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ScienceDirect
Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 176 – 185

Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment, EENVIRO 2016, 26-28 October 2016,
Bucharest, Romania

Facades integrated solar-thermal collectors – challenges and

solutions
Ion Visaa*, Macedon Moldovana, Mihai Comsita, Mircea Neagoea, Anca Dutaa
a
Transilvania University of Brasov, R&D Centre: Renewable Energy Systems and Recycling, Eroilor 29, Brasov, 500036, Romania

Abstract

The Solar Heating and Cooling Roadmap (2014) set a main focus “on increasing the share of solar thermal energy for the
domestic hot water and space heating demand per building, from about 25% to about 60%” with installed systems on or near the
buildings. The suitable implementation area at building level is limited, and optimally oriented facades have to be considered.
Facades integration adds pre-requisites to the design specifications of the solar thermal collectors, mainly related to the
architectural acceptance and good conversion efficiency. A novel solar-thermal collector was developed to specifically address
the main challenges brought by facades implementation. The collector with trapeze shape (0.67 m2 active area, 69.42 % nominal
efficiency) is used as building block in arrays with various surface areas, shapes and colors, well matching the variety of the
buildings facades. A comparative analysis of the solar-thermal arrays of three trapeze collectors and traditional rectangular
collectors is presented in the paper. Three facades of single- and three of multi-family houses are comparatively analyzed
considering architectural acceptance, functionality, durability (limited tracking) and thermal power output.
© 2017The
© 2017 TheAuthors.
Authors. Published
Published by by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
and Environment
Peer-review 2016.
under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy
and Environment 2016
Keywords: Building integrated solar-thermal systems; solar facade; solar-thermal array; trapeze solar-thermal collector;

* Corresponding authors. Tel.: +4-072-292-9936; fax: +4-026-841-0525.

E-mail address: visaion@unitbv.ro;

1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of the international conference on Sustainable Solutions for Energy and Environment 2016
doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2017.03.1080
 Ion Visa et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 176 – 185 177

1. Introduction

The EU solar-thermal strategy developed by the European Renewable Heating and Cooling Technology Platform
outlines that by 2030 renewable could supply over half of the heat used in Europe, and has specific focus on
buildings (responsible for about 40% of the demand). Consequently, the EU Strategic Energy Technology (SET)
Nomenclature

B beam irradiance
Bn_Max beam irradiance at the minimum acceptable tilt angle on the façade (70⁰)
Bn_Min beam irradiance at the maximum acceptable tilt angle on the façade (110⁰)
Bn_V beam irradiance on the vertical facade (tilt angle: 90⁰)
G global irradiance
P thermal power
Tin inlet temperature of the thermal fluid in the solar-thermal collector
Tout outlet temperature of the thermal fluid in the solar-thermal collector
Ta ambient temperature
Tm inlet and outlet arithmetic mean temperature
'T variation of the thermal fluid temperature from inlet to the outlet of the collector/array
ts solar time
K efficiency
K0 nominal efficiency
F tilt angle

