BJTS

Bipolar Junction Transistors: Part 1
M. B. Patil
mbpatil@ee.iitb.ac.in
www.ee.iitb.ac.in/~sequel
Department of Electrical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Bipolar Junction Transistors
Emitter p n p Collector Emitter n p n Collector
Base Base
pnp transistor npn transistor

Base Base
* Bipolar: both electrons and holes contribute to conduction

Base Base

* Junction: device includes two p-n junctions (as opposed to a “point-contact” transistor, the first
transistor)

Base Base

transistor)
* Transistor: “transfer resistor”
When Bell Labs had an informal contest to name their new invention, one engineer pointed out that it acts like a resistor,
but a resistor where the voltage is transferred across the device to control the resulting current.
(http://amasci.com/amateur/trshort.html)

Base Base

transistor)
* invented in 1947 by Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain at Bell Laboratories.

Base Base

transistor)
* BJT is still used extensively, and anyone interested in electronics must have at least a working knowledge
of this device.

Base Base

transistor)
of this device.
* “A BJT is two diodes connected back-to-back.”

Base Base

transistor)
of this device.
* “A BJT is two diodes connected back-to-back.”
WRONG! Let us see why.

Consider a pnp BJT in the following circuit:
R1 E C R2
p n p
1k I1 I2 1k
B
I3 10 V
5V

R1 E C R2
p n p
1k I1 I2 1k
B
I3 10 V
5V
If the transistor is replaced with two diodes connected back-to-back, we get

R1 E C R2
1k I1 D1 D2 I2 1k
B
5V
I3 10 V

R1 E C R2
p n p
1k I1 I2 1k
B
I3 10 V
5V
If the transistor is replaced with two diodes connected back-to-back, we get

R1 E C R2
1k I1 D1 D2 I2 1k
B
5V
I3 10 V
Assuming Von = 0.7 V for D1, we get

5 V − 0.7 V
I1 = = 4.3 mA,
R1
I2 = 0 (since D2 is reverse biased), and I3 ≈ I1 = 4.3 mA.
Using a more realistic equivalent circuit for the BJT, we obtain,
R1 E C R2 R1 E α I1 C R2
p n p
1k I1 I2 1k 1k I1 I2 1k
B B
I3 I3
5V 10 V 5V 10 V

p n p
1k I1 I2 1k 1k I1 I2 1k
B B
I3 I3
5V 10 V 5V 10 V
We now get,
5 V − 0.7 V
I1 = = 4.3 mA (as before),
R1

p n p
1k I1 I2 1k 1k I1 I2 1k
B B
I3 I3
5V 10 V 5V 10 V
We now get,
5 V − 0.7 V
R1
I2 = αI1 ≈ 4.3 mA (since α ≈ 1 for a typical BJT), and

p n p
1k I1 I2 1k 1k I1 I2 1k
B B
I3 I3
5V 10 V 5V 10 V
We now get,
5 V − 0.7 V
R1
I3 = I1 − I2 = (1 − α) I1 ≈ 0 A.

p n p
1k I1 I2 1k 1k I1 I2 1k
B B
I3 I3
5V 10 V 5V 10 V
We now get,
5 V − 0.7 V
R1
I3 = I1 − I2 = (1 − α) I1 ≈ 0 A.
The values of I2 and I3 are dramatically different than the ones obtained earlier, viz., I2 ≈ 0, I3 ≈ 4.3 mA.

p n p
1k I1 I2 1k 1k I1 I2 1k
B B
I3 I3
5V 10 V 5V 10 V
We now get,
5 V − 0.7 V
R1
I3 = I1 − I2 = (1 − α) I1 ≈ 0 A.
The values of I2 and I3 are dramatically different than the ones obtained earlier, viz., I2 ≈ 0, I3 ≈ 4.3 mA.
Conclusion: A BJT is NOT the same as two diodes connected back-to-back
(although it does have two p-n junctions).

What is wrong with the two-diode model of a BJT?


* When we replace a BJT with two diodes, we assume that there is no interaction between the two diodes,
which may be expected if they are “far apart.”
Emitter p n p Collector
Base
Emitter Collector
D1 Base D2


Base
Emitter Collector
D1 Base D2
* However, in a BJT, exactly the opposite is true. For a higher performance, the base region is made as
short as possible, and the two diodes cannot be treated as independent devices.
Base


Base
Emitter Collector
D1 Base D2
* However, in a BJT, exactly the opposite is true. For a higher performance, the base region is made as
short as possible, and the two diodes cannot be treated as independent devices.
Base
* Later, we will look at the “Ebers-Moll model” of a BJT, which is a fairly accurate representation of the
transistor action.

BJT in active mode
E p n p C E C E n p n C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
* In the active mode of a BJT, the B-E junction is under forward bias, and the B-C junction is under
reverse bias.
- For a pnp transistor, VEB > 0 V , and VCB < 0 V .
- For an npn transistor, VBE > 0 V , and VBC < 0 V .

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
reverse bias.
* Since the B-E junction is under forward bias, the voltage (magnitude) is typically 0.6 to 0.75 V .

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
reverse bias.
* The B-C voltage can be several Volts (or even hundreds of Volts), and is limited by the breakdown voltage
of the B-C junction.

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
reverse bias.
* The symbol for a BJT includes an arrow for the emitter terminal, its direction indicating the current
direction when the transistor is in active mode.

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
reverse bias.
* The symbol for a BJT includes an arrow for the emitter terminal, its direction indicating the current
direction when the transistor is in active mode.
* Analog circuits, including amplifiers, are generally designed to ensure that the BJTs are operating in the
active mode.

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
α IE α IE
E C E C
IE IC IE IC
IB IB
B B

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
α IE α IE
E C E C
IE IC IE IC
IB IB
B B
* In the active mode, IC = α IE , α ≈ 1 (slightly less than 1).

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
α IE α IE
E C E C
IE IC IE IC
IB IB
B B

* IB = IE − IC = IE (1 − α) .

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
α IE α IE
E C E C
IE IC IE IC
IB IB
B B

* IB = IE − IC = IE (1 − α) .
* The ratio IC /IB is defined as the current gain β of the transistor.
IC α
β= = .
IB 1−α

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
α IE α IE
E C E C
IE IC IE IC
IB IB
B B

* IB = IE − IC = IE (1 − α) .
* The ratio IC /IB is defined as the current gain β of the transistor.
IC α
β= = .
IB 1−α
* β is a function of IC and temperature. However, we will generally treat it as a constant, a useful
approximation to simplify things and still get a good insight.

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
α IE α IE
E C E C
IE IC IE IC
IB IB
B B
IC α
β= =
IB 1−α

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
α IE α IE
E C E C
IE IC IE IC
IB IB
B B
IC α
β= =
IB 1−α
α β
0.9 9
0.95 19
0.99 99
0.995 199

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
α IE α IE
E C E C
IE IC IE IC
IB IB
B B
IC α
β= =
IB 1−α
* β increases substantially as α → 1.
α β
0.9 9
0.95 19
0.99 99
0.995 199

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
α IE α IE
E C E C
IE IC IE IC
IB IB
B B
IC α
β= =
IB 1−α
α β * Transistors are generally designed to get a high value of β
(typically 100 to 250, but can be as high as 2000 for
0.9 9
“super-β” transistors).
0.95 19
0.99 99
0.995 199

BJT in active mode
IB IB IB
IB
B B B B
α IE α IE
E C E C
IE IC IE IC
IB IB
B B
IC α
β= =
IB 1−α
α β * Transistors are generally designed to get a high value of β
(typically 100 to 250, but can be as high as 2000 for
0.9 9
“super-β” transistors).
0.95 19
* A large β ⇒ IB IC or IE when the transistor is in the
0.99 99 active mode.
0.995 199

A simple BJT circuit
1k RC
C 10 V
100 k VCC
β = 100
RB B
VBB E
2V
10 V VCC
1k RC 1k RC
C 10 V
VCC n
100 k 100 k p
β = 100
RB B VBB RB
2V n
VBB E
2V
10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
100 k 100 k p 100 k αIE
β = 100
RB B VBB RB VBB RB IB
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
100 k 100 k p 100 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE
Assume the BJT to be in the active mode ⇒ VBE = 0.7 V and IC = αIE = β IB .

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
100 k 100 k p 100 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE
VBB − VBE 2 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 13 µA.
RB 100 k

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
100 k 100 k p 100 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE
VBB − VBE 2 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 13 µA.
RB 100 k
IC = β × IB = 100 × 13 µA = 1.3 mA.

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
100 k 100 k p 100 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE
VBB − VBE 2 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 13 µA.
RB 100 k
IC = β × IB = 100 × 13 µA = 1.3 mA.
VC = VCC − IC RC = 10 V − 1.3 mA × 1 k = 8.7 V .

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
100 k 100 k p 100 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE
VBB − VBE 2 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 13 µA.
RB 100 k
IC = β × IB = 100 × 13 µA = 1.3 mA.
VC = VCC − IC RC = 10 V − 1.3 mA × 1 k = 8.7 V .
Let us check whether our assumption of active mode is correct. We need to check whether the B-C junction is
under reverse bias.

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
100 k 100 k p 100 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE
VBB − VBE 2 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 13 µA.
RB 100 k
IC = β × IB = 100 × 13 µA = 1.3 mA.
VC = VCC − IC RC = 10 V − 1.3 mA × 1 k = 8.7 V .
Let us check whether our assumption of active mode is correct. We need to check whether the B-C junction is
under reverse bias.
VBC = VB − VC = 0.7 V − 8.7 V = −8.0 V ,
i.e., the B-C junction is indeed under reverse bias.
A simple BJT circuit: continued
10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
10 k 10 k p 10 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE
What happens if RB is changed from 100 k to 10 k?

