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Table of Contents

Concepts of Speech and Communication 4

Levels of Context of Communication 5
Modes of Communication 6
Review on the Communication Process 8
Review on Speech Sounds 8
Focus on the Suprasegmentals as Tools for Speech and Theater – Stress, Pitch, Volume,
Enunciation, etc. 9
Public Speaking 10
Importance of Public Speaking 11
The Five Principles of Public Speaking 11
Outlining a Speech 12
How to Become Better at Public Speaking 15
Impromptu, Extemporaneous, Memorize, and Manuscript Speaking 16
Argumentation and Debate 18
Speeches for Special Occasion 20
Oral Interpretation 22
Storytelling 23
How to Become a Good Storyteller 24
Interpretative Reading 24
Rules of Interpretative Reading 25
Group Interpretation 25
Readers’ Theater 25
Performative 26
Developmental 26
Educational 26
Selecting Text for a Readers Theater Script 27
Tips for Implementing Readers Theater 28
Chamber Theater 28
One Playlet 29
The History and Elements of Drama 30
Drama Terms 31
Role of Drama and Theater in Arts and Education 32
Theater as an Art, Socializing Activity, and a Way of Learning 33
Drama as a Learning Medium 34
Creative Drama 36
Types of Creative Drama Techniques 36
Creative Drama Use 36
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Creative Drama Examples 37

Summary 37
Roleplay 38
Roleplay Examples 38
Types of Roleplay 39
Roleplaying Ideas 39
Benefits of Roleplaying 40
Improvisation 40
How to act during an improvisation 41
Pantomime 41
Pantomime Characteristics 42
Pantomime Examples 43
Scripted and NonScripted Performances 44
Puppetry 44
Mask Making 46
Multiculturalism and Drama 47
The Theatrical Process 49
Audience and Criticism 51
Theater Roles 51
Rules for the Theatre Audience 52
Theater Criticism 53
Theater Space and Design 55
Theater Space 55
Arena Stage 55
Proscenium Stage 56
Thrust Stage 58
Arena Stage 60
Theater Stage 61
Backstage Area 62
Front of the House 63
Theater Design 64
The Playwright 65
Playwriting Techniques 65
Play Structure 65
Dialogue 66
Text & Stage Directions 66
Dramaturgy 67
Set Design 68
The Process of Stage Set Design 68
Theater Acting 69
Stage Movement & Blocking 70
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Blocking in Theatre 70
Stage Blocking Positions 70
Stage Positions in Theatre 70
Stage Right vs. Stage Left 71
Stage Movement and Power 72
Directing and Producing a Stage Play 73
Production Concept 73
Theatre Director 74
Stage Director's Process 75
Theatre Director: Tools and Techniques 75
Stage Management 76
Stage Manager Responsibilities 76
Stage Manager Kit 77
Stage Manager Duties During Rehearsal 78
What Does a Stage Manager Do During the Show? 78
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Module 1: Speech Arts – An Overview

● discuss concepts in communication;
● understand the communication process; and
● express the relevance of communication in real-life situations.

Concepts of Speech and Communication

Speech

Speech is the ability to physically produce individual sounds and sound patterns
related to a specific language. It is the act of speaking or the action of producing or
articulating speech.

Speech is also a vocal form of communication that includes sounds or a combination of

sounds that function as a principal carrier of meaning and is spoken or written in the form of a
word, sentence, or conversation. These spoken words are a component of language and
consist of one or more morphemes which are the smallest units of speech.

While speech involves the physical motor ability to talk, language is a symbolic, rule
governed system to convey a message composed of spoken or written words or gestures
such as waving hello or good bye. Language is not just purely based on the act of speaking, but
does involve writing in order to express one's feelings and thoughts. Language is a human form
of speech, which is either spoken or written. We communicate in either form in order to deliver
or receive meaningful messages. It is the most common system of communication as it enables
people to talk to each other or put into writing their messages ideas. Furthermore, language is
an important tool in every society as it plays a significant role in nearly all forms of human
activity. Whether it's in the academia, government, science, religion, commerce, or any other
sector, it impacts the growth and development of the society. Moreover, a common language will
allow us to continue to work in various ways as it promotes cooperation among people.

Communication

Communication is a two-way process in which participants not only exchange

ideas, feelings and information but also create and share meaning for reaching mutual
understanding.

It is the exchange of ideas, thoughts, messages, or the like, by speech, signals or

writing. It is to express oneself in such a way that one is readily and clearly understood. It is a
process of conveying information from the sender to the receiver with the use of the media in
which the communicated information is understood.
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Communication is the expression or exchange of information by speech, writing,

gestures, conduct or electronic medium. It is a process of passing information, ideas, facts, or
opinions between two or more parties. It is the process by which an idea is brought to another 's
perception. The information that is so expressed or exchanged is also referred to as
communication. It is a complex and dynamic process that allows organisms to exchange
information by several methods.

Levels of Context of Communication

The context in communication refers to the factors that work together to determine the
meaning of a message. When conversations take place, context works to interpret parts of the
message. How people communicate changes according to different factors, like who they are
communicating with, where they are, and how they are feeling. To be an effective communicator,
individuals must be able to understand the context and adjust when needed. Context in
communication can change the way that communication flows, and it can also change the
message and how it is interpreted.

Refers to the setting in which communication takes place. The context helps establish
meaning and can influence what is said and how it is said (DeVito, 2005).

1. Physical Context refers to the actual setting in which the communication is taking
place. It includes the physical aspects like the weather, how loud the area is, the time of
day the meeting takes place, the location in which the meeting is held, and other
physical factors.

Example: A student on the playground is free to run, play, and yell with their classmates.
Being loud and boisterous is acceptable behavior for the location. However, when the
students come back inside the school, their behavior will adjust to calm, quiet, and
collected because that is the appropriate behavior for the physical context of the school.

2. Historical Context/Temporal Context refers to the way that individuals rely on past
behaviors to set the tone for communication.

Example: the Madrigal family eats dinner every night at 5 pm. They have a tradition of
taking turns to share something about their day as they eat. If Mirabel shows up to
dinner and refuses to share something about her day, the other family members will
likely be confused and think that something is wrong because she is not behaving as
she always does. While it is common for many people to shy away from sharing personal
details of their lives, in this context it is different because the other family members are
relying on the Mirable’s past behavior to meet their expectations.

3. Social Context is the relationship that exists between and among participants.

4. Psychological Context includes mood and feelings each person brings to the
communication.
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5. Cultural Context deals with the culture surrounding the communication. Cultural
expectations often define the way that messages are communicated. Every culture has
different communication styles and things that are deemed appropriate or inappropriate.
To make sure that communication is respectful when interacting with people from various
backgrounds, it is important to understand what is acceptable and unacceptable in their
culture because cultural expectations have been taught throughout generations and are
sometimes strictly adhered to.

Example: In some cultures it is considered rude to greet someone with a hug, while in
others this is an acceptable greeting. If someone walks into the room and starts hugging
everyone, it is possible that someone will see this as an inappropriate gesture due to the
cultural context that they are accustomed to.

Modes of Communication
Communication can be better understood through the study of modes, or the way in
which something is done or how something is experienced.

Verbal communication occurs when two or more individuals speak to each other,
whether it be formally or informally, face-to-face or virtually, or via telephone or video chat.
There are many important considerations to be made when expressing communications
verbally, which include the complexity of words, tone of voice, and coexistence with non-verbal
forms of communication that take place at the same time. Writing can sometimes also be
considered a form of verbal communication because it requires the knowledge and use of
speech, but written communications are often grouped separately.

Non-verbal communications are equally as important as verbal communications, and

in many instances they occur at the same time, as well as existing independently during other
interactions. A few forms of non-verbal communications include body language, facial
expressions, eye contact, posture, appearance, sign language, and other movements that assist
in communicating when words are not the best option.

Visual communications are sometimes considered non-verbal, although many (such

as television) include both verbal and non-verbal interactions.
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The Three Modes of Communication

Interpretive Presentational Interpersonal

Type One-way communication One-way communication Two-way

without active negotiation intended for an audience communication with
between communicating with no means for meaningful negotiation
parties interaction between all
communicating parties

Characteristics The receiver interprets Information is presented Spontaneous,

what the sender is by a speaker without unrehearsed,
communicating on their audience feedback or meaningful exchange of
own interaction information

Mode Reading, listening, Writing and speaking Speaking and listening

viewing or reading and writing

Examples Listening to a speech, Writing a script, telling a Conversing with others,

reading a story, and story, presenting news reading or scanning
listening to music through social media
messages, participating
in virtual interviews

1. Interpretive communication is a one-way mode of communication. It relates to

information that has been relayed by the sender and interpreted by the receiver in its
original and most basic form. The receiver must understand the message in both spoken
and written forms while making considerations for general aspects of the information
being provided. For example, a teacher may read a textbook aloud to their students
while the students attentively listen to the speech; the students are not required to fully
understand the information being relayed by the teacher immediately, but they should be
able to recognize and understand the general theme of the topic as well as interpret
what the information means to them or how it can be applied.

2. Presentational communication is another mode of one-way communication that

pertains to a speaker (the sender) speaking to an audience or making a presentation.
The communication takes place either verbally or through written means and no other
forms of interaction with the audience (the receiver) exist. There is no opportunity for
feedback from the audience. An example would be to simply present a piece of
information in front of a class before sitting back down at a desk. A textbook writer also
engages in presentational communication because they do not receive feedback for their
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presentation of information through text. Televised news, radio advertisements, posters,

reports, and scripts are a few other places where presentational communications
commonly exist.

3. Interpersonal communication is a two-way mode of communication that allows both

the sender and receiver to evaluate and respond to each other by oral, written and
non-verbal means; of the different types of modes of communication, it is the most
spontaneous, unrehearsed and meaningful exchange of information between two or
more people. Interpersonal communications often take place during face-to-face
conversations, virtual interviews, written letters, email, text messages, and conversations
on social media.

Review on the Communication Process

The communication process refers to a series of actions or steps taken in order
to successfully communicate. It involves context, participants (sender and receiver),
messages, channels, noise and feedback.

The communication process consists the following elements:

● Sender - initiates the communication process & creates the message

● Encoding - the process of transforming an abstract idea into a communicable
message.
● Message - the information that the sender wants to relay to the receiver.
● Channel - the medium or method through which a message is sent to its
intended receiver.
● Receiver - the individual (or the group of individuals) to whom a message is
directed.
● Decoding - the process of interpretation and translation of coded information into
a comprehensible form.
● Feedback - the response that is sent back by the receiver to the sender.
● Noise - anything that interferes communication (psychological, physiological,
physical, and semantic)

Review on Speech Sounds

Phonology is the linguistic study of speech sounds and manual units and how they
change depending on their contexts. Different from phonetics, which studies isolated speech
sounds, phonology looks at speech sounds in relation to other words and syllables to determine
meaning. Subdivisions of phonology include phonemes, allophones, and morphemes.

Phonological rules help phonologists predict how speech sounds will change in any given
context indicated by vowel sounds and syllable stress. For example, the correct pronunciation of
the plural morpheme -s in any given word in the English language is determined by the speech
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sounds that immediately precede the final -s in the word. The words "cats," "dogs," and
"classes" demonstrate the three distinct pronunciations.

Speech sounds are individual sounds that make up words and allow us to convey meaning
through spoken language. Speech sounds can be combined in different ways to form words,
sentences, and ultimately, meaningful communication.

In 1888 the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was invented in order to have a system in
which there was a one-to-one correspondence between each sound in language and each
phonetic symbol.

In linguistics, speech sounds are categorized into two main types:

1. Consonants: Consonants are speech sounds produced by obstructing or constricting

the airflow in the vocal tract. They are characterized by the involvement of the lips,
tongue, teeth, and other parts of the mouth in their production. Consonants can be
further classified based on factors such as voicing (whether the vocal cords vibrate
during their production), place of articulation (where in the vocal tract the airflow is
restricted), and manner of articulation (how the airflow is restricted).

● Examples of consonant sounds include /b/, /p/, /d/, /t/, /m/, /n/, /s/, /z/, etc.

2. Vowels: Vowels are speech sounds produced with a relatively open vocal tract, and the
sound is created by the vibration of the vocal cords without any significant constriction or
obstruction of airflow. Vowels are typically produced with the tongue in various positions
within the mouth.

● Examples of vowel sounds include /i/ (as in "see"), /e/ (as in "bed"), /a/ (as in
"cat"), /o/ (as in "go"), and /u/ (as in "blue").

In addition to these primary categories, there are also other speech sounds like semi vowels
and diphthongs, which combine features of both consonants and vowels.

The way speech sounds are organized and used in a particular language is determined by its
phonological system, and each language may have a unique set of speech sounds that
differentiate it from other languages.

Focus on the Suprasegmentals as Tools for Speech and

Theater – Stress, Pitch, Volume, Enunciation, etc.
1. Pitch is influenced by the tension of the vocal cords. If the vocal cords are stretched, the
pitch of the sound will go up.
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Pitch refers to the normal melodic height of an individual's speech. It is like a degree of
highness or lowness of one's speech.

2. Tone is use of fixed pitches to differentiate words. Pitch variations that affect the
meaning of a word are called tone. The meaning of the word depends on its tone.

Tone is shown or heard in how something is being said. It is more like an attitude rather
than being a voice pattern. Emotion has also a great deal of influence on one's tone. By
using different tones, the words in a sentence can have different meanings.