Plan outlines the need to increase the solar fraction of the building technologies, preferentially by installing solar-
thermal systems.
Thus, new, efficient and affordable solutions are urgently needed, to extend the implementation of solar-thermal
systems in/on the buildings. The available suitable implementation area at building level is not very large, therefore
all places optimally oriented to receive a significant amount of solar radiation should be exploited, including
facades.
Key issue is the market competitiveness of these solutions, further mirrored by the need for high conversion
efficiencies, obtained using commercial materials and mature manufacturing technologies for the components and
assembly. Building integration additionally requires architectural and social acceptance, thus solar-thermal collectors
with non-traditional colors and shapes, easy mounting, easy maintenance and dismounting (plug and play). The
solar-thermal technology supporting these new collectors should further insure an accurate control to increase
efficiency (e.g. by decreasing the thermal losses), and supporting the durability by avoiding overheating (thus
limited and controlled tracking can be employed).
For facades integration best suited are the flat plate solar-thermal collectors. The broad majority of this type of
low temperature collectors are large (1.5…2 m2) and of rectangular shape. Alternative solutions are reported as the
trombe solar-thermal walls. Recent reviews outline the challenges in modelling, [1], and the advantages and
disadvantages [2], among which critical maintenance and architectural acceptance.
The solar-thermal arrays to be integrated in active solar-thermal facades differ from a regular assembly of solar-
thermal collectors through specific architectural design prerequisites (colors, shapes), safety in construction, easy
maintenance and efficiency, [3]. Recently, several solutions were reported, as those with internally extruded pin–fin
flow channels, [4] that offers high efficiency but does not approach the overheating issue, or the ACTRESS façade,
[5], based on rectangular solar-thermal collectors
The concept of non-traditionally shaped flat plate solar-thermal collectors for solar-thermal facades or for other
visible parts of the buildings is rather new and was proved as viable through large right triangle shapes, in the
BIONICOL FP7 project, [6]. However, meeting the aesthetic constraints can hardly be done by large solar-thermal
collectors. This is why, Visa et al., [7], proposed lower surface area collectors, with non-traditional shapes, outlining
various architectural integration possibilities offered by the triangle and trapeze geometries. Further on, a trapeze
178 Ion Visa et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 176 – 185

demonstrator, with rather conventional area (0.63 m2) was developed, with a nominal efficiency of 65.7%, [8].
Based on the indoor and outdoor testing results, a prototype (of 0.67 m2) was obtained and is under extended testing.
Spectral-selective coatings (controlled by thickness TSSS or by multiple reflections TISS) variously colored are
largely reported and reviewed in literature [9]. However, most of these are obtained in energy intensive processes
(vacuum based and/or sputtering). Spray-pyrolysis deposited red and green solar-thermal coatings were developed,
[10] and recently, red absorber coatings were obtained by embedding Fe 2O3 pigments in an alumina matrix,
following a green chemistry route - sol-gel synthesis and cold spray deposition.
By reducing the collectors’ area, larger thermal losses can be expected, thus lower efficiencies. However, the
coverage degree of the façades is expected to significantly increase, thus the thermal output, allowing to increase the
share of solar energy in covering at least the domestic hot water (DHW) demand over the year. An analysis is
therefore developed in the paper, comparatively investigating the solar-thermal arrays developed using the trapeze
collectors and traditional, rectangular collectors. As case studies, three facades of single- and three of multi-family
houses are considered and discussed in terms of architectural acceptance, functionality, durability, and thermal
power output.

2. Experimental

Two types of collectors were investigated as candidates for developing solar-thermal facades:
x A commercial flat plate solar-thermal collector (Buderus SKS4.0-s) was considered as reference. The
characteristic curve in Fig. 1 was developed considering the parameters given in the data sheet.
x A trapeze solar-thermal collector, with black absorber coating, developed at prototype stage, with a surface area
of 0.67 m2. The characteristic curve was obtained based on measured data on the solar simulator that has a mix
of UV and VIS light sources, mimicking solar radiation, and allows a maximum intensity of 1000 W/m2. The
global solar radiation is measured using a Pyranometer class A (LSI LASTEM, BSR 153, with a daily
uncertainty of 5%). The inlet and outlet temperatures of the working fluid and the ambient temperature are
measured using calibrated PT100 sensors (accuracy 0.1 K). Radiation and temperature data were recorded each
minute. A ventilation unit is attached to the solar simulator, for wind simulation; the wind speed is measured
using an anemometer (Extech Instruments). The working fluid flow is controlled and measured using a mass
flow sensor. Testing was done in standard conditions according to the ISO 9806:2013 Solar energy – Solar
thermal collectors - Test methods standard, in steady flow conditions, at global irradiance of 875 r 5 W/m2,
surrounding air speed 2m/s, mass flow 0.02kg/(m2 s), using water as thermal fluid with the specific heat 4186
J/(kg ⁰C). The characteristic curve is included in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Characteristic lines of the commercial and trapeze solar-thermal collectors

Based on the characteristic curves, the nominal efficiencies are of 85.11% for the commercial collector and,
respectively 69.42% for the trapeze prototype. The prototype efficiency is very good, considering the rather high
ratio perimeter/active area and considering the manufacturing technology, much lower energy intensive as
comparing to the commercial one, [8].
 Ion Visa et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 176 – 185 179

3. Solar-thermal facades

3.1. Geometry

There are four main different functional positions that can be considered for implementing the trapeze collectors
on a facade, as outlined in Fig. 2, corresponding to four different serpentine arrangements in the casing. Obviously,
their mounting can be done in symmetric or rotated positions, leading to a broad variety of possible geometries.

