ETHICS

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION: KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS

Module 1: Ethics, and Its Key Concepts

Module on Ethics:

As one of the major topics falling under the category of practical philosophy, ethics is one of the
important areas that this module is focused on helping you understand. This module's discussion,
explanation, and description aim to provide your pupils with a better understanding of the value of
ethics and the fundamental ideas underlying the moral experience. Take advantage of the information in
this module to help you grasp challenging and time-sensitive situations that call for careful
consideration.

This module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

Objectives - These are what you will be able to know after completing the
lessons in the module

Pre-test - This will measure your prior knowledge and the concepts to be
mastered throughout the lesson.

Lesson- This section will discuss the topic for this module.

Activities - This is a set of activities you will perform.

Generalization- This section summarizes the concepts and applications

of \
the lessons.
 Post-test - This will measure how much you have learned from the entire module.

Learning Objectives

After finishing this lesson on your own, you should be able to:
1. Demonstrate your understanding of what ethics are and how important they are.
2. Recall the rules you must abide by and the justification for doing so.
3. Differentiate moral from non-moral standards
4. Recall a moral experience and detect the moral dilemma present in it.
5. Explain why only human beings are moral

PRE–TEST

Direction: Answer the question in your own words.

1. In your own definition, what exactly is ethics?

2. Cite a Filipino author who discussed ethics in his writing.
3. What does ethics mean in Jesus Christ's teachings?

LESSON

What Does "Ethics/Morality" Mean?

Have you ever been in a position where you needed to make a decision and also had to determine which course of
action was right or wrong? Do you remember a time when you truly felt guilty and depressed after hurting
someone as a result of your improper action? Have you ever wondered why it's important for people to practice
goodness and stay away from evil? Have you ever wondered why we should act in a pleasing manner?

Many individuals question the value of studying ethics. Why is it important to sustain moral standards? According
to Webster's dictionary, "moral" can mean many different things, such as: being of or related to principles of right
and wrong in action; adhering to a standard of correct behavior. Do you think upholding moral standards is
important? Why not, if not? This one is a crucial question for an ethics course. The vast majority of people think
that success in life and being "good" go hand in hand. (philonotes.com)

For instance, do you consider someone successful if they make money dishonestly? A politician's success depends
on whether or not he hits his wife and kids. Does Mother Theresa qualify as a success? She lacked a significant
number of the traits that society typically identifies with success. Most individuals appreciate social institutions that
are fair, just, honest, and compassionate. Society and individuals that believe that morality is essential to success
can benefit from ethics' guidance. In today's culture, morality is allegedly disintegrating. Juvenile crime, drug and
alcohol misuse, adolescent pregnancies, and crime rates all seem to point to a breakdown in the moral foundation
of society. For instance, do you consider someone successful if they make money dishonestly? A politician's success
depends on whether or not he hits his wife and kids. Does Mother Theresa qualify as a success? She lacked a
significant number of the traits that society typically identifies with success. Most individuals appreciate social
institutions that are fair, just, honest, and compassionate. Society and individuals that believe that morality is
essential to success can benefit from ethical guidance. In today's culture, morality is allegedly disintegrating.
Juvenile crime, drug and alcohol misuse, adolescent pregnancies, and crime rates all seem to point to a breakdown
in the moral foundation of society.

In the preface to his book Ethics: The Philosophy of Life, Montemayor (1994) notes that ethics is the philosophy of
life and that it explores the most fundamental reasons for being human as well as the issues, challenges, and fate
that men face. He goes on to say that in order to live well and be happy, we must understand why we are here. He
claims that ethics, which looks into the meaning and purpose of human life, teaches about this. He emphasizes
Socrates' view that a man should not live an unquestioned life.
In addition, according to Montemayor (1994), one of the greatest philosophers of all time, Plato, declared ethics to
be the supreme science and the highest in the hierarchy of human values because it is ethics that deals with
achieving life's ultimate good and goal, happiness.

Ethics Definitions
The following definitions of ethics are found in Montemayor's book from 1994:

1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality of human actions.

2. Ethics is the science of human acts with reference to right and wrong
3. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality.
4. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human conduct
5. Ethics is the human conduct from the standpoint of morality.
6. Ethics is the science which lays down the principles of right living
7. Ethics is the practical science that guides us in our actions that we may live rightly and well.
8. Ethics is normative and practical science, based on reason, which studies human conduct and provides
norm for its
natural integrity and honesty.
9. According to Socrates, ethics is the investigation of life.

Looking into these definitions we can say that they are similar to each other. The definitions speak of the field of
study of ethics as human conduct; and of the investigation of such human conduct in terms of its morality.

