Zielinski-Nicolsonetal 2023

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/371808233
Does ASMR propensity reﬂect a mentally ﬂexible mindset? Exploring the

relationship between ASMR propensity, transliminality, emotional contagion,
schizotypal traits, roleplaying...
Article in Consciousness and Cognition · June 2023

DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2023.103546
CITATIONS READS
0 30
3 authors:
Kayley Zielinski-Nicolson Natalie Roberts

Macquarie University Macquarie University
2 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS 6 PUBLICATIONS 66 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Simon Boag
Macquarie University
87 PUBLICATIONS 826 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Dynamic personality project View project
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response: Induction, Personality and Consciousness Correlates View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Simon Boag on 24 June 2023.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Consciousness and Cognition 113 (2023) 103546
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Consciousness and Cognition

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/concog
Does ASMR propensity reflect a mentally flexible mindset?

Exploring the relationship between ASMR propensity,
transliminality, emotional contagion, schizotypal traits,
roleplaying ability, and creativity
Kayley L. Zielinski-Nicolson *, Natalie Roberts , Simon Boag
School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) is an alternative state of consciousness char
Altered states of consciousness acterised by changes in affect, feelings of relaxation, and tingling sensations on the body. Online
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response videos designed to stimulate ASMR in viewers have become increasingly popular. Although there
Cognitive styles
is evidence that ASMR may improve sleep, emotion regulation, and relaxation, the current un
Cognitive mechanisms
Imagination
derstanding of ASMR propensity remains limited. This study examined whether a mentally
flexible cognitive style may underlie the ability to experience ASMR. Undergraduate students (N
= 376) completed an online survey involving a series of self-report questionnaires and two
performance-based creative ability tasks. Findings did not provide support for an overall mentally
flexible mindset, however, transliminality, emotional contagion susceptibility, positive schizo
typal traits, and roleplaying ability all significantly positively predicted ASMR propensity. These
findings suggest that ASMR propensity represents several possible underlying cognitive styles
relating to enhanced imagination and perceptual ability, and cannot be simply characterised by
mental flexibility.
1. Introduction
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) is a relaxing, altered state or alteration of consciousness involving pleasurable
tingling sensations on the head and body (Barratt & Davis, 2015; Barratt et al., 2017; McGeoch & Rouw, 2020). Although alterations
and states of altered consciousness have been described throughout human history (Tart, 1986; Vaitl et al., 2005; Zaccaro et al., 2021),
ASMR has only been recognised relatively recently (Roberts et al., 2019). ASMR typically occurs in response to audio-visual ‘triggers’
such as tapping on objects, whispering, personal attention, and roleplaying (Barratt & Davis, 2015; Roberts et al., 2021a; Zappavigna,
2020). This phenomenon has garnered a large online community with around 24 million ASMR stimulus videos available on YouTube
(Accornero, 2022; Anderson, 2015; Smith & Snider, 2019). Experiencing ASMR also shows promise for improving sleep, mood, and
emotion regulation (Barratt & Davis, 2015; Engelbregt et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2019; Poerio et al., 2018; Swart, Banissy et al., 2022;
Yusaira & Bennett, 2021).
Despite the growing popularity of ASMR, it is still unclear how best to conceptualise this phenomenon (Barratt et al., 2017; Janik
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kayley.zielinskinicolson@gmail.com (K.L. Zielinski-Nicolson).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2023.103546
Received 10 February 2023; Received in revised form 28 April 2023; Accepted 16 June 2023
1053-8100/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
K.L. Zielinski-Nicolson et al. Consciousness and Cognition 113 (2023) 103546
McErlean et al., 2022; Smith & Snider, 2019; Yoon & Baek, 2022). Developing a clearer understanding of the phenomenon is important
because it may help facilitate potential clinical applications (Hu et al., 2022; Maniago et al., 2021; Smejka & Wiggs, 2022). To address
this, the aim of the present study was to develop our understanding of ASMR propensity (the ability to experience ASMR) and to
determine whether ASMR propensity reflects a mentally flexible mindset. To address this, we examined how ASMR propensity relates
to transliminality, emotional contagion susceptibility, schizotypal traits, roleplaying ability, and creativity. This paper begins by
discussing issues associated with current ways of conceptualising and operationalising ASMR, before then discussing research that
suggests ASMR propensity may reflect a mentally flexible mindset.
1.1. Conceptualising ASMR
Comparative evaluation of previous research highlights the importance of operationalising ASMR multidimensionally rather than
as a unidimensional construct (Roberts et al., 2019). Much existing research has employed unidimensional operationalisations by
equating ASMR with intensity of tingles felt (Cash et al., 2018; Eid et al., 2022; Fredborg et al., 2017; Fredborg et al., 2018; Janik
McErlean et al., 2022; Keizer et al., 2020; Poerio et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2017; Valtakari et al, 2019; Wang et al., 2020). However,
although tingles are an important physiological component of ASMR (Fredborg et al., 2021), tingles are common to a number of altered
consciousness experiences (e.g., synaesthesia) and so are not specific to ASMR (Harrison & Loui, 2014; Roberts et al., 2019; Somer
et al., 2021; Tihanyi et al., 2018).
On the other hand, there is evidence that ASMR may be best conceptualised as a multidimensional phenomenon (Poerio et al.,
2018; Roberts et al., 2019). For instance, ASMR appears to involve simultaneous cognitive, emotional, and physiological experiences in
response to triggers (Niu et al., 2022; Poerio et al., 2018). Furthermore, increased skin conductance levels, lowered heart rate, feelings
of excitement, and relaxation have all been concurrently demonstrated during ASMR (Idayati et al., 2021; Poerio et al., 2018).
Similarly, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) investigations consistently indicate ASMR experiencers may possess reduced
resting-state functional connectivity between attentional, sensory, affective, and motoric regions of the default mode network (Smith
et al., 2017; Smith et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2020). Subsequently, ASMR may involve melding of several resting-state networks, which
contributes to reduced inhibition of combined sensory-emotional experiences (Gillmeister et al., 2022; Pedrini et al., 2021; Smith et al.,
2017; Smith et al., 2019). Hence, these findings together suggest that ASMR may be a multidimensional experience, rather than a
unidimensional phenomenon (Fredborg et al., 2017).
1.2. Problems with inconsistent operationalisations of ASMR
Varied operationalisations of ASMR have resulted in conflicting reported empirical relationships between ASMR and a range of
variables (Barratt & Davis, 2015; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Janik McErlean & Osborne-Ford, 2020; Roberts et al., 2021a). Fredborg et al.
(2018), for instance, found a positive correlation between unidimensional ASMR tingles and mindfulness, while others identified a
weak to nil negative correlation of the same relationship when operationalising ASMR multidimensionally (Janik McErlean &
Osborne-Ford, 2020; Roberts et al., 2021a). Similarly, inconsistent measurement approaches have produced conflicting findings
relating ASMR to Big Five personality traits (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Roberts et al., 2021b). Big Five personality traits include
Openness to experience (intellectual curiosity and imaginativeness); Conscientiousness (organizational ability and carefulness); Extra
version (seeking stimulation and social engagement); Neuroticism (emotional instability); and Agreeableness (compassion and cooper
ativeness; Goldberg, 2001; Power & Pluess, 2015). For instance, higher Extraversion and lower Neuroticism have been correlated with
ASMR when operationalising ASMR as unidimensional (Eid et al., 2022; Fredborg et al., 2017). However, in contrast, these re
lationships were not replicated when examining ASMR multidimensionally (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Roberts et al., 2021b).
Therefore, consistent multidimensional operationalisation appears to be important to uncovering genuine elements of ASMR.
1.3. Operationalising ASMR multidimensionality
Although ASMR multidimensionality is well supported, previous attempts to operationalise this have been inconsistent (Kilborn
et al., 2022; Lochte et al., 2018; Poerio et al., 2018; Swart, Bowling, & Banissy, 2022). To address this, an extensive mixed-methods
investigation identified four key dimensions of ASMR experience including affect (emotional feelings of pleasure, bliss, and euphoria);
altered consciousness (shifts in consciousness and mental functioning); sensation (physical feelings and tingles); and relaxation (feeling
calm, sleepy, and relaxed; Roberts et al., 2019). These dimensions were operationalised in the Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response
Scale (ASMR-15; Roberts et al., 2021b), a psychometrically robust self-report measure of ASMR propensity (Roberts et al., 2020;
Roberts et al., 2021a). Therefore, the present study adopted this evidence-based multidimensional operationalisation of ASMR pro
pensity (Roberts et al., 2019).
1.4. ASMR and other phenomena
Further attempts to understand ASMR have involved distinguishing this phenomenon from related experiences such as frisson and
synaesthesia (Roberts et al., 2020). Although similar to ASMR tingles, frisson refers to physiological sensations of chills in response to
deep resonance with music (Harrison & Loui, 2014). However, comparative self-report and laboratory-induced investigations have
consistently indicated that ASMR and frisson are different phenomena, with differing triggers (e.g., ASMR stimuli include whispering
and personal attention whereas frisson may be induced by changes in loudness of music; del Campo & Kehle, 2016; Fredborg et al.,
2
2018; Roberts et al., 2019; Roberts et al., 2020). Furthermore, although neurological findings suggest ASMR and frisson may involve
common brain regions, region activation qualitatively differs for these phenomena (Harrison & Loui, 2014; Lochte et al., 2018; Roberts
et al., 2020). For example, fMRI research indicates the medial prefrontal cortex and other regions present more complex activation in
ASMR than frisson (Sakurai et al., 2021). Similarly, greater activation has been demonstrated in response to audio ASMR triggers, such
as typing sounds, compared to classical music (Sakurai et al., 2021). These differences occurred even when tingles and frisson were not
felt (Sakurai et al., 2021), suggesting that physiological reactions are a singular component of ASMR. Therefore, ASMR appears distinct
from frisson, despite some relationship between both phenomena (Roberts et al., 2020).
ASMR can also be distinguished from synaesthesia. Synaesthesia involves concurrent cognitive-perceptual experiences (Barratt &
Davis, 2015), whereby stimulation of one sensory modality causes concurrent experience in another, usually unrelated modality
(Grossenbacher & Lovelace, 2001; Simmonds-Moore et al., 2019). For example, seeing colour may also cause sensation without
physical touch (Grossenbacher & Lovelace, 2001; Simmonds-Moore et al., 2019). The similarity with ASMR is apparent in that audio-
visual perception stimulates physical tingling sensations in ASMR (Barratt & Davis, 2015). Additionally, self-reported synaesthesia was
higher in a sample of ASMR experiencers (5.9%, Barratt & Davis, 2015) than in the general population (4.4%, Simner et al., 2006).
ASMR has also been correlated with greater anomalous perception such as tingles, and sub-clinical positive schizotypal experiences
related to synaesthesia (Kilborn et al., 2022; Simmonds-Moore et al., 2019).
Although the findings described above suggest that ASMR and synaesthesia may overlap (Fredborg et al., 2017; Lee, 2021),
prevalence disparities indicate these phenomena are distinct (Roberts et al., 2020). For instance, synaesthesia is a relatively rare
condition (Simner et al., 2006), whereas ASMR appears relatively common, varying in degree across the general population (Janik
McErlean & Banissy, 2018; Roberts et al., 2020). By way of example, 15.7 % of a generalised sample demonstrated strong ability to
experience multiple dimensions of ASMR (Roberts et al., 2021b). Therefore, while ASMR is likely distinct from synaesthesia, both
phenomena may share connected perceptual-cognitive mechanisms (Fredborg et al., 2017; Gillmeister et al., 2022).
1.5. Cognitive style underpinning ASMR propensity
Although ASMR is a multidimensional phenomenon, a body of evidence suggests that ASMR propensity may reflect a mentally
flexible cognitive style (Roberts et al., 2019). For instance, ASMR propensity is connected with enhanced perceptual experience
associated with transliminality and schizotypal traits (Roberts et al., 2021a). Additionally, across operationalisation methods,
Openness and ASMR have been consistently correlated (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Roberts et al., 2021b). Findings further
suggest that a tendency towards imaginativeness may characterise ASMR propensity (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Roberts et al.,
2021b). In this respect, imaginativeness during ASMR may involve shifting of cognitive perspectives (Buckner & Carroll, 2007)
through emotional contagion or roleplaying mechanisms (Nahal et al., 2021). ASMR may also reflect mental flexibility including
creative thinking as related to greater Openness (Diamond, 2013; Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Roberts et al., 2021b). Creative
thinking, itself, involves mental flexibility as an adaptive problem-solving approach for meeting the changing demands of given tasks
(Diamond, 2013). The following sections discuss how transliminality, emotional contagion susceptibility, schizotypal traits, role
playing ability, and creativity may relate to ASMR propensity.
1.5.1. Transliminality
Previous research indicates that transliminality may partly explain ASMR propensity (Roberts et al., 2021a). Transliminality is a
broader personality dimension involving thinness of mental boundaries between the external environment and conscious awareness
(Hartmann et al., 1998; Lange et al., 2019; Roberts et al., 2021a; Sherwood & Milner, 2005; Thalbourne & Maltby, 2008). For those
high in transliminality, triggers from the external environment may easily cross permeable boundaries into consciousness, eliciting
ASMR (Roberts et al., 2021a). However, to date, only a weak, positive correlation between transliminality and ASMR propensity has
been identified (Roberts et al., 2021a). Therefore, the current study examined how thin boundaries may interact with other cognitive
mechanisms to amplify engagement with triggers during ASMR.
1.5.2. Emotional contagion susceptibility