Fig. 2 Constructive variants for facade mounted trapeze flat plate solar-thermal collector

(a1)

(a3)

(b1) (a2) (b2)

180 Ion Visa et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 176 – 185

(b3)

Fig. 3 Groups of three trapeze collectors for facades mounting with the bases: (a) vertically mounted; (b) horizontally mounted

For functionality reasons, the serpentine tubing for the thermal fluid has to be horizontal, thus the length of the
tubing in each of these four collectors is different. The shortest serpentine tube (thus, the lowest pressure drop)
corresponds to the trapeze with the horizontal bases (9.5 m), while the longer tubes are required for the other
positions (vertical or inclined). Commercial solar thermal collectors can be vertically or horizontally mounted on
any facade, with different tubes geometry for the two alternatives.
As the data show, three trapeze collectors have an equal surface to the commercial collector. Additionally, groups
of three trapeze collectors can be separately mounted (before installing on the façade) and can be further considered
as an entity. Considering the extreme lengths of the serpentine tube for the vertical and horizontal trapeze
geometries, several groups of three were selected, as presented in Fig. 3. Considering a serial flow, the connecting
tubes among the trapeze units can be “hidden” bellow the collector, leaving room only for the air vents.

3.2. Architecture

(a) 3 commercial collectors (b) 12 commercial collectors

(c) 31 trapeze collectors (d) 64 trapeze collectors

(9 groups of 3 and 2 group of 2) (20 groups of 3 and two group of 2)
 Ion Visa et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 176 – 185 181

(e) 21 trapeze collectors (7 groups of 3) (f) 84 trapeze collectors (28 groups of 3 collectors)

Fig. 4. Solar thermal facades with commercial collector in (a) single- and (b) multi-family houses; groups of three trapeze collectors
horizontally mounted on (c) single- and (d) multi-family houses; groups of trapeze collectors mixed mounted on (e) single- and (f) multi-family
houses
For the trapeze units in Fig. 3, solar-thermal facades were designed for two single and two multi-family houses,
Fig. 4c-f. As reference, for the same building architecture, the facades were designed considering the commercial
collector, Fig. 4a and b. The design was chosen with asymmetric features, common for the single-family houses but
raising significant challenges considering the southern façade coverage with rectangle, large collectors, as the
commercial ones. The multi-family house has a highly traditional shape, and the findings can be further multiplied
for blocks of flats with many stories.
The conceptual designs in Fig. 4 point out the much larger facades coverage insured by the trapeze groups, both
for the single- and for the multi-family houses. Additionally, if the trapeze collectors have colored absorber plates
(or glazings), the architectural acceptance is significantly increased.

Fig. 5. Outlet temperature for 2m2 of solar-thermal surface: in one commercial collector and in a group of three trapeze collectors serially
connected

3.3. Functionality

The output temperature of a 2m2 of solar-thermal surface was calculated, for one commercial flat plate collector
and for a group of three trapeze collectors, considering two input temperatures: 20⁰C and 50⁰C.
In calculating the outlet temperature in the group of three trapeze collectors serially connected, it was considered
that there is an efficiency decrease, from one collector to another; the efficiency values corresponding to the actual
inlet/outlet temperatures for each collector in the series are obtained from the equation of the characteristic curve in
Fig. 1; based on these, the average efficiency values in Table 1 are calculated.
A comparative evolution of the outlet temperatures is presented in Fig. 5 and Table 1:
182 Ion Visa et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 176 – 185

