Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION: KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS

Module 1: Ethics, and Its Key Concepts

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Introduction

This module is concerned with developing your understanding of Ethics

as one of the key areas under the division of practical philosophy. The
discussion, description and explanation in this module hope to equip you
students with ideas on the importance of ethics and the key concepts related to
the moral experience. Make use of this module to provide you with insights and
ideas to help you understand difficult and pressing experiences that need
proper discernment.

Test Yourself (place your answer on p. 84)

Instruction: Identify whether the following is a moral (M)or non-moral

(MS)standards

1. Thou shall not kill 4. Honor your father and

your mother
2. No trespassing

3. Do not talk when your 5. No over speeding

mouth is full.

Learning Objectives

With the completion of this self-learning module, you should be able to:

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 1. Illustrate knowledge of what ethics is and its importance

2. Recall rules you have to follow and why you need to follow
them

3. Differentiate moral from non-moral standards

4. Recall a moral experience and detect the moral dilemma

present
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thef

5. Define why only human beings are moral

Content

Preparatory Activity

Exercise (place your answer on p. 84)

List down a rule (one each) you find in your home, and in your school
and assess why you need to follow them.

a. Home

b. School

Developmental Activities

A. Ethics: Its Definition And Importance

Have you experience a situation where it requires that you have to

choose on what to do and part of it is to decide which of the choices is right or
wrong? Can you recall an experience where you really felt bad and sad
because you hurt somebody because of your wrong action? Did you ever
wonder why people need to be good and avoid what is evil? Did it ever come

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to your mind why we need to be pleasing in our action?

There are many people who ask why study ethics? Why be moral?
Webster’s dictionary has a number of definitions for moral including: - of or
relating to principles of right and wrong in behavior - conforming to a standard
of right behavior. This is an important question for a course on ethics - is being
moral important to you, why (or why not)? Most people think doing well in life is
associated with being “good”. (philonotes.com)
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For example: do you think a person who gains money dishonestly is a

success? Is a politician who beats his wife and children a success? Is Mother
Theresa a success - she had very few of the things society commonly
associates with doing well. Most people like fairness, justice, truthfulness,
compassion in society. Ethics help give direction to societies and people who
think they cannot flourish without some form of morality. Morality is said to be
breaking down in society today - juvenile crime, drug abuse, alcoholism,
teenage pregnancies, crime rates - all seem to indicate that the moral fabric of
society is breaking down. Moral questions are at the heart of life’s vital issues -
including those affected by the actions above. “Morality is primarily concerned
with the questions of right and wrong, the ability to distinguish between the
two, and the justification of the distinction. (phlionotes.com)

Montemayor (1994) mentions in his introduction on his book Ethics:

The Philosophy of Life that Ethics is the philosophy of life and that it delves into
the deepest whys and wherefore of human existence, men’s actions, problems
and destiny.

He further mentions that to live well and happy, we must know what we
are living for. He says this is taught by Ethics that investigates the meaning
and purpose of human life. He mentions that according to Socrates the
unexamined life is not worth living for man.

Montemayor (1994) also states that Plato one of the greatest

philosophers of all times proclaimed Ethics as the supreme science, the
highest in the hierarchy of human values, as it is Ethics that is concerned with
the attainment of life’s greatest Good and Goal – Happiness.

Definitions of Ethics

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The book of Montemayor (1994) provides the following definitions of Ethics:

1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human

actions.

2. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right and

wrong
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3. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality.

4. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct

5. Ethics is the human conduct from the standpoint of morality.

6. Ethics is the science which lays down the principles of right

living

7. Ethics is the practical science that guides us in our actions

that we may live rightly and well.

8. Ethics is normative and practical science, based on reason,

which studies human conduct and provides norm for its
natural integrity and honesty.

9. According to Socrates, ethics is the investigation of life.

Looking into these definitions we can say that they are similar to each
other. The definitions speak of the field of study of ethics as human conduct;
and of the investigation of such human conduct in terms of its morality. The
important terms that can be seen in them are:

1. Science-systematic study or a system of scientific

conclusions clearly demonstrated, derived from clearly
established principles and duly coordinated

2. Morality – the quality of human acts as right, wrong or

indifferent, moral immoral or amoral.

3. Human acts –acts done with knowledge, freedom and free

will or consent.

