MCS3304

Electromechanical Devices
Engr. A. I. Khaleel
Electromechanical Energy Conversion
• From the previous discussion thus far, it’s apparent that
electromagnetomechanical devices are capable of converting
mechanical forces and displacements to electromagnetic energy, and
that the converse is also possible.
• The objective is to formalize the basic principles of energy conversion
in electromagnetomechanical systems, and to illustrate its usefulness
and potential for application by presenting several examples of
energy transducers.
• A transducer is a device that can convert electrical to mechanical
energy (in this case, it is often called an actuator), or vice versa (in
which case it is called a sensor)

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Electromechanical Energy Conversion
• Several physical mechanisms permit conversion of electrical to mechanical
energy and back

piezoelectric effect: consisting of the generation of a change in electric field in the

presence of strain in certain crystals (e.g., quartz)
electrostriction and magnetostriction: in which changes in the dimension of certain
materials lead to a change in their electrical (or magnetic) properties.

• Although these effects lead to many interesting applications,

• Here we are concerned only with transducers in which electrical energy is
converted to mechanical energy through the coupling of a magnetic field. It
is important to note that all rotating machines (motors and generators) fit
the basic definition of electromechanical transducers we have just given

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Electromechanical Energy Conversion
• As already seen, an electromechanical system includes an electrical
system and a mechanical system, in addition to means through which
the two can interact.

• The principal focus is the coupling that occurs through an

electromagnetic field common to both the electrical and the
mechanical system; to understand electromechanical energy
conversion, it will be important to understand the various energy
storage and loss mechanisms in the electromagnetic field.

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Electromechanical Energy Conversion
• In the mechanical system, energy loss can occur because of the heat
developed as a consequence of friction, while in the electrical system,
analogous losses are incurred because of resistance.

• Loss mechanisms are also present in the magnetic coupling medium, since
eddy current losses and hysteresis losses are unavoidable in ferromagnetic
materials.
• Either system can supply energy, and either system can store energy. Thus,
the figure depicts the flow of energy from the electrical to the mechanical
system, accounting for these various losses. The same flow could be
reversed if mechanical energy were converted to electrical form.
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 Classification of Electrical Actuators

Electrical actuators may be classified as:

 Electrical switches
 Electromagnetic actuators
 Electromechanical actuators
Electrical switches are used for on-off control action.
 They include switching devices such as diodes, transistors, triacs, MOSFET, and
relays.
 They accept a low energy level command signal from the controller and switch on
or off electrical devices such as motors, valves, and heating elements.

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 Classification of Electrical Actuators

Electromagnetic actuator can be Solenoid or electromagnet

 A DC solenoid actuator consists of a soft iron core enclosed within a current carrying
coil.
 When the coil is energized, a magnetic field is established that provides the force to
push or pull the iron core.
 AC solenoid devices are also encountered, such as AC excitation relay.
 The electromagnets are used extensively in applications that require large forces.

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Classification of Electrical Actuators
.

• Electromechanical actuators converts electrical energy into

mechanical motion.
 Motor is the most common electromechanical actuator.
 Motors can be broadly classified as:

 DC motors
 AC motors
 Stepper motors.

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DC Motors
• DC motors operate on DC voltage.
 Their speed can easily be controlled by varying their input voltages.
 They are widely used in applications ranging from thousands of horsepower
motors used in rolling mills to fractional horsepower motors used in automobiles
(starter motors, fan motors, windshield wiper motors, etc.).

 The main advantage of DC motors over AC motors is that they can easily be
controlled by varying their input voltages.
 The major disadvantages when compared to AC motors include:
• Cost
• Need of DC power supply
• Require more maintenance compared to AC motors.

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 Operation of DC motor
The basic construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying armature which is
connected to a supply end through commutator segments and brushes, and placed
within the north-south poles of a permanent or an electro-magnet.

The operation of a DC motor is based on the principle that when a current-carrying

conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction
is given by Fleming's Left-hand rule and whose magnitude is given by:

Force, F = B I L newton

Where:
B is the magnetic field in weber/m2.

I is the current in amperes and

L is the length of the conductor in meter.