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
10 k 10 k p 10 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE

Assuming the BJT to be in the active mode again, we have VBE ≈ 0.7 V , and IC = β IB .

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
10 k 10 k p 10 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE

VBB − VBE 2 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 130 µA
RB 10 k

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
10 k 10 k p 10 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE

VBB − VBE 2 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 130 µA → IC = β × IB = 100 × 130 µA = 13 mA.
RB 10 k

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
10 k 10 k p 10 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE

VBB − VBE 2 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 130 µA → IC = β × IB = 100 × 130 µA = 13 mA.
RB 10 k
VC = VCC − IC RC = 10 V − 13 mA × 1 k = −3 V

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
10 k 10 k p 10 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE

VBB − VBE 2 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 130 µA → IC = β × IB = 100 × 130 µA = 13 mA.
RB 10 k
VC = VCC − IC RC = 10 V − 13 mA × 1 k = −3 V
→ VBC = VB − VC = 0.7 V − (−3) V = 3.7 V .

10 V VCC
10 V VCC 1k RC
1k RC 1k RC IC
C 10 V
VCC n
10 k 10 k p 10 k αIE
β = 100
2V n 2V
VBB E
2V IE

VBB − VBE 2 V − 0.7 V
IB = = = 130 µA → IC = β × IB = 100 × 130 µA = 13 mA.
RB 10 k
VC = VCC − IC RC = 10 V − 13 mA × 1 k = −3 V
→ VBC = VB − VC = 0.7 V − (−3) V = 3.7 V .
VBC is not only positive, it is huge!
→ The BJT cannot be in the active mode, and we need to take another look at the circuit.
Ebers-Moll model for a pnp transistor
Active mode (“forward” active mode): B-E in f.b. B-C in r.b.
α IE
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
α IE
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
Reverse active mode: B-E in r.b. B-C in f.b.
αR (−IC ) −IC
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B

α IE
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
αR (−IC ) −IC
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
In the reverse active mode, emitter ↔ collector. (However, we continue to refer to the terminals with their
original names.)

α IE
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
αR (−IC ) −IC
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
original names.)
The two α’s, αF (forward α) and αR (reverse α) are generally quite different.

α IE
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
αR (−IC ) −IC
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
original names.)
Typically, αF > 0.98, and αR is in the range from 0.02 to 0.5.

α IE
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
αR (−IC ) −IC
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
original names.)
The corresponding current gains (βF and βR ) differ significantly, since β = α/(1 − α).

α IE
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
αR (−IC ) −IC
E p n p C E C E C
IE IC IE IC IE IC
IB IB IB
B B B
original names.)
The corresponding current gains (βF and βR ) differ significantly, since β = α/(1 − α).
In amplifiers, the BJT is biased in the forward active mode (simply called the “active mode”) in order to make
use of the higher value of β in that mode. M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
The Ebers-Moll model combines the forward and reverse operations of a BJT in a single comprehensive model.
E p n p C I′E αF I′E
IE IC
IE D1 IC
IB
E C
B
(p) D2 (p)
E C αR I′C
IE IC IB I′C
IB (n) B
B

IE IC
IE D1 IC
IB
E C
B
(p) D2 (p)
E C αR I′C
IE IC IB I′C
IB (n) B
B
The currents IE0 and IC0 are given by the Shockley diode equation:

VEB VCB
IE0 = IES exp − 1 , IC0 = ICS exp −1 .
VT VT

IE IC
IE D1 IC
IB
E C
B
(p) D2 (p)
E C αR I′C
IE IC IB I′C
IB (n) B
B
The currents IE0 and IC0 are given by the Shockley diode equation:

VEB VCB
IE0 = IES exp − 1 , IC0 = ICS exp −1 .
VT VT
Mode B-E B-C

Forward active forward reverse IE0 IC0
Reverse active reverse forward IC0 IE0
Saturation forward forward IE0 and IC0 are comparable.
Cut-off reverse reverse IE0 and IC0 are negliglbe.

Ebers-Moll model
pnp transistor
IE IC
IE D1 IC I′E = IES [exp(VEB /VT ) − 1]
IB
E C
B
(p) D2 (p) I′C = ICS [exp(VCB /VT ) − 1]
E C
IE IC αR I′C I′C
IB
IB (n) B
B
npn transistor
E n p n C I′E αF I′E
IE IC
IE D1 IC I′E = IES [exp(VBE /VT ) − 1]
IB
E C
B
(n) D2 (n) I′C = ICS [exp(VBC /VT ) − 1]
E C
IB
IB (p) B
B
Ebers-Moll model
pnp transistor
IE IC
IB
E C
B
E C
IB
IB (n) B
B
npn transistor
STOP
IE IC
IB
E C
B
E C
IB
IB (p) B
B
Ebers-Moll model in active mode

Ebers-Moll model in active mode
pnp transistor
IE IC
IB
E C
B
E C
IB IC = αF IE = βF IB
IB (n) B
B
npn transistor
IE IC
IB
E C
B
E C
IB IC = αF IE = βF IB
IB (p) B
B

BJT I -V characteristics
IC
VCB
p n
B VCE
IB n
VBE IE

IC
VCB
p n
B VCE
IB n
VBE IE
* Since BJT is a three-terminal device, its behaviour can be described in many different ways, e.g.,

IC
VCB
p n
B VCE
IB n
VBE IE
- IC versus VCB for different values of IE

IC
VCB
p n
B VCE
IB n
VBE IE
- IC versus VCE for different values of VBE

IC
VCB
p n
B VCE
IB n
VBE IE
- IC versus VCE for different values of IB

IC
VCB
p n
B VCE
IB n
VBE IE
* The I -V relationship for a BJT is not a single curve but a “family” of curves or “characteristics.”

IC
VCB
p n
B VCE
IB n
VBE IE
* The I -V relationship for a BJT is not a single curve but a “family” of curves or “characteristics.”
* The IC -VCE characteristics for different IB values are useful in understanding amplifier biasing.

VCE
E C
IE IC
IB
B
IB0
10 µA
αF
αF = 0.99 → βF = = 99
1 − αF
αR
αR = 0.5 → βR = =1
1 − αR
IES = 1 × 10−14 A
ICS = 2 × 10−14 A
VCE
I′E αF I′E
VCE
IE D1 IC
E C
E C
IE IC (n) D2 (n)
IB αR I′C
B IB I′C
IB0 (p) B
10 µA IB0
10 µA
αF
αF = 0.99 → βF = = 99
1 − αF
αR I′E = IES [exp(VBE /VT ) − 1]
αR = 0.5 → βR = =1
1 − αR
I′C = ICS [exp(VBC /VT ) − 1]
IES = 1 × 10−14 A
ICS = 2 × 10−14 A IC = αF IE = βF IB in active mode
1.0
VCE 0.5 VBE (Volts)
I′E 0.0
αF I′E
VCE −0.5 VBC (Volts)
IE D1 IC
E C
E C −1.0
IE IC (n) D2 (n)
−1.5
IB αR I′C 20
B IB I′C
IB0 (p) B I′C (µA)
10 µA IB0 10
10 µA
αF
αF = 0.99 → βF = = 99
1 − αF
αR I′E = IES [exp(VBE /VT ) − 1] 0
αR = 0.5 → βR = =1
1 − αR 1.2
I′C = ICS [exp(VBC /VT ) − 1] sat lin
IES = 1 × 10−14 A
ICS = 2 × 10 −14
A IC = αF IE = βF IB in active mode 0.8
0.4
IC (mA)
0
I′E (mA)
VCE :0 0.5 1 1.5 2

1.0
VCE 0.5 VBE (Volts)
I′E 0.0
αF I′E
VCE −0.5 VBC (Volts)
IE D1 IC
E C
E C −1.0
IE IC (n) D2 (n)
−1.5
IB αR I′C 20
B IB I′C
IB0 (p) B I′C (µA)
10 µA IB0 10
10 µA
αF
αF = 0.99 → βF = = 99
1 − αF
αR I′E = IES [exp(VBE /VT ) − 1] 0
αR = 0.5 → βR = =1
1 − αR 1.2
I′C = ICS [exp(VBC /VT ) − 1] sat lin
IES = 1 × 10−14 A
ICS = 2 × 10 −14
A IC = αF IE = βF IB in active mode 0.8
0.4
* linear region: B-E under forward bias, B-C under reverse bias, IC = βF IB IC (mA)
* saturation region: B-E under forward bias, B-C under forward bias, IC < βF IB 0
I′E (mA)
VCE :0 0.5 1 1.5 2

1.0
VCE
0.5 VBE (Volts)
I′E αF I′E
VCE 0.0
IE D1 IC
E C VBC (Volts)
E
IE IC (n) D2 C −0.5
(n)
IB αR I′C
B IB I′C −1.0
10 µA (p) B
−1.5
10 µA
sat lin
2
αF
αF = 0.99 → βF = = 99
1 − αF
αR = 0.5 → βR = =1
1 − αR
IES = 1 × 10−14 A 1
IC = αF IE = βF IB in active mode IB = 10 µA
ICS = 2 × 10−14 A
0
* saturation region: B-E under forward bias, B-C under forward bias, IC < βF IB 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
VCE (Volts)
1.0
VCE
0.5 VBE (Volts)
I′E αF I′E
VCE 0.0
IE D1 IC
E C VBC (Volts)
E
IE IC (n) D2 C −0.5
(n)
IB αR I′C
B IB I′C −1.0
10 µA (p) B
20 µA −1.5
10 µA
20 µA sat lin
2
αF IB = 20 µA
αF = 0.99 → βF = = 99
1 − αF
αR = 0.5 → βR = =1
1 − αR
IES = 1 × 10−14 A 1
IC = αF IE = βF IB in active mode IB = 10 µA
ICS = 2 × 10−14 A
0
* saturation region: B-E under forward bias, B-C under forward bias, IC < βF IB 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
VCE (Volts)

