„SEE Tunnel:Promoting Tunneling in SEE Region“

I TA WTC 2015 Congress and 41st General Assembly

May 22-28, 2015, Lacroma Valamar Congress Center, Dubrovnik, Croatia

Marsh Funnel testing for rheology analysis of bentonite slurries for

Slurry Shields
Author: Britta SCHOESSER, Ruhr-Universitaet Bochum, Germany, britta.schoesser@rub.de
Co-author: Markus THEWES, Ruhr-Universitaet Bochum, Germany, markus.thewes@rub.de

Topic: Mechanized Tunnelling in Development and Use

Key w or d s: hydro shield , slurry shield, support fluid, bentonite suspension, rheology, Marsh funnel

1. I ntroduction
For the face support during slurry shield tunnelling, the rheology of the bentonite suspension has
to meet strict requirements. Determination of the rheological properties follows the international
standards API 13B [ 1] and DI N 4126 [ 2] . On the construction site, simple and robust
measurement methods are required for quality control of the suspension parameters during the
tunnelling process. Here, the Marsh-funnel is commonly accepted as a useful and reliable
measuring device.
The Marsh-time is recorded in [ s] for a certain suspension volume. Based on this “single point
measurements” only relative conclusions are derived concerning the viscosity of the bentonite
suspension. I n comparison to detailed rheological measurements using a viscometer or rheometer,
exact determinations of viscosity and yield stress are not possible with a Marsh funnel.
For detailed analysis of the rheological parameters of bentonite suspension flow curves are

which describes the relation of the shear stress τ and the shear rate γ of a fluid. Based on this
recorded by measurement with standardized viscometer or rheometer. A flow curve is diagram,

information further the viscosity and yield point are determined.

However, by adoption of additional equipment (e.g. a scale with data logging and a computer for
data processing) the informative value of the standardized Marsh-funnel measurements for
tunnelling practice can be increased considerably.
Here, a mathematical model adapted from capillary viscometry is presented. Application of this
model provides the opportunity to pre-processes the logged data into various information sets. The
volume flow at the funnel outlet, the development of the wall yield stress in reference to the
suspension level in the funnel over time and the characteristic flow curve of a fluid are valuable
results of these calculations. They provide the opportunity for further rheological analysis.
Using the constitutive equations of the Herschel-Bulkley flow model, which is applied to describe
the flow behaviour of non-Newtonian fluids, calculations of the yield point of the tested bentonite
suspensions can be performed.
By extending the measurement equipment slightly and adopting the mathematical equations of
capillary viscometry, the informative value of a simple and standardized Marsh-funnel
measurement provides advanced rheological analysis. Especially the yield point can be determined
for certain fluid conditions. Up to now this possibility was only a subject for advanced
measurements using a viscometer or rheometer.

2. Rheological aspects of bentonite suspensions

Viscosity and yield stress are the fundamental rheological parameters for the description of the
flow behaviour of bentonite suspensions. These terms are illustrated within the diagram of typical

stress τ [ Pa] acting in a fluid in reference to the applied shear rate γ [ 1/ s] . I n case of a direct
flow curves for time-dependant fluids in f igure 1. A flow curve shows the relationship of the shear

Newtonian fluids. This relation is def ined as viscosity η (formula 1).

proportional relation between those parameters, the tested fluid belongs to the group of

τ = ηγ Formula 1

All fluids, which exhibit a non-proportional relationship between shear stress τ and shear rate γ
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I TA WTC 2015 Congress and 41st General Assembly
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and/ or provide a yield point, belong to the group of non-Newtonian fluids. The characterization of
non-Newtonian flow behaviour is provided by application of nonlinear approximations based on the
power law. The American Standard API 13B refers to the Herschel-Bulkley correlation as the basic
flow model for bentonite suspensions [ 1] . The Herschel-Bulkley flow model is based on three
parameters [ 4] : flow index , consistency index and yield point (formula 2).