Importance Of Ethics

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 Montemayor (1994) proclaims that the importance of the study of ethics
follows immediately from the importance of ethics itself. His idea is manifested
in the following:

1. Ethics means right living and good moral character and it is in good
moral character that man finds his true worth and perfection. All the
great teachers of For thef use of TSU students only
the ages maintain that the supreme purpose of
human living lies not in the acquisition of material good or bodily
pleasures, nor in the attainment of bodily perfections such as health
and strength; nor even in the development of intellectual skills but in the
development of the moral qualities which lift man far above brute
creation.

2. Education is the harmonious development of the whole man-of all

ma’s faculties: the moral, intellectual, and physical powers in
man. Now then highest of man’s power are his reason and will.
Hence, the primary objective of education is the moral
development of the will

B. Rules And Its Importance To Social Beings (lifted from the book of
De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern
Society)

You find rules everywhere. But did you ever ask yourself why you need
to follow them? Try to recall an experience where you followed a rule and
assess what you did. Did you just follow it without asking yourself why you
need to follow it? Did you have any doubt about following it?

Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles

governing conduct within a specific activity or sphere. Rules tell us what is or is
not allowed in a particular context or situation. In many ways, rules serve as a
foundation for any healthy society. Without rules, society would like fall into
anarchy.

Rules benefit social beings in various manners:

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 1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behaviour.
Rules build boundaries that place limits on behaviour. Rules
are usually coupled with means to impose consequences on
those who violate them. One of the reasons people follow
accepted rules is to avoid negative consequences.
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain right and
freedom. RulesForform frameworks for society. Nations are generally
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nations of laws and the governing principles are outlined in what is
called constitution. Because the majority has agreed to follow and
consent to be governed by such a constitution, the freedoms
outlined exist.

3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings. Rules

are needed in order to keep the strong from dominating the weak
that is to prevent exploitation and domination. Without rules,
schemes in which those with the power control the system, would
take over. In effect, rules generate a stable system that provides
justice, in which even the richest and the most powerful have
limitations on what they can do. If they transgress rules such as
laws and ordinances and take advantage of people, there are
consequences both socially and criminally.

4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system. Without

rules regulating business, power would centralize around
monopolies and threaten the strength and competitiveness of the
system. Rules are needed to ensure product safety, employee’s
safety and product quality. Copyright and patents help protect
people’s intellectual property. Rules and regulations also keep the
banking system stable so as to avoid depression and the like.

In short, society could not soundly functions without rules and

regulations. Rules are necessary to protect the greater good. Even the freest
societies ought to have rules in order to avoid exploitations and tyranny while
upholding the common good.

C. Moral Standards versus Non-moral Standards (lifted from the book

of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in
Modern Society)

  Do you know the meaning of standards? Have you been in a situation

where you were chosen because you met the standards or you were
disregarded because you did not meet the standards? But are you aware that
there are different kinds of standards and the kind is dependent on their

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implication or effect on people and situations? Why do you think there is the
need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?

It is important to note that different societies have different moral beliefs

and that our beliefs are deeply influenced by our own culture and context. For
this reason, some values do have moral implications, while others don’t. Let us
consider, for example, the wearing of hijab. For sure, in traditional Muslim
communities, the wearing For of hijab is the most appropriate act that women have
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to do in terms of dressing up. In fact, for some Muslims, showing parts of the
woman’s body, such as the face and legs, is despicable. However, in many
parts of the world, especially in Western societies, most people don’t mind if
women barely cover their bodies. As a matter of fact, the Hollywood canon of
beauty glorifies a sexy and slim body and the wearing of extremely daring
dress. The point here is that people in the West may have pitied the Muslim
women who wear hijab, while some Muslims may find women who dress up
daringly despicable.

Again, this clearly shows that different cultures have different moral
standards. What is a matter of moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste
(hence, non-moral value) in one culture may be a matter of moral significance
in another.

Now, the danger here is that one culture may impose its own cultural
standard on others, which may result in a clash in cultural values and beliefs.
When this happens, as we may already know, violence and crime may ensue,
such as religious violence and ethnic cleansing.

