main-
tains his opponent in a controlled pinning situation.
Neutral position Both wrestlers face each other on their
feet or knees with neither maintaining control.
Posting The act of placing a hand firmly on the mat and
using it as a base of support for the body.
Potentially dangerous holds Holds that may cause injury
when used legally.
Optional starting position A starting position that may be
used for the opening of the second or third periods and
for all restarts not from a neutral position.
Referee's position A starting position whereby the wres-
tlers assume a top man and bottom man position as
directed by the referee.
Reversal A means of scoring by moving from a position of
disadvantage to a position of advantage.
WRESTLING 411
Ride A method used to maintain "a position of advan-
tage" by utilizing various holds and leverage points.
Set-up A maneuver whereby a wrestler tries to gain an
advantage by feinting, pushing, pulling, or making
noises to distract an opponent.
A po- Single-leg takedown A maneuver used by an attacking
wrestler to gain control of one of opponent's legs.
Sit-out A maneuver from a position of disadvantage (bot-
tom man) for the purpose of either escaping or revers-
ing. The wrestler sits, throwing his legs in front of
him, and turns quickly.
Stalemate An interlocking position in which neither
wrestler can improve his situation.
Stalling An action or inaction whereby a wrestler does
not make an honest attempt to wrestle aggressively or
stay in the circle.
Stance Positioning the legs and feet in various positions
while standing to enhance mobility or stability.
Stand-up An escape executed by standing up from a bot-
tom man position.
Suplay takedown whereby the wrestler picks up
Illegal
his opponent around the waist and falls backward in
an attempt to put the opponent's shoulders to the mat.
Switch A reversal executed by bottom man by applying
leverage near the opponent's shoulder and sitting out
to side.
Takedown A maneuver for taking the opponent down to
the mat and attaining control over him.
Top position Wrestler is above and behind the bottom
wrestler, with one arm encircling the waist and an-
other placed on the elbow of the near arm. A position
of advantage.
Unnecessary roughness A technical violation during a
match. Opponent is awarded 1 point.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Dotson, B.; Evans, S.; and Freeman, F. Concepts in Wres-
tling: The Idea Book. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press,
1984.
Cham-
Dziedzic, S. The United States Wrestling Syllabus.
paign, IL: Leisure Press, 1983.
Hellickson, Russ and Baggot, Andrew. An Instructional
Guide Amateur Wrestling. New York: The Putman
to
Publishing Company, 1987.
Hopke, S.L. and Kidder, W. Elementary and Junior High
School Wrestling. Cranbury, NJ: A.S. Barnes and Co.,
Inc., 1977.
Jarman, Tom and Hanley, Reid. Wrestling for Beginners.
Chicago: Contemporary Books, Inc., 1983.
Johnston, J.K.: Dalgewicz, C; and White, D. Wrestling:
Skills and Strategies for the Athlete and Coach. New
York: Hawthorn Books, Inc., 1979.
Keith, Art. Successful Wrestling. Champaign, IL: Leisure
Press, 1990.
Martell, W. Teaching Kids to Wrestle. Champaign, IL: Lei-
sure Press, 1984.
 APPENDIX A
Sources of Rules

The following national organizations, athletic associations, and com- National Field Archery Association
panies publish rules and guides on various sport activities Some of the R.R. Box 514, Redlands. CA 92373
national organizations have regional and state affiliates where rules can American Archery Council
be obtained. For further information, check the telephone directory for the 23 E Jackson Blvd., Chicago. IL 60604
nearest office in your area. (Indoor Target)

Special Olympics International

1350 New York Ave. NW, Suite 500. Washington. DC 20005
NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Badminton
Amateur Athletic Union of the United States (AAU)
(See National Organizations— NAGWS of AAHPERD)
3400 West 86th St
United States Badminton Association
P.O. Box 68207
Indianapolis, IN 46268
501 W. Sixth St.. Papillion, NE 68046
(USBA has modification of rules for special populations)
National Association for Girls and Women in Sport (NAGWS)
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education. Recreation Basketball
and Dance (AAHPERD)
See National Organizations— AAU. NCAA. NAGWS. NFS
1900 Association Drive
Amateur Basketball Association of the United States of
Reston, VA 22091
America
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
1750 East Boulder St.. Colorado Springs. CO 80909
U.S. Hwy 50 and Nail Ave.
Federation Internationale de Basketball Amateur
Box 1906
19 Rugendasstrasse, 800 Munich 71. West Germany
Shawnee Mission, KS 66222
National Wheelchair Basketball Association
National Federation of State and High School Athletic
Associations (NFS)
C/O Dr. Stan Labanowich
110 Seaton Building, University of Kentucky
7 South Dearborn St.
Lexington. KY 40506
Chicago, IL 60603

Bicycling
OTHER ORGANIZATIONS, ASSOCIATIONS, AND Federation International Amateur de Cyclisme

COMPANIES Via Dei Campi Sportivi 48 00197

Rome, Italy

Angling Special Olympics International Sports Director

American Casting Education Foundation Dan McCarthy, Director of Cycling
P.O. Box 51, Nashville, TN 37202 237 Alpine Ave.. Boulder, CO 80302
Federation of Fly Fishers United States Cycling Federation
P.O. Box 1088, West Yellowstone, MT 59758 1750 Boulder St., Colorado Springs, CO 80909
National Association of Handicapped Outdoor Sportsmen, Inc.
R.R. 6, Box 25, Centralia, IL 62801
Bowling
See National Organizations— NAGWS of AAHPERD
Archery American Bowling Congress and Women's International
National Archery Association of the United States Bowling Congress
1750 East Boulder St., Colorado Springs, CO 80909-5778 5301 South 76th St., Greendale, Wl 53129

412
 1

SOURCES OF RULES 413

American Wheelchair Bowling Association, Inc. United States Gymnastics Federation