The important terms that can be seen in them are:

1. Science-systematic study or a system of scientific conclusions clearly demonstrated, derived from clearly
established principles and duly coordinated
2. Morality – the quality of human acts as right, wrong or indifferent, moral immoral or amoral.
3. Human acts –acts done with knowledge, freedom and free will or consent.

Importance of Ethics

Montemayor (1994) proclaims that the importance of the study of ethics follows immediately from the importance
of ethics itself. His idea is manifested in the following:

1. Ethics means right living and good moral character and it is in good moral character that man finds his true
worth and perfection. All the great teachers of the ages maintain that the supreme purpose of human living lies not
in the acquisition of material good or bodily pleasures, nor in the attainment of bodily perfections such as health
and strength; nor even in the development of intellectual skills but in the development of the moral qualities which
lift man far above brute creation.

2. Education is the harmonious development of the whole man-of all ma’s faculties: the moral, intellectual,
and physical powers in man. Now then highest of man’s power are his reason and will. Hence, the primary objective
of education is the moral development of the will

A. Rules and Its Importance to Social Beings (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of
Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society)

You find rules everywhere. But did you ever ask yourself why you need to follow them? Try to recall an experience
where you followed a rule and assess what you did. Did you just follow it without asking yourself why you need to
follow it? Did you have any doubt about following it?

Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct within a specific activity or sphere.
Rules tell us what is or is not allowed in a particular context or situation. In many ways, rules serve as a foundation
for any healthy society. Without rules, society would like fall into anarchy.

Rules benefit social beings in various manners:

1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior. Rules build boundaries that place limits on behavior. Rules are
usually coupled with means to impose consequences on those who violate them. One of the reasons people follow
accepted rules is to avoid negative consequences.

2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain right and freedom. Rules form frameworks for society. Nations are
generally nations of laws and the governing principles are outlined in what is called constitution. Because the
majority has agreed to follow and consent to be governed by such a constitution, the freedoms outlined exist.
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings. Rules are needed in order to keep the strong from
dominating the weak that is to prevent exploitation and domination. Without rules, schemes in which those with
the power control the system, would take over. In effect, rules generate a stable system that provides justice, in
which even the richest and the most powerful have limitations on what they can do. If they transgress rules such as
laws and ordinances and take advantage of people, there are consequences both socially and criminally.

4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system. Without rules regulating business, power would centralize
around monopolies and threaten the strength and competitiveness of the system. Rules are needed to ensure
product safety, employee’s safety and product quality. Copyright and patents help protect people’s intellectual
property. Rules and regulations also keep the banking system stable so as to avoid depression and the like.

In short, society could not soundly functions without rules and regulations. Rules are necessary to protect the
greater good. Even the freest societies ought to have rules in order to avoid exploitations and tyranny while
upholding the common good.

B. Moral Standards versus Non-moral Standards (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of
Ethical Behavior in Modern Society)

Do you know the meaning of standards? Have you been in a situation where you were chosen because you met the
standards or you were disregarded because you did not meet the standards? But are you aware that there are
different kinds of standards and the kind is dependent on their implication or effect on people and situations? Why
do you think there is the need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?

It is important to note that different societies have different moral beliefs and that our beliefs are deeply influenced
by our own culture and context. For this reason, some values do have moral implications, while others don’t. Let us
consider, for example, the wearing of hijab. For sure, in traditional Muslim communities, the wearing of hijab is the
most appropriate act that women have to do in terms of dressing up. In fact, for some Muslims, showing parts of
the woman’s body, such as the face and legs, is despicable. However, in many parts of the world, especially in
Western societies, most people don’t mind if women barely cover their bodies. As a matter of fact, the Hollywood
canon of beauty glorifies a sexy and slim body and the wearing of extremely daring dress. The point here is that
people in the West may have pitied the Muslim women who wear hijab, while some Muslims may find women who
dress up daringly despicable.

Again, this clearly shows that different cultures have different moral standards. What is a matter of moral
indifference, that is, a matter of taste (hence, non-moral value) in one culture may be a matter of moral significance
in another.

Now, the danger here is that one culture may impose its own cultural standard on others, which may result in a
clash in cultural values and beliefs. When this happens, as we may already know, violence and crime may ensue,
such as religious violence and ethnic cleansing.