Table 1 Temperature and efficiency values in the commercial collector and in a group of three trapeze collectors
K Tin Tout1 =Tin2 Tout2=Tin3 Tout 'T = Tin - Tout Ktrapeze/
'Ttrapeze/
Collector type [%] [°C] [°C] [°C] [°C] [°C] 'Tcommercial Kcommercial

Trapeze 67.31* 20 26.63 33.06 39.29 19.29

0.795 0.791
Commercial 85.11 20 - - 44.27 24.27

Trapeze 47.07* 50 54.79 59.28 63.49 13.49

0.733 0.729
Commercial 64.53 50 - - 68.41 18.41

*) Average value for three trapeze collectors in a group

As expected considering the efficiency values, the outlet temperature from the commercial collector is higher.
However, the 2 m2 area corresponding to one rectangle commercial collector allows a much more limited
geometrical variety, compared to the trapeze groups. Additionally, as the data in Table 1 show, the efficiency ratio
of the trapeze array vs. the commercial collector is slightly lower than the ratio of the driving force in heat
generation ('T, the difference between the outlet and inlet temperatures), regardless the inlet temperature, which is
an asset for the novel array.
The solar-thermal façade is expected to deliver thermal energy in a large extend, thus an increased degree of
coverage is expected to lead to significantly higher thermal energy/power output values. For the six types of facades
in Fig. 4, the thermal power values are included in Table 2:

Table 2 Thermal output power of the solar-thermal facades

Building type Type of Inlet temperature Efficiency No. of No. of groups of 3 Total solar- Thermal
collectors collectors collectors thermal area power
[ͼC] [%]
[m2] [kW]
Single family houses
In Fig. 4a Commercial 20 85.11 3 - 6 12.19
50 64.53 9.25
In Fig. 4c Trapeze 20 67.31* 31 9 + 2 groups of 2 20.77 33.55
50 47.07* 22.71
In Fig. 4e Trapeze 20 67.31* 21 7 14.07 22.63
50 47.07* 15.83
Multi-family houses
In Fig. 4b Commercial 20 85.11 12 - 24 48.77
50 64.53 36.98
In Fig. 4d Trapeze 20 67.31* 64 20 + 2 groups of 2 42.88 69.27
50 47.07* 48.44
In Fig. 4f Trapeze 20 67.31* 84 28 56.28 90.91
50 47.07* 63.58
*) Average value for three trapeze collectors in a group

As the modelling results show, the thermal power output is almost three times higher for the newly designed
facades (according to the degree of coverage/surface area), meeting thus the main functional goal set for these
arrays. Additionally, certain aesthetical features will support urban acceptance, both of professionals (architects) and
of the inhabitants.
 Ion Visa et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 176 – 185 183

3.4. Durability

One important functional feature of the flat-plate solar-thermal collectors is related to overheating, i.e. the
process when the solar to thermal energy conversion is running but the produced heat cannot be longer stored, e.g.
because the water in the boiler reached the maximum threshold temperature (usually set for DHW at 60⁰C), and the
forced circuit of the thermal fluid is stopped. The collector enters in the stagnation regime; overheating (due
stagnation) poses a significant thermal stress on the collector’s components, and can lead to accelerated degradation
of key components as the sealing, the absorber coating and/or the antifreeze thermal fluid. The simplest way of
limiting these effects is covering the collectors; however, this solution is unacceptable for facades. Other solutions
consider the drain back and steam back systems, [11, 12, 13], dumping the excess heat into the atmosphere, or
reversing the circuit during night, for cooling [14]. These solutions can be effectively applied; however, all of them
are activated after the heat was produced, and it is only the exposure duration which is lowered.
A different approach was proposed for increasing the collectors’ durability by avoiding overheating: a tracking
algorithm was modelled, implemented and outdoor tested; it allows controlling the thermal output by forward
tracking
(increasing the output) when needed or by inversed tracking (decreasing the output to avoid overheating), [15]. For
collectors installed on the ground or on terraces, there is no physical limitation on the maximum angular stroke of
the actuators orienting the collectors; however, on facades, the collectors and arrays motions are limited. Motion is
possible around the vertical position (tilt angle 90⁰) and preliminary modelling outlined that a r 20⁰ stroke is highly
efficient.
The data in Fig. 6 were modelled using the clear sky Mellis solar radiation model, for the location of the R&D
Centre Renewable Energy Systems and Recycling, in the Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania. The
geographic coordinates of the implementation site are 45.65°N, 25.59°E, at an altitude of 600 m above the sea level
and the turbidity factor is T r = 3.2, [16, 17]. The location has a continental temperate climatic profile, with cold
winters (lowest temperatures reaching -28°C) and warm summers, with peak temperatures of 32°C.