Daryl L. Pfsiter, Executive Secretary 201 S. Capitol Ave., Suite 300, Indianapolis. IN 46225
N54 W15858 Larkspur Ln., Menomonee Falls, Wl 53051
American Blind Bowling Association Handball and Racquetball
C/O Ron Beverly (National Secretary /Treasurer) See National Organizations — AAU
77 Bame Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14215 American Amateur Racquetball Association & National
Wheelchair Racquetball Association
Cross-Country Skiing
815 North Weber, Suite 203, Colorado Springs, CO 80903
Federation Internationale de Ski
Canadian Racquetball Association
Worbstrasse 210, 3073 Gumligen, Berne, Switzerland
#13-1381 Pleasant Lane, Victoria, British Columbia
National Handicapped Sports & Recreation Association Canada, V9B 5J7
(Executive Headquarters)
U.S. Handball Association
4405 East-West Highway, Bethesda, MD 20814
4101 Dempster St., Skokie, IL 60076
United States Ski Association
United States Wheelchair Racquet Sports Association
1750 East Boulder St., Colorado Springs, CO 80909
Chip Parmelly

Fencing 1941 Viento Verano Dr., Diamond Bar, CA 91765

See National Organizations— NAGWS of AAHPERD
Horseshoes
Amateur Fencer's League of America
National Horseshoe Pitchers Association of America
601 Curtis St., Albany, CA 94706
9725 Palm St., Bellf lower, CA 90706
Federation Internationale d'Escrime
32 Rue de la Boetie, 75008 Paris, France
Orienteering
Stoke Mandeville Games Federation
International
Orienteering Services
Mr. Theo van Leeuwen, Chairman, Wheelchair Fencing
Box 1604, Binghamton, NY 13901
Draadzegge 14, 2318 zm Leiden, Netherlands
United States Orienteering Federation
Ludwig Guttman Sports Centre for the Disabled-Stoke
P.O. Box 1444, Forest Park, GA 30051
Mandeville
Harvey Rd., Aylesbury
Pickle-Ball
Bucks, HP21 8PP, United Kingdom
Pickle-Ball, Inc.
United States Fencing Association
801 N.W. 48th St., Seattle, WA 98107
1750 East Boulder St., Colorado Springs, CO 80909

Field Hockey Racquetball

See National Organizations— NAGWS of AAHPERD, NFS, See Handball
NCAA
United States Field Hockey Association Soccer
1750 East Boulder St., Colorado Springs, CO 80909-5773 See National Organizations— NCAA, NAGWS of AAHPERD,
NFS
Football — Touch and Flag Amputee Soccer International
See National Organizations— NAGWS of AAHPERD P.O. Box 7161, Seattle, WA 98177
Athletic Institute Federation Internationale de Football Association
200 Castlewood Dr., North Palm Beach, FL 33408-5697 Case Postale 85, 8030 Zurich, Switzerland

Rules for the Blister Bowl Wheelchair Football Tournament are Soccer Association for Youth
available by writing to: P.O. Box 921, Cincinnati, OH 45201
Santa Barbara Recreation Department Special Olympics International Sports Director
P.O. Box Drawer P-P, Santa Barbara, CA 93102 Mr. Dwain Hartzler, Director of Soccer, Goshen College,
Goshen, IN 46526
Golf
United States Soccer Federation
National Amputee Golf Association
CO 80909
1750 East Boulder St., Colorado,
Bob Wilson, Executive Director
P.O. Box 1228, Amherst, NH 03031
Softball
U.S. Golf Association
See National Organizations— NAGWS of AAHPERD
Liberty Congress Road, Far Hills, NJ 07931
Amateur Softball Association

Gymnastics 2801 N.E. 50th St., Oklahoma City, OK 731 1

See National Organizations— A AU, NCAA and NAGWS of Federation Internationale de Softball
AAHPERD 2801 N.E. 50th St., Oklahoma City, OK 731 1

Federation International de Gymnastique NationalBeep Baseball Association

Juraweg 12, 3250 Lyss, Switzerland Dr.Ed Bradley, President
9623 Spencer Highway, LaPorte, TX 77571
Special Olympics International Sports Director
Ms. Kate Faber-Staff Liaison (Gymnastics) National Wheelchair Softball Association

Director of Gymnastics Jon Speake, Commissioner

69 Bretan Rd., Brick Township, NJ 08723 P.O. Box 22478, Minneapolis, MN 55422
414 APPENDIX A

Speedball United States Tennis Association

See National Organizations- -NAGWS of AAHPERD 1212 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10036
USTA Center for Educational & Recreational Tennis
729 Alexander Rd., Princeton, NJ 08540
Swimming
See National Organizations— AAU, NCAA, NAGWS of
AAHPERD Track and Field
United Stated Diving, Inc. See National Organizations— AAU, NCAA. NFS, NAGWS of
Pan American Plaza, 201 South Capital Ave. AAHPERD
Indianapolis, IN 46225
The Athletic Congress of the USA
Federation Internationale de Natation Amateur P.O. Box 120, Indianapolis. IN 46202
208-3540 West 41st Ave, Vancouver, British Columbia
International Amateur Athletic Federation
Canada V6N 3E6
3 Hans Crescent, Knightsbridge
United States Swimming, Inc. London. SW1 0LW. Great Britain
1750 East Boulder St., Colorado Springs, CO 80909 Special Olympics Sports Director for Athletics
United States Swimming, Adapted Swimming Committee Special Olympics International
Libby Anderson, Chairperson 1350 New York Ave.. NW Suite 500, Washington, DC. 20005
4660 Natalie Dr., San Diego, CA 92115

Table Tennis Volleyball

American Wheelchair Table Tennis Association See National Organizations— NFS, NAGWS of AAHPERD
Ed Morrison, President Federation Internationale de Volleyball
166 Haase Ave., Paramus, NJ 07652 7 Place Chauderon, 1003 Lausanne. Switzerland

International Table Tennis Federation Ontario Wheelchair Sports Association

53 London Road, St. Leonards-on-the-sea 333 River Road. Otawa. Ontario
Sussex Tn37 6AY, Great Britain Canada K1L8H9
United States Table Tennis Association Special Olympics International Sports Director
1750 East Boulder St., Colorado Springs. CO 80909 Ms Ruth Nelson. Director of Volleyball
7743 Bles Ave "B" Baton Rouge. LA 70810
Team Handball United States Volleyball Association

See National Organizations— NAGWS of AAHPERD 1750 East Boulder St, Colorado Springs. CO 80909