This is where the importance of understanding the difference between moral standards (that is, of what is a moral
issue) and non-moral ones (that is, of what is a non-moral issue―thus, a matter of taste) comes in. This issue may
be too obvious and insignificant for some people, but understanding the difference between the two may have far-
reaching implications. For one, once we have distinguished moral standards from non-moral ones, of course,
through the aid of the principles and theories in ethics, we will be able to identify fundamental ethical values that
may guide our actions. Indeed, once we know that particular values and beliefs are non-moral, we will be able to
avoid running the risk of falling into the pit of cultural reductionism (that is, taking complex cultural issues as simple
and homogenous ones) and the unnecessary imposition of one’s own cultural standard on others. The point here is
that if such standards are non-moral (that is, a matter of taste), then we don’t have the right to impose them on
others. But if such standards are moral ones, such as not killing or harming people, then we may have the right to
force others to act accordingly. In this way, we may be able to find a common moral ground, such as agreeing not
to steal, lie, cheat, kill, harm, and deceive our fellow human beings.

Now, what are moral standards, and how do they differ from non-moral ones?

Moral Standards and their Characteristics

Moral standards are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be morally right or
wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believed to be morally good or morally bad. Moral standards
normally promote “the good”, that is, the welfare and well-being of humans as well as animals and the
environment. Moral standards, therefore, prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights and obligations.
According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum of combined norms and values. In other words, norms
plus values equal moral standards. On the one hand, norms are understood as general rules about our actions or
behaviors. For example, we may say “We are always under the obligation to fulfil our promises” or “It is always
believed that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong”. On the other hand, values are understood as enduring
beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not. For example, we may say “Helping the poor is good”
or “Cheating during exams is bad”.

According to many scholars, moral standards have the following characteristics, namely:

1) Moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the
environment, such as child abuse, rape, and murder;

2) Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies.
Indeed, moral standards rest on the adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support and justify them.
For sure, we don’t need a law to back up our moral conviction that killing innocent people is absolutely
wrong;

3) Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standards and considerations,
especially of self-interest;

4) Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. Hence, moral standards are fair and just; and

5) Moral standards are associated with special emotions (such as guilt and shame) and vocabulary (such as
right, wrong, good, and bad).

Non-moral Standards

Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral
way. Examples of non-moral standards are standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad,
standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal, and standards of aesthetics by which we
judge art as good or rubbish. Hence, we should not confuse morality with etiquette, law, and aesthetics or even
with religion.

As we can see, non-moral standards are matters of taste or preference. Hence, a scrupulous observance of these
types of standards does not make one a moral person. Violation of said standards also does not pose any threat to
human well-being.

Finally, as a way of distinguishing moral standards from non-moral ones, if a moral standard says “Do not harm
innocent people” or “Don’t steal”, a non-moral standard says “Don’t text while driving” or “Don’t talk while the
mouth is full”.

C. Dilemma and Moral Dilemma (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical
Behaviour in Modern Society)

Do you have any idea of what a dilemma is? Have you ever encountered a situation where you need to choose
between two alternatives, yet choosing any could lead to a negative consequence on what you did not choose?
What did you do? How did you feel?

The term dilemma refers to a situation in which a tough decision has to be made between two or more options,
especially more or less equally undesirable ones. Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas.

Also called ‘ethical dilemmas’, moral dilemmas are situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two
courses of action, either of which entails transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a moral dilemma involves
conflicts between moral requirements.

What is common to moral dilemmas is conflict. In each ethical dilemma, an agent regards himself as having moral
reasons to do each of two actions, but doing both actions seems to be ethically not possible.

The key features of a moral dilemma are these: a.) the agent is required to do each of two (or more) actions; b.) the
agent can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot do both (or all ) of the actions. In a moral dilemma, the
agent thus seems condemned to moral failure no matter what he does, he will do something wrong, or fail to do
something that he ought to do.
Some ethicists propose that when one of the conflicting moral requirements overrides the other, the case is not a
‘genuine moral dilemma’. Thus in addition to the features mentioned above, in order to have a genuine moral
dilemma, some add that it must also the case that c) neither of the conflicting moral requirements is overridden.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

Moral Dilemmas can be categorized according to these levels:

1. Personal Dilemmas. Personal Dilemmas are those experienced and resolved on the personal level. Since
many ethical decisions are personally made, many if not most of moral dilemmas fall under, or boil down
to this level. If a person makes conflicting promises, he faces a moral conflict. When an individual has to
choose between the life of a child who is about to be delivered and the child’s mother, he faces an ethical
dilemma.

2. Organizational Dilemma. Organizational moral dilemmas refer to ethical cases encountered and resolves
by social organization. This category includes moral dilemmas in business, medical fields and public sector.

A medical institution which believes that human life should not be deliberately shortened and that
unpreventable pain should not be tolerated encountered a conflict in resolving whether to withdraw life
support from a dying patient. This is common moral dilemma faced by healthcare organizations.