Formula 2

Fig u r e 1 : The six main classes of time-dependent fluids presented in flow curves of stress against strain rate in shear
flow [ 3]

Further, the Herschel-Bulkley model provides the ability to describe flow behaviour of Newtonian
fluids and of non-Newtonian fluids. This model delivers consistent and appropriate results in
reference to measured rheological data. I n general, the six main classes of flow curves presented
in f igure 1 can be determined using the approach of the Herschel-Bulkley model under certain
boundary conditions:

For and shear thinning behavior (pseudoplastic)

For and Newtonian behavior
For and shear thickening behavior (dilatant)
For and shear thinning behavior with yield stress
For and Bingham plasticity
For and shear thinning behavior with yield stress

I n reference to the respective boundary condition, the Herschel-Bulkley model is reduced to

common rheological flow models, e.g.:
Bingham Model [ Bingham 1922] using and
Formula 3

Power-Law-Model [ Metzner 1956] using

Formula 4
Newtonian Model [ Sochi 2007] using

Formula 5

3. Experimental equipment and basics of capillary viscometry

Figure 2 shows the standardized Marsh-funnel geometry with a total funnel volume of 1500 cm³ .
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I n reference to the measured time in [ s] of the volume 946 cm³ according to API 13B [ 1]
respectively 1000 cm³ according to DI N 4126 [ 2] comparative conclusions concerning the flow
behaviour can be deviated.

Fig u r e 2 : Standardized geometry of the Marsh-funnel Fig u r e 3 : Arrangement of the equipment using a
according to API 13B and DI N 4126 scale with automated data logging

I n this study the standardized measuring equipment was extended by an electronic scale with
automated data logging (f igure 3). The scale transfers the measured data of the spilling fluid mass
m of the bentonite suspension in an interval of [ 1 s] to a computer. Here, the data is transcribed
to an spreadsheet for further calculations.

Figure 4 shows the diagram derived from the logged data in suspension mass over time. According
to DI N 4126 [ 2] the Marsh-time for a suspension volume of 1000 cm³ can be determined using the

in a concentration of 35 kg of bentonite per m³ of water is ρ = 1,017 g / cm³ . Hence, the mass for
suspension density. I n this example, the density of the suspension made of a Wyoming bentonite

1000 cm³ is 1017 g and the associated Marsh-time t M = 66 s can be derived directly from the
diagram. The total drainage time of the suspension volume of 1500 cm³ is t M 1500 = 153s .

Fig u r e 4 : Diagram derived from the logged data: mass [ g] of the spilling bentonite suspension over time [ s]
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The measured data shown in f igure 4 provide the basic information for the upcoming mathe-
matical calculations. For this purpose, the following assumptions have to be drawn:
1) The tested suspension is a homogeneous, isotherm and incompressible fluid. A potential
dependence of the fluid viscosity to pressure is neglected.
2) The flow process within the capillary of the funnel describes a laminar, viscometric stratif ied
flow. The fluid does not adhere to the lateral face of the funnel.
3) The flow process within the cross-section area of the Marsh-funnel is quasi-stationary, because
the volume of the viscous fluid in the funnel changes slowly over time.
4) The fluid is time-independent; the shear rate depends only on the shear stress.

determined density ρ of the suspension the suspension volume V in the funnel can be
The mass m of the spilling bentonite suspension is logged by the automated scale. Using the

calculated:

V=
ρ
m
Formula 6

With the common formula for the volume of a cone V = 1 / 3πr h the volume of the Marsh-Funnel
becomes under consideration of the Marsh-funnel geometry r = R0 / Z1 :
2

π
V= (R0 / Z1 )2 h3 Formula 7
3
By introducing the practical geometric dimensions of the standardized funnel, formula 8 is derived:
π
V= ((15,2 / 2) / 30,5)2 h3 = ah3 = 0,065h3 Formula 8
3
I n reference to the calculated fluid, volume V in the funnel and by converting formula 8, the
actual suspension level in the Marsh-funnel can be determined:

Z = 3 V /α Formula 9
As a result from the mass balance equation, the flow rate Qmeasured for the spilling suspension out
of the funnel is calculated:

= −Qmeasured (h )
∆V
∆t Formula 10
These calculations are based on the measured data for the spilling suspension out of the funnel.
Due to an a discrete flow out of the funnel respectively due to the measuring time span of [ 1 s]
the diagram of Qmeasured shows several points of discontinuity. Therefore, the flow rate Q predicted
was approximated using the Herschel-Bulkley model for a cylindrical tube [ 9] (formula 11). By

and yield point τ 0 are estimated.

means of the Excel Solver, the Herschel-Bulkley parameters flow index n , consistency index C