Federation Internationale de Handball

Lange Gasse 10, 4052 Bale, Switzerland Weight Lifting and Training
Special Olympics International Sports Director See National Organizations — AAU
Mary Phil Dwight, Team Handball Development Coordinator
National Strength and Conditioning Association
Northern Michigan University, Meyland Hall
PO Box 81410, Lincoln, NE 68501
Marquette, Ml 49855
United States Weighthftmg Federation
United States Team Handball Federation
Colorado Springs, CO 80910
1750 East Boulder St., Colorado Springs, CO 80909

Tennis Wrestling
See National Organizations— NAGWS of AAHPERD See National Organizations — NFS, NCAA
Federation Internationale de Tennis Federation Internationale de Lutte Amateur
Church Road, Wimbledon, London SW19 5TF Great Britain AV. Ruchonnet 3, CH-1003
National Foundation of Wheelchair Tennis Lausanne. Switzerland
Brad Parks, Executive Director United States Association for Blind Athletes
940 Calle Amancer, Suite B, San Clemente, CA 92672 Dr. James Mastro. Director for Blind Wrestling

Special Olympics International Sports Director Braille Sports Foundation

Randall S. Hester, Director of Tennis 7525 North St.. St. Louis Park. MN 55426
United States Tennis Association U.S.A. Wrestling
707 Alexander Rd., Princeton, NJ 08512 225 S. Academy, Colorado Springs, CO 80910
 APPENDIX B
How to Conduct Tournaments
TYPES OF TOURNAMENT DRAWINGS
Various kinds of bracket arrangements may be used
in conducting tournament competition. The type of
elimination is usually determined by several factors:
(1) type of activity, (2) number of entries, (3) amount
of playing time, (4) playing space and equipment, (5)
age of participants, (6) officials available.
With a large number of entries it is sometimes
desirable to run a combination tournament, for ex-
—
ample, a double elimination single elimination
tournament. The winners of the double elimination
brackets compete in a single elimination tournament
to determine the ultimate champion.
Number of Byes. The first step before making
a drawing for the bracket arrangement is to deter-
mine the number of entries.
When the number of competitors is 4, 8, 16, 32,
64,128, or any higher power of 2, they shall meet in
pairs. When the number of competitors is not a
power of 2, there shall be byes in the first round. For
example: if there are 13 entries, a bracket of 16 with
three byes is required. The purpose of having byes is
to bring into the second round a number of competi-
tors that is a power of 2. To determine the number of
byes, subtract the number of competitors from the
next higher power of 2; to determine the number of
competitors in the first round, subtract the number
of byes from the total number of competitors. If the
byes are an even number, half of them shall be
placed at the top of the draw and half at the bottom
of the draw; if they are an uneven number, there
should be one more bye at the bottom than the top.
The byes at the top half shall be the names drawn
first. The next names drawn shall be placed in the
first round. The byes in the bottom half are drawn
last.
Seeding the Draw. It is a common practice to
select the best teams or individuals and place them
in the bracket so that they will not meet in the early
rounds of the play. Two or more entries may be
—
seeded usually the four best are selected in a six-
teen name
bracket and eight in a thirty-two name
bracket. The seeded entrants are usually placed in
the 1st, 5th, 9th, 13th, etc., bracket positions. The
No. 1 and 4 seeded teams are generally placed in the
first and fifth positions of the top bracket and the
No. 2 and 3 seeded teams in the ninth and thirteenth
positions of the lower bracket, or No. 1 and 3 in the
upper with No. 2 and 4 seeded teams in the lower
half.
Single Elimination Tournament
If the contestants are of equal strength or their
strength is not known, have a drawing for positions
in the bracket. If the strength is known, seed the
best teams so they will not meet in the early rounds.
Place the seeded entries in the 1st, 5th, 9th, 13th,
etc., positions.
must occur in the first round of play.
All byes
The number of games played is always one less
total
than the number of entries. To determine the
number of games that the winner would have to
play, count the powers of two in the number of en-
tries; e.g., with 32 entries the winner plays 5 games.
Double Elimination Tournament
Two defeats eliminate an entry in this tourna-
ment. The losers in the first rounds move into the
losers' bracket. The teams which advance farthest in
either bracket meet each other in the final game.
Should the winner of the losers' bracket defeat the
winner of the first-round bracket, the teams are re-
matched for the championship when one team will
have lost two games.
Byes are distributed in the first round of the
475
476 APPENDIX B

the number of entries is 8 or 16. In No. I bracket ar-

rangement, only the losers in the first round of play
compete for consolation title. In No. II, the losers in
all the rounds except the final of the upper bracket
compete for 3rd and 4th place.
In both tournaments every team plays at least
two games before being eliminated.

Eight teams - 7 games

FIRST ROUND BRACKET - 16 ENTRIES

Sixteen teams - 15 games A

Thirty-two teams - 31 games
}
1

3 seeded

6 seeded
>
TK >

Chompii
6, 12, 24 leoms 5, 10, 20, 40 teoms

TYPE II - CONSOLATION BRACKET

B

original elimination brackets as in a single elimina-

tion tournament, but in the first round of the losers'
brackets byes must be arranged to avoid giving a
second bye to an entry that has already had a bye.
Also, at all stages of the losers' bracket, avoid pairing \__o_)
entries that have met in earlier rounds, if possible.

FIRST ROUND
8 Teoms
TYPE I
- CONSOLATION BRACKET
A
Minimum games B

H
14
1
Gl Maximum gomes D
IS

C
G7 F
F

G2 H
D
Gil J
E J
Champion - A L
G3 4nS ploce
F
Runner-up - B
N
G G8 N _j
P

H G4

G14 Round Robin Tournament

In this simple but efficient method, each team
plays every other team once with the final standing
G5 determined on a percentage basis.
G G9
'

The following formula will apply to any number

F
G12 of teams, whether the total is odd or even. With an
L_
Go
1 odd number of teams there is the same number of
c G10 G15
> rounds; with an even number of teams there is one
Formula for total number of games, with N representing Num- less number of games than teams.
ber of entries 2(N-1 = Minimum Games to Play; 2(N-1 + =
Maximum Games
)

to Play.
) 1
For Odd Number
of Teams. Assign a
number each team and then use only the figures
to
in drawing the schedule. For example, in a league
This type tournament is seldom used unless the with 7 teams start with 1, putting down figures in
entries are eight or less in number. If more than the following order:
eight entries, double the process and the two win-
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ners meet for the title.
4-6 3-5 2-4 1-3 7-2
6-1 5-7
5-2 4-1 3-7 2-6 1-5 7-4 6-3
Consolation Tournament 4-3 3-2 2-1 1-7 7-6 6-5 5-4