3. Stress is a combination of pitch, loudness, and vowel length. In pronunciation, stress

can refer to words, part of words, or even one word in a group of words that receives the
most emphasis.

4. Intonation is the use of pitch to convey meaning as in distinguishing between a

statement and a question.

Intonation shows how the 'music' of a language rises and falls over a speech. In other
words, it can be also described as a fluctuation of one's voice, which is characterized as
a downward or upward movement of a voice or sound in an utterance as a result of the
pitch variations. Thus, the intonation of a sentence is the pattern of pitch changes that
occurs.

5. Tempo is the relative speed or slowness of utterance which is measured by the rate of
syllable succession/movement, the number, and duration of pauses in a sentence.

Public Speaking
Public speaking is the art of conveying information to an audience through oral presentation. It
is an act of communication and dates back to the times of ancient Greece. The purpose or
intention of public speaking varies and can include informing, motivating, celebrating,
entertaining, and persuading. Public speaking involves a presenter (the person speaking) and
an audience (the people listening).

Public speaking is the art of conveying information to an audience through oral presentation. It

There are several specific elements of public speaking that include:

1. the speaker
2. the message
3. the audience
4. the channel
5. the effect(s)

The speaker refers simply to the person who is presenting, and the message is the content
being presented. The audience is the intended recipient of the message. These three elements
are sometimes referred to as who, what, and whom.
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The channel is the medium used to the share the message--it is how the message gets sent.
The effect is the result of the message having been sent and received. The effect is not
necessarily consistent with the speaker's goal.

Public speaking is a more formal type of communication as opposed to small talk or other
informal conversations. Public speaking requires preparation and organization.

Importance of Public Speaking

Over the years, public speaking in communication has played a major role in education,
government, and business. Words have the power to inform, persuade, educate, and even
entertain. And the spoken word can be even more powerful than the written word in the hands
of the right speaker.

Whether you're a professional, or a student, you'll benefit from improving your public speaking
skills. Some benefits to speaking in public include:

● improves confidence
● better research skills
● stronger deductive skills
● ability to advocate for causes

The Five Principles of Public Speaking

Aristotle was a philosopher in ancient Greece who believed there were various aspects of
ethical speaking. Stemming from the work of Socrates and Plato, Aristotle didn't have such a
mistrust of dialogue and rhetoric. He felt it was a positive and necessary means of keeping a
free state. He thought of it more as a creative process than a tool for persuasion. Aristotle
understood the importance of ethical dialogue, especially when it came to teaching and
government. He decided on the importance of how a person collects information and proposed
three types of knowledge:

● Techne: the knowledge that is acquired through a person's experiences; somewhat

unreliable as the experiences are subjective
● Episteme: universal knowledge that is acquired from education and exploration;
commons truths throughout the world
● Intermediate knowledge: intuitive knowledge that sits in between one's personal
experiences and the experiences of the collective (critical thought)

After the ancient Greeks made headway in the realm of rhetoric, the Romans took over, adding
to what the philosophers of antiquity had anchored into the subject. In the 1st century AD,
Quintilian created the five canons of rhetoric:

● Invention: compiling and creating the content of the speech

● Disposition: arranging and organizing the content in an effective and logical order
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● Style: the wording (diction and syntax) of the presentation

● Memorization: having a deep knowledge of the presentation and its content to show
expertise and authority
● Delivery: the way in which the content is presented

Today, these two facets of ethical public speaking are integral to the process. First, gather
knowledge, and then, prepare that knowledge. From here, the following five principles of ethical
speaking are the final pathway toward an ethical public speech in the modern world:

1. Trustworthiness: a speaker must be seen or believed to be trustworthy in order for

ethical speaking to take place
2. Integrity in the subject matter: the contents of a speech must be true and backed by
various facts and evidence
3. Respect for others: a person's speech must also avoid personal attacks and rhetoric,
such as hate speech, defamation, and bias/stereotypes
4. Dignity in conduct: the speaker's tone, body language, and behaviors should reflect
the integrity of the speech itself and be conveyed in a meaningful and helpful way
5. Truthfulness in the message: overall, the most important aspect of ethical public
speaking is the speaker's message, insofar as it's true and researched

Outlining a Speech
When trying to present information, whether to persuade or inform, creating an outline can
assist in constructing and executing an effective speech. Through the use of an outline,
speakers benefit in the following ways:

● Structure: Outlines help in structuring the speaker's ideas so they are presented in a
logical order. Speakers are also able to visualize the relationships between their ideas to
make sure the structure of the speech is organized and cohesive.

● Content: Through the use of an outline, speakers are able to make sure they have
enough content and that the information is relevant, fully developed, and adequately
explained.

● Focus: In identifying and detailing the content to be included within the speech,
speakers are able to ensure they remain focused on their topic, as it provides a way to
identify superfluous information.

Parts Explanation

Title Reveals the subject of the speech and identifies the speaker's position if
applicable; includes an attention grabber, a position of credibility, a preview of
main points, and a thesis statement

Thesis Identifies the purpose of the speech (i.e., informational, persuasive, introductory,
etc.)
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Introduction Includes an attention grabber; provides the audience with why they should listen;
previews main points

Body Details main points, evidence, and explanations of evidence

Main Points Should have a minimum of three main points that help support the thesis
identified in the introduction

Evidence Information that supports the main points

Explanation Explain how the evidence supports the main point and thesis
of Evidence

Style Complete sentences or fragments (determined by instructor or style guide)

Transitions Summarize previous main point; preview the next main point; included before
each main point and the conclusion

Conclusion Summarize the main points; include a call to action or other concluding
statements
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How to Become Better at Public Speaking

1. Write an Effective Speech

Work on writing a well-organized, engaging speech. Because even a great speaking

voice or a great deal of charisma isn't enough if your material isn't any good.

2. Overcome the Fear of Speaking

Fear of public speaking is very real and can hold you back if you let it. If you don't feel
confident when giving your speech, your listeners may pick up on that. This can make
your presentation less effective.

3. Practice the Speech

Even if you're not afraid of speaking in public, practice helps you give a more effective
speech. If you're in a rush, you may be tempted to skip practicing your speech to save
time. While skipping practice may seem like a good idea, it's really not.

Practicing your speech improves your public presentation skills. It also increases your
familiarity with the presentation. As a result, your speech will go smoothly.

4. Prepare Your Presentation Slide Designs

Your slide design needs to be on point. You’ll want to make sure it looks professional and
is easy to read. Don't forget to make good use of tools like PowerPoint, Google Slides,
or Keynote. The right template for your slide deck can make a huge difference in your
presentation.

5. Give the Speech

You've written a good speech. You feel more confident about giving a speech in public,
and you've practiced. You're ready to actually give the speech. There are some tips and
tricks you can use on the day of your speech to make it go more smoothly, though.
Remember, you're giving a presentation before a live audience at a specific place and
time. So, you've got some concerns about the speaking venue that those who give
online presentations don't have to worry about. Some common concerns for public
speakers include:

● Will the audience be able the hear me?

● Does the venue have the equipment I need?
● Are there enough seats for all my listeners?
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Module 2: Creative Speech Productions

● discuss the procedure and application of speeches;
● explain the connection of these speeches to other macro skills and their contextual
situation;
● perform a speech.

Impromptu, Extemporaneous, Memorize, and Manuscript

Speaking
Public speaking involves a formal presentation that is given in front of an audience. This can be
pre-recorded, done remotely, or performed in front of a live audience. Speeches are used in
business meetings, educational settings, or any other scenario that warrants a presentation in
front of others.

There are many types of ways a person can perform speech delivery, though this lesson will
focus on four specific types. Each type of speech delivery will have different practical
applications and characteristics that prove them useful.

1. Extemporaneous speech is carefully rehearsed but seems conversational when the

speaker is executing them.

While extemporaneous speech delivery allows the speaker to look thoroughly prepared
in their field, it is also cumbersome to prepare. To be able to speak in a conversational
tone with minimal notes requires a large amount of practice. The speaker will need to
repeatedly run through the presentation until they are comfortable with performing it in
front of others while looking relaxed.

Here are the steps to delivering and preparing extemporaneous speech:

● Choose a topic to speak on, and write a thesis statement that embodies the topic
completely.
● Create an outline with at least three supporting points to the thesis.
● Add an introduction with a fun "attention getter". This can be a light story, fact, or
rhetorical question to get the audience's attention.
● Add a conclusion at the end that summarizes the thesis again, drawing on all
main points in the speech.
● Practice repeatedly until the speaker needs to only occasionally reference their
notes.

2. Impromptu speech is given with minimal preparation ahead of time and is best utilized
in informal environments.
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An impromptu speech can take many forms such as a toast at a wedding, being asked to
give a project update at a meeting, or even simply meeting someone for the first time.
While this type of speech can be spontaneous and responsive, the speaker generally
has little to no warning that they will need to speak.

Impromptu speeches are different from extemporaneous speeches. While

extemporaneous speeches appear as though they are spoken offhandedly and with
ease, it takes weeks of practice for speakers to get to that conversational level when
speaking on that subject matter. Impromptu speeches truly are given in a
spur-of-the-moment scenario. They need no preparation.

Impromptu speeches can be disorganized because there is no time to prepare. The

speech may lack a theme, maybe miss main ideas, or may not be as effective at getting
the message across as well-planned speeches. However, an impromptu speech also
allows a speaker the ability to react to the crowd and adapt.

3. Manuscript speeches are written down, and the presenter does not stray from the
written plan.

Manuscript speech delivery focuses on a speaker who recites a speech word-for-word

off of a written document. Manuscript speaking is a verbatim replication of what is written
down. This is important when what needs to be discussed has to be preserved in its
entirety.

Manuscript speeches can be useful when discussing precise medical terminology or

legal concepts. This type of speech is seen when the President makes speeches off of a
teleprompter and is an effective way to stay on target while speaking.

Tips for this type of speech include:

● Using the large font for easy reading

● Pre Reading the manuscript ahead of time
● Practice the speech to ensure correct pronunciation
● Speak clearly and slowly
● Speaking conversationally will promote engagement

Manuscript delivery runs the risk of being dull and monotonous. When a person is
reading off of a script, they are unable to gauge the audience for engagement. They also
cannot alter the information if the audience seems uninterested or reacts unexpectedly.
Manuscript speaking is a very rigid form of speech delivery.

4. Memorized speech is when a speaker recites a written speech that they have
committed to internal memory with no written prompts.

This can be advantageous to the speaker, as it allows them to maintain eye contact with
the audience. Not being restrained by notes or visual prompts allows the speaker more
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freedom to walk around the stage and the audience. This can produce a more engaging
and memorable experience. It can make the speaker seem more lively.

This can prove hazardous for the speaker. If they freeze for a moment or forget a portion
of the speech, there is no prompt for them to refer to. They can sound unprepared if they
forget what they are saying. Or, they can sound stale and monotonous if they have not
practiced talking in a conversational tone. The speaker runs the risk of sounding like they
are repeating an essay. It can sound awkward to recite a written speech. Memorized
speeches are risky, as the speaker has no fallback if their mind goes blank.

Argumentation and Debate

Argumentation and debate are two closely related concepts that involve the exchange of ideas
and opinions in a structured and persuasive manner. They are often used in academic,
professional, and social settings to present and defend different viewpoints on a given topic or
issue.

Argumentation is the study of how arguments are constructed and evaluated

Argumentation refers to the process of constructing and presenting reasoned arguments to

support or refute a claim or position. It involves the use of logic, evidence, and reasoning to
persuade an audience of the validity of a particular point of view. The goal of argumentation is
not simply to win a debate but to promote critical thinking and engage in a thoughtful discussion
about a topic. Constructing a good argument involves understanding the topic, researching
relevant information, identifying key points, and arranging them in a logical and coherent
manner.

Checklist for argumentation:

● Claim (What am I trying to prove?)

● Support (What is the evidence/data for my claim?)
● Warrant (What is the reasoning involved in my claim and its support? Are the parts of
my argument logically connected?)
● Qualifiers (How certain is my claim? When and where should I use qualifiers like mainly,
mostly, probably, in many cases, etc.?)
● Reservations (What are the counter-arguments? Can I be rebutted? How, and in what
way/s?)

Debate is a speaking game in which two sides role play arguing for or against an agreed upon
proposition.

Debate is a formalized process where individuals or teams present opposing arguments on a

specific topic or proposition. Debates can be structured in different formats, such as competitive
debates, academic debates, or political debates. Each side in a debate is assigned a position -
either for or against the topic - and they present their arguments and evidence to convince the
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audience and, in some cases, judges. Debates often follow specific rules and time limits to
ensure fairness and orderliness.

In a formal debate, there are typically two main teams: the affirmative/proposition team and the
negative/opposition team. The affirmative team argues in favor of the given proposition, while
the negative team argues against it. During the debate, participants may also engage in
rebuttals, where they respond to and challenge the arguments made by the opposing side.

Nature of Debate

1. Debate is bilateral. Two sided. There is a proposition side and an opposition side to
every debate.

2. The fairness doctrine. Each team is given the same about of time.

3. Rationality is central. He or she who asserts must prove. Every claim must be proven
with some kind of evidence or reasoning. An argument without proof is called an
assertion.