This is where the importance of understanding the difference between

moral standards (that is, of what is a moral issue) and non-moral ones (that is,
of what is a non-moral issue―thus, a matter of taste) comes in. This issue may
be too obvious and insignificant for some people, but understanding the
difference between the two may have far-reaching implications. For one, once
we have distinguished moral standards from non-moral ones, of course,
through the aid of the principles and theories in ethics, we will be able to
identify fundamental ethical values that may guide our actions. Indeed, once
we know that particular values and beliefs are non-moral, we will be able to
avoid running the risk of falling into the pit of cultural reductionism (that is,
taking complex cultural issues as simple and homogenous ones) and the
unnecessary imposition of one’s own cultural standard on others. The point
here is that if such standards are non-moral (that is, a matter of taste), then we
don’t have the right to impose them on others. But if such standards are moral
ones, such as not killing or harming people, then we may have the right to
force others to act accordingly. In this way, we may be able to find a common
moral ground, such as agreeing not to steal, lie, cheat, kill, harm, and deceive
our fellow human beings.

Now, what are moral standards, and how do they differ from non-moral

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ones?

Moral Standards and their Characteristics

Moral standards are norms that individuals or groups have about the
kinds of actions believed to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values
placed on what we believed to be morally good or morally bad. Moral
standards normally promote “the good”, that is, the welfare and well-being of
humans as well as animals and the environment. Moral standards, therefore,
prescribe what humans ought to use
For thef do ofinTSU
terms of rights
students only and obligations.

According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum of combined

norms and values. In other words, norms plus values equal moral standards.
On the one hand, norms are understood as general rules about our actions or
behaviors. For example, we may say “We are always under the obligation to
fulfil our promises” or “It is always believed that killing innocent people is
absolutely wrong”. On the other hand, values are understood as enduring
beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not. For example, we
may say “Helping the poor is good” or “Cheating during exams is bad”.

According to many scholars, moral standards have the following

characteristics, namely:

1) Moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit
humans, animals, and the environment, such as child abuse, rape, and
murder;

2) Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of

authoritative individuals or bodies. Indeed, moral standards rest on the
adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support and justify them. For sure,
we don’t need a law to back up our moral conviction that killing innocent
people is absolutely wrong;

3) Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over other
standards and considerations, especially of self-interest;

4) Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. Hence, moral

standards are fair and just;

and 5) moral standards are associated with special emotions (such as guilt and
shame) and vocabulary (such as right, wrong, good, and bad).

Non-moral Standards

Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is

good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way. Examples of non-moral
standards are standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or
bad, standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal,
and standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good or rubbish. Hence,
we should not confuse morality with etiquette, law, and aesthetics or even with

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religion.

As we can see, non-moral standards are matters of taste or

preference. Hence, a scrupulous observance of these types of standards does
not make one a moral person. Violation of said standards also does not pose
any threat to human well-being.

Finally, as a way of distinguishing moral standards from non-moral

ones, if a moral standard says “Do not harm innocent people” or “Don’t
steal”, a non-moral standard says
For thef use“Don’t text while
of TSU students only driving” or “Don’t talk while
the mouth is full”.

D. Dilemma and Moral Dilemma (lifted from the book of De Guzman,

(2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society)

Do you have any idea of what a dilemma is? Have you ever
encountered a situation where you need to choose between two alternatives,
yet choosing any could lead to a negative consequence on what you did not
choose? What did you do? How did you feel?

The term dilemma refers to a situation in which a tough decision has to

be made between two or more options, especially more or less equally
undesirable ones. Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas.

Also called ‘ethical dilemmas’, moral dilemmas are situation in which a

difficult choice has to be made between two courses of action, either of which
entails transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a moral dilemma
involves conflicts between moral requirements.

What is common to moral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical dilemma,

an agent regards himself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions,
but doing both actions seems to be ethically not possible.

The key features of a moral dilemma are these: a.) the agent is
required to do each of two (or more) actions; b.) the agent can do each of the
actions; but the agent cannot do both (or all ) of the actions. In a moral
dilemma, the agent thus seems condemned to moral failure no matter what he
does, he will do something wrong, or fail to do something that he ought to do.

Some ethicists propose that when one of the conflicting moral

requirements overrides the other, the case is not a ‘genuine moral dilemma’.
Thus in addition to the features mentioned above, in order to have a genuine

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moral dilemma, some add that it must also the case that c) neither of the
conflicting moral requirements is overridden.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

Moral Dilemmas can be categorized according to these levels:

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1. Personal Dilemmas. Personal Dilemmas are those experienced

and resolved on the personal level. Since many ethical decisions
are personally made, many if not most of moral dilemmas fall
under, or boil down to this level. If a person makes conflicting
promises, he faces a moral conflict. When an individual has to
choose between the life of a child who is about to be delivered
and the child’s mother, he faces an ethical dilemma.