π R 3 (τ w − τ 0 )1 / n+1  (τ w − τ 0 )2 2τ 0 (τ w − τ 0 ) τ 02 
Q predicted =  + + 
C 1 / nτ w3  1/ n + 3 1/ n + 2 1 / n + 1
Formula 11

Fig u r e 5 : Comparison of measured flow

rate Qmeasured and calculated flow rate
Q predicted using the Herschel-Bulkley mode
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4. Determination of flow curve derived on Marsh-funnel measure-

ment
A flow curve shows the relation between the shear stress τ acting in a fluid in reference to the
shear rate γ . Typically, this data is recorded by a viscometer or rheometer. To perform flow curves
by means of Marsh-funnel data, additional calculations are required.

4.1 Wall shear stress τ w acting in Marsh- funnel

The wall shear stress τ w is determined by balancing the forces acting in the cone-shaped part and

upward acting wall shear stress τ w only in the cone results in the following formula:
the cylindrical part of the Marsh-funnel [ 3, 6] . Balancing the hydrostatic downward force and the

πRw2 ∆Pcone = πRw Lτ w Formula 12

Substituting L = Z / cos α and Rw ( Z ) = RL + ( R0 − RL )( Z / Z1 ) in formula 12 provides the common
form of the pressure gradient within the cone:
τ wZ
∆Pcone =
cos α {RL + ( Ro − RL )( Z / Z1 )} Formula 13
I n the same way the pressure is determined for the cylindrical part of the funnel:
2τ w Z 2
∆Pcylinder =
RL Formula 14
The total pressure gradient within the Marsh funnel is derived from:
τ wZ 2τ w Z 2
∆P = ∆Pcone + ∆Pcylinder = +
cos α {RL + ( Ro − RL )( Z / Z1 )} RL Formula 15
By replacing ∆P with the description of the fluid height in the Marsh-funnel ∆P = ρgZ ( ρ as fluid

shear stress τ w to a more common form:

density and g as the acceleration due to gravity) formula 15 turns after conversion to the wall

τ w = [ρg ( Z + Z 2 )]/ (
 2Z 
+ 2
 cos α {RL + ( Ro − RL )( Z / Z1 )} RL 
Z
Formula 16
Now, the wall shear stress τ w can be determined in reference to the actual fluid volume V
(formula 6) respectively to the fluid height Z (formula 9) in the Marsh-funnel.

4.2 Wall shear rate γw in Marsh Funnel

The wall shear rate γw describes the flow velocity of the spilling bentonite suspension at the
surface of the capillary. The estimation of the wall shear rate γw was deduced in [ 4a] and is

( )
derived in detail in [ 6] .

3  4Q  1 4Q d log 4Q /(πRL3 )
− γ w =  3  +
4  πRL  4 πRL3 d logτ w


( )
Formula 17

d log 4Q /(πRL3 )
= with n' as flow behaviour index, the more convenient form is
d logτ w
1
By substituting
n'
obtained:
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3n'+1  4Q 
− γw =  
4n'  πRL3 
Formula 18

rate γw (formula 17) is determined.

Based on the measured values and the calculated volume flow rate Q predicted the actual wall shear

4.3 Determination of yield point τ 0 using the Marsh- funnel

Yield stress / yield point is an important parameter for the description of the flow behavior of
bentonite suspension. I t represents the transition of a fluid from solid state to liquid state.

point τ 0 .
Bentonite suspensions start to flow when a certain amount of yield stress is obtained ‒ the yield

Considering the flow behavior of bentonite suspensions during drainage out of the Marsh-funnel,
two groups can be divided:

1) After a certain time the bentonite suspension stagnates within the funnel. The corresponding
height Z of the fluid in the funnel is named “stagnation height”.
2) The bentonite suspension drains completely out of the funnel.

For the f irst group, the yield point τ 0 can be determined. I n case of stagnation of the fluid

Q = 0 and dh / dt = 0
following boundary conditions are valid:

τ0 =τw system is at equilibrium, the acting wall shear stress τ w matches the
no drainage

value of the yield point τ 0 of the bentonite suspension

For determination of the yield point τ 0 formula 16 is applied. Here, the variable Z represents the
stagnation height of the bentonite suspension in the Marsh-funnel.