Three Basic Guidelines for Debate

1. Purpose is to determine which side argues better (not to determine what is true or which
side is right or wrong.)

2. The debate is directed or spoken before an audience, judge or panel of judges — it is

NOT directed to the opponent. The goal is to convince the judge, not the other side.

3. Debate is technical and rule governed. Each speaker has certain burdens or
expectations for what is said and done. Like other games, rules must be followed.

Debate Formats

1. Lincoln – Douglas — one proposition speaker against one opposition speaker.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dw6Nvv8UMbU

2. Parliamentary — two, two person teams debate each other. Each side presents two
main constructive speeches and then each side gives one rebuttal speech. Watch a
parliamentary debate. NU vs. Oxford University in Kirkland

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y3YvgChmLVg&pp=ygUUcGFybGlhbWVudGFyeSBk
ZWJhdGU%3D

3. World Style — four, two person teams debate each other. Two proposition teams and
two opposition teams present a total of eight speeches
 20

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B-9B7io7668&pp=ygURZGViYXRlIDggc3BlZWNoZX
M%3D

Speeches for Special Occasion

A special occasion speech is a speech given to commemorate someone or something. In other
words, it is a speech written and given to celebrate, honor, remember, or memorialize someone
or something.

Types of Special Occasion Speech

1. Speech of Introduction

A speech of introduction is a very short speech that the host of an event gives to
introduce a speaker at the event. A speech of introduction should be less than two
minutes. The speech begins by capturing the audience's attention to get them excited
about listening to the speaker. The body of the speech covers three areas: what the
speaker's topic is, why the speaker is qualified to speak on it, and what the audience will
gain by listening. To conclude the speech, the host welcomes the speaker to the stage
by name.

One thing to avoid when giving a special occasion speech is reading verbatim from a
person's online bio; a bio can be used to prepare the speech, but the host who is
preparing the speech should put the information into his or her own words. It is also
sometimes suggested that the name of the speaker is not revealed until he or she is
welcomed to the stage at the end of the speech.

2. Speech of Presentation

A speech of presentation is a brief speech given when someone is being awarded a

prize or honor. There are three components included in this type of speech. First, the
speaker explains the nature of the award or honor. What is it? Why is it important?
Second, the speaker explains what the recipient did or accomplished in order to receive
the award or honor. Third, if the recipient of the award was one of many who vied for the
award, the speaker may acknowledge the other participants for their efforts.

3. Speech of Acceptance

A speech of acceptance is a speech given by someone who is accepting an award or

honor. The most important thing to convey in this type of speech is gratitude. This
speech also has three components. First, the speaker thanks the committee, the coach,
the teacher, or whoever has chosen to give the speaker the award. Second, the speaker
thanks the people who helped him or her achieve the award or honor. Third, the speaker
explains why the award or honor is personally meaningful to him or her.
 21

4. Speech of Dedication

A speech of dedication is made when a project, like a new building or park, is completed
or when an existing building or space is dedicated to, or named after, someone.
Oftentimes, the person giving the dedication speech is related to the person to whom the
project is being dedicated. If so, the speaker should first explain his or her relationship to
that person. If not, the speaker can simply introduce himself or herself and move to the
next step, listing the accomplishments of the person that led to something being
dedicated to him or her. Second, the speaker identifies what is being dedicated (building,
park, etc.) and why it is important. Third, the speaker names the people who were
instrumental in the planning, building, and dedication of the project. Last, the speaker
explains how or why the project positively impacts the community.

5. Eulogies

A eulogy is a speech that is given to honor a person who has died. A eulogy is usually
delivered at the deceased person's funeral by a family member or someone who was
close to the decedent. The speaker should begin the speech by introducing himself or
herself and his or her relationship to the decedent. The most important thing to
remember when writing a eulogy is that a eulogy is meant to honor the life of the
decedent. Speakers usually do this through recalling memories and telling stories in their
eulogies. When planning a eulogy, it can be helpful to speak to others who were close to
the decedent to see if they have any cherished memories that can be included. Even
though funerals are somber events, audiences usually expect some humor or
light-heartedness in the eulogy. How much humor to include depends on the audience
and the personality of the decedent. Practicing an emotional speech like a eulogy
multiple times is important as emotions will likely surface. Three to four minutes is a
good length for a eulogy.

6. Speech of Farewell

A speech of farewell is a speech that is given when a person is closing one chapter in
life and moving on to another one; in other words, this speech is given when one is
making a transition and must say goodbye to his or her current life. This includes leaving
a job, graduating from school, relocating to another place, or retiring from work. First, the
speaker shows appreciation for the people who have helped him or her along the way or
the ones he or she is leaving behind. Second, the speaker expresses how this time in
his or her life has positively impacted him or her. It is appropriate to reminisce about the
good times that were had and memories that were made. This is likely to stir up
emotions, so the speech should end with a happy, optimistic sentiment.

7. Toast

A toast is a short speech of congratulations or salutations to a person or event that is

followed by taking a drink. Toasts are often given at special events like weddings, but a
toast can be offered up on any occasion in which a person wants to offer thanks,
 22

congratulations, or remembrance. It is a good idea to make sure that everyone's glasses

are filled before beginning the toast. A toast should be brief, so it does not disrupt the
event. The speaker should keep the focus or subject matter of the toast directed on the
person or people being toasted. If the person/people being toasted are present, the
speaker should also physically direct his or her attention at them by making eye contact
and facing them. At the end of the toast, the speaker asks everyone to raise their
glasses and drink a toast to whoever or whatever is being honored.

● Wedding Toast
● Graduation Toast
● Retirement Toast
● More….

8. Roast

A roast is a speech that honors a person by poking fun at him or her. A roast is
sometimes given at an event honoring a person for his or her lifetime achievements such
as a retirement party. The most difficult part of preparing a roast is striking a balance
between honoring and making fun of the person being roasted. The speaker should be
sure of the following: the jokes are good-natured rather than hurtful, the traits being
mocked are well-known to the audience, and the roast ends by praising and showing
appreciation for the person being roasted.

9. Inspirational Speeches

An inspirational speech is a speech that is intended to inspire people through telling a

true inspirational story (or stories). The speech should focus on a few main points,
include quotes from famous people, and end with a strong, persuasive conclusion that
inspires or motivates the audience to think differently or take some action.

Oral Interpretation
Oral Interpretation involves the performing of literature aloud to communicate meaning to an
audience. An interpreter analyzes the literature and uses his or her voice to communicate the
results of the analysis. The interpreter is the connection between the literature and the
audience.

There are major differences between oral interpretation and public speaking or acting:

1. You are not the author. You are performing literature written by another person. You are
not sharing your own personal thoughts and feelings as you would in public speaking.

2. You perform the author’s words by direct reading. As an interpreter, you bring to life
the exact words of another person.
 23

3. You interpret a piece of literature. You are not trying to create a message to persuade
or inform your listeners. Instead you are trying to help the listeners “see” the images you
are creating orally. Your goal is to share the meaning of the literature as you interpret it.

4. You remain yourself during the performance. When you are acting, you take on the
role of a character in a play. When you interpret, you use your voice and body to suggest
the mood or the characters, but you do not become a character.

Storytelling
Storytelling is when we tell someone a story using spoken word, and it often involves gestures,
dance, images, chants, sounds, and other exaggeration to tell the story. This oral tradition is a
form art and expression that dates long before movies and even books. It has its roots in
ancient cultures all around the world. In America, the Native Americans have used storytelling
for thousands of years to pass down history and heritage as well as for enjoyment.

1. Storytelling is interactive.

Storytelling involves a two-way interaction between a storyteller and one or more

listeners. The responses of the listeners influence the telling of the story. In fact,
storytelling emerges from the interaction and cooperative, coordinated efforts of teller
and audience.

2. Storytelling uses words.

Storytelling uses language, whether it be a spoken language or a manual language such

as Sign Language. The use of language distinguishes storytelling from most forms of
dance and mime.

3. Storytelling uses actions such as vocalization, physical movement and/or gesture.

These actions are the parts of spoken or manual language other than words. Their use
distinguishes storytelling from writing and text-based computer interactions. Not all
nonverbal language behaviors need to be present in storytelling. Some storytellers use
body movement extensively, for example, whereas others use little or none.

4. Storytelling presents a story.

Storytelling always involves the presentation of a story—a narrative. Many other art
forms also present story, but storytelling presents it with the other four components.
Every culture has its own definition of story. What is recognized as a story in one
situation may not be accepted as one in another. Some situations call for spontaneity
and playful digression, for example; others call for near-exact repetition of a revered text.
Art forms such as poetry recitation and stand-up comedy sometimes present stories and
sometimes don’t. Since they generally involve the other four components, they can be
regarded as forms of storytelling whenever they also present stories.
 24

5. Storytelling encourages the active imagination of the listeners.

In storytelling, the listener imagines the story. In most traditional theatre or in a typical
dramatic film, on the other hand, the listener enjoys the illusion that the listener is
actually witnessing the character or events described in the story.

The storytelling listener’s role is to actively create the vivid, multi-sensory images,
actions, characters, and events—the reality—of the story in his or her mind, based on
the performance by the teller and on the listener’s own past experiences, beliefs, and
understandings. The completed story happens in the mind of the listener, a unique and
personalized individual. The listener becomes, therefore, a co-creator of the story as
experienced.

Storytelling can be combined with other art forms. The fruit born by the vital,
contemporary storytelling movement includes the development of ways to combine
storytelling with drama, music, dance, comedy, puppetry, and numerous other forms of
expression. Yet, even as it blends imperceptibly into other arts, the essence of
storytelling remains recognizable as the intersection of the five components included in
the above definition.

How to Become a Good Storyteller

1. Know your audience
2. Think about the goal of your story
3. Choose the right time (and the right place)
4. Use a hook to get your audience’s attention
5. Be clear and concise
6. Get personal
7. Be aware of your body language
8. Practice often
9. Ask for feedback

Interpretative Reading
Interpretive reading is the effective communication of thoughts and or feelings of an author to
the listener.

The purpose is to develop skills in conveying the meaning and emotions of a prose or
poetry selection.

The reader should draw meaning from the selection to share with the audience.

All the skills of reading aloud, including vocal flexibility, clear articulation, correct pronunciation,
as well as the use of pause and rate variation, can be used in interpretive reading.
 25

Rules of Interpretative Reading

1. All presentations must include an introduction.

2. The selection is to be read from the printed page by using a typed manuscript. We will
mount your script on construction paper to make you look more professional.

3. The selection is not to be presented as a memorized piece.

4. The participant should not walk (taking more than one consecutive step) during the
presentation. Taking one step for emphasis is acceptable throughout the presentation

5. Costumes, makeup or props may not be used

Group Interpretation
The purpose of Group Interpretation is to give students experience in the group performance of
literature. The interrelatedness of the narrator(s), the movement of the literature and character
voices controls the performance. Group Interpretation encourages the students to create a
scripted ensemble performance that displays their interpretive skills without the aid of costumes,
make-up, set or props. Successful Group Interpretation performances should be based primarily
on vocal interpretation and character development and may include a narrator(s).

Group Interpretation is a theater activity in which a group of students compete with and present
a literary work. The purpose of Group Interpretation is for students to showcase and enhance
their skills in interpretative performance, leaning heavily on ensemble work. The use of props,
costumes, lighting, and specially designed sets is strictly prohibited, meaning characterization
and mood comes purely from the acting skills of the performers.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QkYb05XW8eE

Readers’ Theater
We can describe reader’s theater as a minimal style in which actors emphasize vocal delivery
through (usually) live reading, without elaborate staging, technical support, props, or costumes.

Another term for this is minimalism, or being stripped down of technical and design elements.
Even without insisting upon a definitive history of the form, we can identify three major types of
readers theater:

1. Performative: referring to public presentations for viewing audiences

2. Developmental: pertaining to the process of revising scripts for production
3. Educational: within the school setting as either a teaching method or learned skill
 26

Performative
In the performing arts, readers theater ranges from absolute, bare-bones, garage band style,
with actors sitting on stools and reading without mics for a sparse audience, to a more elaborate
presentation in a large venue with a large attending audience.

There are numerous theater companies across the United States who perform readers theater
regularly, or even exclusively. There have even been musicals done as readers theater. One
current readers theater group demands that its actors memorize their lines, which might seem
contradictory, but it shows that they consider their form a serious style of performance art.

Radio drama, an obvious example of readers theater that might not be so obvious anymore,
persists in America despite its now way outdated media format, sometimes taking advantage of
more modern media through podcast as it clings on for dear life. In Bellingham, Washington, for
instance, a group called The Midnight Mystery Players does classic pieces and adaptations for
recording and rebroadcast as well as for live broadcast and even live audiences. Orson Welles'
infamous broadcast of War of the Worlds in 1938 attests to the power of readers theater to
stimulate--or even over-stimulate--an audience.

Voice acting for animated shows, films and film sequences might also be regarded as a type of
readers theater in this tradition: it has all of the major elements except a live audience.

Developmental
It has become commonplace to use a staged reading--another way of saying readers theater--in
the process of play development. Full-scale production is an expensive and demanding
undertaking, so a staged reading allows performance companies or potential producers and
opportunity to field test dramatic writing before fully committing. A staged reading with an
audience can also allow a playwright to hear the language of a script brought to life during the
revision process and to gauge the response of the audience. Revision or further expansion can
proceed more productively based on the feedback. This can be a crucial developmental step,
one that many dramatic writers find invaluable.