A simple BJT circuit (revisited)
10 V VCC
1k RC
β = 100 IC
n
p
VBB RB I B n
2V
IE
We are now in a position to explain what happens when RB is decreased from 100 k to 10 k in the above circuit.
10 V VCC
1k RC
β = 100 IC
n
p
VBB RB I B n
2V
IE
VBB − 0.7 V
Let us plot IC − VCE curves for IB ≈ for the two values of RB .
RB
saturation
linear
10 V VCC 15
1k RC IB = 130 µA (RB = 10 k)
10
β = 100 IC
IC (mA)
n
p
5
VBB RB I B n
2V
IE IB = 13 µA (RB = 100 k)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
VCE (V)
VBB − 0.7 V
RB
saturation
linear
10 V VCC 15
1k RC IB = 130 µA (RB = 10 k)
10
β = 100 IC
IC (mA)
n
p
5
VBB RB I B n
2V
IE IB = 13 µA (RB = 100 k)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
VCE (V)
VBB − 0.7 V
RB
In addition to the BJT IC − VCE curve, the circuit variables must also satisfy the constraint,
VCC = VCE + IC RC , a straight line in the IC − VCE plane.
saturation
linear
10 V VCC 15
1k RC IB = 130 µA (RB = 10 k)
10
β = 100 IC
IC (mA)
n load line
p
5
VBB RB I B n
2V
IE IB = 13 µA (RB = 100 k)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
VCE (V)
VBB − 0.7 V
RB
saturation
linear
10 V VCC 15
1k RC IB = 130 µA (RB = 10 k)
10
β = 100 IC
IC (mA)
n load line
p
5
VBB RB I B n
2V
IE IB = 13 µA (RB = 100 k)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
VCE (V)
VBB − 0.7 V
RB
The intersection of the load line and the BJT characteristics gives the solution for the circuit. For RB = 10 k,
note that the BJT operates in the saturation region, leading to VCE ≈ 0.2 V , and IC = 9.8 mA.
BJT circuit example
Assuming the transistor to be operating in the active region, find RE and RC to obtain IE = 2 mA, and
VBC = 1 V (α ≈ 1).
IE E C IC
RE B RC
5V 5V
VEE VCC

BJT circuit example
VBC = 1 V (α ≈ 1).
IE E C IC
RE B RC
5V 5V
VEE VCC
VEB − VEE + IE RE = 0

BJT circuit example
VBC = 1 V (α ≈ 1).
IE E C IC
RE B RC
5V 5V
VEE VCC
VEB − VEE + IE RE = 0 → IE RE = 5 − 0.7

BJT circuit example
VBC = 1 V (α ≈ 1).
IE E C IC
RE B RC
5V 5V
VEE VCC
4.3 V
VEB − VEE + IE RE = 0 → IE RE = 5 − 0.7 → RE = = 2.15 k.
2 mA

BJT circuit example
VBC = 1 V (α ≈ 1).
IE E C IC
RE B RC
5V 5V
VEE VCC
4.3 V
2 mA
VBC + IC RC − VCC = 0

BJT circuit example
VBC = 1 V (α ≈ 1).
IE E C IC
RE B RC
5V 5V
VEE VCC
4.3 V
2 mA
VBC + IC RC − VCC = 0 → IC RC = VCC − VBC .

BJT circuit example
VBC = 1 V (α ≈ 1).
IE E C IC
RE B RC
5V 5V
VEE VCC
4.3 V
2 mA
Since α ≈ 1, IC ≈ IE

BJT circuit example
VBC = 1 V (α ≈ 1).
IE E C IC
RE B RC
5V 5V
VEE VCC
4.3 V
2 mA
4V
Since α ≈ 1, IC ≈ IE → IE RC ≈ 5 − 1 → RC = = 2 k.
2 mA

BJT Amplifiers: Part 1
M. B. Patil


BJT amplifier: basic operation
VCC
IC IC
VCC RC
RC IC
Vo
αIE
VB VB IB
IE t
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
VBE

VCC
IC IC
VCC RC
RC IC
Vo
αIE
VB VB IB
IE t
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
VBE
* In the active mode, IC changes exponentially

with VBE : IC = αF IES [exp(VBE /VT ) − 1]

VCC
IC IC
VCC RC
RC IC
Vo
αIE
VB VB IB
IE t
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
VBE

* Vo (t) = VCC − IC (t) RC
⇒ the amplitude of Vo , i.e., IbC RC , can be
made much larger than V cB.
t

VCC
IC IC
VCC RC
RC IC
Vo
αIE
VB VB IB
IE t
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
VBE

* Vo (t) = VCC − IC (t) RC
⇒ the amplitude of Vo , i.e., IbC RC , can be
made much larger than V cB.
* Note that both the input (VBE ) and output t

(Vo ) voltages have DC (“bias”) components.

VCC
IC (mA)
RC 50
VCC
IC 40
RC
1
30
Vo
αIE
20
VB VB IB
10 2
IE
0
t
2 1
t
0.6 0.7
VBE (Volts)
VCC
IC (mA)
RC 50
VCC
IC 40
RC
1
30
Vo
αIE
20
VB VB IB
10 2
IE
0
t
* The gain depends on the DC (bias) value of VBE ,
the input voltage in this circuit.
2 1
t
0.6 0.7
VBE (Volts)
VCC
IC (mA)
RC 50
VCC
IC 40
RC
1
30
Vo
αIE
20
VB VB IB
10 2
IE
0
t
* In practice, it is not possible to set the bias value 2 1
of the input voltage to the desired value (e.g.,
0.673 V).
t
0.6 0.7
VBE (Volts)
VCC
IC (mA)
RC 50
VCC
IC 40
RC
1
30
Vo
αIE
20
VB VB IB
10 2
IE
0
t
0.673 V).
* Even if we could set the input bias as desired,
device-to-device variation, change in temperature,
etc. would cause the gain to change.
→ need a better biasing method.
t
0.6 0.7
VBE (Volts)
VCC
IC (mA)
RC 50
VCC
IC 40
RC
1
30
Vo
αIE
20
VB VB IB
10 2
IE
0
t
0.673 V).
* Even if we could set the input bias as desired,
device-to-device variation, change in temperature,
etc. would cause the gain to change.
→ need a better biasing method.
* Biasing the transistor at a specific VBE is t
equivalent to biasing it at a specific IC . 0.6 0.7
VBE (Volts)
BJT amplifier biasing
saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)
Consider a more realistic BJT amplifier circuit, with RB added to limit the base current (and thus protect the
transistor).

saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)
transistor).
* When Vi < 0.7 V, the B-E junction is not sufficiently forward biased, and the BJT is in the cut-off mode
(VBE = Vi , VBC = Vi − VCC )

saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)
transistor).
Vi − 0.7
* When Vi exceeds 0.7 V, the BJT enters the linear region, and IB ≈ . As Vi increases, IB and
RB
IC = βIB also increase, and Vo = VCC − IC RC falls.

saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)
transistor).
Vi − 0.7
* When Vi exceeds 0.7 V, the BJT enters the linear region, and IB ≈ . As Vi increases, IB and
RB
IC = βIB also increase, and Vo = VCC − IC RC falls.
* As Vi is increased further, Vo reaches VCEsat (about 0.2 V), and the BJT enters the saturation region (both
B-E and B-C junctions are forward biased).

saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)

saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)
dVo
* The gain of the amplifier is given by .
dVi

saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)
dVo
dVi
* Since Vo is nearly constant for Vi < 0.7 V (due to cut-off) and Vi > 1.3 V (due to saturation), the circuit
will not work an an amplifier in this range.

saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)
dVo
dVi
* Since Vo is nearly constant for Vi < 0.7 V (due to cut-off) and Vi > 1.3 V (due to saturation), the circuit
will not work an an amplifier in this range.
* Further, to get a large swing in Vo without distortion, the DC bias of Vi should be at the centre of the
amplifying region, i.e., Vi ≈ 1 V .