There are two types of general use: the consola- Note that the figures go down on the right side
tion type tournament is generally used only when and up on the left. No. 7 draws a bye in the first
 1 7
9
1

HOW TO CONDUCT TOURNAMENTS 417

round and the others play as indicated. With an odd TABLE A-1. Tournament Schedule Calculator
number of teams, all numbers revolve and the last
number each time draws a bye. Si', CLE DOUBLE ROUND
For Even Number of Teams. With an even ELIM. ELIM. ROBIN
number of teams the plan is the same except the po-
Teams Byes No. No. No.
sition of No. 1remains stationary, and the other
Entered Top Bottom Games Games Games
numbers revolve about it until the original combina-
tion is reached. For example, with 8 teams: 4 3 6 or 7 6

1-2 1-8 1-7 1-6 1-5 1-4 1-3 5 1 2 4 8 or 9 10

8-3 7-2 6-8 5-7 4-6 3-5 2-4 6 1 1 5 1 or 1 15

3-7 8-5 7 1 6 12 or 13 21
7-4 6-3 5-2 4-8 2-6
6-5 5-4 4-3 3-2 2-8 8-7 7-6 8 7 14 or 15 28
9 3 4 8 1 6 or 1 36
In essence there are two things to remember: 1 1
10 3 3 9 1 8 or 1 45
with an even number of teams, No. 1 remains sta- 11 2 3 10 20 or 21 55
tionary and the other numbers revolve; (2) with an 12 2 2 11 22 or 23 66
odd number of teams, all numbers revolve and the 13 1 2 12 24 or 25 73
last number each time draws a bye. 14 1 1 13 26 or 27 91
15 1 14 28 or 29 105
Ladder Tournament 16 15 30 or 31
17 7 8 16 32 or 33
In a ladder tournament the competition is ar- 18 7 7 17 34 or 35
ranged by challenge, and the tournament requires a 19 6 7 18 36 or 37
minimum of supervision. A player may challenge ei- 20 6 6 19 38 or 39
ther of the two players above him in the ladder. If 21 5 6 20 40 or 41
the challenger wins, he exchanges places with the 22 5 5 21 42 or 43
loser in the ladder. All challenges must be accepted 23 4 5 22 44 or 45
and played at an agreed time. Players draw for posi- 24 4 4 23 46 or 47
tions in the ladder; a starting and closing date for the 25 3 4 24 48 or 49
tournament must be announced. Each player carries 26 3 3 25 50 or 51
his handicap against all players, in case handicaps 27 2 3 26 52 or 53
are used. 28 2 2 27 54 or 55
29 1 2 28 56 or 57
30 1 1 29 58 or 59
TABLE TENNIS
31 1 30 60 or 61
32 31 62 or 63

Diagrams reproduced courtesy of Wilson Sporting Goods Co.

Pyramid Tournament
The pyramid tournament is similar to the ladder
tournament except the design allows for more partic-
ipating and challenging. After the original drawings
are made, any player may challenge any other player
in the same horizontal row. If he wins he may then
challenge anyone in the row above —
the two change
places in the pyramid.
 APPENDIX C
Athletic Field and Court Diagrams

Singles

Doubles

BADMINTON COURT
Meosure to outside edge of boundary lines

Men's net height 8' serving area

Women's net height 7'6"
Measure to inside edge of boundary lines

VOLLEYBALL COURT

478
 ATHLETIC FIELD AND COURT DIAGRAMS 419

BASEBALL DIAMOND
Grass line

95' radius

LEGEND
Base lines, batter's box, catcher's box,
foul line, pitcher's plate, coach's box

O Next batter's box

Base lines

Grass lines

Next batter's box \

©
5' circle
37' 37' ©
5" circle

LAYOUT AT HOME BASE

LAYOUT AT PITCHER'S PLATE
3'
I

x
/vSlope Gradual slope \
^^fTevell 18"!
/
/

-\ 'ffiLJ.
Grass line '
H^=\ '

\
l<
P 9'0" radius/

,
18" y
60'6

Maximum size 225' x 360'

Minimum iiz* 195' x 330'

SOCCER FIELD
420 APPENDIX C

BASKETBALL COURT
RECTANGULAR BACKBOARD 2 INCHES WIDE BY |^_ 28 FEET
IS 72 INCHES WIDE 3 FEET DEEP I

FAN SHAPED BACKBOARD IF COURT IS LESS THAN 74 FEET LONG IT SHOULD BE DIVIDED BY TWO LINES,
IS 54 INCHES WIDE EACH PARALLEL TO AND 40 FEET FROM THE FARTHER END LINE

DIVISION 2 INCHES WIDE BY

LINE 8 INCHES DEEP 5°
6 FEET RADIUS 6 FEET RADIUS «tLLl

\OUTSIDE OUTSIDE
2 INCH LIN o ,

—o
o

2 INCH LINE 2 FEET RADIUS

INSIDE

THE COLOR OF THE LANE MARKS AND NEUTRAL ZONE MARKS

OPTIMUM LENGTH 84' OR 94' INSIDE SHALL CONTRAST WITH THE COLOR OF THE BOUNDING LINES
ALL LINES SHALL BE 2 INCHES WIDE THE MIDCOURT MARKS SHALL BE THE SAME COLOR AS THE
(NEUTRAL ZONES EXCLUDED) BOUNDING LINES I

Lett end shows MINIMUM of 3 FEET SEMICIRCLE BROKEN LINES Right end shows small
large backboard Preferably 1 feel of unobstructed For the broken line semicircle in the backboard for high school
for college games.
space ou1s jov if impossible to provide free throw lane, it is recommended and Y M C A games
3 feet, anarrow broken 1' line should there be 8 marks 16 inches long and
be marked inside the court parallel 7 spaces 14 inches long
with and 3 feet inside the boundary