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 Operation of DC motor
Fleming’s left hand rule states that if we extend the index finger, middle finger and thumb of
our left hand in such a way that the current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field
(represented by the index finger) is perpendicular to the direction of current (represented
by the middle finger), then the conductor experiences a force in the direction (represented
by the thumb) mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the current in the
conductor.

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 Operation of DC motor
 If an Electric current flows through two copper wires that are between the poles of a
magnet, an upward force will move one wire up and a downward force will move the
other wire down as illustrated below.
 The loop can be made to spin by fixing a half circle of copper which is known as
commutator, to each end of the loop.
 Current is passed into and out of the loop by brushes that press onto the commutator.

 The brushes do not go round so the wire

does not get twisted.
 This arrangement also makes sure that the
current always passes down on the right
and back on the left so that the rotation
continues..
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 DC motor Equations of motion
The input is electrical power and the output is mechanical power

Applying KVL to the armature circuit yields:

𝑉 −𝐿 − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝑒 = 0 (1)

But
𝑒=𝑘 𝜔 (2)
Substituting (1) in (2) gives:

𝑉 =𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑘 𝜔 (3)

The mechanical torque can be derived as:

𝐽 – Rotor Inertia
𝑏 – Viscous friction 𝑇=𝐽 + 𝑏𝜔 (4)

𝑇– Developed Torque The electrical torque which is equivalent to the mechanical torque
𝑅 – Armature Resistance is given as:
𝐿 – Armature Inductance 𝑇=𝑘 𝑖 (5)
𝑖 – Armature Current Equating (4) and (5) gives:
𝑣 – Applied Voltage
𝑘 𝑖=𝐽 + 𝑏𝜔 (6)
𝑒 – Back emf
Equations (3) and (6) are the equations of motion of an armature
𝜔 = 𝜃̇ – Motor speed
controlled DC motor
𝑘 – Back emf constant
13
𝑘 – Motor torque constant
 DC motor types
Based on the construction a DC motors can be classified in to two main groups:
 Brush-type DC motors
 Brushless DC motors
The brush type DC motor uses brushes to make contact with a commutator ring assembly
on the rotor (armature) to switch the current from one winding to another.
 Therefore, in brush type DC motor, the rotor has a coil winding and the stator can
either be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet (stator has a coil winding).
 Current is passed into and out of the loop by brushes that press onto the commutator.
The brush type DC motors with field coils (electromagnet as stator) can be classified
based on how the armature (from the rotor) windings and field windings (from the stator)
are connected as:

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 Brush DC motor types

 Series wound motor, in which the armature and field coils are in series thus carry the
same current. These motors have high starting torque and high no-load speed.
 Shunt wound motor, in which the armature and field coils are in parallel. These motors
have lower starting torque and lower no-load speed and have good speed regulation.
 Compound motor which has two field windings, one in series with armature and the
other in parallel. These motors have the best features of series and shunt wound motors
i.e. high starting torque and good speed regulation.
 Separately excited motor which has separate control of the armature and field currents
and is considered to be special case of the shunt-wound.

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 Brushless DC motor

 In the case of brushless DC motor, the arrangement is reversed in which the rotor is
permanent magnet and the stator has a coil winding.
 Therefore in brushless DC motor the use of commutator and brushes have been
eliminated hence makes it:
 Quiet
 low maintenance
 more reliable and
 capable of high speed compared to brush type.
 In the brushless DC motor, the current to the stator is electronically switched using
transistors in sequence round the coils, the switching being controlled by the position
of the rotor so that there are always forces acting on the magnet causing it to rotate in
the same direction.

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 AC motors
 AC motors are the most popular since they use standard AC power, do not require
brushes and commutator, and are therefore less expensive.
 They can be classified as:
 induction motors
 synchronous motors
 The induction motors are simple, rugged, and maintenance free.
 They are available in many sizes and shapes based on number of phases used.
 For example
 a three-phase induction motor is used in large-horsepower applications, such as
pump drives, steel mill drives, hoist drives, and vehicle drives.
 The two-phase servomotor is used extensively in position control systems.
 Single-phase induction motors are widely used in many household appliances.