VCC
RC
C Vo
B
Vi RB
E
B
5
3
Vo
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Vi
1.05
VCC B
1.03
RC Vi
1.01
C Vo
B 0.99
Vi RB
E 0.97
B
5 0.95
3.40
4
3.20
Vo
3
Vo 3.00
2 2.80
1 2.60
2.40
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 1 2 3 4 5
Vi t (msec)
1.05
VCC B
1.03
RC Vi
1.01
C Vo
B 0.99
Vi RB
E 0.97
AB
5 0.95
3.40
4
3.20
Vo
3
Vo 3.00
2 2.80
1 2.60
2.40
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 1 2 3 4 5
Vi t (msec)
0.80 1.05
VCC A B
0.78 1.03
RC Vi
Vi
0.76 1.01
C Vo
B 0.74 0.99
Vi RB
E 0.72 0.97
AB
5 0.70 0.95
5.00 3.40
4
4.90 3.20
Vo Vo
3
Vo 4.80 3.00
2 4.70 2.80
1 4.60 2.60
4.50 2.40
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 1 2 3 4 5
Vi t (msec) t (msec)
0.80 1.05
VCC A B
0.78 1.03
RC Vi
Vi
0.76 1.01
C Vo
B 0.74 0.99
Vi RB
E 0.72 0.97
ABC
5 0.70 0.95
5.00 3.40
4
4.90 3.20
Vo Vo
3
Vo 4.80 3.00
2 4.70 2.80
1 4.60 2.60
4.50 2.40
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 1 2 3 4 5
Vi t (msec) t (msec)
0.80 1.05 1.35

VCC A B C
0.78 1.03 1.33
RC Vi Vi
Vi
0.76 1.01 1.31
C Vo
B 0.74 0.99 1.29
Vi RB
E 0.72 0.97 1.27
ABC
5 0.70 0.95 1.25
5.00 3.40 0.65
4
4.90 3.20 0.55
Vo Vo Vo
3
Vo 4.80 3.00 0.45
2 4.70 2.80 0.35
1 4.60 2.60 0.25
4.50 2.40 0.15

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 1 2 3 4 5
Vi t (msec) t (msec) t (msec)

0.80 1.05 1.35

VCC A B C
0.78 1.03 1.33
RC Vi Vi
Vi
0.76 1.01 1.31
C Vo
B 0.74 0.99 1.29
Vi RB
E 0.72 0.97 1.27
ABC
5 0.70 0.95 1.25
5.00 3.40 0.65
4
4.90 3.20 0.55
Vo Vo Vo
3
Vo 4.80 3.00 0.45
2 4.70 2.80 0.35
1 4.60 2.60 0.25
4.50 2.40 0.15

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 1 2 3 4 5
Vi t (msec) t (msec) t (msec)
(SEQUEL file: ee101 bjt amp1.sqproj)

BJT amplifier
saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)
* The key challenges in realizing this amplifier in practice are

BJT amplifier
saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)

- adjusting the input DC bias to ensure that the BJT remains in the linear (active) region with a
certain bias value of VBE (or IC ).

BJT amplifier
saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)

- mixing the input DC bias with the signal voltage.

BJT amplifier
saturation
5
linear
VCC /RC
5 V VCC IB5 4
IB4
Vo (Volts)
RC 3
IB3
IC
C Vo 2
B IB2
Vi RB 1
E IB1
0 0
0 VCC 0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (Vo )
Vi (Volts)

- mixing the input DC bias with the signal voltage.
* The first issue is addressed by using a suitable biasing scheme, and the second by using “coupling”
capacitors.

BJT amplifier: a simple biasing scheme
15 V VCC
RC
RB 1k
C
B
E
“Biasing” an amplifier ⇒ selection of component values for a certain DC value of IC (or VBE )
(i.e., when no signal is applied).

15 V VCC
RC
RB 1k
C
B
E
Equivalently, we may bias an amplifier for a certain DC value of VCE , since IC and VCE are related:
VCE + IC RC = VCC .

15 V VCC
RC
RB 1k
C
B
E
VCE + IC RC = VCC .
As an example, for RC = 1 k, β = 100, let us calculate RB for IC = 3.3 mA, assuming the BJT to be operating
in the active mode.

15 V VCC
RC
RB 1k
C
B
E
VCE + IC RC = VCC .
in the active mode.
IC 3.3 mA VCC − VBE 15 − 0.7
IB = = = 33 µA = =
β 100 RB RB

15 V VCC
RC
RB 1k
C
B
E
VCE + IC RC = VCC .
in the active mode.
IC 3.3 mA VCC − VBE 15 − 0.7
IB = = = 33 µA = =
β 100 RB RB
14.3 V
→ RB = = 430 kΩ .
33 µA

BJT amplifier: a simple biasing scheme (continued)
15 V VCC
RC
RB 1k
C
B
E
With RB = 430 k, we expect IC = 3.3 mA, assuming β = 100.

15 V VCC
RC
RB 1k
C
B
E
However, in practice, there is a substantial variation in the β value (even for the same transistor type). The
manufacturer may specify the nominal value of β as 100, but the actual value may be 150, for example.

15 V VCC
RC
RB 1k
C
B
E
With β = 150, the actual IC is,

VCC − VBE (15 − 0.7) V
IC = β × = 150 × = 5 mA ,
RB 430 k
which is significantly different than the intended value, viz., 3.3 mA.

15 V VCC
RC
RB 1k
C
B
E
With β = 150, the actual IC is,

VCC − VBE (15 − 0.7) V
IC = β × = 150 × = 5 mA ,
RB 430 k
which is significantly different than the intended value, viz., 3.3 mA.
→ need a biasing scheme which is not so sensitive to β.

BJT amplifier: improved biasing scheme
10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
10 V VCC
RC RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC IC
R1
VCC
IB IB
IE IE
R2 VCC R2
RE RE
2.2 k
1k
10 V VCC
RC RC RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC IC IC
R1 RTh
VCC VCC
IB IB IB
IE IE IE
R2 VCC R2 VTh
RE RE RE
2.2 k
1k

10 V VCC
RC RC RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC IC IC
R1 RTh
VCC VCC
IB IB IB
IE IE IE
R2 VCC R2 VTh
RE RE RE
2.2 k
1k
R2 2.2 k
VTh = VCC = × 10 V = 1.8 V , RTh = R1 k R2 = 1.8 k
R1 + R2 10 k + 2.2 k

10 V VCC
RC RC RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC IC IC
R1 RTh
VCC VCC
IB IB IB
IE IE IE
R2 VCC R2 VTh
RE RE RE
2.2 k
1k
R2 2.2 k
R1 + R2 10 k + 2.2 k
Assuming the BJT to be in the active mode,
KVL: VTh = RTh IB + VBE + RE IE = RTh IB + VBE + (β + 1) IB RE

10 V VCC
RC RC RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC IC IC
R1 RTh
VCC VCC
IB IB IB
IE IE IE
R2 VCC R2 VTh
RE RE RE
2.2 k
1k
R2 2.2 k
R1 + R2 10 k + 2.2 k
VTh − VBE β (VTh − VBE )
→ IB = , IC = β IB = .
RTh + (β + 1) RE RTh + (β + 1) RE

10 V VCC
RC RC RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC IC IC
R1 RTh
VCC VCC
IB IB IB
IE IE IE
R2 VCC R2 VTh
RE RE RE
2.2 k
1k
R2 2.2 k
R1 + R2 10 k + 2.2 k
→ IB = , IC = β IB = .
RTh + (β + 1) RE RTh + (β + 1) RE
For β = 100, IC =1.07 mA.

10 V VCC
RC RC RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC IC IC
R1 RTh
VCC VCC
IB IB IB
IE IE IE
R2 VCC R2 VTh
RE RE RE
2.2 k
1k
R2 2.2 k
R1 + R2 10 k + 2.2 k
→ IB = , IC = β IB = .
RTh + (β + 1) RE RTh + (β + 1) RE
For β = 100, IC =1.07 mA.
For β = 200, IC =1.085 mA.
BJT amplifier: improved biasing scheme (continued)
10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
With IC = 1.1 mA, the various DC (“bias”) voltages are

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
VE = IE RE ≈ 1.1 mA × 1 k = 1.1 V ,
10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
1.1 V
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
VE = IE RE ≈ 1.1 mA × 1 k = 1.1 V ,
10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
1.1 V
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
VE = IE RE ≈ 1.1 mA × 1 k = 1.1 V ,
VB = VE + VBE ≈ 1.1 V + 0.7 V = 1.8 V ,

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
1.8 V
IB
1.1 V
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
VE = IE RE ≈ 1.1 mA × 1 k = 1.1 V ,
VB = VE + VBE ≈ 1.1 V + 0.7 V = 1.8 V ,

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
1.8 V
IB
1.1 V
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
VE = IE RE ≈ 1.1 mA × 1 k = 1.1 V ,
VB = VE + VBE ≈ 1.1 V + 0.7 V = 1.8 V ,
VC = VCC − IC RC = 10 V − 1.1 mA × 3.6 k ≈ 6 V ,

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
6V
1.8 V
IB
1.1 V
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
VE = IE RE ≈ 1.1 mA × 1 k = 1.1 V ,
VB = VE + VBE ≈ 1.1 V + 0.7 V = 1.8 V ,
VC = VCC − IC RC = 10 V − 1.1 mA × 3.6 k ≈ 6 V ,

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
6V
1.8 V
IB
1.1 V
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
VE = IE RE ≈ 1.1 mA × 1 k = 1.1 V ,
VB = VE + VBE ≈ 1.1 V + 0.7 V = 1.8 V ,
VC = VCC − IC RC = 10 V − 1.1 mA × 3.6 k ≈ 6 V ,
VCE = VC − VE = 6 − 1.1 = 4.9 V .

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
A quick estimate of the bias values can be obtained by ignoring IB (which is fair if β is large). In that case,

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
R2 2.2 k
VB = VCC = × 10 V = 1.8 V .
R1 + R2 10 k + 2.2 k

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
R2 2.2 k
VB = VCC = × 10 V = 1.8 V .
R1 + R2 10 k + 2.2 k
VE = VB − VBE ≈ 1.8 V − 0.7 V = 1.1 V .