BASKETBALL BACKBOARDS

I9"V

3- J*
'»
18V /
/
/ and goal
Modified backboard

Floor line

9'10'V >j< rio'V >

 ATHLETIC FIELD AND COURT DIAGRAMS 421

\
16*-1ff
&
OR
20' GOAL UNE
MORE SIDE UNE

t PYLO ML
Iff

I
GOAL POST DETAIL
TEAM AREA
(DEPTH OF BOX
OPTIONAL)

SIDE LINE

FLAG RECEPTACLE AT
INSIDE CORNER

GOAL UNE
N
CORNER MARKER OPTIONAL
FLAG (1 8" X 18") OR PYLON )/

LIMIT LINE
END LINE
(12- AT 24' INTERVALS)

END ZONE DETAIL

FOOTBALL FIELD

LAWN TENNIS COURT

Singles and doubles

1" x 3' stakes extend 14" above ground and incline 3" toward each other
Stakes 30' apart for women jnd boys under 16 years.

HORSESHOES
422 APPENDIX C

FIELD HOCKEY Goal Line 60 yards

Tl6yds
Z
5 yds

Shooting Circle
25 yard line
25 yds

(He
50 yds I
Center line
n
\ *

h: 5 yds

25 yard line
25 yds - + +-

Four-wall handball court.

40' x 20' x 20

HANDBALL
 »

ATHLETIC FIELD AND COURT DIAGRAMS 423

SOFTBALL FIELD

COACHER
<§> /^ COACHER'S
BOX

BENCH

BATTER'S ON DECK CIRCLE BATTER'S ON DECK CIRCLE

HOME PLATE DETAIL HOME PLATE AREA DETAIL

17' 6" 17" 6"
8'/4'

8Vz 4
Distances

Fast Pitch Slow Pitch

Bases
Male 60 feet 65 feet
24'
^>
Female 60 feet 60 feet Je-
Pitchinq
PITCHER'S PLATE
DETAIL I

— —
I

Male 46 feet 46 feet -*• *H

Female 40 feet 46 feet BATTER'S ON DECK 3' |
2'5" i
3'
CIRCLE DETAIL
Fences 10'
Male 225 feet 275 feet 8' 5'

Female 200 feet 250 feet

radius
 APPENDIX D
Sources of Audio-Visual Materials

Audio-visual materials should be considered as an integral part of Audio Film Center

the instructional program, and not as entertainment or something to be 2138 E. 7th St.

used on rainy days. Audio-visual materials are supplementary aids to en- Mt. Vernon. NY 10550
hance the teaching process. The following sources have physical activity
Avis Films
films, video tapes, and other materials
2408 WS. Olive Avenue
Burbank. CA 91506
AAHPERD BFA Educational Media/Phoenix Films
1900 Association Dr.
468 Park Avenue South
Reston, VA 22091
New York. NY 10016
Academy Entertainment
Boston University Film Library
1 Pine Haven Shore Road
765 Commonwealth Ave.
Shelburne, VT 05482
Boston, MA 02215
Advantage Video
Brandon Films, Inc.
1246 NW 122
200 West 57th St.
Portland, OR 97229
New York, NY 10019
Aetna Life & Casualty
Public Relations Resources, DA23 — D. Harper Bureau of Audio-Visual Instruction

Hartford, CT 06156 University of Wisconsin

P.O. Box 2093
AIMS Media (Attn: W. Sherman) Madison, Wl 53701
6901 Woodley Ave.
Van Nuys.CA 91406 Carousel Films, Inc.

1501 Broadway
Ambrose Video Publishing Company New York. NY 10036
381 Park Avenue S. Suite 1601
New York, NY 10016 Castle Films Division
1 1 45 Park Avenue
American Film Registry
New York, NY 10036
831 South Wabash Avenue
Chicago, IL 60605 Champions on Film and Video
P.O. Box 1941
Anargyros Film Library
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106
1813 Fairborn Avenue
Los Angeles, CA 90025
Chicago Tribune Motion Picture Bureau
Association Films 435 N. Michigan Ave.

561 Hill Grove Ave.,

Chicago, IL 6061
La Grange, IL 60525
Chronicle Video
Athletic Institute 2855 Mitchell Drive

200 Castlewood Dr. Suite 225

North Palm Beach, FL 33408 Walnut Creek, CA 94598

424
 1

SOURCES OF AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS 425

Churchill Films Library ofCongress Catalog

662 North Robertson Boulevard Motion Piclures and Filmstrips
Los Angeles, CA 90069 Building 159 Navy Yard Annex
Washington, D.C. 20541
Coronet/MTI Films/Video, Inc.

1 08 Wilmot Road
Maryland Public Television
Deerfield, IL 60015 Program Circulation Manager
Educational Activities, Inc.
Owlings Mill, MD 21117
P.O. Box 392 McGraw-Hill Film
Freeport, NY 1 1 520 1221 Avenue of Americas

Educational Screen and A-V Guide

New York, NY 10036
434 S. Wabash Ave. Modern Talking Picture Service
Chicago, IL 60605 5000 Park Street, North
St. Petersburg, FL 33709
Educators Guide to Free HPER Materials
Educators Progress Service National Foundation of Wheelchair Tennis
Randolph, Wl 53956 1541 Red Hill Road, Suite A
Tustin, CA 92680
Encyclopedia Britannica Educational Corporation
425 North Michigan Avenue Official Sports Films, Inc.

Chicago, IL 6061 400 Leslie St.,

Elgin, IL 60120
Film Associates
1 1559 Santa Monica Blvd. Oklahoma State University
Los Angeles, CA 90025 Audio Visual Center
Stillwater, OK 74078
Films, Inc.
5547 N. Ravenswood Avenue Peak Performance, Inc.

Chicago, IL 60640-1199 P.O.Box 2829

Duxbury, MA 02332
Film Trends
8060 Melrose Avenue Penifield Productions, Ltd.
Los Angeles, CA 90046 35 Springfield St.
Agawam, MA 01001
Golden Door Productions
Tenth & Parker Pennsyvlania State University
Berkeley, CA 94710 Audio Visual Services
Special Services Building
Health Alert
University Park, PA 16802
1 23 4th St. NW
Charlottesville, VA 22901 Rarig Film Service, Inc.