Administrative bodies in business are confronted with situations in which several courses of action are
possible but none of them provide a totally successful outcome to those affected by the decision or actions
taken. Moral dilemmas in business involve issues about corporate practices, policies, business behaviors,
and the conducts and relationships of individuals in the organizations.

In a public sector, government leaders and employees have a moral duty to act in a manner that is fair and
unbiased, that is loyal to the public by putting public interest, accountability and transparency. In fulfilling
these responsibilities, public officials may encounter foreseeable moral dilemmas. These dilemmas include
whether or not to favor family, friends, or campaign contributors over other constituents; favoring the
agenda of one’s political party over a policy one believes to be good for the community; dealing with
conflicting public duties inherent in serving both as a council member and as a member of an agency or
commission; resigning from organizations in which membership may give rise to future conflicts; becoming
a whistle blower even if it means potentially derailing a policy objective one is pursuing; and accepting gifts
if it is legally permitted but creates the appearance of impropriety.

3. Structural Dilemmas. Structural moral dilemmas refer to cases involving network of institutions and
operative theoretical paradigms. As they usually encompass multi-sectoral institutions and organizations,
they may be larger in scope and extent than organizational dilemmas.

Case in point is the prices of medicine in the Philippines which are higher compared to other countries in
Asia and in countries of similar economic status. Factors affecting medicine prices include cost of research,
presence of competition in the market, government regulations, and patent protection. Institutions
concerned may want to lower the costs of medicine, thereby benefiting the Filipino public, but such a
move may ruin the interests of the involved researchers, inventors or discoverers, and pharmaceutical
companies which own the patent of the medicines or healthcare technologies.

D. Only human beings can be Ethical (lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical
Behavior in Modern Society)

Oftentimes we experience something that test our being and often also we wonder whether we deserve to
be the highest form of animal. If we commit something, we often hear “animal ka”. But we are as Aristotle
say “rational animasl”. We are animals minus the rationality.

Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human beings can truly be ethical. Most philosophies
hold that unlike animals, human beings possess some traits that make it possible for them to be moral.

Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious. The qualities of rationality, autonomy,
and self-consciousness are believed to confer a full and equal moral status to those that possess them as
these beings are the only ones capable of achieving certain moral values.

Synthesis/Generalization
 1. As ethics is defined as the science of the morality of human act, it provides as with set of rules or
principles needed so we can be guided in our actions in society.
2. Rules are important to social beings as they protect the greater good avoiding exploitations and tyranny
in society. Society could function soundly without rules and regulations.
3. Not all rules are moral rules and not all standards are moral standards as moral standards are equated
by some ethicists to moral values and moral principles.
4. Moral Dilemmas are situations in which a difficult choice has to be made between two courses of
actions, either which entails transgressing a moral principles. They involve conflicts between moral
requirements and they can happen in the personal, organizational or structural level.
5. Only human beings can be ethical as only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious,
can act morally and immorally, and are part of the moral community.

ACTIVITY

Directions: Essay: Briefly and clearly respond to the following questions.

(10 pts each)

1. What is the importance of studying Work Ethics for future workers?

2. As a student, do you consider the study of ethics important? Why or why not?

3. Socrates asserts, “An unexamined life is not worth living.” Do you agree? Why? If you
don’t agree, explain your reason(s).

4. Theology has shown that the Bible's stories have a positive influence on humans. What
biblical story can serve as a source of moral or ethical inspiration in your life? Provide the
Bible Text.

References:

Agapay, R. B.(1995, 2008) Ethics and the Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators,
2ns ed. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

Ardales, V. B.(1987) Introductory Text to Philosophy. Quezon City: Great Books Trading, Inc.
Babor, E. R. (1999) Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Action, 1st ed. Manila, Philippines, Rex Book Store.
Cruz, C. C. (1995) Contemporary Ethics. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc.

De Guzman J.M et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society.
Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, inc.

Dela Torre, J. (1993) Ethics: The man’s Tool for the Development of Sound Professional and Civil Life. Manila:
Educational Publishing House, Inc.`
Dy Jr., M B. (1986) Philosophy of Man: Selected Readings. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc.
Glen, Paul J. (1965) Ethics, A Class Manual in Moral Philosophy, (reprint) Manila: National Bookstore.
. (1994) Contemporary Social Philosophy. Manila: Goodwill Trading Co. Inc.
Montemayor, F. M.(1994) Ethics: The Philosophy of Life. Manila, Philippines: National Book Store
.(1995) Introduction to Philosophy Through the Philosophy of Man. 2nd ed. Manila: National Book
Store, Inc.
Panizo, A., O.P. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy. Manila: UST Textbook Series Robles, G. S. (1994) Everyday Ethics.
Manila: Educational Publishing House, Inc.

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