Staged readings can overlap with the performance discussion above even within this
developmental format. Major annual theater events, such as the Oregon Shakespeare Festival,
have incorporated staged readings into their public performance season, fulfilling the
developmental objectives listed while also offering their audiences a dramatic alternative to add
to their experience in attending the festival.

Educational
Some versions of theater history hold that readers theater appeared first in an educational
setting: some say it was originally used to make literature more accessible; others that it came
through oral performance studies. Whichever the case, readers theater became prominent in
 27

American universities in the 1960s, but it has now expanded its reach across educational ages
and stages.

Readers theater is now used extensively throughout the K-12 system, both public and private,
as a teaching tool. Everything from Black History to Native American tradition and
Environmental Studies becomes more engaging and accessible to students through both their
performance in and witnessing of in-class readers theater.

Nor has it disappeared from higher education by any means. Carl Djerassi, the chemist who
developed the mainstream birth control pill, used his own scripts to teach reproductive biology.
Beyond that, it remains a common element of curriculum in psychology, communications,
history, and numerous other academic areas, representing multiple fields of study--and often
unexpected ones.

A somewhat unstructured Google search produced this result: 'Data as Drama: Reflections on
the Use of Readers theater as a Mode of Qualitative Data Display.' This, actual, published,
academic essay sounds either incredibly intriguing, or nap-inducingly boring. It makes you
wonder how the Brady boys might find a way to liven it up.

Readers Theater is an integrated approach for involving students in reading, writing, listening,
and speaking activities. It involves children in….

● sharing literature,

● reading aloud,

● writing scripts,

● performing with a purpose, and

● working collaboratively.

Selecting Text for a Readers Theater Script

Readers Theater may be performed with many kinds of literature: picture books, short stories,
parts of novels, poetry, folk tales, works of non-fiction, newspaper or magazine articles. Not all
literature, however, makes a good Readers Theater script. Look for literature that ….

● is interesting or has compelling content.

● has a strong story line, interesting characters, conflict, plot action, humor.

● uses dialogue.

● is not filled with descriptive passages.

● flows at a steady pace.

 28

Tips for Implementing Readers Theater

● Model expressive reading often.

● Introduce Readers Theater using pre-prepared scripts. Students need to grasp the
concept of Readers Theater and become familiar with the format of a script before
writing their own.

● Teach the basic steps of performance: how to use highlighters to mark the parts, how to
interpret the part and read expressively, how to hold the script, and when to assume
various stage positions.

● Give the students lots of time to prepare. Emphasize practice. Readers should practice
their roles in different ways: individually and in small groups, privately and in front of
others.

● Keep a copy of the marked script at school and send one home for parents to read and
practice with their children.

● Rehearse with the readers, providing needed direction and support regarding their
interpretation, pacing, expression, volume, positions, and motions.

● Begin with short presentations.

● Perform for an audience as often as possible.

● Use props sparingly.

Chamber Theater
Chamber theater, also known as chamber drama or chamber play, is a form of theatrical
performance that typically takes place in a small, intimate venue such as a small theater, a
studio, or even a private space. The term "chamber" is derived from its association with small
chambers or rooms.

Characteristics of a chamber theater include:

1. Intimacy: The performances are designed to be close and personal, with the audience
seated near the actors, often in a way that blurs the line between performer and
spectator.

2. Minimalism: Chamber theater often employs minimalist sets, props, and costumes. The
focus is primarily on the actors' performances and the power of the script.

3. Small Cast: Chamber plays typically have a small number of characters, which allows
for in-depth character development and exploration of relationships.
 29

4. Focus on Language and Acting: Due to the smaller and more intimate setting,
chamber theater places a strong emphasis on the actors' performances and the power of
the script's language.

5. Intense Emotional Content: The intimate nature of chamber theater allows for
heightened emotional impact and a deeper connection between the audience and the
characters.

6. Experimental and Avant-Garde: Chamber theater often attracts experimental and

avant-garde works that might not fit the conventions of larger, mainstream theaters.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jl0OznnH9Ps

One Playlet
A Playlet is a mini-play, usually less than three or four minutes in duration, that helps students
learn about a subject by watching characters perform real life simulations. Scripts are usually
less than 500 words and the playlets can be performed by three or, at most four, actors.
 30

Module 3: Theater Arts – An Overview

● recognize drama and theater as art, a social activity, and a way of learning English
language competencies and skills; and
● identify the use of drama and theater to learn multiculturalism and other related themes.
● perform creative drama tasks with proper verbal and non-verbal communication
strategies in relation to English language teaching activities.

The History and Elements of Drama

Drama is defined as a form of performance that involves conflicts, emotions, and the portrayal of
human experiences through dialogue and action. It typically presents a story or situation that
engages the audience's emotions, evoking intense feelings such as tension, excitement, or
empathy. Words such as theater, dramatics, and theatrical performances are often synonymous
with drama.

Drama has a long and rich history, dating back thousands of years. Its origins can be traced to
ancient Greece. Greek drama set the foundation for Western theater, and its influence can still
be seen today. In the Middle Ages, drama became intertwined with religious rituals, with
performances based on biblical stories. During the Renaissance, playwrights like William
Shakespeare revolutionized the form, creating enduring works such as Romeo and Juliet,
Hamlet, and Macbeth. These examples of drama explored a wide range of themes and
emotions, capturing the essence of human drama.

Throughout history, drama has continued to evolve, adapting to different cultural contexts and
reflecting the changing values of society. It has embraced various styles and genres, including
romantic drama, historical drama, tragicomedy, and absurdist drama, among others. The advent
of film and television expanded the reach of drama, allowing stories to be told through a visual
medium.

What makes the drama so dramatic is the heightened intensity and emotional impact it aims to
achieve. Several elements contribute to this:

● Conflict: Drama often revolves around conflicts, whether internal or external, either
between characters or within a character's own psyche.
● Emotion: Drama seeks to evoke strong emotions in the audience, such as fear, joy,
sorrow, or anger.
● Climax: Dramatic works build up to a climax, a point of maximum tension or intensity.
● Characterization: Well-developed characters with complex motivations and emotions
contribute to the dramatic impact.Suspense: Drama often employs suspenseful
techniques, such as foreshadowing, unexpected twists, or unresolved conflicts to keep
the audience engaged and on the edge of their seats.
 31

● Themes: Dramas explore universal themes and human experiences, delving into topics
like love, betrayal, ambition, power, morality, and the human condition.

Drama is seen in theatre, television, and radio. But since it is a written script that is acted out, it
does not occur in books. Drama often, but not always, uses poetry and prose. However, it is
different from poetry and prose in that it is meant to be acted out and performed, not just read.

Drama Terms
Some drama terms that are important to understand include:

● Plot: The sequence of events and actions that constitute the story of a play.
● Characters: The individuals who inhabit the world of the play.
● Dialogue: The spoken exchanges between characters, conveying their thoughts and
emotions and advancing the plot.
● Setting: The time, place, and environment in which the events of the play take place.
● Conflict: The struggle or clash of opposing forces that drives the plot forward.
● Theme: The underlying message or central idea explored in a play.
● Stage Directions: Instructions provided by the playwright that indicate how the play
should be performed.
● Monologue: A long speech delivered by a character, usually addressing other
characters or the audience.
● Soliloquy: A type of monologue where a character speaks their thoughts aloud, often
revealing inner conflicts or dilemmas.
● Dramatic Irony: A situation in which the audience is aware of something that the
characters on stage are not.
● Verse: metered lines that will make patterns in which syllables are stressed and
unstressed.
● Prose: conversational tone or the way people normally speak

The term dramatic describes something that is characterized by strong emotions, tension, or
striking events. It can refer to both the content of a play or performance and the way it is
presented. Here are some examples of how dramatic can be used:

● A dramatic play: A play that features intense conflicts, emotional depth, and significant
stakes. For example, Shakespeare's Hamlet is a dramatic play that explores themes of
revenge, madness, and moral dilemmas.
● A dramatic performance: A highly expressive and engaging performance that uses
powerful acting, effective use of staging, and emotional impact.
● A dramatic scene: A scene in a play that is filled with tension, conflict, or heightened
emotions.
 32

Role of Drama and Theater in Arts and Education

Drama is simply referred to as a form of fiction which is represented in a performance in a
theatre, radio or TV, and in any of its performing arts such as plays, mime, ballet, musical, etc.
The word ‘drama’ is actually taken from the Greek word ‘drama’/’drao’ which also refers to ‘I do’
or action. Thus, acting or performing action comes in play through theatrical, radio, TV or live
performances of a fictional story.

Spoon-feeding a chunk of information and students gulping it down without reason can be
disastrous for society. To stimulate creativity, smart learning, critical thinking and logical
reasoning in students, drama and arts play a pivotal role in the education process. If in a
controlled atmosphere, a group of students are asked to replicate a historic scene, students find
it easy to remember and understand without having to cram a bunch of names and dates from
History. Drama and Arts in education have been inculcated as part of the curriculum at many
institutions around the world to promote effective learning. Be it through puppetry or role-play,
 33

students learn interpersonal and group communication, and public speaking skills and also the
method helps to foster a knack for exploration in them.

Here are the key reasons for the importance of drama and arts in education:

1. Teaches Self-Expression: Children learn about the importance of self-expression

through the use of drama and arts in education and through creative expression, their
perception and worldview are broader which equips them with the skills to face
adversities late in life.

2. Life Skill Training: It imparts students with various life skills like teamwork, compassion,
cooperation and collaboration.

3. Learn Constructive Criticism: Children also learn about taking constructive criticism
and feedback in a way that helps them become better individuals.

4. Contributes to Personality Development: The use of drama and art in education also
accelerates personality development in students.

5. Find their Voice: Through theatre and performing arts, students are able to find their
unique ‘voice’ that helps them explore their inner talents, skills and competencies.

6. Problem-solving Skills: Through creative art forms, students learn about the value of
problem-solving in every situation as they learn to be in a group, work around various
things to thrive as a team and become superb at problem-solving!

7. Learn to Lead: Using drama and art in education also teaches students to don the hat
of a leader and imbibe central skills pertaining to leadership and teamwork.

Theater as an Art, Socializing Activity, and a Way of Learning

Theater is a multifaceted form of art that serves as more than just entertainment. It
encompasses various dimensions, including being an art form, a socializing activity, and a way
of learning.

Theater as an Art

Theater is a powerful and expressive art form that allows artists, such as actors, directors,
playwrights, set designers, and costume designers, to collaborate and create performances that
convey stories, emotions, and ideas. It combines various art forms, such as acting, music,
dance, set design, and visual arts, to create a holistic and immersive experience for the
audience.

Through theater, artists can explore complex themes, challenge societal norms, and provide a
platform for self-expression. It allows them to bring characters to life, convey messages, and
provoke thought and introspection. The use of dialogue, body language, and emotions in theater
helps to communicate and evoke a range of human experiences.
 34

Theater as a Socializing Activity

Theater is a social activity that brings people together. Attending a theater performance provides
an opportunity for individuals to share a common experience, fostering a sense of community
and connection. It serves as a medium for people to engage in collective emotions, laughter,
and tears.

Before, during, and after performances, theatergoers often interact with one another, discussing
the play, their interpretations, and the impact it had on them. This shared experience helps build
social bonds and encourages dialogue among audience members, contributing to a sense of
belonging.

Furthermore, theater can be a great way to encourage socialization among actors and
participants. Collaborating on a production requires teamwork, communication, and cooperation,
leading to the development of strong relationships within the theater community.

Theater as a Way of Learning:

Theater is an excellent educational tool that goes beyond conventional teaching methods. For
actors, it offers a platform to explore different characters, backgrounds, and perspectives,
fostering empathy and understanding. As they step into the shoes of various roles, they gain
insights into the complexities of human nature and society.

Moreover, for the audience, theater can be an educational experience as it addresses historical
events, cultural aspects, and social issues. It can help raise awareness about societal
challenges, promote critical thinking, and encourage discussions about relevant topics. Theater
performances can serve as a window into different cultures and traditions, broadening one's
perspective and promoting cross-cultural understanding.

In addition, theater can be utilized as a tool for educational purposes in schools and other
learning environments. Incorporating drama and role-playing activities can make the learning
process more engaging and interactive. It enhances creativity, communication skills, and
confidence among students.

Overall, theater plays a pivotal role in society as an art form that entertains, connects people,
and enriches learning experiences. Its ability to inspire, provoke thought, and encourage social
interaction makes it a valuable and enduring aspect of human culture.

Drama as a Learning Medium

Drama, as a learning medium, can be a powerful and effective tool for education and personal
development. It is a versatile form of art that allows individuals to explore and understand
various aspects of life and human behavior. Incorporating drama into the learning process can
engage learners on different levels and foster a deeper understanding of subject matter. Here
are some ways drama can be used as a learning medium:
 35

● Enhancing Empathy: Drama often involves role-playing and putting oneself in someone
else's shoes. This can help learners develop empathy as they gain a better
understanding of different perspectives and experiences. By immersing themselves in
the emotions and challenges of characters, learners can develop compassion and
sensitivity towards others.

● Improving Communication Skills: Drama encourages effective communication, both

verbal and non-verbal. Through acting, students learn to express themselves clearly, use
body language effectively, and improve their overall communication skills. This can be
particularly beneficial for shy or introverted individuals who may find it challenging to
express themselves in traditional classroom settings.