834 Industry Drive

Indiana University
Seattle, WA 98188
Audio Visual Center
Bloomington, IN 47405 Rolex Watch U.S.A., Inc.
665 5th Avenue
International Film Bureau, Inc. New York, NY 10022
332 S. Michigan Ave.
Chicago, IL 60604 School Film Service
549 West 123rd St.
Johnson-Nyquist Productions, Inc. New York, NY 10027
23854 Via Fabricante, D-1
Scope Productions
Mission Viejo, CA 92691
P.O. Box 206
Journal Films Ahwahnee, CA 93601
909 W. Diversey Parkway
Society for Visual Education, Inc.
Chicago, IL 60614
1345 Diversey Parkway
Karol Media Chicago, IL 60614
22 Riverview Drive
Sportlite Films
Wayne, NJ 07470-3191
230 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60601
Kent State University
Audio Visual Center Sports Films and Talents
Kent, OH 44244 12755 State Hwy. 55

Lee Tennis Products

Minneapolis,MN 55441
999 Grove St. Sports Investors, Inc.
P.O. Box 1909 6 East 39th St.
Charlottesville, VA 22903 New York, NY 10016
426 APPENDIX D

Sports World Cinema University of Colorado

P.O. Box 17022 Academic Media Services
Salt Lake City, UT84117 Box 379
Boulder, CO 80309
SyberVision Systems, Inc.

6066 Civic Terrace Avenue Kansas

University of
Newark, CA 94560 Media Services
Lawrence, KS 66045
Teaching Film Custodians, Inc.

25 West 43rd Street US Olympic Committee

New York, NY 10036 Department of Education Services
1 750 East Boulder Street
Trans World International
Colorado Springs, CO 80909-5760
The Pier House
Strand on the Green
London W4 3NN
England
 APPENDIX E
Selected national Health Objectives
for the Year 2000
Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion
and Disease Prevention Objectives, a report released
in 1991 by the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, outlines national strategies for im-
proving the health and well-being of the nation over
the next decade. Many of the objectives presented
1
in this report can be accomplished or reinforced
through sound programs in health and physical edu-
cation. Outlined below are specific objectives in a se-
lected number of categories. For each topic we have
grouped the objectives pertaining to (1) health
status, (2) risk reduction, and (3) services and pro-
tection.
A. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND FITNESS
Health Status Objectives
1. Reduce coronary heart disease deaths to no more
than 100 per 100,000 people.
2. Reduce overweight to a prevalence of no more
than 20 percent among people aged 20 and older
and no more than 15 percent among adolescents
aged 12 through 19.
Risk Reduction Objectives
1. Increase to at least 30 percent the proportion of
people aged 6 and older who engage regularly,
preferably daily, in light to moderate physical
activity for at least 30 minutes per day.
2. Increase to at least 20 percent the proportion of
people aged 18 and older and to at least 75 per-
cent the proportion of children and adolescents
1
Healthy People 2000, U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services (Pub. No. (PHS) 91-50213), 1991.
aged 6 through 17 who engage in vigorous physi-
promotes the development and
cal activity that
maintenance of cardiorespiratory fitness 3 or
more days per week for 20 or more minutes per
occasion.
Reduce to no more that 15 percent the propor-
tion of people aged 6 and older who engage in no
leisure-time physical activity.
Increase to at least 40 percent the proportion of
people aged 6 and older who regularly perform
physical activities that enhance and maintain
muscular strength, muscular endurance, and
flexibility.
Increase to at least 50 percent the proportion of
overweight people aged 12 and older who have
adopted sound dietary practices combined with
regular physical activity to attain an appro-
priate body weight.
Services and Protection Objectives
1. Increase to at least 50 percent the proportion of
children and adolescents in 1st through 12th
grade who participate in daily school physical
education.
2. Increase to at least 50 percent the proportion of
school physical education class time that stu-
dents spend being physically active, preferably
engaged in lifetime physical activities.
Note: Lifetime activities are defined as those that
may be readily carried into adulthood because
they generally require only one or two per-
formers. Examples include swimming, bicy-
cling, jogging, and racquet sports. Also
counted as lifetime activities are vigorous so-
cial activities such as dancing. Competitive
group sports and activities typically played
only by young children, such as group games,
are excluded.
427
428 APPENDIX E

3. Increase community availability and accessibil- food choices, consistent with the Dietary Guide-
ity of physical activity and fitness facilities as lines for Americans.
follows: 4. Increase to at least 90 percent the proportion of
school lunch and breakfast services and child
Facility 2000 Target
care food services with menus that are consis-
Hiking, biking, and 1 per 10,000 people tent with the nutrition principles in the Dietary
fitness trail miles
Guidelines for Americans.
Public swimming pools 1 per 25,000 people
5. Increase to at least 75 percent the proportion of
Acres of parks and 4 per 1,000 people the nation's schools that provide nutrition edu-
recreation open (250 people cation from preschool through 12th grade, pref-
space per managed erably as part of quality school health education.
acre