One mechanism that relates to both transliminality and ASMR propensity may be emotional contagion susceptibility. Emotional
contagion is an affective component of empathetic concern which involves mirroring another’s emotions to regulate personal emotions
autonomously and automatically (Borawski et al., 2021; Hatfield & Rapson, 1993; Wróbel & Lundqvist, 2014). Previously, greater
ASMR propensity has been positively related to emotional regulation abilities (Morales et al., 2021). Furthermore, empathetic sus
ceptibility, demonstrated by emotional contagion, may reflect deeper processing of others’ emotions and social stimuli (Poerio et al.,
2022). Other studies have also found a positive correlation between empathic concern and ASMR (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017).
Additionally, emotional contagion has been theorised to underlie transliminality and synaesthesia, the latter’s relation to ASMR
discussed above (Roberts et al., 2021a; Simmonds-Moore, 2016).
In this respect, others’ emotions may cross mental boundaries and become adopted by an individual more easily during ASMR
(Roberts et al., 2021a; Simmonds-Moore, 2016). Hence, emotional contagion mechanisms may process social and emotional com
ponents of triggers, leading to ASMR experience (Reddy & Mohabbat, 2020; Roberts et al., 2021b). For instance, another’s relaxed
affect may be mirrored during popular person-centred triggers (i.e., personal attention, whispering, eye contact; Borawski et al., 2021;
Reddy & Mohabbat, 2020; Roberts et al., 2021b), possibly in everyday and video contexts (Palmer-Cooper et al., 2021). As such, these
mechanisms may be important for experiencing ASMR through roleplaying stimulus videos that simulate care to induce feelings of
comfort and relaxation in the viewer. Furthermore, emotional components of triggers may cross into conscious awareness more easily
3
for those possessing more permeable mental boundaries (Hartmann et al., 1998; Roberts et al., 2021a; Roberts et al., 2021b).
Accordingly, an individual possessing greater emotional contagion susceptibility and higher levels of transliminality may be able to
experience ASMR to a higher degree. Hence, it is hypothesised that the positive relationship between emotional contagion suscepti
bility and ASMR propensity may be strengthened by transliminality.
1.5.3. Schizotypal traits

Other mechanisms that may relate to transliminality and ASMR propensity are schizotypal traits (Roberts et al., 2021a). These traits
reflect underlying vulnerability towards a continuum of schizophrenia-related cognitions and perceptions (Gross et al., 2018).
Schizotypal traits include three dimensions: positive psychotic-like experiences, negative social and affect deficit, and disorganised
thoughts and behaviours (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Gross et al., 2018). The positive dimension is characterised by
enhanced intensity of altered perceptual experiences, as well as enriched visual imagery and mental encounters (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013; Gross et al., 2018; Roberts et al., 2021a). This dimension appears particularly relevant to ASMR due to con
sciousness and anomalous perception changes in both phenomena, as discussed earlier (Kilborn et al., 2022; Roberts et al., 2021a).
Furthermore, schizotypal traits are positively associated with synaesthesia (Simmonds-Moore et al., 2019) and higher Openness
(Straub & Kerns, 2021), both of which positively relate to ASMR, as discussed previously. Additionally, those high in schizotypy and
transliminality have demonstrated consistent atypical hemispheric organisation (Fleck et al., 2008).
Accordingly, schizotypal traits may contribute to engagement of unusual perceptual and cognitive responses to ASMR triggers
(Roberts et al., 2021a). Moreover, transliminality may increase conscious awareness of triggers and changes in perceptual experience
related to schizotypal traits during ASMR (Roberts et al., 2021a). Hence, an individual possessing schizotypal traits and greater
transliminality may experience ASMR to higher degrees. Therefore, transliminality may strengthen the positive relationship between
schizotypal traits and ASMR propensity.
1.5.4. Roleplaying ability