5. Results and discussion

For the testing series, four bentonite suspensions made of a Wyoming bentonite (W) with a solids
content of 25 kg/ m³ , 35 kg/ m³ , 45 kg/ m³ and 55 kg/ m ³ were used. Beside the Marsh-funnel in
combination with calculations using formula 6-18, additional measurements for a flow curve deter-
mination were performed with a viscometer FANN 35 and a rheometer RheolabQC by Anton Paar.
The results of the different flow curves determined with Marsh-funnel, viscometer and rheometer
are compared in the following f igures 6-9. For each bentonite suspension, three testing series
were conducted and the mean values were determined.
The American Standard API 13B [ 1] describes the measuring process for determination of the
rheological parameters for water based drilling fluids. The viscometer FANN 35 provides six
rotational speeds of 3, 6, 100, 200, 300 and 600 [ rpm] . The test fluid is contained in the annular
gap of 1.17 mm between an outer cylinder and the inner bob. Following the Couette principle,
measurements are made when the outer cylinder is rotating at a known velocity and causes a

spring where its deflection is measured. Here, the shear stress τ , caused by a given shear rate γ ,
viscous drag exerted by the fluid. This drag induces a torque on the bob, which is transmitted to a

is measured.
The RheolabQC is a rotational rheometer providing a concentric cylinder system with a measuring
gap of 1.169 mm. This rheometer is based on the Searle principle. Here, the motor drives the
measuring bob and the outer cylinder stands still. The viscosity is proportional to the motor torque
that is required for turning the measuring bob against the fluid’s forces. The tests were operated
under a def ined shear rate varying between 0.001 – 1000 [ s-1] .

5.1 Results of bentonite suspension W 25 kg/ m³

The flow curves of bentonite suspension W 2.5% determined using Marsh-funnel, viscometer

rate γ and the y-coordinate the shear stress τ .

FANN 35 and rheometer Rheolab QC are presented in f igure 6. The x-coordinate shows the shear
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This bentonite suspension drains completely out of the Mash-funnel. According to chapter 4.3,
following conclusion can be drawn: this bentonite suspension exhibits a yield point, which is less
than the minimum value that could be measured with the Marsh-funnel. Thus, the yield point of
this suspension cannot be determined using the Marsh-funnel.

shear rate γ mechanically with accurately def ined rotation speeds. As f igure 6 shows, the
I rrespective of the performed principle - Couette or Searle - viscometer and rheometer induce the

measured values of shear stress acting in the fluid for the same shear rate match quite well for the
viscometer and rheometer. On the contrary, the acting shear rates in the Marsh-Funnel are not
mechanically induced. This shear rates arise in reference to three parameters: suspension volume
in the funnel, suspension density and the acceleration due to gravity. For comparing the shear
rates of different suspensions measured in the Marsh-funnel, the fluid density is the only variable.
The influence of the solid content respectively fluid density is shown in f igures 6-9.

I n comparison to the values for shear stress of viscometer and rheometer in f igures 6-9, the
values of wall shear stresses determined using the Marsh-funnel are always of a higher order.
Here, it has to be kept in mind that the values of wall shear stress represent the shear stress
acting at the surface of the Marsh-funnel during drainage. These values are higher than the values
for the shear stress acting within the fluid, because the friction forces between funnel wall and
fluid are higher than the inner friction (= viscosity) of the fluid. With an inceasing solid content,
the deviation between the shear stresses of viscometer respectively rheometer and the wall shear
stress of Marsh-funnel for the same shear rate increases above average.

Fig u r e 6 : Comparison of the flow curves for suspension W 25 kg/ m³ drawn by Marsh-funnel, viscometer and rheometer

5.2 Results of bentonite suspension W 35 kg/ m³

Figure 7 shows the flow curves for bentonite suspension W 3.5% determined using Marsh-funnel,

shear rate γ [ 1/ s] and the y-coordinate the shear stress τ [ Pa] . This suspension shows a com-
viscometer FANN 35 and rheometer Rheolab QC. Within the diagram the x-coordinate shows the

plete drainage out of the Mash-funnel.