● Fostering Creativity: Drama encourages learners to think creatively and outside the
box. Whether they are writing scripts, improvising scenes, or creating characters, drama
provides an outlet for imagination and originality. This creative aspect can spill over into
other areas of learning and problem-solving.

● Developing Critical Thinking: Engaging in drama often involves analyzing and

interpreting characters, plots, and emotions. Students learn to think critically about the
motivations and actions of different characters, which can help them develop analytical
skills and a deeper understanding of human behavior.

● Building Confidence: Participating in drama can boost self-confidence and self-esteem.

Standing in front of an audience, memorizing lines, and performing can be challenging,
but successfully overcoming these challenges can instill a sense of accomplishment and
confidence in learners.

● Teamwork and Collaboration: Drama often requires teamwork and collaboration

among participants. Whether it's rehearsing scenes, working on set design, or managing
the technical aspects of a production, learners have to work together to achieve a
common goal, fostering a sense of camaraderie and cooperation.

● Historical and Cultural Understanding: Drama can be used to explore historical

events, cultural traditions, and societal issues. By reenacting historical scenes or
performing plays that address cultural themes, learners can gain a deeper appreciation
and understanding of different cultures and societies.

● Emotional Expression and Catharsis: Drama provides a safe space for emotional
expression and catharsis. It allows learners to explore and express complex emotions,
which can be therapeutic and beneficial for emotional development and mental health.

● Active Learning: Drama is an active form of learning that requires engagement and
participation. It can be a refreshing break from passive learning methods and help
maintain students' interest and attention.

Educators can integrate drama into the curriculum through role-playing, improvisation,
scriptwriting, theater productions, or simply using drama-based activities to explore different
 36

subjects. It offers a dynamic and immersive learning experience that can complement traditional
teaching methods and appeal to diverse learning styles.

Creative Drama
Creative drama is a type of theatrical work used as an educational tool. The work is led by an
instructor trained and skilled in this type of theatre. Creative theatre uses creative drama
activities and games that explore behavior and creativity in a safe space. This instruction is
designed to help children develop their social skills and improve in academic subjects.

Creative drama techniques differ from formal drama lessons because there is no set script or
direct instruction. Children work with improvisation, guided by the instructor to engage with the
activities to learn in a unique and fulfilling way. This type of creative drama improves children's
concentration and sensory awareness.

Types of Creative Drama Techniques

Creative drama can be used to help children work through difficult situations, it can support
children with special educational needs, and can teach all children particular skills and lessons.
There are different types of creative drama that use various creative drama techniques to
accomplish this.

1. Sense memory improvisation exercises - This technique uses the children's five
senses to experience the world around them. They are encouraged to think about how
objects, situations, and places, can sound, feel, smell, and even taste.

2. Pantomime - This technique uses non-verbal communication, such as gestures and the
use of props. Pantomime demonstrates how much communication happens without
words.

3. Role-play - In this technique, the children will take on a role and act as the character
they have been given. The scene may involve working out a complicated or unusual
situation.

4. Characterization - this technique involves the children taking on the role of a character
and performing as that person. Characterization helps them understand people's
similarities and differences in real life and literature.

Creative Drama Use

Creative drama has many uses, not only to allow children to express themselves creatively.
Developing academic skills is essential in the creative theater. The way that children experience
events and express themselves helps them in literacy and comprehension of texts.
Understanding how others feel give children empathy and allows them to write with more depth
and expression.
 37

It is a very skilled type of learning and requires the instructor to build on the children's
experiences in the class. The teacher will incorporate a sense of play and trust to create a
learning atmosphere that reaches the lesson's goals. These goals will depend on the children
and the type of lesson, but creative drama allows them to use their imagination with many
subjects such as math, science, or language.

It is not only academic subjects that are improved with these creative drama techniques. The
children can improve hearing, speaking, visual motor, and decision-making skills, including
vocabulary, problem-solving and independent thought.

Using creative drama, children's theater can be very expressive and educational. The main
factor that makes creative drama unique is informal instruction. No scripts are used, so students
improvise dialogue based on stories they create or have heard before and know well.

Creative Drama Examples

Creative drama activities vary depending on the instructor and the goals for the outcomes of the
lesson. Although, there are some recognized activities such as:

● Focus and concentration activities - The children will listen to sounds, music, or the
instructor speaking and focus on how they feel and the sensation of relaxation. This
activity sets the mood for the class and puts the children at ease.

● Sense memory - The children can explore an object such as a piece of food. They will
explore the food with all their senses. Explaining how it looks, feels, and smells. After
thoroughly exploring the food, the students can taste it and talk about the sense of taste
and how eating sounds. The senses are only part of sense memory. Children will also
talk about how the different senses invoke memories. The smell, for example, may bring
back a story from when they were younger. The final part of the sense memory exercise
involves the children creating stories about the food and then acting out the story in
small groups.

● Mirroring exercise - This exercise uses the sense of sight and encourages
concentration and connection with others. Two students work together, face each other,
and one acts as the leader making movements and gestures which the other will follow,
trying to mirror the exact movements. This exercise allows the students to become in
tune with each other and hopefully become so connected that it is hard for an outside
observer to know who is leading. The exercise should support relationship building and
help the student prepare for other more in-depth challenges.

Summary
Creative drama is a type of children's theater used as an educational tool to help children with
academic work, social skills, and emotional development. It is unique and separate from formal
drama as no written scripts are used; children produce their own dialogs and actions. Creative
drama uses theatrical techniques to support children's learning. These techniques include sense
 38

memory improvisation exercises, where children use all five senses to explore objects and
stories, and pantomime where non-verbal communication is used. Role-play is a technique
where the children take on characters' roles for short productions. A final approach is
characterization, which involves the children adopting the role of a fictional or real person to
understand that person and their life.

There are many uses for creative drama. It helps children explore imagination and senses and
develop essential skills with the techniques used. It also improves problem-solving skills and
can help with social difficulties and communication issues. One particular exercise in creative
drama is the mirroring exercise where children mirror the actions of another child. This exercise
improves concentration and relationship-building skills.

Roleplay
Though movie and stage actors boast special talent in portraying different characters for
financial profit and public enjoyment, people of every ability, age, and background can try and
benefit from roleplay, another form of acting. Roleplay involves imagining the perspective of a
person in a specific role and situation, and then speaking and behaving as one would imagine
or would hope. In other words, the term "roleplay" is intuitive: in roleplay, people play certain
roles without a script, and to a situation and setting determined by the roleplay director,
facilitator, or coordinator.

Roleplay most often involves two people who act out how a conversation would—or
should—look and sound among actual people in an actual situation. Role reversal is a common
practice in roleplay, as is practicing difficult conversations in order to produce more positive
outcomes. Roleplay takes place in a variety of contexts, including education, business,
counseling, gaming, and beyond.

Sometimes roleplay is confused with improvisation. Improvisation is like roleplay in that people
are assigned certain roles to play in consideration of certain settings, but preparation is not
permitted in improv.

Roleplay Examples
In educational settings, teachers may use roleplay to help illustrate real-world events or
concepts. For example, in an ESL (English as a Second Language) class, an instructor may
introduce a certain situation (i.e., ordering food from a restaurant), assign their students to play
certain roles (i.e., customers, hosts, wait staff), then ask their students to converse while taking
into account the situation and their assigned roles.

Player 1 (Host) - Hello. How may I help you?

Player 2 (Customer) - Table for one, please.

Player 1 (Host) - Right this way.

 39

Player 2 (Customer) - Thank you.

Player 3 (Wait staff) - Hello. My name is Carlos. Would you like some water?

Player 2 (Customer) - Yes, please.

When it comes to business, roleplay is an effective way to practice various customer service
scenarios. Actual customer service representatives may portray themselves while their
colleagues act as fictitious customers who pose different questions or problems, and/or present
different kinds of personalities.

Types of Roleplay
What should roleplay accomplish? This is the question that drives which method of roleplay to
use. The following types of roleplay, though attributed to foreign language instruction, are
appropriate for all environments and other situations:

● "Conflict" roleplay - As the name of this method implies, participants are presented
with a situation involving conflicting parties in order to reveal paths for reconciliation and
peace.

● "Cooperative" roleplay - In contrast to conflict roleplay, cooperative roleplay presents a

situation involving existing partnerships or alliances in order to grow in solidarity and
teamwork.

● "Information gap" roleplay - This method unearths areas of knowledge in which

participants need further study and/or practice.

● "Task-based" roleplay - Practical skills, such as cooking a meal or reserving a hotel

room, are honed through task-based roleplay.

Roleplaying Ideas
There's no limit to the ideas with which people can experiment in their roleplaying experiences.
Scenarios may be very personal or incredibly common, very simple or extremely complex, very
foreign or entirely familiar. Scenarios in roleplaying may include exchanges between:

● Businesses and customers.

● Employers and employees (existing or potential).
● Spouses/domestic partners.
● Parents and children.
● Opposing political sides.
● Neighbors/friends.
● Healthcare providers and patients.
● Competitors.
 40

● Actors

Benefits of Roleplaying
Roleplay is an effective method for training and counseling for three primary reasons:

● Shared experiences - There is power in learning and doing things with others. Shared
experiences are more memorable and more likely to produce change.

● Effective preparation - Roleplaying is founded on the old saying "practice makes

perfect." Through roleplay, participants gain confidence, as well as tried and tested skills
and terminology, for them to carry into real-life situations.

● Accurate assessment - It's one thing for people to say they can do something, but it's
quite another when they are given opportunities to prove it. Through roleplay,
participants are able to demonstrate their skills - or lack thereof - making roleplay a
valuable tool for teachers to assess their students, for leaders to rank their individual
team members, and so on.

At the same time, participants may be resistant to the concept of roleplay. They may not feel
comfortable being "on stage," so to speak, in playing different roles in front of other people.
Furthermore, they may make it into a joke to help ease their anxiety, thus distracting themselves
and others from what could become a transformational learning experience. Roleplay
coordinators should address these potential barriers from the start, emphasizing the benefits of
roleplay over the participants' apprehensions.

Improvisation
Improvisation is the SPONTANEOUS exploration of who, where, and what.It is performed
without scripts or major amounts of rehearsals.

● Who? An improvisation can be character-centered. The who can provide the most
important imaginative component. Who might be an OLD LADY, COP, NURSE,
PREACHER etc.

● Where? An improvisation can be location-centered. The where can be the basis for
much of the comedy or drama of the scene. Where could be in the ZOO, ELEVATOR,
BEACH, FUNERAL PARLOR, etc.

● What? An improvisation can be situation-centered. The what can be an event that

provides the imaginative content that drives the direction of the improvisation. What
might be a WEDDING, ROBBERY, FUNERAL, GAME SHOW, etc.

An improv based on these examples could end up being the “wedding of an old lady and a cop
in an elevator.”
 41

Improvisations will be too short or die out quickly unless there is CONFLICT involved.

If there is a situation where one of the characters wants something and the other will not let him
or her have it (objective and obstacle), then these characters are in conflict and the
conversation can become quite heated and animated.

You need a dramatic situation, dialogue, and characterization in a good improv.

● Dramatic situation – one in which the characters are facing a situation that forces them
to act. YOU MUST HAVE THIS IN AN IMPROVISATION!

● Characterization – the portrayal of the physical, intellectual, and emotional traits of each
character.

● Objective – what your character WANTS

How to act during an improvisation

● Do accept every offer.
● Do accept what is said as fact.
● Do stay in the world you create.
● Do keep focused on your objective.
● Do listen, observe, and respond as the character you’ve created.
● Don’t dead-end the improv with the word, “No.”
● Don’t reject offers.

Pantomime
A pantomime, by definition, is a form of musical comedy theatrical production created to
entertain families.

Pantomime is the art of communicating through movements and facial expressions rather than
the spoken word.

The term ''pantomime'' has been used to describe both a person and a theatrical play or
performance.

A mime can be a person, although some argue that pantomime can only refer to a production,
which is counter to both historical and present-day popular usage of the term. It originated in
England and is now performed throughout the United Kingdom, Ireland, and other
English-speaking nations, particularly around Christmas and New Year. Modern pantomime is a
kind of entertainment especially suited for children, frequently with exotic stories and
magnificent visual components, despite taking different shapes over the years.

In the United Kingdom, the term ''pantomime'' refers to a type of entertainment that is typically
performed during the Christmas season. Most cities and towns in the United Kingdom host a
 42

pantomime at this time of year. The origins of British pantomime, or ''panto'' as it is known, can
be traced back to the Middle Ages, when it combined the traditions of Italian ''Commedia dell'
Arte,'' Italian night scenes, and a British music hall to create an intrinsic art form that has been
constantly adapted to survive up to the present day.

Pantomime Characteristics
Pantomime has included many elements of theater throughout its history, and it has persisted by
adapting to different styles of theatrical performances. The element of ''novelty,'' and its ability to
incorporate new trends and topicality within its structured framework have always been at the
forefront. People talk about ''traditional'' pantomime, but to stay popular, this style of theater has
had to keep a close eye on current events, and by incorporating them into its format, it has
remained one of the most popular kinds of entertainment in the world.