Roleplaying ability is another variable that may contribute to ASMR propensity. Roleplaying refers to an accurate performative
imitation of behaviours that characterise people in particular contexts (Fletcher & Averill, 1984; Martin, 1991). Roleplaying has been
identified as a highly preferred trigger in online ASMR videos, where ASMRtists (artists who perform triggers to induce ASMR in
viewers — Gallagher, 2019), sometimes assume unique roles (Barratt & Davis, 2015; Roberts et al., 2021a). Roleplays may feature
mundane situations such as a haircut or doctor’s appointment (Reddy & Mohabbat, 2020), or fantastical scenarios involving aliens or
fantasy warriors (Gibi ASMR, 2019; Timony, 2020). During roleplay, viewers imaginatively respond to the ASMRtist (Zappavigna,
2020). For example, during haircut roleplays viewers imagine the ASMRtist is styling their hair in response to brushing sounds and
visuals (Zappavigna, 2020).
This internal form of roleplay is non-traditional since it does not involve external physical characterisations or acting (Fletcher &
Averill, 1984; Zappavigna, 2020). Traditional external roleplay, on the other hand, produces entertainment in performing arts, and
social development in childhood play (Fletcher & Averill, 1984; Kalkusch et al., 2021; Maurice, 2007). By contrast, the purpose of
internal roleplay in online video contexts appears to be stimulating ASMR (Zappavigna, 2020). Nevertheless, both external and in
ternal roleplay appear to engage common mechanisms including faking, memory, unusual roles, fantasy involvement, storytelling, and
imitation (Hensley & Waggenspack, 1986). Furthermore, components of roleplay including empathetic concern and fantasizing ability
have been previously related to synaesthesia and ASMR (Banissy et al., 2013; Chun and Hupe, 2016; Hensley & Waggenspack, 1986;
Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Rouw and Scholte, 2016; Yaniv, 2012). Overall, these findings suggest that ASMR may involve an
increased ability to imaginatively transpose one’s perspective into virtual or fictional reality (Buckner & Carroll, 2007; Janik McErlean
& Banissy, 2017). Therefore, roleplaying ability may be an important contextual variable that interacts with other mechanisms to
amplify ASMR.
1.5.5. Creativity
Creativity is another variable that may be involved in ASMR, given common linkages with the variables discussed earlier. Previous
research has established that creativity involves convergent and divergent thinking, which are two different forms of problem-solving
(Fasko, 2001; Rigon et al., 2018; Ritter et al., 2018). Convergent thinking involves determining the best single solution to a question or
problem (Fasko, 2001; Rigon et al., 2018). Divergent thinking, on the other hand, involves generation of several solutions or ideas
(Cropley, 2000; Rigon et al., 2018; Ritter et al., 2018). To elaborate from earlier, Openness involves seeking out novel encounters and
unconventional ideas which are critical to creativity (Kaufman et al., 2016; McCrae, 1987). Furthermore, transliminality may decrease
cognitive inhibition within the frontal lobe, enabling non-algorithmic processing during creative thinking (Feldges et al., 2018;
Sherwood & Milner, 2005; Thalbourne & Maltby, 2008). Therefore, creativity may formulate meaningful connections between triggers
and altered experience during ASMR (Feldges et al., 2018; McCrae, 1987; Roberts et al., 2021a).
Roleplaying may also maximise opportunities to engage creative abilities, strengthening mental flexibility during ASMR. For
example, roleplaying is related to greater mental flexibility through Openness, divergent thinking (Chung, 2013; Henrich & Wor
thington, 2021), creative empathy (Yaniv, 2012), and creative arts (Gruzelier et al., 2010; Gruzelier, 2013; Kern, 2006; Silvia et al.,
2009). In particular, enhanced divergent thinking is associated with theatrical improvisation, which is a spontaneous and unrehearsed
form of acting functionally similar to ASMR roleplay (Martínez & Fernandez-Rio, 2021; Zappavigna, 2020). Therefore, greater role
playing ability may enhance creative thinking when exposed to ASMR triggers. Subsequently, triggers may be interpreted more
meaningfully, enhancing ASMR propensity. Therefore, it is hypothesised that the positive relationship between creativity and ASMR
propensity may be strengthened by roleplaying ability.
4
1.6. Aims
The aim of this study was to investigate how transliminality, emotional contagion susceptibility, schizotypal traits, roleplaying
ability, and creativity may explain ASMR propensity. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to test our moderation hypotheses
in order to assess the interaction between multiple predictor variables (Keith, 2019).
1.7. Hypotheses
H1: The relationship between emotional contagion susceptibility and ASMR propensity will be moderated by transliminality.
Specifically, as scores of transliminality increase, the positive relationship between emotional contagion susceptibility and ASMR
propensity will become stronger.
H2: The relationship between schizotypal traits and ASMR propensity will be moderated by transliminality. Specifically, as scores
of transliminality increase, the positive relationship between schizotypal traits and ASMR propensity will become stronger.
H3: The relationship between creativity and ASMR propensity will be moderated by roleplaying ability. Specifically, as scores of
roleplaying ability increase, the positive relationship between divergent thinking and ASMR propensity will become stronger.
Additionally, as scores of roleplaying ability increase, the positive relationship between convergent thinking and ASMR propensity
will become stronger.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants of the study
2.1.1. Recruitment
The Macquarie University Human Research Ethics Committee provided ethics approval for the present study (REF:
520221131738295). Participants were recruited via advertisements on an online undergraduate psychology research participation
pool. Participants provided informed consent to completing an anonymous online survey through Qualtrics (2005) with questions
related to altered consciousness, cognitive, and emotional experiences. The survey took approximately 30 minutes to complete.
2.1.2. Participants
Together, 376 undergraduate psychology students (Mage = 20.99, SDage = 7.37; nfemale = 274; nmale = 82; nnon-binary/other = 7)
participated in exchange for course credit. All participants were over the age of 17 and 89.53% spoke English as a first language.
Analysis was conducted on participants (n = 363) who correctly answered three out of four attention checks (Maniaci & Ronald, 2013).
Three participants who did not provide rateable responses to the Alternative Uses Task (AUT) were not included in analysis of novelty
or usefulness scores of the creativity measures (n = 360). For multiple regression analysis with a medium effect size estimate (R2 =
0.15), a minimum sample size of 148 was necessary to achieve 80% power, at the 0.01 statistical significance level.
2.2. Instruments
2.2.1. Self report measures
2.2.1.1. Revised Transliminality Scale (RTS; Lange et al., 2000). This 29-item questionnaire was used to measure transliminality. For
contextual purposes all items were administered, whilst only 17 items were scored by summing ratings on each item. Respondents
indicated whether each statement was true (1 point) or false (0 points) of them. To improve accuracy, total scores were converted into
Rasch scores. An example item is “At times I perform certain little rituals to ward off negative influences”. Scores could range from 13.7
to 37.3, where higher scores indicate thinner mental boundaries (Lange et al., 2000). This scale demonstrates good reliability with
sufficient Cronbach’s alpha shown previously (α = 0.82; Lange et al., 2000), and in the present study (α = 0.80).
2.2.1.2. Emotional Contagion Scale (EC scale; Doherty, 1997). This 15-item questionnaire was used to measure emotional contagion
susceptibility. Respondents indicated how much each statement was true of them by rating self-statements on a 4-point Likert scale,
ranging from 1 = never to 4 = always. An example item is “It irritates me to be around angry people”. EC scale scores were calculated
by summing ratings of all items. Scores could range from 15 to 60, where higher scores indicate greater emotional contagion sus
ceptibility. This scale demonstrates excellent reliability with sufficient Cronbach’s alpha shown previously (α = 0.90; Doherty, 1997)
and in the present study (α = 0.83).
2.2.1.3. Multidimensional Schizotypy Scale – Brief Version (MSS-B; Gross et al., 2018). This 38-item questionnaire measured schizo
typal traits via three subscales: positive (13 items), negative (13 items), and disorganised (12 items). Respondents indicated whether
each statement was true (1 point) or false (0 points) of them. Three items were reverse coded (true = 0; false = 1). Total scores for each
subscale were calculated by summing ratings of relevant items. Subsequently, scores could range from 0 to 13 (positive; negative) or
from 0 to 12 (disorganised), where higher scores indicate higher possession of schizotypal traits specific to each dimension respec
tively. An example item is “I have sometimes felt that strangers were reading my mind”. The positive, negative, and disorganised
5
subscales demonstrate good reliability with sufficient Cronbach’s alphas shown previously (α = 0.78, α = 0.81, and α = 0.89
respectively; Gross et al., 2018), and in the present study (α = 0.80; α = 0.79; α = 0.88, respectively).
2.2.1.4. Brief 12-item Role-Playing Scale (RP scale; Hensley & Waggenspack, 1986). This 12-item questionnaire was used to measure
roleplaying ability. Respondents indicated how much each statement was true of them by rating self-statements on a 4-point Likert
scale, ranging from 1 = disagree to 4 = agree. An example item is “I am good at faking things”. Total scores were calculated by
summing ratings of all items. Scores could range from 12 to 48, where higher scores indicate greater roleplaying ability. This scale
demonstrates good reliability with sufficient Cronbach’s alpha shown previously (α = 0.75; Hensley & Waggenspack, 1986) and in the
present study (α = 0.80).
2.2.1.5. International Personality Item Pool Big-Five Markers – Openness subscale (IPIP; Goldberg, 2001). This 10-item self-report
questionnaire subscale was presented with the full 50 item IPIP scale. Respondents indicated how much they related to each state
ment by rating self-statements on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = very inaccurate to 5 = very accurate. An example item is “I
am full of ideas”. Several items were reverse coded (choice 1 = 5; choice 5 = 1). IPIP Openness scores were calculated by summing
ratings on included items. Scores could range from 10 to 50, where higher scores indicated greater Openness. This measure was
included to replicate previous relationships between ASMR and Openness (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Roberts et al., 2021b).
Previous research indicates this subscale is psychometrically robust, with high Cronbach’s alpha shown for Openness (α = 0.84;
Goldberg, 2001). By comparison, however, there was lower reliability found in the present study (α = 0.79).
2.2.1.6. Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response Scale (ASMR-15; Roberts et al., 2021a). This 15-item questionnaire was used to
measure ASMR propensity via four subscales: altered consciousness, sensation, relaxation and affect. Respondents indicated how much
each statement was true of them by rating self-statements on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = completely untrue of me to 5 =
completely true of me. An example item is “The sensation feels ‘tingly’”. The ASMR-15 full scale and subscale scores were calculated by
summing ratings on the 15 items, and for relevant subscale items respectively. Full scale scores could range from 15 to 75, where
higher scores indicate greater ASMR propensity. Subscales scores could range from 4 to 20 (altered consciousness), 5 to 25 (sensation),
and 3 to 15 (relaxation; affect). The ASMR-15 appears psychometrically robust. The ASMR-15 has previously demonstrated good
reliability with sufficient Cronbach’s alpha shown on the whole scale (α = 0.88) and on all subscales (altered consciousness α = 0.87,
sensation α = 0.81, relaxation α = 0.83, affect α = 0.82; Roberts et al., 2021a). In the present study, the ASMR-15 scale demonstrated
excellent reliability (full scale α = 0.94, altered consciousness α = 0.86, sensation α = 0.87, relaxation α = 0.74, affect α = 0.87). The
ASMR-15 exhibits sufficient predictive validity through significant positive correlations with momentary reported ASMR experience
(Roberts et al., 2020).
2.2.2. Performance-based creativity measures
2.2.2.1. Remote Associates Test (RAT; Milton et al., 2008). This 20-item modification of Mednick’s (1962) RAT was used to measure
convergent thinking. Each item is composed of three clue-words (e.g., Blank, White, Lines). Respondents were tasked to meaningfully
relate the clue-words to an associated word (e.g., Paper; correct response = 1 point). RAT scores were calculated by summing correct
responses on all items. Scores could theoretically range from 0 to 20, where higher scores indicate greater convergent thinking ability.
The RAT was untimed to avoid placing unnecessary stress upon participants, as unnecessary time limits have been shown to impede
upon creative ability (Said-Metwaly et al., 2020). This measure demonstrates good reliability with sufficient Cronbach’s alphas shown
previously (α greater than 0.80; Marko et al., 2019; α = 0.62; Milton et al., 2008) and in the present study (α = 0.87).
2.2.2.2. Alternative Uses Task (AUT; Milton et al., 2008). This modification of Guilford’s (1967) Unusual Uses Task was used to
measure divergent thinking. Participants had five minutes to produce as many unusual and interesting uses as possible for a single
piece of paper. The timer was implemented to reduce time burden and participant fatigue, since there were no other restraints to guide
responding such as number of items in the RAT (Lavrakas, 2008). The risk of introducing time-related stress in this instance was
considered low (Said-Metwaly et al., 2020), as five minutes previously provided reasonable opportunity to attempt the AUT (Agnoli
et al., 2021). Two scoring approaches were applied to maximise comprehensive examination of divergent thinking abilities (Vartanian
et al., 2020). AUT scores were calculated traditionally via fluency where number of uses produced are tallied, and higher scores
indicate greater divergent thinking ability (Vartanian et al., 2020). Additionally, a recently developed scoring method was employed to
more accurately measure cognitive mechanisms involved in divergent thinking, including concept retrieval and integration (Diedrich
et al., 2015; Vartanian et al., 2020). Following Vartanian et al.’s (2020) scoring methodology responses were rated on commonality,
ranging from 0 = extremely common (e.g., writing) to 100 = extremely uncommon (e.g., blanket for a mouse); and usefulness, ranging
from 0 = not at all useful (e.g., littering) to 100 = extremely useful (e.g., art). Ratings were made on two 100 point scales with 5 point
increments to improve scoring standardisation. Ratings aligned with Vartanian et al’s (2020) definitions of novelty, “deemed un
common and only given by a few people” (p.10) and usefulness, “feasible and can be potentially implemented to solve the problem”
(p.10). Average novelty and usefulness scores for each participant were analysed (Vartanian et al., 2020). The first rater scored all
responses and then the second rater scored a de-identified subset of responses (10%) after undergoing rigorous standardisation
training. Where ratings diverged by more than 10 points, raters collaboratively determined final ratings by referring to standardised
examples. These AUT scoring methods appear psychometrically robust, with sufficient inter-rater reliability (Kappa) for novelty and
6
usefulness shown previously (K = 0.94 and K = 0.67 respectively; Vartanian et al., 2020) and in the present study (K = 0.84 and K =
0.88 respectively).
2.2.3. Attention checks

Four attention checks were randomly dispersed throughout questionnaires to screen out careless, inattentive responses prior to
statistical analysis to improve accuracy of findings (Maniaci & Ronald, 2013). An example item is “Please answer true for this
question”.
2.3. Procedure
Participants completed a demographics questionnaire, followed by the RTS, EC scale, MSS-B, RP scale, IPIP Openness, ASMR-15,
RAT, and AUT presented in randomised order to avoid order effects. Items within each scale were also randomised.
Descriptive, correlational, and multiple regression analyses were employed to analyse the data using STATA 17 (StataCorp, 2021).
Due to the large number of analyses conducted, moderation analyses utilised a 0.01 significance level to reduce likelihood of type one
errors. Descriptive and correlational analyses used a 0.05 significance level.
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive statistics
3.1.1. Participant demographics

Of the 376 participants 274 identified as female (75.48%), 82 identified as male (22.59%) and 7 identified as non-binary/other
(1.93%). Participants ages ranged from 17 to 70 years (M = 20.99, SD = 7.37).
3.1.2. Measures means and standard deviations

Descriptive statistics were computed for the entire sample (n = 363; n = 360 for Usefulness and Novelty scores) since meaningful
divisions of participants into particular groups did not emerge in analysis (see Table 1).
3.1.3. Bivariate correlation analyses

Pearson correlations were computed to evaluate bivariate relationships between all variables relevant to the study’s aims (see
Table 2).
Table 2 demonstrates that, unexpectedly, Openness did not correlate significantly with positive schizotypal traits, r(3 6 1) = − .00, p
= .97 (cf. Straub & Kerns, 2021), or ASMR-15 scores, r(3 6 1) = 0.05, p = .33 (cf. Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Roberts et al.,
2021b), and was only weakly significantly positively correlated with divergent thinking measured via frequency, r(3 6 1) = 0.18, p <
.001, and novelty, r(3 5 9) = 0.11, p = .03 (cf. Benedek et al., 2014; McCrae, 1987).
3.2. Hypotheses testing moderation analyses
3.2.1. H1: Emotional contagion, transliminality and ASMR propensity