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
R2 2.2 k
VB = VCC = × 10 V = 1.8 V .
R1 + R2 10 k + 2.2 k
VE = VB − VBE ≈ 1.8 V − 0.7 V = 1.1 V .
VE 1.1 V
IE = = = 1.1 mA.
RE 1k

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
R2 2.2 k
VB = VCC = × 10 V = 1.8 V .
R1 + R2 10 k + 2.2 k
VE = VB − VBE ≈ 1.8 V − 0.7 V = 1.1 V .
VE 1.1 V
IE = = = 1.1 mA.
RE 1k
IC = α IE ≈ IE = 1.1 mA.

10 V VCC
RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k IC
IB
IE
R2
RE
2.2 k
1k
R2 2.2 k
VB = VCC = × 10 V = 1.8 V .
R1 + R2 10 k + 2.2 k
VE = VB − VBE ≈ 1.8 V − 0.7 V = 1.1 V .
VE 1.1 V
IE = = = 1.1 mA.
RE 1k
IC = α IE ≈ IE = 1.1 mA.
VCE = VCC − IC RC − IE RE = 10 V − (3.6 k × 1.1 mA) − (1 k × 1.1 mA) ≈ 5 V .

Adding signal to bias
VCC
RC
R1
vB
R2
RE
VCC
RC
R1
vB
R2
RE
* As we have seen earlier, the input signal vs (t) = V

b sin ωt (for example) needs to be mixed with the
desired bias value VB so that the net voltage at the base is vB (t) = VB + Vb sin ωt.
VCC
RC
R1
vB
CB
vs R2
RE

* This can be achieved by using a coupling capacitor CB .
VCC
RC
R1
vB
CB
vs R2
RE

* This can be achieved by using a coupling capacitor CB .
* Let us consider a simple circuit to illustrate how a coupling capacitor works.

RC circuit with DC + AC sources
vC
A R2
vA
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC)
Vm sin ωt
We are interested in the solution (currents and voltages) in the “sinusoidal steady state” when the exponential
transients have vanished and each quantity x(t) is of the form X0 (constant) + Xm sin(ωt + α).

vC
A R2
vA
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC)
Vm sin ωt
There are two ways to obtain the solution:

vC
A R2
vA
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC)
Vm sin ωt
(1) Solve the circuit equations directly:
vA (t) vA (t) − V0 d
+ =C (vs (t) − vA (t)) .
R1 R2 dt

vC
A R2
vA
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC)
Vm sin ωt
(1) Solve the circuit equations directly:
vA (t) vA (t) − V0 d
+ =C (vs (t) − vA (t)) .
R1 R2 dt
(2) Use the DC circuit + AC circuit approach.

Resistor in sinusoidal steady state
vR (t)
iR (t) R

vR (t)
iR (t) R
Let vR (t) = VR + vr (t) where VR = constant, vr (t) = V

bR sin (ωt + α),
iR (t) = IR + ir (t) where IR = constant, ir (t) = b
IR sin (ωt + α).

vR (t)
iR (t) R

bR sin (ωt + α),
IR sin (ωt + α).
Since vR (t) = R × iR (t), we get [VR + vr (t)] = R × [IR + ir (t)].

vR (t)
iR (t) R

bR sin (ωt + α),
IR sin (ωt + α).

This relationship can be split into two:
VR = R × IR , and vr (t) = R × ir (t).

vR (t)
iR (t) R

bR sin (ωt + α),
IR sin (ωt + α).

VR = R × IR , and vr (t) = R × ir (t).
In other words, a resistor can be described by
VR vr (t)
IR R ir (t) R
DC AC

Capacitor in sinusoidal steady state
vC (t)
iC (t) C

vC (t)
iC (t) C
Let vC (t) = VC + vc (t) where VC = constant, vc (t) = V

bC sin (ωt + α),
iC (t) = IC + ic (t) where IC = constant, ic (t) = IC sin (ωt + β).
b

vC (t)
iC (t) C

bC sin (ωt + α),
b
dvC d
Since iC (t) = C , we get [IC + ic (t)] = C (VC + vc (t)).
dt dt

vC (t)
iC (t) C

bC sin (ωt + α),
b
dvC d
dt dt
dVC dvc
IC = C = 0, and ic (t) = C .
dt dt

vC (t)
iC (t) C

bC sin (ωt + α),
b
dvC d
dt dt
dVC dvc
IC = C = 0, and ic (t) = C .
dt dt
In other words, a capacitor can be described by
VC vc (t)
IC ic (t) C
DC AC

Voltage sources in sinusoidal steady state
DC voltage source:
vS (t) VS vs (t)
iS (t) IS is (t)
vS (t) = VS + 0 DC AC

Voltage sources in sinusoidal steady state
DC voltage source:
vS (t) VS vs (t)
iS (t) IS is (t)
vS (t) = VS + 0 DC AC
AC voltage source:
vS (t) VS vs (t)
iS (t) IS is (t)
vS (t) = 0 + vs (t) DC AC

DC circuit AC circuit
vC VC vc
A R2 A R2 A R2
vA VA va
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC) R1 V0 vs (t) R1

Vm sin ωt Vm sin ωt

vC VC vc
A R2 A R2 A R2
vA VA va
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC) R1 V0 vs (t) R1

VA VA − V0
DC circuit: + = 0. (1)
R1 R2

vC VC vc
A R2 A R2 A R2
vA VA va
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC) R1 V0 vs (t) R1

VA VA − V0
R1 R2
va va d
AC circuit: + =C (vs − va ). (2)
R1 R2 dt

vC VC vc
A R2 A R2 A R2
vA VA va
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC) R1 V0 vs (t) R1

VA VA − V0
R1 R2
va va d
R1 R2 dt
VA + va VA + va − V0 d
Adding (1) and (2), we get + =C (vs − va ). (3)
R1 R2 dt

vC VC vc
A R2 A R2 A R2
vA VA va
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC) R1 V0 vs (t) R1

VA VA − V0
R1 R2
va va d
R1 R2 dt
R1 R2 dt
Compare with the equation obtained directly from the original circuit:
vA vA − V0 d
+ =C (vs − vA ). (4)
R1 R2 dt

vC VC vc
A R2 A R2 A R2
vA VA va
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC) R1 V0 vs (t) R1

VA VA − V0
R1 R2
va va d
R1 R2 dt
R1 R2 dt
vA vA − V0 d
+ =C (vs − vA ). (4)
R1 R2 dt
Eqs. (3) and (4) are identical since vA = VA + va .

vC VC vc
A R2 A R2 A R2
vA VA va
vs (t) R1 V0 (DC) R1 V0 vs (t) R1

VA VA − V0
R1 R2
va va d
R1 R2 dt
R1 R2 dt
vA vA − V0 d
+ =C (vs − vA ). (4)
R1 R2 dt
Eqs. (3) and (4) are identical since vA = VA + va .
→ Instead of computing vA (t) directly, we can compute VA and va (t) separately, and then use
vA (t) = VA + va (t).
Common-emitter amplifier
RC coupling
R1 capacitor
coupling
capacitor VCC
CC
CB
RL
vs R2 load
RE
resistor
CE
bypass
capacitor
RC coupling RC
R1 capacitor R1
coupling
capacitor VCC
CC
VCC
CB
RL
vs R2 load
R2
RE RE
resistor
CE
bypass DC circuit
capacitor
RC coupling RC RC
R1 capacitor R1 R1
coupling
capacitor VCC
CC CC
VCC AND
CB CB
RL
RL
vs R2 load
R2 vs R2
RE RE RE
resistor
CE CE
bypass DC circuit AC circuit

capacitor
RC coupling RC RC
R1 capacitor R1 R1
coupling
capacitor VCC
CC CC
VCC AND
CB CB
RL
RL
vs R2 load
R2 vs R2
RE RE RE
resistor
CE CE

capacitor
* The coupling capacitors ensure that the signal source and the load resistor do not affect the DC bias of
the amplifier. (We will see the purpose of CE a little later.)
RC coupling RC RC
R1 capacitor R1 R1
coupling
capacitor VCC
CC CC
VCC AND
CB CB
RL
RL
vs R2 load
R2 vs R2
RE RE RE
resistor
CE CE

capacitor
* The coupling capacitors ensure that the signal source and the load resistor do not affect the DC bias of
the amplifier. (We will see the purpose of CE a little later.)
* This enables us to bias the amplifier without worrying about what load it is going to drive.

Common-emitter amplifier: AC circuit
RC
R1
CC
CB
RL
vs R2
RE
CE
RC
R1
CC
CB
RL
vs R2
RE
CE
* The coupling and bypass capacitors are “large” (typically, a few µF ), and at frequencies of interest, their
impedance is small.
For example, for C = 10 µF , f = 1 kHz,
1
ZC = = 16 Ω,
2π × 103 × 10 × 10−6
which is much smaller than typical values of R1 , R2 , RC , RE (a few kΩ).
⇒ CB , CC , CE can be replaced by short circuits at the frequencies of interest.
RC RC
R1 R1
CC
CB
RL RL
vs R2 vs R2
RE
CE
impedance is small.
1
ZC = = 16 Ω,
2π × 103 × 10 × 10−6
RC RC
R1 R1
CC
CB
RL RL
vs R2 vs R2
RE
CE
impedance is small.
1
ZC = = 16 Ω,
2π × 103 × 10 × 10−6
* The circuit can be re-drawn in a more friendly format.
RC RC
R1 R1
CC
CB
RL RL RC RL
vs R2 vs R2 vs R1 R2
RE
CE
impedance is small.
1
ZC = = 16 Ω,
2π × 103 × 10 × 10−6
RC RC
R1 R1
CC
CB
RL RL RC RL
vs R2 vs R2 vs R1 R2
RE
CE
impedance is small.
1
ZC = = 16 Ω,
2π × 103 × 10 × 10−6
* We now need to figure out the AC description of a BJT.
BJT: AC model
iC 1.1
Vm = 10 mV
Vm = 5 mV
Vm = 2 mV
B
iC (mA)
0.9
iB
vBE iE
0.7
E
vBE (t) = V0 + Vm sin ωt 0.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz t (msec)

BJT: AC model
iC 1.1
Vm = 10 mV
Vm = 5 mV
Vm = 2 mV
B
iC (mA)
0.9
iB
vBE iE
0.7
E
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz t (msec)
* As the vBE amplitude increases, the shape of iC (t) deviates from a sinusoid
→ distortion.