Increase to at least 50 percent the proportion of

primary care providers who routinely assess and
council their patients regarding the frequency,
C.
duration, type, and intensity of each patient's
physical activity practices.
B. NUTRITION
Health Status Objectives
1. Reduce coronary heart disease deaths to no more
than 100 per 100,000 people.
2. Reduce overweight to a prevalence of no more
than 20 percent among people aged 20 and older
and no more than 15 percent among adolescents
aged 12 through 19.
Risk Reduction Objectives
1. Reduce dietary fat intake to an average of 30
percent of calories or less and average saturated
fat intake to less than 10 percent of calories
among people aged 2 and older.
2. Increase complex carbohydrate and fiber-con-
taining foods in the diets of adults to 5 or more
daily servings for vegetables (including le-
gumes) and fruits, and to 6 or more daily serv-
ings for grain products.
3. Increase to at least 50 percent the proportion of
overweight people aged 12 and older who have
adopted sound dietary practices combined with
regular physical activity to attain proper body
weight.
Services and Protection Objectives
1. Achieve useful and informative nutrition label-
ing for virtually all processed foods and at least
40 percent of fresh meats, poultry, fish, fruits,
vegetables, baked goods, and ready-to-carry-
away foods.
2. Increase to at least 5,000 brand items the availa-
bility of processed food products that are re-
duced in fat and saturated fat.
3. Increase to at least 90 percent the proportion of
restaurants and institutional food service opera-
tions that offer identifiable, low-fat, low-calorie
TOBACCO
Health Status Objectives
1 Reduce coronary heart disease deaths to no more
than 100 per 100,000 people.
Slow the rise in lung cancer deaths to achieve a
rate of no more than 42 per 100,000 people.
3. Reduce cigarette smoking to a prevalence of no
more than 15 percent among people aged 20 and
older.
Reduce the initiation of cigarette smoking by
children and youth so that no more than 15 per-
cent have become regular cigarette smokers by
age 20.
Increase to at least 50 percent the proportion of
cigarette smokers aged 18 and older who
stopped smoking cigarettes for at least one day
during the preceding year.
6 Reduce to no more than 20 percent the propor-
tion of children aged 6 and younger who are reg-
ularly exposed to tobacco smoke at home.
7. Reduce smokeless tobacco use by males aged 12
through 24 to a prevalence of no more than 4
percent.
Services and Protection Objectives
Establish tobacco-free environments and in-
clude tobacco use prevention in the curricula of
all elementary, middle, and secondary schools,
preferably as part of quality school health educa-
tion.
Increase to at least 75 percent the proportion of
worksites with a formal smoking policy that pro-
hibits or severely restricts smoking at the work-
place.
3. Enact and enforce in all 50 States laws prohibit-
ing the sale and distribution of tobacco products
to youth younger than age 19.
Increase to 50 the number of States with plans
to reduce tobacco use, especially among youth.
5. Eliminate or severely restrict all forms of to-
bacco product advertising and promotion to
which youth younger than age 18 are likely to be
exposed.
 SELECTED NATIONAL HEALTH OBJECTIVES FOR THE YEAR 2000 429

D. ALCOHOL AND OTHER DRUGS Behavior 2000 Target

Heavy use of alcohol 70^
Health Status Objectives Regular use of marijuana 90''
Reduce death caused by alcohol-related motor Trying cocaine once or twice 80%
vehicle crashes to no more than 8.5 per 100,000 Note: Heavy drinking is defined as having 5 or more
people. drinks once or twice each weekend.
Reduce drug-related deaths to no more than 3
per 100,000 people. Reduce to no more than 3 percent the proportion
of male high school seniors who use anabolic
steroids.

Risk Reduction Objectives

Increase by at least 1 year the average age of
first use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana by
adolescents aged 12 through 17. (Baseline: age
11.6 for cigarettes, age 13.1 for alcohol, and age
13.4 for marijuana in 1988)
Reduce the proportion of young people who have
used alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine in the past
month, as follows:
Substance/Age 2000 Target
Services and Protection Objectives
1. Provide to children in all school districts and pri-
vate schools primary and secondary school edu-
cation programs on alcohol and other drugs,
preferably as part of quality school health educa-
tion.
2. Extend to 50 States legal blood alcohol concen-
tration tolerance levels of .04 percent for motor
vehicle drivers aged 21 and older and .00 percent
for those younger than age 21.

Alcohol/aged 12-17 12.6%

Alcohol/aged 18-20 29.0%
E. MENTAL HEALTH AND MENTAL DISORDERS
Marijuana/aged 12-17 3.2%
Marijuana /aged 18-25 7.8% Health Status Objectives
Cocaine/aged 12-17 0.6%
1. Reduce suicides to no more than 10.5 per
Cocaine/aged 18-25 2.3%
100,000 people.
Note: The targets of this objective are consistent 2. Reduce by 15 percent the incidence of injurious
with the goals established by the Office of Na- suicide attempts among adolescents aged 14
tional Drug Control Policy, Executive Office of through 17.
the President.
3. Reduce to less than 10 percent the prevalence of
mental disorders among children and adoles-
3. Reduce the proportion of high school seniors and cents.
college students engaging in recent occasions of than 35 percent the proportion of
4. Reduce to less
heavy drinking of alcoholic beverages to no more people aged 18 and older who experienced ad-
than 28 percent of high school seniors and 32 verse health effects from stress within the past
percent of college students. year.
4. Reduce alcohol consumption by people aged 14
and older to an annual average of no more than 2
gallons of ethanol per person. Risk Reduction Objectives
5. Increase the proportion of high school seniors 1. Increase to at least 30 percent the proportion of
who perceive social disapproval associated with people aged 18 and older with severe, persistent
the heavy use of alcohol, occasional use of mari- mental disorders who use community support
juana, and experimentation with cocaine, as fol- programs.
lows: 2. Increase to at least 20 percent the proportion of
Behavior 2000 Target people aged 18 and older who seek help in coping
with personal and emotional problems.
Heavy use of alcohol 70%
3. Decrease to no more than 5 percent the propor-
Occasional use of marijuana 85%
tion of people aged 18 and older who report ex-
Trying cocaine once or twice 95%
periencing significant levels of stress who do not
Note: Heavy drinking is defined as having 5 or more take steps to reduce or control their stress.
drinks once or twice each weekend.

6. Increase the proportion of high school seniors

F. EDUCATIONAL AND COMMUNITY-BASED
who associate risk or physical or psychological PROGRAMS
harm with the heavy use of alcohol, regular use Health Status Objective
of marijuana, and experimentation with cocaine,
as follows: 1. Increase years of healthy life to at least 65 years.
430 APPENDIX E

Risk Reduction Objective Risk Reduction Objectives

1. Increase the high school graduation rate to at 1. Increase to at least 50 percent the proportion of
least 90 percent, thereby reducing risks for mul- people with high blood pressure whose blood
tiple problem behaviors and poor mental and pressure is under control.
physical health.
Note: People with high blood pressure have blood
pressure equal to or greater than 140 Hg mm
systolic and/or 90 mm
Hg diastolic and/or
Services and Protection Objectives take antihypertensive medication. Blood pres-
sure control is denned as maintaining a blood
Increase to at least 75 percent the proportion of pressure less than 140 mm
Hg systolic and 90
the Nation's elementary and secondary schools mm Hg NHANES II and the
diastolic. In
provide planned and sequential kindergarten Seven States Study, control of hypertension
through 12th grade quality school health educa- did not include nonpharmacologic treatment.
tion. In NHANES those controlling their high
III,