Multiple linear regression with interaction analysis was employed to test hypothesis 1, that the positive relationship between
emotional contagion susceptibility (EC scale scores) and ASMR propensity (ASMR-15 scores) will be strengthened by transliminality
(RTS scores). This statistical analysis demonstrated that RTS scores did not significantly moderate the relationship between EC scale
scores and ASMR-15 scores, R2 = 0.13; R2adj = 0.13; t(3, 362) = 1.55, p = .18; β = 0.07. However, this regression model demonstrated
positive main effects of EC scores, t(3, 362) = 2.72, p = .01; β = 0.14, and RTS scores, t(3, 362) = 5.29, p < .001; β = 0.28, on ASMR-15
scores.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for Variables Relevant to Aims of the Present Study.
Variable M SD Range Variable M SD Range
RTS 24.05 4.29 13.7–37.3 RAT 6.84 4.61 0–20

EC 44.20 6.74 15–60 AUT
MSS-B F 16.71 6.57 –
P 3.32 2.98 0–13 N 42.44 12.98 –
N 2.38 2.64 0–13 U 80.75 13.72 –
D 3.79 3.66 0–12 IPIP O 35.74 6.16 10–50
RP 29.58 6.45 12–48 ASMR 39.50 14.23 15–75
Note. RTS = Revised Transliminality Scale; RAT = Remote Associates Test; EC = Emotional Contagion Scale; AUT = Alternative Uses Task; F =
Frequency; N = Novelty; U = Usefulness; MSS-B = Multidimensional Schizotypy Scale - Brief Version; P = Positive; N = Negative; D = Disorganised;
IPIP O = International Personality Item Pool - Openness; RP = Roleplaying Scale; ASMR = Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response Scale.
7
Table 2
Correlations Between Variables of Interest.
Variables 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. ASMR 0.05 0.33* 0.24* 0.32* 0.12* 0.12* 0.26* − . 10 0.09 − . 07 − . 05

2. IPIP O 0.27* 0.12* − . 00 − . 24* − . 18* 0.43* 0.07 0.18* 0.11* 0.02
3. RTS 0.36* 0.56* 0.08 0.30* 0.42* − . 01 0.14* − . 03 − . 01
4. EC 0.25* − . 25* 0.09 0.14* 0.02 0.07 − . 08 0.03
MSS-B
5. P 0.32* 0.50* 0.34* − . 05 0.01 0.01 − . 04
6. N 0.45* − . 01 − . 09 − . 11* 0.02 − . 09
7. D 0.17* − . 12* 0.03 0.02 − . 03
8. RP 0.01 0.12* 0.09 − . 11*
9. RAT − . 00 0.06 0.02
AUT
10. F 0.14* − . 03
11. N − . 46*
12. U
Note. ASMR = Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response Scale; IPIP O = International Personality Item Pool – Openness; RTS = Revised Trans
liminality Scale; EC = Emotional Contagion Scale; MSS-B = Multidimensional Schizotypy Scale - Brief Version; P = Positive; N = Negative; D =
Disorganised; RP = Roleplaying Scale; RAT = Remote Associates Test; AUT = Alternative Uses Task; F = Frequency; N = Novelty; U = Usefulness.
*
p <.05.
3.2.2. H2: Schizotypal traits, transliminality and ASMR propensity

Multiple linear regression with interaction analyses were employed to test hypothesis 2, that the positive relationship between
schizotypal traits (MSS-B subscale scores) and ASMR propensity (ASMR-15 scores) will be strengthened by transliminality (RTS
scores). Firstly, this statistical analysis demonstrated that RTS scores did not significantly moderate the relationship between MSS-B
positive subscale scores and ASMR-15 scores, R2 = 0.14; R2adj = 0.13; t(3, 362) = 0.54, p = .59; β = 0.03. However, this regression model
demonstrated positive main effects of MSS-B positive subscale scores, t(3, 362) = 2.99, p = .003; β = 0.19, and RTS scores, t(3, 362) =
3.82, p < .001; β = 0.23, on ASMR-15 scores. Secondly, this statistical analysis demonstrated that RTS scores did not significantly
moderate the relationship between MSS-B negative subscale scores and ASMR-15 scores, R2 = 0.13; R2adj = 0.13; t(3, 362) = 2.31, p =
.02; β = 0.11. Furthermore, this regression model demonstrated that the relationship between MSS-B negative subscale scores and
ASMR-15 scores was non-significant, t(3, 362) = 1.91, p = .06; β = 0.09. However, a positive main effect of RTS scores, t(3, 362) =
6.65, p < .001; β = 0.33, on ASMR-15 scores was identified. Finally, this statistical analysis demonstrated that RTS scores did not
significantly moderate the relationship between MSS-B disorganised subscale scores and ASMR-15 scores, R2 = 0.12; R2adj = 0.11; t(3,
362) = 1.52, p = .13; β = 0.08. Furthermore, this regression model demonstrated that the relationship between MSS-B disorganised
subscale scores and ASMR-15 scores was non-significant, t(3, 362) = 0.18, p = .86; β = 0.01. However, a positive main effect of RTS
scores, t(3, 362) = 6.65, p < .001; β = 0.34, on ASMR-15 scores was identified.
3.2.3. H3: Roleplaying, creativity and ASMR propensity

Multiple linear regression with interaction analyses were employed to test hypothesis 3, that the positive relationship between
creativity as convergent (RAT scores) and divergent (AUT scores) thinking ability and ASMR propensity (ASMR-15 scores) will be
strengthened by roleplaying ability (RP scale scores). Firstly, this statistical analysis demonstrated that RP scale scores did not
significantly moderate the relationship between RAT scores and ASMR propensity, R2 = 0.08; R2adj = 0.07; t(3, 362) = 1.11, p = .27; β =
0.23. Furthermore, this regression model demonstrated that the relationship between RAT scores and ASMR-15 scores was non-
significant, t(3, 362) = − 1.58, p = .14; β = − .33. However, this regression model demonstrated a positive main effect of RP scale
scores, t(3, 362) = 2.19, p = .03; β = 0.18, on ASMR-15 scores.
Statistical analysis demonstrated that RP scale scores did not significantly moderate the relationship between AUT Frequency
scores and ASMR propensity, R2 = 0.07; R2adj = 0.06; t(3, 361) = 0.07, p = .95; β = 0.00. Moreover, this regression model demonstrated
that the relationship between AUT Frequency scores and ASMR-15 scores was non-significant, t(3, 361) = 1.11, p = .27; β = 0.06.
However, this regression model demonstrated a positive main effect of RP scale scores, t(3, 361) = 4.89, p < .001; β = 0.25, on ASMR-
15 scores.
Statistical analysis demonstrated that RP scale scores did not significantly moderate the relationship between AUT Novelty scores
and ASMR propensity, R2 = 0.08; R2adj = 0.07; t(3, 359) = 1.12, p = .26; β = 0.06. Moreover, this regression model demonstrated that
the relationship between AUT Novelty scores and ASMR-15 scores was non-significant, t(3, 359) = − 1.90, p = .06; β = − .10. However,
this regression model demonstrated a positive main effect of RP scale scores, t(3, 359) = 5.10, p < .001; β = 0.26, on ASMR-15 scores.
Statistical analysis demonstrated that RP scale scores did not significantly moderate the relationship between AUT Usefulness
scores and ASMR propensity, R2 = 0.07; R2adj = 0.06; t(3, 359) = − 0.78, p = .44; β = − .04. Furthermore, this regression model
demonstrated that the relationship between AUT Usefulness scores and ASMR-15 scores was non-significant, t(3, 359) = − 0.52, p
=.60; β = − .03. However, this regression model demonstrated a positive main effect of RP scale scores, t(3, 359) = 4.87, p < .001; β =
0.25, on ASMR-15 scores.
8
3.3. Multiple linear regression model with four predictors
A multiple linear regression model was conducted given the indicated predictiveness of variables producing positive main effects in
hypothesis testing regression models. This statistical model demonstrated that RTS scores, t(3, 362) = 2.21, p = .03; β = 0.14, EC scale
scores, t(3, 362) = 2.59, p = .01; β = 0.13, MSS-B positive subscale scores, t(3, 362) = 2.90, p = .004; β = 0.17, and RP scale scores, t(3,
362) = 2.29, p = .02; β = 0.12, significantly positively predicted ASMR-15 scores (R2 = 0.17; R2adj = 0.16).
4. Discussion
The present study aimed to investigate whether ASMR propensity reflects a mentally flexible mindset by examining the relationship
of ASMR propensity with transliminality, emotional contagion susceptibility, schizotypal traits, roleplaying ability, and creativity.
Multiple linear regression analyses tested whether some variables moderated relationships between other variables and ASMR
propensity.
4.1. Main findings
4.1.1. Hypotheses
4.1.1.1. H1: Emotional contagion, transliminality and ASMR propensity. The hypothesis that the relationship between emotional
contagion susceptibility and ASMR propensity would be moderated by transliminality was not supported. These results suggest that
thinner mental boundaries do not interact with emotional contagion to enhance processing and reflection of others’ emotions and
affect during ASMR. Nevertheless, main effects indicated independent positive relationships between both transliminality and
emotional contagion susceptibility and ASMR propensity.
4.1.1.2. H2: Schizotypal traits, transliminality and ASMR propensity. The hypothesis that the relationship between schizotypal traits
and ASMR propensity would be moderated by transliminality was not supported. These results indicate that permeable mental
boundaries do not interact with schizotypal traits to enhance conscious awareness of changes in perception related to schizotypal traits
during ASMR (Roberts et al., 2021a). There were no significant relationships between either the MSS-B negative or disorganised
subscale scores with ASMR-15 scores, indicating unrelatedness between negative and disorganised schizotypal traits and ASMR
propensity. These dimensions of schizotypy involve asociality, diminished positive affect, and disturbances in emotional expression
(Gross et al., 2018), which would not be expected to associate with ASMR since they conflict with both previous consistent findings
relating ASMR to social and emotional processing (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Poerio et al., 2022). Possible positive relationships
were indicated between both transliminality and positive schizotypal traits with ASMR propensity.
4.1.1.3. H3: Roleplaying, creativity and ASMR propensity. The hypothesis that the relationship between creativity and ASMR pro
pensity would be moderated by roleplaying ability was not supported. These results suggest that greater roleplaying ability does not
necessarily increase creative thinking ability during ASMR. However, a positive main effect indicates a possible relationship between
roleplaying ability and ASMR propensity. Furthermore, no relationship between divergent or convergent thinking and ASMR pro
pensity demonstrated statistical significance. Hence, creative thinking ability may not be relevant to ASMR propensity as there may be
no need to meaningfully interpret triggers to experience ASMR (Barratt et al., 2017). Barratt et al.’s, (2017) findings corroborate this
outcome to some degree, since meaningful context of objects (i.e., historical significance or rarity) only reportedly influenced trig
gering ability in one third of ASMR experiencers in their sample. As such, the present findings do not suggest that a cognitive style
underpinning ASMR propensity involves mental flexibility including creativity (Diamond, 2013).
Nevertheless, Openness did not perform as expected, even though this variable was operationalised using a standard measure, the
International Personality Item Pool Big-Five Markers (Goldberg, 2001). Mindful of this, Openness, a critical element of creativity, was
also unrelated to ASMR propensity within the current sample, inconsistent with previous research (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017;
Roberts et al., 2021b). Hence, some caution is required before generalising these findings.
4.1.2. Multiple linear regression model