BJT: AC model
iC 1.1
Vm = 10 mV
Vm = 5 mV
Vm = 2 mV
B
iC (mA)
0.9
iB
vBE iE
0.7
E
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz t (msec)
* As the vBE amplitude increases, the shape of iC (t) deviates from a sinusoid
→ distortion.
* If vbe (t), i.e., the time-varying part of vBE , is kept small, iC varies linearly
with vBE . How small? Let us look at this in more detail.

BJT: small-signal model
C C
iC Vm = 10 mV
iC 1.1
Vm = 5 mV
iB αIE Vm = 2 mV
iC (mA)
B B 0.9
iB vBE
vBE iE
E iE 0.7
vBE (t) = V0 + Vm sin ωt
E
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz
0.5 t (msec)
Let vBE (t) = VBE + vbe (t) (bias+signal), and iC (t) = IC + ic (t). 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

C C
iC Vm = 10 mV
iC 1.1
Vm = 5 mV
iB αIE Vm = 2 mV
iC (mA)
B B 0.9
iB vBE
vBE iE
E iE 0.7
E
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz
0.5 t (msec)
vBE (t)

Assuming active mode, iC (t) = α iE (t) = α IES exp −1 .
VT

C C
iC Vm = 10 mV
iC 1.1
Vm = 5 mV
iB αIE Vm = 2 mV
iC (mA)
B B 0.9
iB vBE
vBE iE
E iE 0.7
E
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz
0.5 t (msec)
vBE (t)

VT
vBE (t)

Since the B-E junction is forward-biased, exp 1, and we get
VT
vBE (t) VBE + vbe (t) vbe (t)

VBE
iC (t) = α IES exp = α IES exp = α IES exp × exp .
VT VT VT VT

C C
iC Vm = 10 mV
iC 1.1
Vm = 5 mV
iB αIE Vm = 2 mV
iC (mA)
B B 0.9
iB vBE
vBE iE
E iE 0.7
E
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz
0.5 t (msec)
vBE (t)

VT
vBE (t)

Since the B-E junction is forward-biased, exp 1, and we get
VT
vBE (t) VBE + vbe (t) vbe (t)

VBE
iC (t) = α IES exp = α IES exp = α IES exp × exp .
VT VT VT VT

VBE
If vbe (t) = 0, iC (t) = IC (the bias value of iC ), i.e., IC = α IES exp
VT
vbe (t)

⇒ iC (t) = IC exp .
VT
C 1.1
Vm = 10 mV
C
iC Vm = 5 mV
iC
Vm = 2 mV
iC (mA)
iB 0.9
αIE
B B
iB vBE
0.7
vBE iE vBE (t) = V0 + Vm sin ωt
E iE
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz
E 0.5 t (msec)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
" #
vbe (t) x2

iC (t) = IC exp = IC 1+x + + ··· , x = vbe (t)/VT .
VT 2

C 1.1
Vm = 10 mV
C
iC Vm = 5 mV
iC
Vm = 2 mV
iC (mA)
iB 0.9
αIE
B B
iB vBE
0.7
E iE
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz
E 0.5 t (msec)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
" #
vbe (t) x2

VT 2
If x is small, i.e., if the amplitude of vbe (t) is small compared to the thermal voltage VT , we get
vbe (t)

iC (t) = IC 1 + .
VT

C 1.1
Vm = 10 mV
C
iC Vm = 5 mV
iC
Vm = 2 mV
iC (mA)
iB 0.9
αIE
B B
iB vBE
0.7
E iE
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz
E 0.5 t (msec)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
" #
vbe (t) x2

VT 2
vbe (t)

iC (t) = IC 1 + .
VT
We can now see that, for |vbe (t)| VT , the relationship between iC (t) and vbe (t) is linear, as we have observed previously.

C 1.1
Vm = 10 mV
C
iC Vm = 5 mV
iC
Vm = 2 mV
iC (mA)
iB 0.9
αIE
B B
iB vBE
0.7
E iE
V0 = 0.65 V, f = 1 kHz
E 0.5 t (msec)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
" #
vbe (t) x2

VT 2
vbe (t)

iC (t) = IC 1 + .
VT
We can now see that, for |vbe (t)| VT , the relationship between iC (t) and vbe (t) is linear, as we have observed previously.
vbe (t)

IC
iC (t) = IC + ic (t) = IC 1 + ⇒ ic (t) = vbe (t)
VT VT

C C
iC ib ic
iC B C
iB αIE vbe rπ
B B gm vbe
iB vBE
vBE iE ie
E iE
E E
IC
The relationship, ic (t) = vbe (t) can be represented by a VCCS, ic (t) = gm vbe (t),
VT
where gm = IC /VT is the “transconductance.”

C C
iC ib ic
iC B C
iB αIE vbe rπ
B B gm vbe
iB vBE
vBE iE ie
E iE
E E
IC
VT
For the base current, we have,
1
iB (t) = IB + ib (t) = [IC + ic (t)]
β
1 1
→ ib (t) = ic (t) = gm vbe (t) → vbe (t) = (β/gm ) ib (t).
β β

C C
iC ib ic
iC B C
iB αIE vbe rπ
B B gm vbe
iB vBE
vBE iE ie
E iE
E E
IC
VT
1
iB (t) = IB + ib (t) = [IC + ic (t)]
β
1 1
β β
The above relationship is represented by a resistance, rπ = β/gm , connected between B and E.

C C
iC ib ic
iC B C
iB αIE vbe rπ
B B gm vbe
iB vBE
vBE iE ie
E iE
E E
IC
VT
1
iB (t) = IB + ib (t) = [IC + ic (t)]
β
1 1
β β
The above relationship is represented by a resistance, rπ = β/gm , connected between B and E.
The resulting model is called the π-model for small-signal description of a BJT.

C C
iC ib ic
iC B C
iB αIE vbe rπ
B B gm vbe
iB vBE
vBE iE ie
E iE
E E
* The transconductance gm depends on the biasing of the BJT, since gm = IC /VT . For IC = 1 mA,
VT ≈ 25 mV (room temperature), gm = 1 mA/25 mV = 40 mf (milli-mho or milli-siemens).

C C
iC ib ic
iC B C
iB αIE vbe rπ
B B gm vbe
iB vBE
vBE iE ie
E iE
E E
* rπ also depends on IC , since rπ = β/gm = β VT /IC . For IC = 1 mA, VT ≈ 25 mV , β = 100, rπ = 2.5 kΩ.

C C
iC ib ic
iC B C
iB αIE vbe rπ
B B gm vbe
iB vBE
vBE iE ie
E iE
E E
* rπ also depends on IC , since rπ = β/gm = β VT /IC . For IC = 1 mA, VT ≈ 25 mV , β = 100, rπ = 2.5 kΩ.
* Note that the small-signal model is valid only for small vbe (small compared to VT ).

C
ib ic
iC B C
vbe rπ
B gm vbe
iB
vBE iE ie
E E
* In the above model, note that ic is independent of vce .

C
ib ic 1
iC B C
IC (mA)
vbe rπ
B gm vbe
iB
vBE iE ie
E E
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (V)

dIC
* In practice, ic does depend on vce because of the Early effect, and ≈ constant = 1/ro , where ro is
dVCE
called the output resistance.
C
ib ic 1
iC B C
IC (mA)
vbe rπ
B gm vbe
iB
vBE iE ie
E E
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (V)

dIC
dVCE
* A more accurate model includes ro as well.
C
ib ic 1 ib ic
iC B C B C
IC (mA)
vbe rπ vbe rπ ro
B gm vbe gm vbe
iB
vBE iE ie ie
E E E
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
VCE (V)

dIC
dVCE
* A more accurate model includes ro as well.

insulator base emitter collector substrate
contact contact contact contact
p+ n+ n+
p+
p
epi-layer ∼ 5 µm
ib Cµ ic n
B C
rb
n+ buried layer
Cπ vbe rπ ro
gm vbe
p+ substrate > 250 µm
ie
* A few other components are required to make the small-signal model complete:
rb : base spreading resistance
Cπ : base charging capacitance + B-E junction capacitance
Cµ : B-C junction capacitance

p+ n+ n+
p+
p
epi-layer ∼ 5 µm
ib Cµ ic n
B C
rb
n+ buried layer
Cπ vbe rπ ro
gm vbe
ie
* The capacitances are typically in the pF range. At low frequencies, 1/ωC is large, and the capacitances
can be replaced by open circuits.

p+ n+ n+
p+
p
epi-layer ∼ 5 µm
ib Cµ ic n
B C
rb
n+ buried layer
Cπ vbe rπ ro
gm vbe
ie
* The capacitances are typically in the pF range. At low frequencies, 1/ωC is large, and the capacitances
can be replaced by open circuits.
* Note that the small-signal models we have described are valid in the active region only.
BJT Amplifiers: Part 2
M. B. Patil


RC coupling RC RC
R1 capacitor R1 3.6 k R1
coupling 10 k 6V
capacitor VCC 10 V
CC 1.8 V CC
VCC AND
CB 1.1 V CB
RL
RL
vs R2 load
R2 vs R2
RE 2.2 k RE RE
resistor 1k
CE CE

capacitor
* We have already analysed the DC (bias) circuit of this amplifier and found that VB = 1.8 V , VE = 1.1 V ,
VC = 6 V , and IC = 1.1 mA.