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 Induction Motors Operation
 The basic induction motor consists of a rotor with a stator having set of windings

When an alternating current passes through the stator windings a rotating magnetic field
(magnetic flux) is produced around the stator winding, which revolves with synchronous
speed given as:
120𝑓
𝑁 =
𝑝

Where:
𝑓 is the supply frequency
𝑝 is the number of stator poles
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 Induction motors

• The relative speed between the stator rotating magnetic field and rotor conductors
causes an induced emf in the rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction
• Faraday's law states that whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an
emf will be induced in that conductor.
• The rotor conductors are short circuited; hence rotor current is produced due to the
induced emf. That is why such motors are called as induction motors.
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 Induction motors
• The induced current in rotor will also produce alternating magnetic field around it.
• This rotor magnetic field lags behind the stator magnetic field.
• The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's law (which states that an
induced emf generates a current that induces a counter magnetic field that opposes the
magnetic field generating the current), is such that it will tend to oppose the cause of its
production.
• As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator
magnetic field and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator rotating
magnetic field.
• Thus the rotor rotates in the same direction as that of stator magnetic field to minimize
the relative velocity.
• However, the rotor never succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed.

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 Induction motors
• Rotor tries to catch up the synchronous speed of the stator field, and hence it rotates.
• But in practice, rotor never succeeds in catching up.
• If rotor catches up the stator speed, there won’t be any relative speed between the stator
flux and the rotor
• hence no induced rotor current and no torque production to maintain the rotation. However,
this won't stop the motor, the rotor will slow down due to lost of torque, the torque will
again be exerted due to relative speed. That is why the rotor rotates at speed which is always
less the synchronous speed.

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 Induction motors
Advantages of Induction Motors
1. It has a simple design, low initial cost, rugged construction almost unbreakable
2. The operation is very simple with almost very less maintenance as there are no brushes.
3. The efficiency of these motors is very high, as there are no frictional losses, with
reasonably good power factor.
Disadvantages of A.C. Induction Motors
1. The speed control of these motors is not easy without some loss in efficiency
2. As the load on the motor increases, the speed decreases.
3. The starting torque is inferior when compared to D.C. Motors.

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 synchronous motors
 Synchronous motors have stators similar to those of induction motors but the rotor is
excited by a D.C power supply.

 Alternatively the rotor can be made of permanent magnet.

 Synchronous motors utilizing electromagnet as the rotor are called salient pole type.

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 synchronous motors
 Synchronous motors utilizing permanent as the rotor are called permanent magnet type
 DC supply is fed to the rotor winding via slip-rings. The direct current excites the rotor
winding and creates electromagnetic poles.

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 Synchronous Motors Operation
 When an alternating current passes through the stator windings a rotating magnetic field is
produced around the stator winding.
 The rotor winding is fed with DC supply which magnetizes the rotor.
 Consider a two pole synchronous machine shown below.
 The stator poles are revolving with synchronous speed (clockwise).
 If the rotor position is such that, N pole of the rotor is near the N pole of the stator, then
the poles of the stator and rotor will repel each other, and the torque produced will be
anticlockwise.

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 Synchronous Motors Operation

 The stator poles are rotating with synchronous speed, and they rotate around very fast and
interchange their position.
 But at this very soon, rotor cannot rotate with the same angle (due to inertia), and the
next position will be likely the second case. In this case, poles of the stator will attract the
poles of rotor, and the torque produced will be clockwise.
 Hence, the rotor will undergo a rapidly reversing torque, and the motor will not start.

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 Synchronous Motors Operation

 But, if the rotor is rotated up to the synchronous speed of the stator by means of an
external force (in the direction of revolving field of the stator), and the rotor field is excited
near the synchronous speed, the poles of stator will keep attracting the opposite poles of
the rotor (as the rotor is also, now, rotating with it and the position of the poles will be
similar throughout the cycle).
 Now, the rotor will undergo unidirectional torque. The opposite poles of the stator and
rotor will get locked with each other (magnetic locking), and the rotor will rotate at the
synchronous speed.