A multiple linear regression model confirmed that RTS, EC scale, positive MSS-B subscale, and RP scale scores significantly
positively predicted ASMR-15 scores. Hence, transliminality, emotional contagion susceptibility, positive schizotypal traits and
roleplaying ability significantly accounted for about 16% of the variance in ASMR propensity. The relationship between trans
liminality and ASMR propensity replicates that found by Roberts et al. (2021a) within a generalised sample. Hence, transliminality
may be an important component of everyday ASMR experience, not specific to online video viewership (Roberts et al., 2021a). This
possibly indicates that higher ASMR propensity may involve triggers that easily cross mental boundaries into conscious awareness
(Lange et al., 2000; Roberts et al., 2021a; Thalbourne & Maltby, 2008). Furthermore, the relationship between positive schizotypal
traits and ASMR propensity may reflect that these mechanisms allow greater intensity of altered perceptual experiences during ASMR,
consistent with previous research (Gross et al., 2018; Kilborn et al., 2022; Roberts et al., 2021a). Overall, these findings are consistent
with enhanced perceptual components of the theorised potential cognitive style underpinning ASMR propensity.
Additionally, the relationship between emotional contagion susceptibility and ASMR propensity may suggest that ASMR propensity
9
involves enhanced abilities to process and mirror others’ emotional perspectives (Borawski et al., 2021; Hatfield & Rapson, 1993;
Poerio et al., 2022; Wróbel & Lundqvist, 2014), which is consistent with previous research (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Morales
et al., 2021; Roberts et al., 2021a). As previously mentioned, (section 1.5.2) ASMR experience has been related to empathic concern,
the tendency for feeling concern and compassion in response to others’ distress (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017). Furthermore, the
relationship between roleplaying ability and ASMR propensity may indicate that the ability to accurately assume the role of particular
characters within a fantasy context may be important to ASMR (Buckner & Carroll, 2007), consistent with previous research relating
ASMR experience to fantasising ability (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Zappavigna, 2020). Therefore, these findings are consistent
with enhanced imaginative elements of the theorised potential cognitive style underpinning ASMR propensity.
However, Janik McErlean & Banissy’s (2017) study also demonstrated that the ability to adopt another’s perspective was non-
significantly related to general ability to experience ASMR (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017). Considering that present findings
may indicate that the ability to shift cognitive perspectives may be characteristic of ASMR experience in person-centred contexts such
as roleplaying, these findings together may suggest differences among certain types of ASMR experiencers (i.e., person-focused with
preference for personal attention and whispering type triggers, and object-focused with preference for tapping sounds and item as
sembly type triggers). As a result, if there are differences in the relevance of emotional contagion between different ASMR experiencers
(given that these mechanisms relate to stimulating ability of particular triggers), a higher-order variable could more broadly explain
overall ASMR propensity. For instance, the relation between transliminality and emotional contagion in the present study (0.36;
section 3.1.3) may indicate that these distinct mechanisms could be encompassed under a broader profile of high sensitivity (Roberts
et al., 2021b). Previous research has identified a modest correlation between ASMR propensity and sensory-processing sensitivity (SPS;
Roberts et al., 2021b). SPS refers to a phenotypic trait involving enhanced depth of information processing, heightened awareness of
environmental subtleties, elevated empathy and emotional reactivity (Schaefer et al., 2022), and greater susceptibility to over
stimulation (Greven et al., 2019). Additionally, prevalence of high possession of the SPS trait is estimated to be 15–20% of the general
population, mirroring that of high multi-dimensional ASMR propensity (section 1.4; Roberts et al., 2021b). Findings by Poerio et al.
(2022) appear to corroborate this link, whereby higher ASMR propensity was related to greater SPS. More specifically, ASMR appears
to be related to heightened sensitivity toward interoceptive cues produced within the body, such as strong emotional responses to
sensory ASMR triggers (Poerio et al., 2022). Poerio et al. (2022) propose that ASMR propensity susceptibility may be potentially
explained by trait meta-cognition abilities related to personal sensitivity to environmental and internal stimuli, which may relate to
variables such as transliminality. As such, it may be that specific psychological sub-domains of transliminality (i.e., fantasy-proneness,
fleeting hypomanic or manic experience, hyperæsthesia involving environmental stimuli sensitivity, absorption, positive attitude
towards dream interpretation, magical ideation, and mystical experience; Thalbourne, 1998), may be associated with different con
structs of SPS including those related to emotional contagion (Greven et al., 2019; Schaefer et al., 2022). For example, it may be that
the relationship between ASMR propensity and transliminality reflects greater absorption or sensitivity towards environmental
stimuli. Alternatively, it may be that the relationship between transliminality and roleplaying is related to fantasy proneness.
Therefore, the present findings may indicate that general ASMR propensity may be understood by broader personality traits, and that
complex relationships among sub-dimensions may account for different types of ASMR experiencers.
4.2. Theoretical linkages between perception and imagination in ASMR propensity
Although the findings do not suggest that ASMR is associated with a mentally flexible mindset, the elements of the possible
cognitive style discussed above may be connected through alternative cognitive mechanisms such as dissociation. Dissociation refers to
discontinuity and disruption in the normal integration of processes including perception, consciousness, emotion, and identity
(American Psychiatric Association, 2022). Additionally, dissociation is associated with variables related to ASMR including fantasy
proneness (Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017; Merckelbach et al., 2022), absorption (Janik McErlean & Osborne-Ford, 2020; Platt et al.,
1998), characteristics of emotional contagion (Parra & Giudici, 2022), transliminality (Evans et al., 2019), positive schizotypal traits
(Renard et al., 2017), and roleplaying (Panero & Winner, 2021). Since dissociation is also associated with various disorders and trauma
(American Psychiatric Association, 2022), relatedness to ASMR propensity may reflect underlying psychopathology. Furthermore,
relatedness between ASMR propensity and positive schizotypal traits in the present study may reflect a vulnerability for schizophrenia-
spectrum psychopathology (Gross et al., 2018). However, since sub-clinical presentations of schizotypal traits were examined, ASMR
propensity may not indicate psychopathology, which is consistent with previous research (Gross et al., 2018; Kilborn et al., 2022;
Roberts et al., 2021a). Hence, a relationship between ASMR propensity and dissociation may instead involve engagement of normative
dissociative processes (Butler, 2006). Specifically, ASMR may share mechanisms involved in normative daydreaming, such as
perception-related alterations in awareness and automatic imaginative engagement (Butler, 2006; Janik McErlean & Banissy, 2017).
Therefore, dissociative mechanisms may potentially connect perceptual and imaginative elements of the proposed cognitive style
underpinning ASMR propensity, indicating a direction for future exploration.
Hypnotisability is another potential linkage between components of the proposed cognitive style discussed above. Hypnosis is a
therapeutic technique involving altered cognition, motor control, sensation, and perception in response to suggestions (Kirsch et al.,
1993). Suggestions may relate to both perceptual and imaginative elements of ASMR. For example, suggestions may involve positive
schizotypy related experiences such as altered perceptual awareness and perspective shifting ‘misidentification’ delusions (i.e., a
person mistakes the identity of themselves or another; Cox & Barnier, 2008). Hypnotisability refers to susceptibility to suggestions
during hypnosis (Zahedi & Sommer, 2022), and appears to present similar distributions within the population to ASMR propensity
(Roberts et al., 2020; Roberts et al., 2021b). Specifically, 15–20% of people appear unable to experience hypnosis, 75% are moderately
susceptible, and 10–15% are highly susceptible (Surman & Baer, 2008). Additionally, absorption has been identified as a component of
10
hypnotisability (Fromm et al., 1981) and transliminality has also been theorised to relate to hypnotisability (Thalbourne, 2009), of
which both mechanisms have been previously related to ASMR (Janik McErlean & Osborne-Ford, 2020; Roberts et al., 2021a; sections
4.1.2 & 4.2). Therefore, hypnotisability may potentially contribute to linkages between perceptual and imaginative elements of the
proposed cognitive style of ASMR propensity.
4.3. Contributions and strengths of the present study
A key strength of the present study was achieving the aim of contributing new understandings of ASMR propensity. Specifically,
this was the first empirical examination of emotional contagion, schizotypal traits, roleplaying ability, and creativity in relation to
ASMR propensity. Furthermore, the present findings contribute empirical support for a possible cognitive style of ASMR propensity,
consistent with previous claims that ASMR propensity is multidimensional (Roberts et al., 2019). Other important strengths of the
present study related to confidence in the high quality of the data. Firstly, multiple performance-based measures of creativity were
used, enabling extensive investigation of various thinking abilities (Fasko, 2001; Rigon et al., 2018; Ritter et al., 2018). Additionally,
sufficient inter-rater reliability was achieved for the recently developed AUT scoring method, indicating rigorousness of stand
ardisation procedures (Vartanian et al., 2020). Furthermore, the vast majority of participants demonstrated attentive responding
through correctly answering most attention checks which also enabled a large, analysed sample size, contributing to validity of the
results (Maniaci & Ronald, 2013).
4.4. Limitations and alternative approaches
Although the integrity of this study is upheld by the previously discussed strengths, its limitations should also be acknowledged.
One limitation of the present study was its cross-sectional design, meaning causality of relationships between variables could not be
empirically demonstrated (Gravetter & Forzano, 2018). It could be that ASMR propensity is influencing the variables under exami
nation, or there are unaccounted variables at play (Gravetter & Forzano, 2018). Whilst these alternative interpretations are not
currently suggested by existing research, future longitudinal investigations may uncover such directional relationships (Gravetter &
Forzano, 2018).
Although performance-based measures of creativity were employed, online self-report was utilised to preliminarily investigate
various aspects of the proposed cognitive style. In future, employing performative measures of both skill-based variables (i.e., role
playing ability) and ‘traits’ (e.g., transliminality) may minimise the possible influence of participant bias and improve measurement
accuracy (Gravetter & Forzano, 2018; Panero & Winner, 2021). Another limitation is related to the over-representation of the young
adult, female, English speaking, student population in the present sample. This homogeneity may reduce generalisability of findings to
other populations if ASMR propensity is influenced by characteristics such as gender, age, language, and level of education (Gravetter
& Forzano, 2018). Therefore, future investigations should recruit participants from various and diverse populations to examine
whether cultural and demographic elements affect ASMR propensity.
4.5. Future clinical and research directions
The present study provides a basis for future investigations into ASMR propensity and its applications (Hu et al., 2022; Maniago
et al., 2021; Smejka & Wiggs, 2022). Firstly, since dissociation may relate to ASMR propensity, future research could assess the
relationship between ASMR-15 (Roberts et al., 2021a) and Dissociative Experiences Scale scores (Bernstein & Putnam, 1986; Saggino
et al., 2020). Additionally, since hypnotisability may relate to ASMR propensity, future investigations could examine how individuals
of various degrees of suggestibility (i.e., low, average, and high; Kittle et al., 2021) score on the ASMR-15 (Roberts et al., 2021a).
Furthermore, hypnotherapy has presented positive clinical outcomes including pain reduction, smoking cessation, and relaxation
(Kirsch et al., 1993; Riegel, 2013). ASMR videos have also been demonstrated to reduce heart rate by − 3.41 bpm which is comparable
with outcomes of established stress-related interventions (Bradt et al., 2013; Idayati et al., 2021; Poerio et al, 2018). Therefore,
integrating ASMR triggers into hypnosis may potentially produce enhanced clinical outcomes for susceptible clients (e.g., whispering
suggestions; Barratt & Davis, 2015; Kirsch et al., 1993; Poerio et al., 2018).
Furthermore, possession of the proposed cognitive style may enhance potential benefits from possible ASMR therapeutic tools,
including improved mood, sleep, and relaxation (Barratt & Davis, 2015; Poerio et al., 2018; Swart, Banissy et al., 2022). For instance,
actors with greater roleplaying ability may experience these benefits from viewing ASMR videos (Barratt & Davis, 2015; McDonald
et al., 2020). Additionally, since roleplaying abilities are improvable, future laboratory research could examine whether ASMR pro
pensity may also be increased through practice (McDonald et al., 2020). If so, ASMR propensity development may enable enhanced
benefits from possible ASMR therapeutic tools (Poerio et al., 2018; Roberts et al., 2021a). Finally, laboratory research could also assess
whether ASMR propensity differs in response to particular triggers (Barratt & Davis, 2015). For instance, emotional contagion
mechanisms may enable responding to socially and emotionally related triggers (i.e., personal attention; Poerio et al., 2022) rather
than potentially impersonal triggers (i.e., tapping on objects; Barratt & Davis, 2015). It should also be kept in mind that ASMR
experience will be accounted for by more than individual traits and that features of triggering stimuli are also important. For example,
Koumura et al. (2021) recently found that the acoustic elements of ASMR triggers accounted for approximately 30% of the variance in
intensity of tingling sensations. While Koumura et al.’s (2021) findings cannot be directly compared with ours (their study focused
upon frisson), their findings nevertheless indicate that the role of external factors in ASMR experience should not be underestimated.
11
4.6. Conclusion
The present study assessed various mechanisms that may relate to ASMR propensity. The results were consistent with a proposed
cognitive style of ASMR propensity characterised by enhanced imagination and perception, rather than mental flexibility. These
conclusions were drawn from results indicating significant positive relationships between transliminality, emotional contagion sus
ceptibility, positive schizotypal traits, and roleplaying ability with ASMR propensity. No relationships were found between creativity
and ASMR propensity. In conclusion, the present study advances understandings of ASMR propensity, providing foundations for future
research into ASMR and its potential benefits. Future investigations should attempt to develop the proposed cognitive style and
establish empirical directionality between variables and ASMR propensity through longitudinal and laboratory studies.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Kayley L. Zielinski-Nicolson: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – original
draft, Writing – review & editing. Natalie Roberts: Supervision, Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. Simon Boag: Su
pervision, Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Laura Tuohy for assisting with data coding moderation. We would also like to thank Tom Hostler and an
anonymous reviewer for comments and suggestions that helped improve this paper. An earlier version of this paper was presented at