RC coupling RC RC
coupling 10 k 6V
capacitor VCC 10 V
CC 1.8 V CC
VCC AND
CB 1.1 V CB
RL
RL
vs R2 load
R2 vs R2
RE 2.2 k RE RE
resistor 1k
CE CE

capacitor
VC = 6 V , and IC = 1.1 mA.
* We now analyse the AC (small-signal) circuit to obtain vb , ve , vc , ic .

RC coupling RC RC
coupling 10 k 6V
capacitor VCC 10 V
CC 1.8 V CC
VCC AND
CB 1.1 V CB
RL
RL
vs R2 load
R2 vs R2
RE 2.2 k RE RE
resistor 1k
CE CE

capacitor
VC = 6 V , and IC = 1.1 mA.
* We will then get the complete solution by simply adding the DC and AC results, e.g., iC (t) = IC + ic (t).

RC coupling RC RC
coupling 10 k 6V
capacitor VCC 10 V
CC 1.8 V CC
VCC AND
CB 1.1 V CB
RL
RL
vs R2 load
R2 vs R2
RE 2.2 k RE RE
resistor 1k
CE CE

capacitor
VC = 6 V , and IC = 1.1 mA.
* We will then get the complete solution by simply adding the DC and AC results, e.g., iC (t) = IC + ic (t).
* We will assume that CB , CC , CE are large enough so that, at the signal frequency (say, 1 kHz), they can
be replaced by short circuits.
RC RL
vs R1 R2
E
Cµ
B B C
rb
RC RL Cπ vbe rπ ro
vs vs gm vbe RC RL
R1 R2 R1 R2
E E
Cµ
B B C
rb
vs vs gm vbe RC RL
R1 R2 R1 R2
E E
* The parasitic capacitances Cπ and Cµ are in the pF range. At a signal frequency of 1 kHz, the impedance
corresponding to these capacitances is
−j −j
Z∼ = ∼ −j 100 MΩ
ωC 2π × 103 × 10−12
→ Cπ and Cµ can be replaced by open circuits.
Cµ
B B C
rb
vs vs gm vbe RC RL
R1 R2 R1 R2
E E
−j −j
Z∼ = ∼ −j 100 MΩ
ωC 2π × 103 × 10−12
* For simplicity, we will assume rb to be small and ro to be large (this assumption will only slightly affect the
gain computation).
Cµ
B B C
rb
vs vs gm vbe RC RL
R1 R2 R1 R2
E E
−j −j
Z∼ = ∼ −j 100 MΩ
ωC 2π × 103 × 10−12
gain computation).
* The above considerations significantly simplify the AC circuit.
Cµ
B B C B C
rb
vs vs gm vbe RC RL R1 R2 vbe rπ RC RL
R1 R2 R1 R2
vs gm vbe
E E E
−j −j
Z∼ = ∼ −j 100 MΩ
ωC 2π × 103 × 10−12
gain computation).
* The above considerations significantly simplify the AC circuit.

B C
vs R1 R2 rπ RC RL vo
10 k 2.2 k gm vbe 3.6 k 10 k
vo = −(gm vbe ) × (RC k RL ) = −(gm vs ) × (RC k RL )

B C
10 k 2.2 k gm vbe 3.6 k 10 k

vo
→ ALV = voltage gain = = −gm (RC k RL )
vs
(superscript L is used because the gain includes the effect of RL .)

B C
10 k 2.2 k gm vbe 3.6 k 10 k

vo
vs
Since IC (bias current) = 1.1 mA, gm = IC /VT = 1.1 mA/25.9 mV = 42.5 mf.

B C
10 k 2.2 k gm vbe 3.6 k 10 k

vo
vs
→ ALV = −42.5 mf × (3.6 k k 10 k) = −112.5

B C
10 k 2.2 k gm vbe 3.6 k 10 k

vo
vs
→ ALV = −42.5 mf × (3.6 k k 10 k) = −112.5
For vs (t) = (2 mV ) sin ωt, the AC output voltage is,

B C
10 k 2.2 k gm vbe 3.6 k 10 k

vo
vs
→ ALV = −42.5 mf × (3.6 k k 10 k) = −112.5

vo = ALV vs = −(112.5) (2 mV ) sin ωt = −(225 mV ) sin ωt

B C
10 k 2.2 k gm vbe 3.6 k 10 k

vo
vs
→ ALV = −42.5 mf × (3.6 k k 10 k) = −112.5

vo = ALV vs = −(112.5) (2 mV ) sin ωt = −(225 mV ) sin ωt
The AC collector current is,

ic = gm vbe = gm vs = 42.5 mf × (2 mV ) sin ωt = 85 sin ωt µA.

RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k
CC
VCC
CB 10 V
RL
vs R2
2.2 k RE
1k CE
For vs (t) = (2 mV ) sin ωt, we can now obtain expressions for the instantaneous currents and voltages:
vC (t) = VC + vc (t) = VC + vo (t) = 6 V − (225 mV ) sin ωt .
iC (t) = IC + ic (t) = 1.1 mA + 0.085 sin ωt mA .

RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k
CC
VCC
CB 10 V
RL
vs R2
2.2 k RE
1k CE
Note that the above procedure (DC + AC analysis) can be used only if the small-signal approximation (i.e., |vbe | VT ) is
valid. In the above example, the amplitude of vbe is 2 mV , which is much smaller than VT (about 25 mV).

RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k
CC
VCC
CB 10 V
RL
vs R2
2.2 k RE
1k CE
For vs (t) = (20 mV ) sin ωt, for example, the small-signal approximation will not hold, and a numerical simulation will be
required to obtain the currents and voltages of interest.

RC
R1 3.6 k
10 k
CC
VCC
CB 10 V
RL
vs R2
2.2 k RE
1k CE
For vs (t) = (20 mV ) sin ωt, for example, the small-signal approximation will not hold, and a numerical simulation will be
required to obtain the currents and voltages of interest.
In practice, such a situation is anyway not prevalent (because it gives rise to distortion in the output voltage) except in special
types of amplifiers.

Frequency response of common-emitter amplifier
CB , CC , CE : short circuit
B rb C Cπ , Cµ : open circuit
103
CB Cµ CC
Cπ rπ ro
gm vbe
Gain
102
vs R1 R2 E RC RL
RE CE 101
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Frequency (Hz)
108
C = 1 pF
106
|Z| (Ω)
104
C = 10 µF
102
100 1
10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
f (Hz) M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay
103
CB Cµ CC
Cπ rπ ro
gm vbe
Gain
102
vs R1 R2 E RC RL
RE CE 101
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Frequency (Hz)
108
* CB , CE , CC are large capacitances → 1/ωC is negligibly
small (short circuit) except at low frequencies. C = 1 pF
106
|Z| (Ω)
104
C = 10 µF
102
100 1
10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
103
CB Cµ CC
Cπ rπ ro
gm vbe
Gain
102
vs R1 R2 E RC RL
RE CE 101
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Frequency (Hz)
108
106
* Cπ , Cµ are small capacitances → 1/ωC is very large (open
circuit) except at high frequencies.
|Z| (Ω)
104
C = 10 µF
102
100 1
10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
103
CB Cµ CC
Cπ rπ ro
gm vbe
Gain
102
vs R1 R2 E RC RL
RE CE 101
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
Frequency (Hz)
108
106
* Cπ , Cµ are small capacitances → 1/ωC is very large (open
circuit) except at high frequencies.
|Z| (Ω)
* In the “mid-band” range (which we have considered so far), 104
the large capacitances behave like short circuits, and the
small capacitances like open circuits. In this range, the gain C = 10 µF
102
is independent of frequency.
100 1
10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108
General representation of an amplifier
source
resistance
Rs Ro
load
source vs vi vo
Rin resistance
(signal) AV vi RL
amplifier
* An amplifier is represented by a voltage gain, an input resistance Rin , and an output resistance Ro . For a
voltage-to-voltage amplifier, a large Rin and a small Ro are desirable.

source
resistance
Rs Ro
load
source vs vi vo
Rin resistance
(signal) AV vi RL
amplifier
* The above representation involves AC quantities only, i.e., it describes the AC equivalent circuit of the
amplifier.

source
resistance
Rs Ro
load
source vs vi vo
Rin resistance
(signal) AV vi RL
amplifier
amplifier.
* The DC bias of the circuit can affect parameter values in the AC equivalent circuit (AV , Rin , Ro ). For
example, for the common-emitter amplifier, AV ∝ gm = IC /VT , IC being the DC (bias) value of the
collector current.

source
resistance
Rs Ro
load
source vs vi vo
Rin resistance
(signal) AV vi RL
amplifier
amplifier.
* The DC bias of the circuit can affect parameter values in the AC equivalent circuit (AV , Rin , Ro ). For
example, for the common-emitter amplifier, AV ∝ gm = IC /VT , IC being the DC (bias) value of the
collector current.
* Suppose we are given an amplifier as a “black box” and asked to find AV , Rin , and Ro . What experiments
would give us this information?

Voltage gain AV
source
resistance
Rs Ro il
load
source vs vi vo
Rin resistance
(signal) AV vi RL
amplifier
If RL → ∞, il → 0, and vo → AV vi .