Some prominent characteristics of pantomime include:

1. Reversal of gender roles

Cross-dressing has long been a part of the theatrical history, but it rose to prominence in
British pantomime, which is based on Italian ''commedia dell'arte.'' Traditional folk stories
were replacing classical sketches as the basis of pantomime at the time, and the
commedia's cross-dressing evolved into a vital component of the fun. Thus came the
tradition of a young woman playing the lead role and an elderly guy playing the
supporting one.

2. Good vs. evil

Pantomime tells a story of good and evil, in which hope triumphs over adversity after
danger and near-despair. The audience is complicit in the act of finding, chasing, and
dealing with the monster, and the ethical positioning of this by writers and directors is
critical in guiding people to understand how they may deal with the ''other'' in their own
lives.

3. Slapstick comedy

Slapstick comedy is an important aspect of pantomime. Slapstick is a type of physical

comedy distinguished by broad humor, absurd situations, and vigorous, often violent
action. The slapstick comic must frequently be an acrobat, stunt performer, and
something of a magician—a master of uninhibited action and perfect timing.

4. Audience participation

A pantomime relies heavily on audience participation. When the villain enters the stage,
the audience is encouraged to boo him, argue with the Dame (who is always a man),
and warn the Principal Boy (who is always a girl) by shouting ''He's behind you!''
 43

5. Colorful and unconventional costumes

The actors in pantomime are frequently dressed in bright, colorful, and stunning clothing
that has a tremendous visual impact on the audience. The characters are lavishly crafted
to swiftly and clearly indicate who they are (principal lad, buffoon, dame), their standing
in the broader tale (e.g., royalty or street urchin), and the stock role that they're playing
(e.g., hero, villain, sidekick). The emphasis on spectacle and vivid visual presentation in
pantomime is supposed to amaze, entertain, and tickle the audience.

6. Based on a fairytale or nursery story

A strong storyline is the first element that a pantomime should have to be described as
''traditional.'' The fable or fairy tale must be well told, with the all-important elements of
good battling evil and triumphantly emerging. In this regard, the concept is similar to the
medieval morality plays that were performed on village greens. To this day, ''tradition''
holds that the pantomime villain should enter from the ''dark side,'' stage left, followed by
his adversary, the good fairy, from stage right. This is similar to the medieval practice of
placing the entrances to heaven and hell on these sides.

Aside from these characteristics, the key features of a modern pantomime include dances and
musical performances, as well as jokes, slapstick, and other forms of physical or situational
comedy. It also showcases plots and characters most often derived from folklore, fairy tales, or
other exotic stories.

Pantomime performers in Rome donned silken robes and closed-lipped masks and were the
forerunners of modern mimes. A chorus would keep time and explain the story as the mime
translated it through complex dance moves and gestures. Although no pantomime librettos or
chorus scripts have survived from antiquity, evidence suggests that several major literary
authors, notably the Roman epic poet Lucan, authored them. Whatever the situation, there are
usually two stock characters: the hero or lead boy, who is usually played by a girl, and the
'dame' or an older maternal figure, who is usually played by a man.

Pantomime Examples
Pantomimes are typically performed during the Christmas season and are based on well-known
children's stories. Pantomimes are played all around Britain, not just at the best theaters but
also in village halls. All pantomimes are well attended, whether they are extravagant
professional productions or hammy local amateur dramatic productions. Pantomimes are a type
of family entertainment that aims to make both children and adults laugh. Pantomimes have
repeating characters (stock characters). Some examples of pantomimes are as follows:

● Robin Hood

The story of Robin Hood and his Merry Men is very popular among children, and a
pantomime performance featuring these characters is shown every year as a Christmas
special event in London's Victoria Park. The show is full of slapstick and other comedic
 44

and musical elements that have helped pantomime become very famous in the United
Kingdom and other English-speaking countries worldwide.

● Beauty and the Beast

Beauty and the Beast has been reimagined in various forms since its origins as a
folktale, including a pantomime version. This pantomime, produced by the Theatre Royal
Stratford East in London, features musical and dance elements of the story that are not
only common in this type of production but also to the audience who are familiar with the
fairy tale as well.

Scripted and NonScripted Performances

Scripted Performances - refer to the performances that allow the students to prepare a script
in advance and to rehearse it before performing them.

Non-scripted Performances - refer to the performances in which students play without scripts
or rehearsal.

Puppetry
Puppetry is a form of theatrical performance where puppets, which are inanimate objects
manipulated by human performers, are used to tell stories and convey emotions. Puppetry has
a long history and is found in various cultures around the world. It is a unique art form that
combines elements of acting, storytelling, and visual art.

Puppets can be made of a variety of materials, such as wood, cloth, paper, foam, or even more
advanced materials like animatronics. They come in various sizes and types, ranging from
simple hand puppets to complex marionettes (controlled by strings), rod puppets (controlled by
rods), shadow puppets (projected on a screen), and more.

The puppeteers, also known as puppeteers or puppet operators, use their hands or other
control mechanisms to move the puppets and bring them to life. By manipulating the puppets'
movements, facial expressions, and voices, they create characters that interact with each other
and engage the audience.

Puppetry can be used for various purposes, including entertainment, education, and cultural
preservation. It is commonly used in children's shows, traditional folk performances,
contemporary theater, television, and films.

Some famous examples of puppetry include traditional forms like Japanese Bunraku puppet
theater, Indonesian Wayang Kulit shadow puppetry, and European Punch and Judy shows.
Additionally, puppets have also been widely used in popular television programs like "The
Muppets" and "Sesame Street."
 45

There are various kinds of puppetry performances, each with its unique characteristics and
cultural influences. Here are some of the most common types:

1. Hand Puppetry: Hand puppets are small puppets that fit over the puppeteer's hand and
are controlled using the fingers. The puppeteer's hand becomes the puppet's head, and
the fingers control the movement of the puppet's arms and sometimes the mouth.

2. Marionette Puppetry: Marionettes are puppets that are manipulated using strings or
wires. The strings are attached to different parts of the puppet, allowing for intricate and
detailed movements. Marionette puppetry requires skillful control by the puppeteer, as
the strings allow for a wide range of movements, including walking, dancing, and
complex gestures.

3. Rod Puppetry: Rod puppets have rods attached to the puppet's limbs or body, allowing
the puppeteer to control their movements. The rods are usually made of wood or metal
and are manipulated from below or behind the puppet.

4. Shadow Puppetry: Shadow puppetry involves the use of flat, cut-out puppets made of
leather, paper, or other materials. The puppets are held between a light source and a
translucent screen, creating shadow images that are projected onto a larger screen for
the audience to see. The puppeteers control the puppets from behind the screen.

5. Bunraku Puppetry: Bunraku is a traditional Japanese puppet theater form that

combines large, elaborate puppets with three puppeteers per puppet. One puppeteer
controls the head and right hand, another the left hand, and a third the legs and feet.
The puppeteers work in harmony to bring the puppet to life.

6. Wayang Kulit: Wayang Kulit is a traditional Indonesian shadow puppetry performance,

where intricately designed leather puppets are used to enact stories from Hindu epics
like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The puppeteer skillfully manipulates the puppets
while narrating the story.

7. Finger Puppetry: Finger puppets are tiny puppets that fit over the fingers, and they are
often used for storytelling and interactive performances with young children.

8. Object Puppetry: Object puppetry involves using everyday objects as puppets to tell a
story. The puppeteer brings life to these objects by giving them personalities and using
them to convey emotions.

9. Muppet-Style Puppetry: This style is popularized by Jim Henson's Muppets, where

puppets with foam and fabric bodies and expressive faces are used in television shows,
films, and stage performances.

10. Ventriloquism: Ventriloquists use puppets, typically called "dummies" or "figures," to

perform comedic or entertaining routines, making it appear as though the puppet is
speaking independently.
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Mask Making
Theater masks are symbolic objects used in theatrical performances to represent characters
and emotions. They have a long history and are associated with various forms of theater,
including ancient Greek drama, commedia dell'arte, and traditional Japanese Noh and Kabuki
performances. Theater masks serve several purposes, including enhancing the audience's
understanding of the characters and their emotions, enabling actors to project their voices more
effectively, and preserving the cultural and artistic traditions of theater.

Theater masks are symbolic objects used in theatrical performances to represent characters
and emotions. They have a long history and are associated with various forms of theater,
including ancient Greek drama, commedia dell'arte, and traditional Japanese Noh and Kabuki
performances. Theater masks serve several purposes, including enhancing the audience's
understanding of the characters and their emotions, enabling actors to project their voices more
effectively, and preserving the cultural and artistic traditions of theater. The two most well-known
types of theater masks are comedy and tragedy masks, which originated in ancient Greek
theater and continue to be widely recognized symbols of drama. These masks are often
depicted as a pair, with one mask representing comedy (laughing, smiling face) and the other
representing tragedy (sorrowful, frowning face). They are linked to the muses of Greek
mythology, Thalia (comedy) and Melpomene (tragedy), and have become enduring symbols of
the performing arts.

Theater masks come in various types, each associated with different theatrical traditions and
styles of performance. Here are some of the different types of theater masks from various
cultures:

1. Greek Theater Masks: In ancient Greek theater, masks were used to portray characters
and amplify their emotions for the audience. Greek theater masks included a range of
expressions, such as happy, sad, angry, and frightened. They were typically made of
materials like linen, cork, wood, or leather and had exaggerated facial features to make
characters easily recognizable to the audience.

2. Commedia dell'arte Masks: Commedia dell'arte is an Italian form of theater that

emerged in the 16th century. The masks in commedia dell'arte represent stock
characters, each with their own distinct personality traits. Some well-known commedia
dell'arte masks include:

● Pantalone: An old, miserly character with a long nose, hunched back, and often
dressed in red.
● Harlequin (Arlecchino): A mischievous and agile servant character wearing a
checkered costume.
● Brighella: A clever, quick-witted servant with a hooked nose.

3. Noh Masks: Noh is a traditional form of Japanese theater that dates back to the 14th
century. Noh masks are carved from blocks of wood and are highly stylized to represent
specific character types. Some Noh mask types include:
 47

● Hannya: A mask representing a jealous and vengeful female spirit.

● Okina: A mask depicting an elderly man, representing wisdom and authority.
● Shakumi: A mask of a middle-aged woman, usually representing a person of
high status.

4. Kabuki Masks: Kabuki is another form of traditional Japanese theater that emerged in
the 17th century. While Kabuki actors often wear elaborate makeup rather than physical
masks, the term "kabuki masks" refers to the different makeup styles used to depict
various character types. Some examples include:

● Kumadori: Elaborate makeup with bold lines and colors used to portray heroic or
supernatural characters.
● Oshiguma: A special makeup style used to depict demons and evil spirits.

5. Balinese Topeng Masks: Topeng is a traditional Balinese dance form accompanied by

music and storytelling. The performers wear masks that represent various characters
from Balinese mythology and history. Each mask has its own distinct features and colors.

6. African Masks: In various African cultures, masks are used in traditional dance and
theater performances. These masks can represent ancestral spirits, animals, or mythical
beings, and they play a significant role in religious and ceremonial events.

7. Contemporary Theatrical Masks: In contemporary theater, physical masks might not

be as prevalent, but the concept of metaphorical masks is often explored. This refers to
the idea of characters "wearing masks" to hide their true emotions or intentions.

Multiculturalism and Drama

Multiculturalism and drama are closely intertwined, as drama provides a powerful medium to
explore and celebrate the diverse cultures, traditions, and experiences of people from around
the world. Multiculturalism in the context of drama refers to the acknowledgment, appreciation,
and inclusion of different cultural perspectives, identities, and narratives in theatrical
performances and storytelling.

Here are some ways in which multiculturalism and drama intersect:

1. Representation of Diverse Stories: Drama allows for the representation of diverse

stories and experiences from various cultures. By incorporating characters, settings, and
themes from different cultural backgrounds, theater can break stereotypes, challenge
biases, and promote cross-cultural understanding.

2. Exploration of Cultural Identity: Drama provides a platform to explore the complexities

of cultural identity. Through plays and performances, artists and audiences can delve
into the challenges and joys of navigating cultural heritage in a globalized world.

3. Cross-Cultural Collaboration: In multicultural drama productions, artists from different

cultural backgrounds often come together to create and perform. This collaboration
 48

fosters mutual respect, learning, and exchange of artistic practices, enriching the
creative process.

4. Education and Empathy: Multicultural drama can be a powerful educational tool,

promoting empathy and understanding by showcasing the struggles, triumphs, and
everyday life of people from diverse backgrounds.

5. Promoting Social Change: Drama can address social issues related to multiculturalism,
such as racism, discrimination, and xenophobia. By shining a spotlight on these
challenges, theater can inspire audiences to reflect on their attitudes and contribute to
positive change.

6. Preservation of Cultural Heritage: Traditional forms of multicultural drama, such as

indigenous performances and folk theater, play a vital role in preserving cultural heritage
and passing it on to future generations.

7. Language and Communication: Multicultural drama may involve performances in

different languages or the use of translators. This can create a unique and enriching
experience for multilingual audiences, showcasing the beauty of linguistic diversity.

8. Festivals and Events: Many theater festivals and events celebrate multiculturalism by
featuring works from diverse cultures and providing a platform for underrepresented
voices.

9. International Theater Exchanges: Theater exchanges between countries foster cultural

diplomacy and promote global connections through the arts.