the Personality and its Disorders conference held at Macquarie University in August 2022 and the Australasian Conference of Under
graduate Research held at The University of Sydney in September 2022.
References
Accornero, G. (2022). What does ASMR sound like? Composing the proxemic intimate zone in contemporary music. Contemporary Music Review, 41(4), 337–357.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07494467.2022.2087377
Agnoli, S., Zenari, S., Mastria, S., & Corazza, G. E. (2021). How do you feel in virtual environments? The role of emotions and openness trait over creative
performance. Creativity : Theories - Research - Applications, 8(1), 148–164. https://doi.org/10.2478/ctra-2021-0010
American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.
books.9780890425787.
Anderson, J. (2015). Now you’ve got the shiveries: Affect, intimacy and the ASMR whisper community. Television & New Media, 16(8), 683–700. https://doi.org/
10.1177/1527476414556184
Banissy, M. J., Holle, H., Cassell, J. A., Tsakanikos, E., Walsh, V., Spiller, M. J., & Ward, J. (2013). Personality traits in people with synaesthesia: Do synaesthetes have
an atypical personality profile? Personality and Individual Differences, 54(7), 828–831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.12.018
Barratt, E. L., & Davis, N. J. (2015). Autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR): A flow-like mental state. PeerJ, 3(e851), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.7717/
peerj.851
Barratt, E. L., Spence, C., & Davis, N. J. (2017). Sensory determinants of the autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR): Understanding the triggers. PeerJ, 5
(e3846). https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3846
Benedek, M., Jauk, E., Sommer, M., Arendasy, M., & Neubauer, A. C. (2014). Intelligence, creativity, and cognitive control: The common and differential involvement
of executive functions in intelligence and creativity. Intelligence, 46(1), 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.007
Bernstein, E. M., & Putnam, F. W. (1986). Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174(12), 727–735.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-198612000-00004
Borawski, W. T., Sojka, K., & Misztal, U. (2021). Interrelations between attachment styles, emotional contagion and loneliness. Journal of Family Issues, 42(9),
2064–2082. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X20966013
Bradt, J., Dileo, C., & Potvin, N. (2013). Music for stress and anxiety reduction in coronary heart disease patients. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 12. https://
doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD006577.pub3
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84
(4), 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Buckner, R. L., & Carroll, D. C. (2007). Self-projection and the brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.004
Butler, L. D. (2006). Normative dissociation. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 29(1), 45–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2005.10.004
Cash, D. K., Heisick, L. L., & Papesh, M. H. (2018). Expectancy effects in the autonomous sensory meridian response. PeerJ, 6(e5229). https://doi.org/10.7717/
peerj.5229
Chun, C. A., & Hupe, J. M. (2016). Are synesthetes exceptional beyond their synesthetic associations? A systematic comparison of creativity, personality, cognition,
and mental imagery in synesthetes and controls. The British Journal of Psychology, 107(3), 397–418. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12146
Chung, T. S. (2013). Table-top role playing game and creativity. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 8(1), 56–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2012.06.002
Cox, R. E., & Barnier, A. J. (2008). Hypnotic illusions and clinical delusions: A hypnotic paradigm for investigating delusions of misidentification. The International
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 57(1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207140802463419
Cropley, A. J. (2000). Defining and measuring creativity: Are creativity tests worth using? 23(2), 72-79. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783190009554069.
12
del Campo, M. A., & Kehle, T. J. (2016). Autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) and frisson: Mindfully induced sensory phenomena that promote happiness.
International Journal of School and Educational Psychology, 4(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2016.1130582
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 1, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Diedrich, J., Benedek, M., Jauk, E., & Neubauer, A. C. (2015). Are creative ideas novel and useful? Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 9(1), 35–40. https://
doi.org/10.1037/a0038688
Doherty, R. W. (1997). The emotional contagion scale: A measure of individual differences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 21(2), 131–154. https://doi.org/10.1023/
A:1024956003661
Eid, C. M., Hamilton, C., & Greer, J. (2022). Untangling the tingle: Investigating the association between the autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR),
neuroticism, and trait & state anxiety. PLoS ONE, 17(2), e0262668. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262668.
Engelbregt, H. J., Brinkman, K., van Geest, C. E., Irrmischer, M., & Deijen, J. B. (2022). The effects of autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) on mood,
attention, heart rate, skin conductance and EEG in healthy young adults. Experimental Brain Research, 240(6), 1727–1742. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-022-
06377-9
Evans, J., Lange, R., Houran, J., & Lynn, S. J. (2019). Further psychometric exploration of the transliminality construct. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research,
and Practice, 6(4), 417–438. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000163
Fasko, D. (2001). Education and creativity. Creative Research Journal, 13(3–4), 317–327. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326934CRJ1334_09
Feldges, T., Pieczenko, S., & Michael, N. (2018). Transliminality as a biological limitation to teach creativity. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 28, 131–137. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tsc.2018.04.001
Fleck, J. I., Green, D. L., Stevenson, J. L., Payne, L., Bowden, E. M., Jung-Beeman, M., & Kounios, J. (2008). The transliminal brain at rest: Baseline EEG, unusual
experiences, and access to unconscious mental activity. Cortex, 44(10), 1353–1363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2007.08.024
Fletcher, K. E., & Averill, J. R. (1984). A scale for the measurement of role-playing ability. Journal of Research in Personality, 18(2), 131–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/
0092-6566(84)90025-4
Fredborg, B. K., Champagne-Jorgensen, K., Desroches, A. S., & Smith, S. D. (2021). An electroencephalographic examination of the autonomous sensory meridian
response (ASMR). Consciousness and Cognition, 87, Article 103053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2020.103053
Fredborg, B. K., Clark, J. M., & Smith, S. D. (2018). Mindfulness and autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR). PeerJ, 6(e5414). https://doi.org/10.7717/
peerj.5414
Fredborg, B., Clark, J., & Smith, S. D. (2017). An examination of personality traits associated with autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR). Frontiers in
Psychology, 8(FEB). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00247
Fromm, E., Brown, D. P., Hurt, S. W., Oberlander, J. Z., Boxer, A. M., & Pfeifer, G. (1981). The phenomena and characteristics of self-hypnosis. The International
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis., 29(3), 189–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207148108409158
Gallagher, R. (2019). ‘ASMR’ autobiographies and the (life-)writing of digital subjectivity. Convergence: The Journal of Research into New Media Technologies., 25(2),
260–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856518818072
Gibi ASMR. (2019, September 22). ASMR | You Went to Area 51...You Got an Alien! [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=M2Psl8oHTt0.
Gillmeister, H., Succi, A., Romei, V., & Poerio, G. L. (2022). Touching you, touching me: Higher incidence of mirror-touch synaesthesia and positive (but not negative)
reactions to social touch in autonomous sensory meridian response. Consciousness and Cognition, 103, Article 103380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
concog.2022.103380
Goldberg, L. (2001). International Personality Item Pool. Retrieved from https://ipip.ori.org/newBigFive5broadKey.htm.
Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. B. (2018). Research methods for the behavioral sciences ((6 ed.).). Cengage.
Greven, C. U., Lionetti, F., Booth, C., Aron, E. N., Fox, E., Schendan, H. E., Pluess, M., Bruining, H., Acevedo, B., Bijttebier, P., & Homberg, J. (2019). Sensory
Processing Sensitivity in the context of Environmental Sensitivity: A critical review and development of research agenda. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,
98, 287–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.01.009
Gross, G. M., Kwapil, T. R., Raulin, M. L., Silvia, P. J., & Barrantes-Vidal, N. (2018). The multidimensional schizotypy scale-brief: Scale development and psychometric
properties. Psychiatry Research, 261, 7–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.033
Grossenbacher, P. G., & Lovelace, C. T. (2001). Mechanisms of synesthesia: Cognitive and physiological constraints. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 36–41. https://doi.
org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01571-0
Gruzelier, J. H. (2013). EEG-neurofeedback for optimising performance. II: Creativity, the performing arts and ecological validity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral
Reviews, 44, 142–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.11.004
Gruzelier, J., Inoue, A., Smart, R., Steed, A., & Steffert, T. (2010). Acting performance and flow state enhanced with sensory-motor rhythm neurofeedback comparing
ecologically valid immersive VR and training screen scenarios. Neuroscience Letters, 480(2), 112–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2010.06.019
Harrison, L., & Loui, P. (2014). Thrills, chills, frissons, and skin orgasms: Toward an integrative model of transcendent psychophysiological experiences in music.
Frontiers in Psychology, 5(790), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00790
Hartmann, E., Rosen, R., & Rand, W. (1998). Personality and dreaming: Boundary structure and dream content. Dreaming, 8(1), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:
DREM.0000005913.21794.1f
Hatfield, C. J., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science: A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 2(3), 96–99.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770953
Henrich, S., & Worthington, R. (2021). Let your clients fight dragons: A rapid evidence assessment regarding the therapeutic utility of ‘Dungeons & Dragons’. Journal
of Creativity in Mental Health, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/15401383.2021.1987367
Hensley, W. E., & Waggenspack, B. M. (1986). A brief scale of role playing. Journal of Research in Personality, 20(1), 62–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(86)
90109-1
Hu, M. Q., Li, H. L., Huang, S. Q., Jin, Y. T., Wang, S. S., Ying, L., Qi, Y. Y., Yu, X., & Zhou, Q. (2022). Reduction of psychological cravings and anxiety in women
compulsorily isolated for detoxification using autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR). Brain and Behavior, 12(7), e2636.
Idayati, R., Sufani, L., & Syahputra, D. A. (2021). Effect of watching autonomous sensory meridian response (AMR) video to heart rate, blood pressure and respiratory
rate in students of architectural engineering, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh, Indonesia. Bali Medical Journal, 10(2), 733–736. https://doi.org/10.15562/
bmj.v10i2.2338.
Janik McErlean, A. B., & Banissy, M. J. (2017). Assessing individual variation in personality and empathy traits in self-reported autonomous sensory meridian
response. Multisensory Research, 30(6), 601–613. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134808-00002571
Janik McErlean, A. B., & Banissy, M. J. (2018). Increased misophonia in self-reported autonomous sensory meridian response. PeerJ, 6, e5351.
Janik McErlean, A. B., & Osborne-Ford, E. J. (2020). Increased absorption in autonomous sensory meridian response. PeerJ, 8(e8588). https://doi.org/10.7717/
peerj.8588
Janik McErlean, A. B., Ellis, L., & Walsh, J. (2022). “No pain, no gain”: The impact of autonomous sensory meridian response on pain perception. Perception, 51(8),
565–577. https://doi.org/10.1177/03010066221108273
Kalkusch, I., Jaggy, A. K., Burkhardt Bossi, C., Weiss, B., Sticca, F., & Perren, S. (2021). Promoting social pretend play in preschool age: Is providing roleplay material
enough? Early Education and Development, 32(8), 1136–1152. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1830248
Kaufman, S. B., Quilty, L. C., Grazioplene, R. G., Hirsh, J. B., Gray, J. R., Peterson, J. B., & Deyoung, C. G. (2016). Openness to experience and intellect differentially
predict creative achievement in the arts and sciences. Journal of Personality, 84(2), 248–258. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12156
Keith. T. (2019). Multiple Regression and Beyond: An Introduction to Multiple Regression and Structural Equation Modeling (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/
9781315162348.
Keizer, A., Chang, T. H., O’Mahony, C. J., Schaap, N. S., & Stone, K. D. (2020). Inidividuals who experience autonomous sensory meridian response have higher levels
of sensory suggestibility. Perception, 49(1), 113–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0301006619891913
13
Kern, A. (2006). Exploring the relation between creativity and rules: The case of the performing arts. International Studies of Management & Organisation, 36(1), 63–80.
https://doi.org/10.2753/IMO0020-8825360104
Kilborn, K., Smith, S. D., & Clark, J. M. (2022). The role of anomalous perception in autonomous sensory meridian response. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory,
Research, and Practice, Advance online publication, https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000322.
Kirsch, I., Lynn, S. J., & Rhue, J. W. (1993). Introduction to clinical hypnosis. In J. W. Rhue, S. J. Lynn, & I. Kirsch (Eds.), Handbook of clinical hypnosis (pp. 3–22).
American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10274-001.
Kittle, J., Zhao, E., Stimpson, K., Weng, Y., & Spiegel, D. (2021). Testing hypnotizability by phone: Development and validation of the remote Hypnotic Induction
Profile (rHIP). The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 69(1), 94–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207144.2021.1827937
Koumura, T., Nakatani, M., Liao, H.-I., & Kondo, H. M. (2021). Dark, loud, and compact sounds induce frisson. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(6),
1140–1152. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021820977174
Lange, R., Houran, J., Evans, J., & Lynn, S. J. (2019). A review and reevaluation of the Revised Transliminality Scale. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and
Practice, 6(1), 67–89. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000153
Lange, R., Thalbourne, M. A., Houran, J., & Storm, L. (2000). The revised transliminality scale: Reliability and validity data from a rasch top-down purification
procedure. Consciousness and Cognition, 9(4), 591–617. https://doi.org/10.1006/ccog.2000.0472
Lavrakas (Ed.), P. J. (2008). Encyclopedia of survey research methods. Sage Publications, Inc. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412963947.
Lee, A. M. (2021). Autonomous sensory meridian response and the disability resource Ccnter: An exploratory review of student perceptions. Journal of Education.
https://doi.org/10.1177/00220574211032976
Lee, M., Song, C., Shin, G., & Lee, S. (2019). Possible effect of binaural beat combined with autonomous sensory meridian response for inducing sleep. Frontiers in
Human Neuroscience, 13, 425. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00425
Lochte, B. C., Guillory, S. A., Richard, C. A., & Kelley, W. M. (2018). An fMRI investigation of the neural correlates underlying the autonomous sensory meridian
response (ASMR). BioImpacts, 8(4), 295–304. https://doi.org/10.15171/bi.2018.32.
Maniaci, M. R., & Ronald, R. D. (2013). Caring about carelessness: Participant inattention and its effects on research. Journal of Research in Personality, 48, 61–83.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2013.09.008