Due to the higher solid content of the bentonite suspension, higher values for wall shear stress
and shear stress in the fluid are measured. Even a slight difference between the values of visco-
meter and rheometer are visible. The more sensitive measuring system of the rheoemter might be
a reason for this. Compared to f igure 1, this suspensions shows a kind of ideal flow curve of a
shear thinning fluid with yield stress. I n general, the induced shear rates within the Marsh-funnel
exceed the the mechanically enforced shear rates of viscometer and rheometer explicitly
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Fig u r e 7 : Comparison of the flow curves for suspension W 35 kg/ m³ drawn by Marsh-funnel, viscometer and rheometer

5.3 Results of bentonite suspension W 45 kg/ m³

The flow curves for the bentonite suspension W 4.5% determined using Marsh-funnel, viscometer

nate shows the shear rate γ [ 1/ s] and the y-coordinate the shear stress τ [ Pa] . Even with this
FANN 35 and rheometer Rheolab QC are presented in f igure 8. Within the diagram the x-coordi-

relatively high amount of solid content, this suspension shows a complete drainage out of the
Mash-funnel.

Fig u r e 8 : Comparison of the flow curves for suspension W 45 kg/ m³ drawn by Marsh-funnel, viscometer and rheometer

I n this case, the shape of the flow curve of the Marsh-funnel is completey different to the flow
curves in f igures 6+ 7. Here, the induced shear rates within the Marsh-funnel are very small
compared to the mechanically induced shear rates of viscometer and rheometer. At the same time,
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the amount of maximum wall shear stress exceed the values of shear stresses by viscometer and
rheometer explicitly.

5.4 Results of bentonite suspension W 55 kg/ m³

Figure 9 shows the flow curves for the bentonite suspension W 5.5% determined using Marsh-

shows the shear rate γ [ 1/ s] and the y-coordinate the shear stress τ [ Pa] . Here , an incomplete
funnel, viscometer FANN 35 and rheometer Rheolab QC. Within the diagram the x-coordinate

drainage out of the Mash-funnel was performed.

Fig u r e 9 : Comparison of the flow curves for suspension W 55 kg/ m³ by Marsh-funnel, viscometer and rheometer

This suspensions shows the same effects as bentonite suspension 45 kg/ m³ with tendency to rise.
The occuring shear rates in the Marsh-funnel are very limited. Due to the incomplete drainage the
maximum wall shear rate remains below the shear stress of viscometer and rheometer. For the
choosen Wyoming bentonite, this solid content comes very close to the maximum that might be
measurable with the Marsh-funnel.

6. Conclusion
The bentonite suspensions with solid contents of 25, 35 and 45 kg/ m³ water show a complete
drainage out of the Marsh-funnel, the suspensions with solid contents of 55 kg/ m³ water stagnate
at a certain fluid height. I n genereal, with an increasing solid content the flow rate respectivly the
shear rate decreases considerably (f igures 6-9).
However, the mathematical formulas 6-18 provide the opportunity to draw flow curves from a
simple measurement using Marsh-funnel and to compare these flow curves with the flow curves
resulting from advanced measurement principles and testing procedures using viscometer and
rheometer.

on case of a complete drainage, the yield point τ 0 of the suspension is beyond the minimum
Furthermore, f igure 6-9 point out the physical limits of the measurement principle of Marsh-funnel:

formula 16. By introducing the boundary conditions Z = 0 , R0 = RL and cos α = 1 in formula 16,
value, that could be measured with the Marsh-funnel. This limiting value can be calculated using

the minimum wall shear rate τ w can be determined for the intersection to the cylindrical part of
the Marsh-funnel:
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τ w = ρgRL
1
Formula 19
2
Here, the wall shear rate depends only from the density ρ of the suspension; RL and g are
constant parameters. Using formula 19, the lower limit for a measurable yield point τ 0 can be

water with a density of ρ = 1.012kg / cm3 the lower limit of wall shear rate is 11,78 [ Pa] . Due to
calculated in reference to the Marsh-funnel geometry. For the bentonite suspension 25 kg/ m³

the fact that this suspension drains completely out of the funnel, the yield point τ 0 is below this
limit. I n case of a complete drainage, determination of the yield point is not possible using the
Marsh-funnel. This is also valid for the complete drainage of the bentonite suspensions with a solid
content of 35 and 45 kg/ m³ .