(a)
184 Ion Visa et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 176 – 185

(c)

(b)

Fig. 6. Available beam radiation in the vertical plane (V), on a plane oriented for increasing the solar energy gain (Max) and on a plane
oriented to decrease the solar energy gain (Min) calculated (a) over one year); (b) on June 15 and (c) sketch of the extreme positions on a façade.

Considering the extreme positions in Fig. 6c, the available direct radiation incident on the module can be
controlled, supporting the thermal energy production (tilt angle of the façade array of 70ͼ) or significantly limiting it
(tilt angle 110ͼ). Obviously, interim irradiance values incident on the collector can be obtained by employing
interim values of the tilt angles.
The data in Fig. 6a show that, considering the vertical position of reference, orienting the solar-thermal collectors
or arrays has a significant effect during the summer months, when actually needed, with the maximum effect in June
(the month of the summer solstice).
An example was modelled for one day in June (June 15) and the results in Fig. 6b allow several observations:
- Vertical mounting significantly reduces the share of available direct radiation; overall, only 17.8% of the
available beam radiation actually reaches the vertically mounted collector/array.
- At tilt angle of 70⁰, the received direct radiation is more than double, with 37.2% of the total direct
radiation that can reach the active solar-thermal surface, allowing the increase of thermal energy produced,
when needed.
- Tilt angle of 110⁰ allows a reduction of the incident beam radiation on the façade at 2.1% from the total
available beam radiation. This corresponds to a large reduction in the thermal output, thus protecting the
collectors/array and increasing durability.
Combined orientation or stepwise tracking can be employed during one day (70ͼ...110ͼ) based on control
systems, part of the solar-thermal automation, or on smart building energy management systems that can be coupled
with weather forecast software/tools.

4. Conclusions

Solar-thermal facades represents a possible paths for fulfilling the energy and sustainability targets set for
buildings. In developing the solar-thermal facades, functionality, efficiency, aesthetics, maintenance, etc. have to be
considered with tailored specifications.
The paper presents novel solar-thermal arrays for facades integration, based on a trapeze-shaped solar-thermal
collector. The various mounting options of the trapeze collector are analyzed correlated with the broad range of
array geometries that can insure a high coverage degree of the façade. By developing the collectors with various
colors of the absorber plates (or glazing), aesthetic features are enhanced, meeting the prerequisites for architectural
acceptance.
A comparative analysis is done considering the solar-thermal facades on single-family houses, when using
commercial collectors and, respectively, groups of three trapeze collectors. The results show that, despite the lower
 Ion Visa et al. / Energy Procedia 112 (2017) 176 – 185 185

conversion efficiency of the trapeze collector (69% trapeze vs. 85.1% commercial), the thermal power obtained on
the façade is almost three folds higher, by increasing the coverage degree. This trend is even more obvious for the
analyzed multi-family houses.
Façade-mounted solar-thermal collectors and arrays can be subject of limited orientation, to increase the thermal
energy production (tilt angle 70⁰) or to protect against overheating, thus increasing their durability (tilt angle 110⁰).
This represents a promising solution in solving overheating, as the effect of orientation was evidenced especially
during the warm months (May – August)

Acknowledgements

We hereby acknowledge the structural founds project PRO-DD (POS-CCE, O.2.2.1., ID 123, SMIS 2637,
contract no. 11/2009) for providing the infrastructure used in this work and the project PNII Cooperation Project,
EST in URBA no. 28/2012 financially supported by the Romanian National Research Council, which supported this
work.

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