Maniago, J. D., Adolfo, M. R., Orte, C. S., & Albougami, A. S. (2021). Improving mindful attention awareness among Saudi nursing students through autonomous
sensory meridian response stimulation. Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Sciences, 8(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.4103/JNMS.JNMS_37_20
Marko, M., Michalko, D., & Riečanský, I. (2019). Remote associates test: An empirical proof of concept. Behavior Research Methods, 51(6), 2700–2711. https://doi.org/
10.3758/s13428-018-1131-7
Martin, R. B. (1991). The assessment of involvement in role playing. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47(4), 587–596. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199107)47:
4<587::AID-JCLP2270470419>3.0.CO;2-H
Martínez, M., & Fernandez-Rio, J. (2021). Effects of a Theatrical Improvisation programme on students’ motor creativity. Research in Drama Education, 26(2),
268–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569783.2020.1847064
Maurice, L. (2007). Structure and stagecraft in Plautus’ Miles Gloriosus. Mnemosyne, 60(3), 407–426. https://doi.org/10.1163/156852507X215445
McCrae, R. R. (1987). Creativity, divergent thinking, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1258–1265. https://doi.org/
10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1258
McDonald, B., Goldstein, T. R., & Kanske, P. (2020). Could acting training improve social cognition and emotional control? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14, 348.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00348
McGeoch, P. D., & Rouw, R. (2020). How everyday sounds can trigger strong emotions: ASMR, misophonia and the feeling of wellbeing. BioEssays, 42(12), 2000099.
https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.202000099
Mednick, S. A. (1962). The associative basis of the creative process. Psychological Review, 69(3), 220–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0048850
Merckelbach, H., Otgaar, H., & Lynn, S. J. (2022). Empirical research on fantasy proneness and its correlates 2000–2018. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research,
and Practice, 9(1), 2–26. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000272
Milton, A., Saab, P., Wilson, H., & Boag, S. (2008). Are creative people tough-minded, curious or kind? In S. Boag (Ed.), Personality Down Under: Perspectives from
Australia (pp. 283–292). NY: Nova.
Morales, R., Ramírez-Benavides, D., & Villena-Gonzalez, M. (2021). Autonomous sensory meridian response self-reporters showed higher scores for cognitive
reappraisal as an emotion regulation strategy. PeerJ, 9, e11474.
Nahal, P., Hurd, P. L., Read, S., & Crespi, B. (2021). Cognitive empathy as imagination: Evidence from reading the mind in the eyes in autism and schizotypy. Frontiers
in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.665721
Niu, S., Manon, H. S., Bartolome, A., Ha, N. B., & Veazey, K. (2022). Close-up and whispering: An understanding of multimodal and parasocial interactions in YouTube
ASMR videos. In CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1–18). https://doi.org/10.1145/3491102.3517563
Palmer-Cooper, E., McGuire, N., & Wright, A. (2021). Unusual experiences and their association with metacognition: Investigating ASMR and Tulpamancy. Cognitive
Neuropsychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546805.2021.1999798
Panero, M. E., & Winner, E. (2021). Rating the acting moment: Exploring characteristics for realistic portrayals of characters. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article
615311. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.615311
Parra, A., & Giudici, R. (2022). Empathy and mental health associated with non-conventional healing practices. Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health, 24(1), 22–34.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19349637.2020.1808150
Pedrini, C., Marotta, L., & Guazzini, A. (2021). Asmr as idiosyncratic experience: Experimental evidence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 21, 11459. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111459
Platt, R., Lacey, S., Iobst, A., & Finkelman, D. (1998). Absorption, dissociation and fantasy proneness as predictors of memory distortion in autobiographical and
laboratory-generated memories. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12(7), 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199812)12:7<S77::AID-ACP601>3.0.CO;
2-C
Poerio, G. L., Blakey, E., Hostler, T. J., & Veltri, T. (2018). More than a feeling: Autonomous sensory meridian response (asmr) is characterized by reliable changes in
affect and physiology. PLoS ONE, 13(6), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196645
Poerio, G. L., Mank, S., & Hostler, T. J. (2022). The awesome as well as the awful: Heightened sensory sensitivity predicts the presence and intensity of Autonomous
sensory meridian response (ASMR). Journal of Research in Personality, 97, Article 104183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104183
Power, R. A., & Pluess, M. (2015). Heritability estimates of the Big Five personality traits based on common genetic variants. Traditional Psychiatry, 5, e604.
Qualtrics. (2005). Provo, Utah, USA: Qualtrics. Retrieved 2022, from https://www.qualtrics.com.
Reddy, N. V., & Mohabbat, A. B. (2020). Autonomous sensory meridian response: Your patients already know, do you? Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine, 87(12),
751–754. https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.87a.20005
Renard, S. B., Huntjens, R. J., Lysaker, P. H., Moskowitz, A., Aleman, A., & Pijnenborg, G. H. (2017). Unique and overlapping symptoms in schizophrenia spectrum
and dissociative disorders in relation to models of psychopathology: A systematic review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43(1), 108–121. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/
sbw063
Riegel, B. (2013). Hypnosis for smoking cessation: Group and individual treatment - a free choice study. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 61
(2), 146–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207144.2013.753824
Rigon, A., Reber, J., Patel, N. N., & Duff, M. C. (2018). Convergent thinking and traumatic brain injury: An investigation of performance on the remote associate test.
Brain Injury, 32(9), 1110–1114. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699052.2018.1483031
Ritter, S. M., Abbing, J., & van Schie, H. (2018). Eye-closure enhances creative performance on divergent and convergent creativity tasks. Frontiers in Psychology, 9.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01315
Roberts, N., Beath, A., & Boag, S. (2019). Autonomous sensory meridian response: Scale development and personality correlates. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory
Research, and Practice, 6(1), 22–39. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000168
14
Roberts, N., Beath, A., & Boag, S. (2020). A mixed-methods examination of autonomous sensory meridian response: Comparison to frisson. Consciousness and
Cognition, 86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2020.103046
Roberts, N., Beath, A., & Boag, S. (2021a). Autonomous sensory meridian response: Individual differences and consciousness correlates. Psychology of Consciousness:
Theory Research, and Practice, 8(1), 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000243
Roberts, N., Beath, A., & Boag, S. (2021b). Autonomous sensory meridian response: Sensitivity and personality correlates. Journal of Individual Differences, 42(3),
124–131. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000337
Rouw, R., & Scholte, S. (2016). Personality and cognitive styles of a general synesthetic trait. Neuropsychologia, 88(29), 35–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
neuropsychologia.2016.01.006
Saggino, A., Molinengo, G., Rogier, G., Garofalo, C., Loera, B., Tommasi, M., & Velotti, P. (2020). Improving the psychometric properties of the dissociative
experiences scale (DES-II): A Rasch validation study. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2417-8
Said-Metwaly, S., Fernández-Castilla, B., Kyndt, E., & Van den Noortgate, W. (2020). Testing conditions and ceative performance: Meta-analyses of the impact of time
limits and instructions. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 14(1), 15–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000244
Sakurai, N., Ohno, K., Kasai, S., Nagasaka, K., Onishi, H., & Kodama, N. (2021). Induction of relaxation by autonomous sensory meridian response. Frontiers in
Behavioral Neuroscience, 15(761621), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2021.761621
Schaefer, Kühnel, A., & Gärtner, M. (2022). Sensory processing sensitivity and somatosensory brain activation when feeling touch. Scientific Reports, 12(1),
12024–12024. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15497-9.
Sherwood, S. J., & Milner, M. E. (2005). The relationship between transliminality and boundary structure subscales. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 24(4),
369–378. https://doi.org/10.2190/1YH2-51J5-TG3E-UTFU
Silvia, P. J., Kaufman, J. C., & Pretz, J. E. (2009). Is creativity domain-specific? Latent class models of creative accomplishments and creative self-descriptions.
Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 3(3), 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014940
Simmonds-Moore, C. A. (2016). An interpretative phenomenological analysis exploring synesthesia as an exceptional experience: Insights for consciousness and
cognition. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 13, 303–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2016.1205693
Simmonds-Moore, C. A., Alvarado, C. S., & Zingrone, N. L. (2019). A survey exploring synesthetic experiences: Exceptional experiences, schizotypy, and psychological
well-being. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory Research, and Practice, 6(1), 99–121. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000165
Simner, J., Mulvenna, C., Sagiv, N., Tsakanikos, E., Witherby, S. A., Fraser, C., Scott, K., & Ward, J. (2006). Synaesthesia: The prevalence of atypical cross-modal
experiences. Perception, 35(8), 1024–1033. https://doi.org/10.1068/p5469
Smejka, T., & Wiggs, L. (2022). The effects of autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) videos on arousal and mood in adults with and without depression and
insomnia. Journal of Affective Disorders, 301, 60–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.12.015
Smith, N., & Snider, A.-M. (2019). ASMR, affect and digitally-mediated intimacy. Emotion, Space and Society, 30, 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
emospa.2018.11.002
Smith, S. D., Fredborg, B. K., & Kornelsen, J. (2017). An examination of the default mode network in individuals with autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR).
Social Neuroscience, 12(4), 361–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2016.1188851
Smith, S. D., Fredborg, B. K., & Kornelsen, J. (2019). Atypical functional connectivity associated with autonomous sensory meridian response: An examination of five
resting-state networks. Brain Connectivity, 9(6), 508–518. https://doi.org/10.1089/brain.2018.0618
Smith, S. D., Fredborg, B. K., & Kornelsen, J. (2020). Functional connectivity associated with five different categories of autonomous sensory meridian response
(ASMR) triggers. Consciousness and Cognition, 85, Article 103021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2020.103021
Somer, E., Cardeña, E., Catelan, R. F., & Soffer-Dudek, N. (2021). Reality shifting: Psychological features of an emergent online daydreaming culture. Current
Psychology, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02439-3
Straub, K. T., & Kerns, J. G. (2021). Positive schizotypy, maladaptive openness, and openness facets. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 12(1),
51–58. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000407
Surman, O. S., & Baer, L. (2008). Hypnosis. In Massachusetts General Hospital comprehensive clinical psychiatry (pp. 183–188). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-
0-323-04743-2.50017-2.
Swart, T. R., Banissy, M. J., Hein, T. P., Bruna, R., Pereda, E., & Bhattacharya, J. (2022). ASMR amplifies low frequency and reduces high frequency oscillations., 149,
85–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2022.01.004
Swart, T. R., Bowling, N. C., & Banissy, M. J. (2022). ASMR-Experience Questionnaire (AEQ): A data-driven step towards accurately classifying ASMR responders.
British Journal of Psychology, 113, 68–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12516
Tart, C. T. (1986). Consciousness, altered states, and worlds of experience. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 18(2), 159–170.
Thalbourne, M. A. (1998). Transliminality: Further correlates and a short measure. Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, 92, 402–419.
Thalbourne, M. A., & Maltby, J. (2008). Transliminality, thin boundaries, unusual experiences, and temporal lobe lability. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(7),
1617–1623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.01.022
Thalbourne, M. A. (2009). Transliminality, anomalous belief and experience, and hypnotisability. Australian Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis., 37(2),
119–130.
Tihanyi, B. T., Ferentzi, E., Beissner, F., & Köteles, F. (2018). The neuropsychophysiology of tingling. Consciousness and Cognition, 58, 97–110. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.concog.2017.10.015
Timony, E. [Goodnight Moon]. (2020, October 7). ASMR Marauder Steals You Away [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/blCGxZOE5K0.
Vaitl, Birbaumer, N., Gruzelier, J., Jamieson, G. A., Kotchoubey, B., Kübler, A., Lehmann, D., Miltner, W. H. R., Ott, U., Pütz, P., Sammer, G., Strauch, I., Strehl, U.,
Wackermann, J., & Weiss, T. (2005). Psychobiology of Altered States of Consciousness. Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 98-127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-
2909.131.1.98.
Valtakari, N. V., Hooge, I. T., Benjamins, J. S., & Keizer, A. (2019). An eye-tracking approach to autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR): The physiology and
nature of tingles in relation to the pupil. PLoS ONE, 14(12), e0226692.
Vartanian, O., Smith, I., Lam, T. K., King, K., Lam, Q., & Beatty, E. L. (2020). The relationship between methods of scoring the alternate uses task and the neural
correlates of divergent thinking: Evidence from voxel-based morphometry. NeuroImage, 223, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117325
Wang, X., Yang, X., Sun, Y., & Su, Y. (2020). The influence of autonomous sensory meridian response on individual’s executive function. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 73(10), 1587–1595. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021820922954
Wróbel, M., & Lundqvist, L. O. (2014). Multidimensional versus unidimensional models of emotional contagion: The Emotional Contagion Scale in a Polish sample.
Current Issues in Personality Psychology, 2(2), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.5114/cipp.2014.44304
Yaniv, D. (2012). Dynamics of creativity and empathy in role reversal: Contributions from neuroscience. Review of General Psychology, 16(1), 70–77. https://doi.org/
10.1037/a0026580
Yoon, H., & Baek, H. J. (2022). External auditory stimulation as a non-pharmacological sleep aid. Sensors, 22(3), 1264. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22031264
Yusaira, F., & Bennett, C. N. (2021). Influence of autonomous sensory meridian response on relaxation states: An experimental study. NeuroRegulation, 8(4), 184–193.
https://doi.org/10.15540/nr.8.4.184.
Zaccaro, A., Riehl, A., Piarulli, G., Alfi, B., Neri, D., & Menicucci, A. (2021). The consciousness state of traditional Nidrâ yoga/modern yoga Nidra: Phenomenological
characterization and preliminary insights from an EEG study. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 31(1). https://doi.org/10.17761/2021-D-20-00014.
Zahedi, A., & Sommer, W. (2022). Can hypnotic susceptibility be explained by bifactor models? Structural equation modeling of the Harvard group scale of hypnotic
susceptibility – Form A. Consciousness and Cognition, 99, Article 103289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2022.103289
Zappavigna, M. (2020). Digital intimacy and ambient embodied copresence in YouTube videos: Construing visual and aural perspective in ASMR role play videos.
Visual Communication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470357220928102
15
View publication stats