10. Community Engagement: Multicultural drama can engage local communities by

incorporating their cultural practices and traditions, fostering a sense of pride and
ownership among the audience.
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Module 4: Theater Production

● explore the world of theater – its elements, processes, creative people in production,
sets, script, etc.
● plan, produce, and perform a stage play appropriate to English language learners; and
● apply skills in writing, acting, directing, and producing an original or adapted stage play
with proper verbal and non-verbal communication strategies in relation to English
language

The Theatrical Process

A theatrical production is the process involved in conversion of a dramatic text into a theatrical
performance which involves a diverse range of art forms from acting, direction, production,
lighting, stage props, costume designing, music, backstage support etc. It is a transformation of
one art form into another from text to an enriching visual experience of performance.

There is a production team which under supervision of production manager who ensures
coordination of all the technical and staging requirements in a production house. There are
certain theaters which have their own production or technical managers who coordinates with
the creative team and are accountable for the sets, costumes, lighting, props, music and other
expertise and cater to the creative team’s vision.

Theatre exists in the moment, and only between artists and audience. It doesn't live on the
page, the canvas, on film or in digital bits and bytes. Before theatrical events can exist, intent
and planning join to become a product. Theatrical events then exist at the point where and when
the product and the audience intersect. It doesn't exist without both coming together.

1. Script: The Plan

The script is the playwright's blueprint for production. The playwright has to begin with
something they want to say, an artistic statement. This statement can be serious or
comedic, thought-provoking, or merely entertaining and amusing. This statement, usually
a thought or reflection on the human condition, is the impetus for the theatre piece,
whether it's a play, musical, dance theatre piece, ballet, avant-garde, or old-fashioned.

Some types of theatrical performance are scripted in more detail, while others are
sketched out, leaving details like dialogue, music, or dance steps to the directors and
performers. Some are more structured, while others are more improvisational.

● Commedia dell'arte was a style of improvised comic theatre popular in Europe

in the 16th through 18th centuries. While the performance was improvised every
night, the improvisation was based on a series of pre-existing scenarios and the
improvised dialogue and staging were developed and honed literally over the
performers' lifetimes.
 50

● Dialogue-driven theatre, such as the plays of William Shakespeare, on the

other hand, are much more heavily detailed, dictating to performers every
syllable they will speak. Such intensely detailed scripts continue to exist today
alongside scripts that strictly offer structure.

2. Process: The Rehearsals

Process, in theatrical terms, is the coordination of the various members of the

creative team, such as the performers, musicians, designers, and others, to bring
the script to life. This element can be considered the work-in-progress stage of a
production, and it's the director who typically leads this effort.

In a Broadway musical, for instance, the director, choreographer, and musical director
begin to shape their interpretation of the script well in advance, bringing on other artists
as needed. Assistants, designers, orchestrators, dance and vocal arrangers, projection
and sound designers are all an early part of the planning. Coordinating all of these
elements to create a cohesive artistic statement is a mammoth task.

In less formal theatrical styles, coordination may be less complicated, but no less vital.
Monologists like Spalding Gray or Anna Deavere Smith write their scripts themselves but
then need to integrate with other arts in developing the performances of their materials.
Directors, designers of sets, costumes, lights, sound, projections, and music all need to
integrate their work into the artistic vision of the one-person performance.

3. Product: The Performance

When all of the pieces are brought together, there is now a product, and that product is
called the performance. Every theatrical performance is comprised of all of the artists'
work joining together to create an experience that, if it's successful, is greater than the
sum of its parts.

While the performers are the largest part, the product will lack life without the creative
efforts of all the other arts. Imagine a lighting cue in which a series of bright yellow lights
dim while dark blue lights increase in intensity over five minutes. This crossfade is a
simple matter of changing electrical intensity over a set period. However, in combination
with the acting, scene design, and dramatic context, this effect might simulate a sunset,
echoing the characters' shift from clarity and brightness to a place of shadows and
uncertainty.

The performance counts on all of the artists working in unity to create the totality of the
performance.

4. Audience: The Receivers

If a tree falls in the forest and no one is there to hear it, does it make a sound? Posing
the same question about a theatrical production, if a performance is given and there is
no one to watch it, has it been performed? The answer is no; without an audience, there
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is no performance. The audience is the receiver of the performance, and they're as

important a component as the writer, director, designers, or performers.

Music can exist on a recording whether it's heard or not; it is a tangible item that exists
for all time. But theatrical performance lives only once, and it exists only when the
audience encounters it.

A professor can give a lecture, but in an empty classroom without at least one person to
hear the lecture, it's only practice. The piece that started with the playwright's impetus to
say something about the human condition isn't complete until someone experiences the
result of all of those artists' efforts.

Audience and Criticism

Going to the theater to see live performances is an activity with a long history. Theater
audiences have been enjoying a wide variety of theatrical performances for thousands of years.
While most aspects of theater studies focus on the performance itself and all of the people and
work that go into making a stage production come to life, the role of the audience in the theater
is also of the utmost importance. Audience members are not passive recipients of
entertainment; they play an active role in creating theatrical experiences, whether they are
aware of it or not. Different kinds of theater will have different expectations of the audience, so
understanding the role of an audience can make anyone a better guest at the theater.

Theater Roles
There are many different roles that people can play when it comes to theatre. One of those
theatre roles is the audience. Major members of almost any theatrical production can include
(but are not limited to):

● Playwrights
● Actors
● Dancers
● Musicians
● Costumers
● Hair and makeup artists
● Carpenters and set decorators
● Propmasters
● Directors
● Producers
● Stage managers
● Lighting technicians
● Sound technicians
● Stagehands
● Audience members
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All of these people must work together to create a piece of theatre. Audience members are the
people who are ultimately going to consume a theatrical work, so their opinions are often taken
into consideration throughout the process. Playwrights, directors, producers, and actors (among
others) must be aware of changing tastes of theatregoers so that they can produce a piece that
will be well-received. In some cases, this means creating stories about characters that
audiences can relate to, as these tend to be fairly popular. This is not to say that all theatrical
productions are aiming to please the same audience; some aim to challenge viewers'
expectations or create unusual and even unsettling pieces. For the right audience, such
theatrical experiences can be just as well-received as more generally crowd-pleasing works.

Rules for the Theatre Audience

Being a good theatre audience member is more than just showing up on time and sitting in a
seat. There are many etiquette rules for theatre audience members, most of which go
unspoken. Understanding what these rules are and why they are important can help everyone
at a theatrical performance perform their roles (including the role of audience) effectively. While
many of these rules might sound obvious, they are nonetheless essential for the proper
functioning of a performance.

1. Punctuality: Audience members should always arrive on time for theatre performances.
This shows respect for everyone else in the theatre, including actors and fellow audience
members.
2. The fourth wall: The ''fourth wall'' is the invisible barrier between the audience and the
actors. Audiences must respect the fourth wall and not break it by going onto the stage
or engaging with performers outside of acceptable forms of participation.
3. Attention: During a performance, it is expected that audience members will give
performers their full attention. Actors feed off the energy they receive from the audience
and will be able to tell if an audience is distracted.
4. Responsiveness: While audiences should not interrupt performances, emotional
responses like laughter, shocked gasps, and clapping are acceptable at various points in
a performance. As with paying attention, this kind of response will help the actors put on
a better performance.
5. Suspension of disbelief: Creating a work of theatre is an act of imagination on the part
of everyone in the theatre. Audiences are expected to suspend their disbelief and
immerse themselves in the world of the play.
6. Graciousness: Putting on a live theatre performance means accepting the possibility
that something might go wrong. If an aspect of a performance does not go as planned,
audiences should be gracious toward performers and crew members as they resolve
potential issues.
7. Appreciation: During and especially at the end of a performance, audiences should
show their appreciation for the show that they have seen. This usually takes the form of
applause at the end of a production.

Audiences go to a theatre performance expecting certain things. They expect that actors will
know their lines, that choreography will be performed without error, and, most importantly, they
 53

expect that they will be transported to another world for a while. In return for these things, actors
and production crews expect that audiences will fulfill their role in the above ways.

Theater Criticism
Theater criticism is the practice of analyzing and evaluating theatrical performances, including
plays, musicals, and other live theater productions. Theater critics, also known as theater
reviewers, are individuals who professionally assess and review theatrical performances. Their
primary goal is to provide an insightful and informed critique of the production, helping the public
understand the strengths, weaknesses, and overall artistic merit of the performance.

Key aspects of theater criticism include:

● Reviewing Performances: Theater critics attend live performances and then write
reviews analyzing various elements, such as acting, direction, set design, costumes,
lighting, sound, and overall production quality.

● Writing Reviews: Critics typically publish their reviews in newspapers, magazines,

online platforms, or other media outlets. The reviews may be published before or after
the play's official opening, providing potential audiences with insights before attending or
after the production has concluded.

● Objectivity and Subjectivity: Theater criticism aims to strike a balance between

objective analysis and subjective interpretation. Critics need to be fair, unbiased, and
base their assessments on the actual performance while also considering their personal
opinions and reactions.

● Contextual Understanding: A good theater critic possesses knowledge of the theater's

history, various styles, and the cultural context of the production. Understanding the
playwright's intentions, previous interpretations of the play, or the significance of the
director's choices can inform the critique.

● Insightful Analysis: Critics provide thoughtful analysis and articulate their opinions
clearly and persuasively. They may discuss how the production aligns with the original
script or concept, how it engages with contemporary issues, and how well it connects
with the audience.

● Audience Considerations: Critics often consider the target audience for a particular
production. Some shows are designed for specific age groups or cultural backgrounds,
and the review reflects how effectively the play communicates with its intended
audience.

● Promotion of Quality and Artistic Growth: Constructive criticism can help theater
artists and productions grow by providing valuable feedback and encouraging higher
standards of artistic excellence.
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● Ethical Considerations: Theater critics must follow ethical guidelines, such as avoiding
conflicts of interest and maintaining professional conduct.

Theater criticism from the audience refers to the opinions, feedback, and reactions shared by
individuals who have attended a theatrical performance as part of the audience. Unlike
professional theater critics who write formal reviews for media outlets, audience criticism is more
informal and typically shared through word of mouth, social media, online forums, or personal
conversations.

Here are some key points about theater criticism from the audience:

1. Personal Experience: Audience criticism is based on each individual's personal

experience of the performance. Each audience member may have a unique perspective
and emotional response to the play.

2. Subjective Nature: Like professional theater critics, audience criticism is subjective. It

reflects the personal tastes, preferences, and biases of the individual sharing their
opinion.

3. Word of Mouth: Positive or negative word-of-mouth can significantly impact a

production's success. If an audience member enjoys a play, they are likely to
recommend it to others, helping to generate buzz and attract more attendees.
Conversely, negative reviews from the audience can deter potential theatergoers.

4. Social Media and Online Platforms: In the digital age, audience criticism has found a
broader platform through social media platforms, online reviews, and theater discussion
forums. People can easily share their thoughts about a performance with a wider
audience.

5. Impact on Artistic Growth: Constructive feedback from the audience can be valuable
for theater companies and artists. It provides insights into how the performance is
received and may influence future productions, enabling the artists to refine their work
and better connect with their audience.

6. Democratization of Critique: Audience criticism democratizes the critique process. It

allows anyone who attends a play to share their thoughts and contribute to the
conversation surrounding a theatrical production.

7. Engagement and Interaction: Audience criticism fosters engagement and interaction

between theatergoers, creating a sense of community and shared experience.

8. Emphasis on Enjoyment: While professional critics may focus on a broader range of

aspects, including technical and artistic elements, audience criticism often emphasizes
the audience's enjoyment, emotional response, and overall satisfaction with the
performance.

It's important to remember that audience criticism is an essential part of the theater ecosystem.
It reflects the impact of the performance on the people who directly engage with it, and it can
 55

influence the reputation and success of a play. Both positive and negative feedback from the
audience can help shape the future of theatrical productions and contribute to the growth of the
performing arts.

Theater Space and Design

Theater Space
In its original Greek meaning, theater is a place of seeing. Today, theater can mean a space
where a performance is given for an audience or the live performance itself. Audiences often
take theater space for granted. After all, the purpose of a performance space is to focus
attention on the dramatic performance. Yet, how a space is designed can determine how the
performance is experienced. There are many types of theater stages, and determining the best
design for any particular dramatic performance is an important choice for any production. There
are four broad categories of theater stages.

● Arena stage theaters: arena stage definition sits the audience around all sides of the
stage and is also known as theater-in-the-round.

● Thrust stage theaters: this design sits the audience on three sides and is also known
as open courtyard stages.

● End stage theaters: this design sits the audience on one side and is also known as
corner stage theaters; proscenium stages fall into this category.

● Flexible stage theaters: also known as black box theaters, this design offers no fixed
orientation between the audience and the stage; the audience can sit in the center of the
performance, on the sides, or even follow the performers throughout the space as the
drama unfolds.