Increase to at least 50 percent the proportion of
postsecondary institutions with institutionwide
health promotion programs for students, fac-
ulty, and staff.
Increase to at least 75 percent the proportion of
people aged 10 and older who have discussed
issues related to nutrition, physical activity, sex-
ual behavior, tobacco, alcohol, other drugs, or
safety with family members on at least one occa-
sion during the preceeding month.
Establish community health promotion pro-
grams that separately or together address at
least three of the Health People 2000 priorities
and reach at least 40 percent of each State's pop-
ulation.
G. HEART DISEASE AND STROKE
Health Status Objectives
1. Reduce coronary heart disease deaths to no more
than 100 per 100,000 people.
blood pressure without medication (e.g.
through weight loss, low sodium diets, or re-
striction of alcohol) will be included.
2. Increase to at least 90 percent the proportion of
people with high blood pressure who are taking
action to help control their high blood pressure.
3. Reduce the mean serum cholesterol level among
adults to no more than 200 mg/dL.
Reduce dietary fat intake to an average of 30
percent of calories or less and average saturated
fat intake to less than 10 percent of calories
among people aged 2 and older.
5. Reduce overweight to a prevalence of no more
than 20 percent among people aged 20 and older
and no more than 15 percent among adolescents
aged 12 through 19.
6. Increase to at least 30 percent the proportion of
people aged 6 and older who engage regularly,
preferably daily, in light to moderate physical
activity for at least 30 minutes per day.
7. Reduce cigarette smoking to a prevalence of no
more than 15 percent among people aged 20 and
older.

a
-

Boston Public Library

H
° BoSU
2SwS«^ ubrarV ' CHARLESTOWN
BRANCH L
CH BR
GV361
.P49
1992
The Datee DueTard
Due Card ii

dicates the date on oi

this book should be r
Library.
Please do not remove cards from this
pocket.
 . . . .

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

,1

REP 3 9999 02258 990 5

METRIC AND ENGLISH DISTANCE EQUIVALENTS

TRACK EVENTS
1 Meter = 39.37 inches = 3.2808 feet = 1 .0936 yard.
1 kilometer = 1,000 meters = 0.621370 mile.

METERS MILES YARDS FEET INCHES YARDS METERS

1. .. ...0... 1. .. 0.. . 3.37 40 36.58
2. .. .. .0. .. 2. .. 0.. . 6.74 50 45.72
3... ...0... 3. .. 0.. . 10.11 60 54.86
4.. . . .0. .. 4. .. 1.. . 1.48 70 64.01
5... ...0... 5. .. 1. . 4.85 75 68.58
10... ...0... 10. ..2.. . 9.70 100 91.44
20... ...0... 21. ..2.. . 7.40 110 100.58
30... ...0... . 32. ..2.. . 5.10 120 109.73
40... . . .0. .. 43. . . 2. . . 2.80 220 201.17
50... ...0... 54. ..2.. . .50 300 274.32
60... ...0... 65 1 10.20 440 402.34
70... ...0... 76... .... 7.90 600 548.64
80... ...0... 87... .... 5.60 880 804.67
90... ...0... 98... . 3.30 1000 914.40
100... ...0... 109... . .... 1.00 1320 1207.01
110. .. ...0... 120... 10.70
MILES METERS
200... ..0...
. 218 2 2.00
300. .. ...0... 328... 3.00 1 1,609.3
400. . ...0... 437 1 4.00 2 3,218.7
500... ...0. .. 546 2 5.00 3 4,828.0
1000.. ...0... 1093 1 10.00 4 6,437.4
1500. . ...0... 1640. 1. 3.00 5 8,046.7
2000... ...1... 427. 0. 8.00 6 9,656.1
2500... ...1... 974. 0. 1.00 7 11,265.4
3000... ..1. ..
. 1520. 2. 6.00 8 12,874.8
5000... ...3... 188. 0. 2.00 9 14,484.1
10000 6. 376. 0. 4.00 10 16,093.5
26 Miles— 385 Yards = 42 Kilometers— 195.1 Meters

FIELD EVENTS
FEET METERS FEET METERS FEET METERS FEET METERS
1 0.305 6 1.829 20 6.096 70 21.336
2 610 7 2.134 30 9.144 80 24.384
3 914 8 2.438 40 12.192 90 27.432
4 1.219 9 2.743 50 15.240 100 30.480
t «.

5 1.524 10 3.048 60 18.288 200 60.960

 SEATON / SCHMOTTLACH /McMANAMA
CLAYTON / LEIBEE / MESSERSMITH

PHYSICAL
EDTJCATDN
HANDBOOK EIGHTH EDITION

Thoroughly revised and updated with the most current information in the field,
this authoritative reference provides the background necessary to guide readers
through a variety of physical education activities.

The authors present skills and techniques for beginning and intermediate levels
as well as advanced skills in selected activity areas. Each activity is presented in

a simple, step-by-step method with helpful hints for easy learning.

In addition, informational introductory chapters constitute the backbone of

physical education skills. Chapter 1 discusses the historical, sociological,
mechanical and psychological aspects of physical education. Chapter 2 then
explores the benefits of physical fitness, fitness principles, appropriate clothing,
nutrition, and fitness workout suggestions.

Eighth Edition Highlights:

• NEW—adds three new activities: swimming and diving, speedball, and pickle-
ball
• NEW—updates photographs and diagrams throughout
• NEW—includes Modifications for Special Populations which offer tips for
modifying skills or activities for people with special needs
• Includes playing strategies, safety considerations, and terminology associated
with each activity
• Outlines specific ways to modify activities and rules in order to conduct
various activities on a coeducational basis

What's more, appendices furnish a multitude of valuable reference materials

that reveal sources of official rules by type of activity, give specifics on how to
conduct tournaments, show diagrams of athletic fields and playing courts, list

sources of visual aids available in the physical activity arena, and include
National Health Objectives for the year 2000.

ISBN 0-13-bbbTDD-X
90000>
PRENTICE HALL
Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632

9 780136"669005