Zielinski-Nicolsonetal 2023

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Zielinski-Nicolsonetal 2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Does ASMR propensity reﬂect a mentally ﬂexible mindset? Exploring the

Article in Consciousness and Cognition · June 2023

Kayley Zielinski-Nicolson Natalie Roberts

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Dynamic personality project View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Consciousness and Cognition

Does ASMR propensity reflect a mentally flexible mindset?

1.1. Conceptualising ASMR

1.2. Problems with inconsistent operationalisations of ASMR

1.3. Operationalising ASMR multidimensionality

1.4. ASMR and other phenomena

1.5. Cognitive style underpinning ASMR propensity

1.5.2. Emotional contagion susceptibility

1.5.3. Schizotypal traits

1.5.4. Roleplaying ability

2.1. Participants of the study

2.2.1. Self report measures

2.2.2. Performance-based creativity measures

2.2.3. Attention checks

3.1. Descriptive statistics

3.1.1. Participant demographics

3.1.2. Measures means and standard deviations

3.1.3. Bivariate correlation analyses

3.2. Hypotheses testing moderation analyses

3.2.1. H1: Emotional contagion, transliminality and ASMR propensity

RTS 24.05 4.29 13.7–37.3 RAT 6.84 4.61 0–20

1. ASMR 0.05 0.33* 0.24* 0.32* 0.12* 0.12* 0.26* − . 10 0.09 − . 07 − . 05

3.2.2. H2: Schizotypal traits, transliminality and ASMR propensity

3.2.3. H3: Roleplaying, creativity and ASMR propensity

3.3. Multiple linear regression model with four predictors

4.1. Main findings

4.1.2. Multiple linear regression model

4.2. Theoretical linkages between perception and imagination in ASMR propensity

4.3. Contributions and strengths of the present study

4.4. Limitations and alternative approaches

4.5. Future clinical and research directions

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Declaration of Competing Interest

Data will be made available on request.

View publication stats

You might also like