2. Organizational Dilemma. Organizational moral dilemmas refer to

ethical cases encountered and resolves by social organization.
This category includes moral dilemmas in business, medical
fields and public sector.

A medical institution which believes that human life should not be

deliberately shortened and that unpreventable pain should not be tolerated
encountered a conflict in resolving whether to withdraw life support from a
dying patient. This is common moral dilemma faced by healthcare
organizations.

Administrative bodies in business are confronted with situations in

which several courses of action are possible but none of them provide a totally
successful outcome to those affected by the decision or actions taken. Moral
dilemmas in business involve issues about corporate practices, policies,
business behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of individuals in the
organizations.

In a public sector, government leaders and employees have a moral

duty to act in a manner that is fair and unbiased, that is loyal to the public by
putting public interest, accountability and transparency. In fulfilling these
responsibilities, public officials may encounter foreseeable moral dilemmas.
These dilemmas include whether or not to favour family, friends, or campaign

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contributors over other constituents; favoring the agenda of one’s political party
over a policy one believes to be good for the community; dealing with
conflicting public duties inherent in serving both as a council member and as a
member of an agency or commission; resigning from organizations in which
membership may give rise to future conflicts; becoming a whistle blower even
if it means potentially derailing a policy objective one is pursuing; and
accepting gifts if it is legally permitted but creates the appearance of
impropriety.

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3. Structural Dilemmas. Structural moral dilemmas refer to cases

involving network of institutions and operative theoretical
paradigms. As they usually encompass multi-sectoral institutions
and organizations, they may be larger in scope and extent than
organizational dilemmas.
Case in point is the prices of medicine in the Philippines which are
higher compared to other countries in Asia and in countries of similar economic
status. Factors affecting medicine prices include cost of research, presence of
competition in the market, government regulations, and patent protection.
Institutions concerned may want to lower the costs of medicine, thereby
benefiting the Filipino public, but such a move may ruin the interests of the
involved researchers, inventors or discoverers, and pharmaceutical companies
which own the patent of the medicines or healthcare technologies.

E. Only human beings can be Ethical (lifted from the book of De

Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern
Society)

Oftentimes we experience something that test our being and often also
we wonder whether we deserve to be the highest form of animal. If we commit
something, we often hear “animal ka”. But we are as Aristotle say “rational
animasl”. We are animals minus the rationality.

Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human beings can
truly be ethical. Most philosophies hold that unlike animals, human beings
possess some traits that make it possible for them to be moral.

Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious. The

qualities of rationality, autonomy, and self-consciousness are believed to
confer a full and equal moral status to those that possess them as these

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beings are the only ones capable of achieving certain moral values.

Closure Activities (place your answer on p. 84)

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1. Write in one sentence the important learning you got from this
module.

2. Write in the space below one word that best describe what you
feel right now on finishing this module.

3. Write in one sentence what you think these learning can

contribute in developing your moral behaviour.

Synthesis/Generalization

1. As ethics is defined as the science of the morality of

human act, it provides as with set of rules or principles
needed so we can be guided in our actions in society.

2. Rules are important to social beings as they protect the

greater good avoiding exploitations and tyranny in society.
Society could function soundly without rules and regulations.

3. Not all rules are moral rules and not all standards are moral
standards as moral standards are equated by some ethicists
to moral values and moral principles.

4. Moral Dilemmas are situations in which a difficult choice has

to be made between two courses of actions, either which
entails transgressing a moral principles. They involve
conflicts between moral requirements and they can happen
in the personal, organizational or structural level.

5. Only human beings can be ethical as only human beings are

rational, autonomous, and self-conscious, can act morally
and immorally, and are part of the moral community.

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 Assignment (place your answers on pp. 86-87)

1. Ask somebody toFor

relay a of
thef use difficult experience
TSU students only where he/she has to
choice between two pressing outcome or result. Make a reflection
essay about his/her story.

2. Write an essay on your thoughts about Ethics and its importance

to Today’s Society.

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