Voltage gain AV
source
resistance
Rs Ro il
load
source vs vi vo
Rin resistance
(signal) AV vi RL
amplifier
If RL → ∞, il → 0, and vo → AV vi .
We can remove RL (i.e., replace it with an open circuit), measure vi and vo , then use AV = vo /vi .

Input resistance Rin
source
resistance
R s ii Ro
load
source vs vi vo
Rin resistance
(signal) AV vi RL
amplifier
Measurement of vi and ii yields Rin = vi /ii .

Output resistance Ro
io
Rs Ro Rs Ro
vs vi Rin vo RL vi Rin vo
AV vi
Method 1:
If vs → 0, AV vi → 0.
Now, connect a test source vo , and measure io → Ro = vo /io .
(This method works fine on paper, but it is difficult to use experimentally.)

Rs Ro
vs vi Rin vo
AV vi RL
Method 2:
RL
vo = AV vi .
RL + Ro

Rs Ro
vs vi Rin vo
AV vi RL
Method 2:
RL
vo = AV vi .
RL + Ro
If RL → ∞, vo1 = AV vi .

Rs Ro
vs vi Rin vo
AV vi RL
Method 2:
RL
vo = AV vi .
RL + Ro
1 1
If RL = Ro , vo2 = AV vi = vo1 .
2 2

Rs Ro
vs vi Rin vo
AV vi RL
Method 2:
RL
vo = AV vi .
RL + Ro
1 1
If RL = Ro , vo2 = AV vi = vo1 .
2 2
Procedure:
Measure vo1 with RL → ∞ (i.e., RL removed).
Vary RL and observe vo .
When vo is equal to vo1 /2, measure RL (after removing it).
Ro is the same as the measured resistance.
RC coupling B C
3.6 k capacitor
R1
coupling 10 k
capacitor
CC
VCC vs vi R1 R2 rπ RC vo RL
10 V gm vbe
CB
RL
E
vs R2 load
2.2 k RE
1k resistor amplifier
CE
bypass
capacitor

RC coupling B C
3.6 k capacitor
R1
coupling 10 k
capacitor
CC
10 V gm vbe
CB
RL
E
vs R2 load
2.2 k RE
CE
bypass
capacitor
vo
AV = , with RL → ∞.
vi
−gm vbe RC
AV = = −gm RC = −42.5 mf × 3.6 k = 153.
vi

RC coupling B C
3.6 k capacitor
R1
coupling 10 k
capacitor
CC
10 V gm vbe
CB
RL
E
vs R2 load
2.2 k RE
CE
bypass
capacitor
vo
vi
−gm vbe RC
AV = = −gm RC = −42.5 mf × 3.6 k = 153.
vi
The input resistance of the amplifier is, by inspection, Rin = (R1 k R2 ) k rπ .
rπ = β/gm = 100/42.5 mf = 2.35 k → Rin = 1 k.

RC coupling B C
3.6 k capacitor
R1
coupling 10 k
capacitor
CC
10 V gm vbe
CB
RL
E
vs R2 load
2.2 k RE
CE
bypass
capacitor
vo
vi
−gm vbe RC
AV = = −gm RC = −42.5 mf × 3.6 k = 153.
vi
The input resistance of the amplifier is, by inspection, Rin = (R1 k R2 ) k rπ .
rπ = β/gm = 100/42.5 mf = 2.35 k → Rin = 1 k.
The output resistance is RC (by “Method 1” seen previously).

Common-emitter amplifier with partial bypass
RC coupling RC
R1 capacitor R1
coupling
capacitor
CC
CB VCC VCC
RL
RE1 RE
R2 load R2
vs resistor
RE2
CE
bypass DC circuit
capacitor

RC coupling RC
R1 capacitor R1
coupling
capacitor
CC
CB VCC VCC
RL
RE1 RE
R2 load R2
vs resistor
RE2
CE
bypass DC circuit
capacitor
* For DC computation, CE is open, and the DC analysis is therefore identical to our earlier amplifier, with
RE ← RE 1 + RE 2 .

RC coupling RC
R1 capacitor R1
coupling
capacitor
CC
CB VCC VCC
RL
RE1 RE
R2 load R2
vs resistor
RE2
CE
bypass DC circuit
capacitor
* For DC computation, CE is open, and the DC analysis is therefore identical to our earlier amplifier, with
RE ← RE 1 + RE 2 .
* Bypassing a part of RE (as opposed to all of it) does have an impact on the voltage gain (see next slide).

B C
RC coupling
R1 capacitor ib β ib
coupling
capacitor rπ
CC gm vbe
CB VCC vs R1 R2 RC RL
E
RL
RE1 (β + 1) ib
R2 load
vs resistor
RE1
RE2
CE bypass
capacitor AC circuit
Again, assume that, at the frequency of operation, CB , CC , CE can be replaced by short circuits, and the BJT
parasitic capacitances by open circuits.

B C
RC coupling
coupling
capacitor rπ
CC gm vbe
E
RL
RE1 (β + 1) ib
R2 load
vs resistor
RE1
RE2
CE bypass
vs
vs = ib rπ + (β + 1) ib RE 1 → ib = .
rπ + (β + 1) RE 1

B C
RC coupling
coupling
capacitor rπ
CC gm vbe
E
RL
RE1 (β + 1) ib
R2 load
vs resistor
RE1
RE2
CE bypass
vs
vs = ib rπ + (β + 1) ib RE 1 → ib = .
rπ + (β + 1) RE 1
vo β (RC k RL ) (RC k RL )
vo = −β ib × (RC k RL ) → =− ≈− if rπ (β + 1) RE 1 .
vs rπ + (β + 1) RE 1 RE 1

B C
RC coupling
coupling
capacitor rπ
CC gm vbe
E
RL
RE1 (β + 1) ib
R2 load
vs resistor
RE1
RE2
CE bypass
vs
vs = ib rπ + (β + 1) ib RE 1 → ib = .
rπ + (β + 1) RE 1
vo β (RC k RL ) (RC k RL )
vo = −β ib × (RC k RL ) → =− ≈− if rπ (β + 1) RE 1 .
vs rπ + (β + 1) RE 1 RE 1
Note: RE 1 gets multiplied by (β + 1).
B C
RC coupling
coupling
capacitor rπ
CC gm vbe
E
RL
RE1 (β + 1) ib
R2 load
vs resistor
RE1
RE2
CE bypass
vbe rπ ib rπ
= =
vs rπ ib + RE (β + 1) ib rπ + RE (β + 1)

B C
RC coupling
coupling
capacitor rπ
CC gm vbe
E
RL
RE1 (β + 1) ib
R2 load
vs resistor
RE1
RE2
CE bypass
vbe rπ ib rπ
= =
The small-signal condition, viz., |vbe (t)| VT now implies
rπ rπ + RE (β + 1)
|vs | VT or |vs | VT × , which is much larger than VT .
rπ + RE (β + 1) rπ

B C
RC coupling
coupling
capacitor rπ
CC gm vbe
E
RL
RE1 (β + 1) ib
R2 load
vs resistor
RE1
RE2
CE bypass
vbe rπ ib rπ
= =
The small-signal condition, viz., |vbe (t)| VT now implies
rπ rπ + RE (β + 1)
|vs | VT or |vs | VT × , which is much larger than VT .
rπ + RE (β + 1) rπ
→ Although the gain is reduced, partial emitter bypass allows larger input voltages to be applied without
causing distortion in vo (t). (For comparison, we required |vs | VT for the CE amplifier.)

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Bipolar Junction Transistors: Part 1

Department of Electrical Engineering

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Emitter p n p Collector Emitter n p n Collector

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Emitter p n p Collector Emitter n p n Collector

* Bipolar: both electrons and holes contribute to conduction

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Emitter p n p Collector Emitter n p n Collector

* Bipolar: both electrons and holes contribute to conduction

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Emitter p n p Collector Emitter n p n Collector

* Bipolar: both electrons and holes contribute to conduction

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Emitter p n p Collector Emitter n p n Collector

* Bipolar: both electrons and holes contribute to conduction

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Emitter p n p Collector Emitter n p n Collector

* Bipolar: both electrons and holes contribute to conduction

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Emitter p n p Collector Emitter n p n Collector

* Bipolar: both electrons and holes contribute to conduction

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Emitter p n p Collector Emitter n p n Collector

* Bipolar: both electrons and holes contribute to conduction

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

If the transistor is replaced with two diodes connected back-to-back, we get

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

If the transistor is replaced with two diodes connected back-to-back, we get

Assuming Von = 0.7 V for D1, we get

Using a more realistic equivalent circuit for the BJT, we obtain,

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Using a more realistic equivalent circuit for the BJT, we obtain,

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Using a more realistic equivalent circuit for the BJT, we obtain,

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Using a more realistic equivalent circuit for the BJT, we obtain,

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Using a more realistic equivalent circuit for the BJT, we obtain,

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

Using a more realistic equivalent circuit for the BJT, we obtain,

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

What is wrong with the two-diode model of a BJT?

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

What is wrong with the two-diode model of a BJT?

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

What is wrong with the two-diode model of a BJT?

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

What is wrong with the two-diode model of a BJT?

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

* In the active mode, IC = α IE , α ≈ 1 (slightly less than 1).

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

* In the active mode, IC = α IE , α ≈ 1 (slightly less than 1).

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay

* In the active mode, IC = α IE , α ≈ 1 (slightly less than 1).

M. B. Patil, IIT Bombay