Synchronous motors are not self-starting. They need some external force to bring them near
to the synchronous speed.

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 Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motors

 Synchronous motors are mechanically coupled with another motor. It could be either 3
phase induction motor or DC shunt motor. DC excitation is not fed initially. It is rotated at
speed very close to its synchronous speed and after that DC excitation is given. After some
time when magnetic locking takes place supply to the external motor is cut off.
 Damper winding: In this case, synchronous motor must be salient pole type, additional
winding is placed in rotor pole face. Initially when rotor is standstill, relative speed
between damper winding and the stator rotating magnetic field is large and an emf is
induced in it which produces the required starting torque. As speed approaches
synchronous speed, emf and torque is reduced and finally when magnetic locking takes
place, torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case synchronous is first run as three
phase induction motor using additional winding and finally it is synchronized with the
frequency.

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 Stepper Motors

 Stepper motor (also called as step motor) is basically a brushless DC motor, whose rotor
rotates through a fixed angular step in response to input current pulse.
 That means, the full rotation of the rotor is divided into equal number of steps, and rotor
rotates through one step for each current pulse.
 Stepper motor is a type of actuator highly compatible with numerical control means, as it
is essentially an electromechanical converter of digital impulses into proportional
movement of its shaft, providing precise speed, position and direction control in an open-
loop fashion, without requiring encoders, end-of-line switches or other types of sensors as
conventional electric motors require.
 Due to their ability to move in steps stepper motors find application in industrial
automation and robotics. They are used in IC fabrication units. They also play an integral
part in the design of CNC (Computer Numeric Control) machines and x-y plotters.

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 Stepper Motors

There are three main types of stepper motors:

1. Permanent magnet stepper motors;
2. Variable reluctance stepper motors;
3. Hybrid stepper motors.
• Permanent magnet stepper motor has wound stator poles and permanently magnetized
rotor which is constructed in cylindrical shape as shown.
• In this type of stepper motor, the direction of the rotor depends on the polarity of stator
current.

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 Stepper Motors
• When a stator is energized, it develops electromagnetic poles. The magnetic rotor aligns
along the magnetic field of the stator as shown.
• The other stator is then energized in the sequence so that the rotor moves and aligns itself
to the new magnetic field.
• This way energizing the stators in a fixed sequence rotates the stepper motor by fixed
angles.

• This type of motor can provide higher torque and also has the property of
holding torque, when the windings are not energized.
• Steps are large, 45 to 120 degrees, because the number of permanent magnets
that can be mounted on the rotor is much smaller.
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 Stepper Motors
• Variable reluctance stepper motors has a toothed non-magnetic soft iron rotor.
• When the stator coil is energized the rotor moves to have a minimum gap between the
stator and its teeth (the rotor will turn in such manner that the magnetic field lines should
follow a minimum reluctance path).

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 Stepper Motors
• The teeth of the rotor are designed so that when they are aligned with one stator they get
misaligned with the next stator.
• Now when the next stator is energized, the rotor moves to align its teeth with the next
stator.
• This way energizing stators in a fixed sequence completes the rotation of the step motor.

• This type of construction allows for achieving small to medium step angles and
operation at high control frequencies.
• However a motor of this type cannot hold its position, i.e. has no holding torque,
when no current flows through the stator windings.

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 Stepper Motors

Hybrid stepper motor is a combination of both permanent magnet and the variable
reluctance.
 It has a magnetic teethed rotor which better guides magnetic flux to preferred location in
the air gap.
 The Hybrid motor rotates on same principle of energizing the stator coils in a sequence.
 The hybrid stepper motor combines the advantages of the other two.

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 Stepper motors
Advantages of Stepper Motors
1. They can be employed in open-loop control applications;
2. They have a wide range of control frequencies;
3. They provide precision and high resolution for positioning;
4. They allow for sudden starting, stopping or reversing without losing steps;
5. They can hold their position;
6. They are highly compatible with numerical control.
Disadvantages of Stepper Motors
1. Fixed step value (angular displacement) for a given motor;
2. Relatively low speed;
3. Low torque;
4. Low power efficiency.

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