Tab u lar 1 : Determined values for yield point τ0 of bentonite suspensions using different measurement principles

τ0 τ0 τ0
Density Drainage of Marsh-funnel FANN 35 Rheometer
Marsh-
funnel
[ g/ cm³ ] [ Pa] [ Pa] [ Pa]
W 25 kg/ m³ 1.012 complete - 2,23 3,16
W 35 kg/ m³ 1.017 complete - 6,63 5,98
W 45 kg/ m³ 1.022 complete - 14,66 14,52
W 55 kg/ m³ 1.029 incomplete 25,35 24,96 23,72

On the contrary, with the value for a stagnation height in the funnel the yield point can be
determined for the bentonite suspension with solid content of 55 kg/ m³ water. The yield point is
calculated using formula 16 under consideration of the stagnation heigth Z and the corresponding
fluid volume V in the Marsh-funnel. Results of measured and calculated yield point for suspension
W 55 kg/ m³ are presented in table 1.
However, the flow curves shown in f igure 6-9 show no uniform distribution. This can be estab-
lished to the fact that the shear rate is imposed by the viscometer and rheometer mechanically in
def ined values and within the Marsh-funnel only imposed by the variation of suspension density in
accordance to the acceleration due to gravity. I n general, a higher viscosity of the bentonite
suspension leads to a considerable moderate flow behavior.
By means of the flow curves derived from viscometer and rheometer measurements, the yield
point for each bentonite suspension is determined by extrapolation of the single flow curve to a
shear rate of 0. Comparing the calculated value derived from Marsh-funnel tests with the
extrapolated values from viscometer and rheometer tests, the values show a relative good
compliance.

7. Nomenclature
V actual volume of funnel [ cm³ ] ρ density of fluid [ kg/ m³ ]
V0 total volume of funnel [ cm³ ] g accelaration due to gravity [ m/ s² ]
M mass of suspension [ g] n flow index of Herschel-Bulkley model [ -]

γ
Q volumetric flow rate [ cm³ / s] C consistency factor of H-B modell [ Pa sn]

τ shear stress [ Pa]

R0 maximum radius of funnel [ cm] shear rate [ 1/ s]

γw wall shear rate in funnel [ 1/ s]

Z1 maximum height of funnel [ cm]

τ w wall shear stress in funnel [ Pa]

RW radius of funnel during drainage [ cm]

τ 0 yield point / yield stress [ Pa]

Z height of funnel during drainage [ cm]

∆P pressure gradient [ Pa]

RL radius of capillary [ cm]

α angle of funnel [ °]
Z 2 length of capillary [ cm]
a parameter of funnel geometry = 0,065[ -]

8. References
[ 1] API 2009 RP 13B-1: Recommended Practice for f ield testing of water-based drilling fluids. 4th
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edition, American Petroleum I nstitute, March 2009.

[ 2] ASTM 2009 DE6910/ D6910M: Standard Test method for Marsh funnel Viscosity of Clay
Construction slurries.
[ 3] Balhoff, M.T.; Lake, L.W., Bommer, P.M.; Lewis, R.E.; Weber, M.J.; Calderin, J.M., 2011.
Rheological and yield stress measurement of non-Newtonian fluids using a Marsh-funnel. Journal
of petroleum Science and Engineering, Vol. 77, pp. 393-402.
[ 4] Bingham, E.C., 1922. Fluidity and plasticity. McGraw-Hill.
[ 4a] Brydson, J.A., 1981. Flow properties of polymer melts. 2nd ed. George Goodwin limited
London.
[ 5] DI N 4126: 2013-09: Nachweis der Standsicheri von Schlitzwänden. DI N Eutsches I nstitut für
Normung e.V., Berlin.
[ 6] Guria, C.; Kumar, R.; Mishra, P., 2013. Rheological analysis of drilling fluids using Marsh funnel.
Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, Vol. 105, pp. 62-69.
[ 7] Herschel, W.H.; Bulkley, R. 1926: Measurements of consistency as applied to rubber-benzene
solutions. I n: Am. Soc. Test Proc., Vol. 26, No. 2, p. 621-633.
[ 8] Marsh. H.N. 1931: Properties and treatment of mud. Petroleum Development Technology,
Transaction of AI ME, pp. 234-315.
[ 9] Skelland, A.H.P., 1967. Non-Newtonian Flow and heat transfer. John Wiley and Sons I nc.
[ 10] Sochi, T., 2007. Pore scale modelling of non-Newtonian flow in porous media. PhD thesis,
I mperial College London, Department of Earth Science and Engineering.