Arena Stage

Also called central stage or island stage, arena stage theatre seats the audience fully on all
sides and is popularly known as theatre in the round. Used when rapport with the audience is
the primary concern, arena stage theatre, thus, minimizes scenery and background elements.
As with proscenium and thrust stages, arena stages have been used throughout the history of
dramatic performance, going in and out of fashion. However, beginning in the 1930s, production
designers favored greater control over stage and audience size as well as a wider range of
dramatic activity that theatre in the round offers. A famous arena stage theatre from this time is
Nikolay Pavlovich Okhlopkov's Realistic Theatre in Moscow.
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Proscenium Stage

In theatre, a proscenium arch stage refers to a category of end stage theatre where the
audience area, also called the house, is arranged on one side and utilizes a proscenium, an
arch or frame, to separate the performance space from the audience. This space is known as
the fourth wall through which the audience eaves drop on the performance. This invisible wall is
framed by the proscenium arch and the floor space below, called the apron. Occasionally, when
speaking directly to the audience, called breaching the fourth wall, actors will step through the
proscenium and onto the apron, metaphorically symbolizing stepping out of the action of the
play. After addressing the audience, they will then step back through the proscenium into the
performance space and resume the action.
 57

Proscenium stage theatres seat audiences on one side of the stage. The invisible proscenium
wall separates them, framed by the proscenium arch. The apron extends beyond the
proscenium giving performers the choice of breaching the proscenium wall and moving closer to
the audience. Most of the performance happens within the three walls enclosing the stage and
the invisible proscenium wall. Proscenium stages offer a wide range of control over a production
at the expense, however, of audience connection as the performance is somewhat removed
from the audience.

Proscenium Arch Stage

These innovations allowed the proscenium arch to frame the space through which the
performance is viewed and support a curtain that can be opened and closed throughout the
performance, creating curiosity and suspense and allowing for changes of scene. Another
function of the proscenium arch is to give the performers just one direction toward which to
focus the performance rather than moving around in all directions. The audience observes the
performance as through a window, which creates a picture frame through which to focus their
attention.
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Thrust Stage

A thrust stage extends into the audience, which surrounds it on three sides without a
proscenium. This is also called an open stage or platform stage. Thrust stage theatre puts
performers in close proximity to the audience, an advantage over proscenium theatre. Intimacy
between the performers and the audience is easier to achieve. However, lines of sights may be
a problem for some audience members at certain points in the performance. Another
disadvantage is the back wall, which remains visible throughout the performance without a
curtain. Illusionary effects that are hallmarks of proscenium theatre are more difficult to achieve
and more involved in thrust stage theatre. For example, the sets of proscenium theatre need
only be detailed on the side facing the audience. Yet, use of a thrust stage requires set detailing
from all angles.
 59

In thrust stage theatre, performers work in the middle of the audience, creating intimacy and
connection more easily than the relatively remote proscenium stage theatre. Thrust stages tend
to be sparsely blocked because elaborate sets interfere with audience sight lines, making
picturesque blocking very challenging. Nevertheless, they started to gain in popularity in recent
decades and continue to be widely used today.
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Arena Stage

Also called central stage or island stage, arena stage theatre seats the audience fully on all
sides and is popularly known as theatre in the round. Used when rapport with the audience is
the primary concern, arena stage theatre, thus, minimizes scenery and background elements.
As with proscenium and thrust stages, arena stages have been used throughout the history of
dramatic performance, going in and out of fashion. However, beginning in the 1930s, production
designers favored greater control over stage and audience size as well as a wider range of
dramatic activity that theatre in the round offers. A famous arena stage theatre from this time is
Nikolay Pavlovich Okhlopkov's Realistic Theatre in Moscow.

Theater Stage
The parts of a stage that are visible to an audience are generally called the ''proscenium,''
though this term is more broadly applicable in box set theaters. If audience members can see
an actor, a prop, or a set piece, for instance, then those people and objects are located in the
proscenium. The major parts of a theater stage are:
Part of the Stage Purpose
Set The set is the space where a play
takes place. Set pieces can be
things like chairs and sofas, as
well as more elaborate
constructions like fake building
fronts, bookshelves, and
backdrops.
Apron The apron, like the rest of the
stage, can be used by the actors
over the course of the play.
Scenes shown on the apron might
be set there to give the crew an
opportunity to change the set
behind the curtain.
Pit The pit is traditionally used by the
orchestra in pieces where actors
are accompanied by live music.
Proscenium arch The proscenium arch is the
boundary that separates the actors
from the audience, creating a
''fourth wall'' of the stage. If an
actor speaks directly to the
audience, they are said to be
''breaking the fourth wall.''
Trap door Not all theatres have trap doors,
but those that do can use them for
dramatic entrances and exits.
Characters can emerge from or
disappear into trap doors, as can
set pieces in some cases.
61
Location
The set is located on the stage,
sometimes in just one area and
sometimes in several discrete
locations representing different
rooms or areas for the actors to
spend time in.
If a theatre has a curtain that can
close over the stage, there is
usually a portion of the stage that
juts out beyond the curtain. This
area is called the apron.
The pit, also called the orchestra pit,
is located directly in front of the
stage, between the apron and the
first row of seats, and is usually
lower than floor level to hide the
orchestra.
The proscenium arch is the place
where the curtain hangs over the
stage, separating the stage from the
audience.
Trap doors are usually located in
the floor of the stage and are closed
when not in use. They can be
opened from beneath.
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Grid The grid is a structure onto which The grid is located directly above
lights can be hung in order to the stage, out of sight of the
properly light the stage. If actors audience.
are going to fly across the stage
on wires, those wires will also be
attached to the grid.

Some of these parts of a stage are specific to box set theaters; black box theaters and
theaters-in-the-round do not usually have proscenium arches, aprons, or orchestra pits.

Backstage Area

The parts of the stage that audiences see are just a small portion of the areas that actually
make up a theater. Backstage areas are places where only actors and crew members go. They
include:

Backstage Areas Purpose Location

Crossover space This is a corridor that allows actors
and crew members to move from
one side of the stage to the other
without being seen by the
audience or otherwise disrupting
the play.
Crossover spaces are usually
located behind the stage, though
they might also be found under the
stage in some theatres.

The wings Actors wait in the wings when it is
almost time to enter the stage.
Props are stored in designated
areas of the wings for easy
retrieval.
The wings are located directly to the
left and right of the stage, just out of
sight of the audience.

Catwalk Catwalks allow technicians to
adjust lights, attach props or
actors to wires to be sent down
onto the stage, or perform other
technical work during a
performance.
Above the stage and above the grid,
catwalks are usually very high up
and are quite close to the ceiling of
the theatre.

Dressing room Dressing rooms give performers a
place to get into costume and do
their makeup.
Dressing rooms may be located
anywhere in the backstage area of
a theatre. They vary a lot in size
and number depending on the
structure of a theatre.
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Green room Like dressing rooms, green rooms
are used by actors when they are
not on stage. Green rooms are
waiting rooms for actors awaiting
their scenes.
As with dressing rooms, green
rooms can be located anywhere
backstage.

In a big theatre, there may be other backstage areas including rehearsal spaces, dance
studios, restrooms, and storage rooms.

Front of the House

The term ''front of house'' refers to the areas at the entrance to the theatre and in the audience.
Unlike the stage, front of house areas are not generally part of the world of the play; they are
intended for the audience to experience them. They include:

Front of House Area Description and Location

Orchestra The main seating area in a theatre, located directly in front of the
stage, is called the orchestra. Orchestra seats are generally the most
expensive, as they often provide the best and closest view of the
action.

Balcony Located on a level above the orchestra, the balcony is another

seating area that gives audiences more of a bird's eye view of the
stage. Balcony seats are typically cheaper than orchestra seats, but
many of them still provide excellent views.

Mezzanine If a theatre has more than one balcony, the lowest balcony is called
the mezzanine. Sometimes, the first few rows of a balcony (the ones
closest to the stage) are also called the mezzanine.

Booth The booth is a backstage area that is located in the front of house. It
is the lighting booth where members of the crew watch the show and
control lighting effects, sound effects, and more. Usually, the booth is
hidden at the back of the orchestra or above the balcony depending
on the layout of the theatre.

The ticket office and lobby of the theatre are also generally considered part of the front of
house areas.
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Theater Design
1. The Set

Set design or scenic design refers to all the non-human aspects that are on the stage.
The set design is often a work of art in and of itself, involving large mobile pieces, doors,
walls, and even portable trees.

All of that comes at a considerable cost. Every director has to find his or her own style
when it comes to this aspect. Some choose elaborate designs and props, while others
choose much more muted representations. Some go with a literal interpretation of place
and time, while others might be more metaphorical in their design.

Directors have to think about practical aspects, like whether they want to be able to
change the set between scenes or acts. They may only have a couple of minutes
between scene changes, and they want to make sure that the lights don't come up while
the stage crew is still moving a mountain offstage. They will work with a set designer and
people with carpentry and painting skills to implement their vision.

2. The Costumes

Costumes are another important aspect of theater. Costumes are worn by actors during
a performance. Costumes often help to heighten the realism of the play, and sometimes
they can help the actor bring out aspects of his or her character.

Still, like the set design, costumes can be a method of showing the director's own vision
for a play.

3. Lighting

Lighting is another tool at the director’s disposal. Theatrical lighting has come a long way
from the Victorian era, when actors had to perform in either the dullness of gas lighting
or the heat of lime lights. In addition to illuminating the scene, lighting is also used to
create a mood.

Most obviously, lighting is used to highlight particularly important actions. Likewise, it can
be used to hinder the audience's knowledge of scenes on stage, like casting a scene
that doesn't have the action in it in the background. Most large theater productions have
a lighting designer that will try to design lighting that goes with the overall vision for the
play. There is also a lighting operator to operate the lights during the show, working from
a cue sheet that tells them what to do.

4. Sound Design

Another aspect of theatrical design is the sound design, or the soundscape of the play.
This is one way that a director can have a lot of creative control as a director, because,
unlike big expensive set pieces or costumes, sound is portable and pretty much the
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same price for any sounds they want to use - with the exception of copyrighted songs
they want to use.

Let’s say that you are a director. You want to play thematic music in the beginning, or
you want to show that it's storming outside by playing storm sound effects whenever a
character opens a door, or you want to hear a car driving away or a dog barking in the
distance. It's really up to you as the director to work with a sound designer to put
together an appropriate soundscape that fits with your overall vision. Then, the sound
designer will work with the other designers to create the overall design element of the
play. Finally, when it's show time, you'll have a sound engineer to operate all of the
sounds from a cue sheet, just like the lighting operator has.

The Playwright
Theater is storytelling. It began with the cavemen telling stories around the evening fire. Theatre
became formalized (i.e. given form and structure) when playwrights entered the process in
ancient Greece around 532 BCE.

From that time forward, a playwright starts with something they believe needs to be said, then
creates a blueprint for all aspects of the play (acting, design, ambiance, or any other element).
What they feel needs to be said could be a story to tell, a political or religious point to make, a
question to be raised, or a humorous observation about the human condition to be revealed.

Playwriting Techniques
Playwrights work in different ways. Some need isolation and silence, and others prefer to be
surrounded by noise and commotion. Some begin with an outline that they progressively detail,
while others write stream-of-conscious until they find themselves at the end or write themselves
into a corner. Some plays retell existing stories or history, while others use original stories.

For example, playwright Lanford Wilson spoke about not having any idea what to do in the final
act of his play Hot l Baltimore. He decided to look at The Cherry Orchard, and whatever was
happening in Chekov's play, he would use for the premise of his third act.

Play Structure
● Plot of a play is a series of events that happen in a specific order, frequently
chronologically sequential. Some plots move forward chronologically, but not all.

● Act will usually have a rising line of action, a series of incidents that escalate in urgency,
leading to a climactic event at the end, leaving the audience wanting to come back to
see what happens next.

Most contemporary plays have two acts with an intermission between each. Elizabethan
dramas, like Shakespeare's, tend to be written in five acts. One-hour network television
 66

dramas today usually have a prologue, four or five acts, and an epilogue. The break
between each of these is where the commercials come.

● The scenes represent the different incidents or encounters and are frequently separated
by time, locale, or different groups of characters. Within each act is a series of scenes.
● Characters are the people in the play who participate in the action of the story. The
playwright has to decide, for example, if the hero will be a king or a factory worker, male
or female, old or young, in love with a factory worker or a prince or princess. What is
their ethnic or racial background, educational background, and family background? What
do they want in the play from the other characters? The playwright needs to know all of
the characters well enough to know what they would do in any situation.

● Setting is where the play takes place. Where do these characters live, work, want to be,
or want to escape? Is the play set in a steam bath that turns out to be a way station
where the dead wait to be sent to heaven or hell, or is the setting a fine dining
restaurant? The playwright needs to make all of these decisions.

Dialogue
Dialogue is the words that the characters speak to each other. Scenes between two or more
characters can contain dialogue, but also may benefit from silences, the moments when nobody
speaks. Dialogue can crackle with wit or be dry, acerbic, confrontational, or ironic.

The dramatic device of soliloquy is when a character is alone onstage, speaking to

themselves, God, the memory of their long-lost parent, or the audience. This is a way for a
character to ruminate out loud, to try to make some sense of their predicament. The most
famous soliloquy in theatre history is Hamlet's speech ''To be, or not to be,'' in which he tries to
decide whether to take action or not.

A monologue is a long speech usually delivered to another character onstage.

Another dramatic device is the aside, in which a character steps out of the play for a moment to
comment to the audience. Leaving the reality of the play to directly address the audience is
referred to as 'breaking the fourth wall,' which refers to the imaginary fourth wall between the
audience and the world of the play.

Text & Stage Directions

Playwrights write the words that the characters say. They also write stage directions, which
suggest the physical movements and gestures of the characters. Stage directions can also
include any descriptions of visual or aural aspects of the production. Novels or short stories
often include descriptive passages but in plays, these passages have to act as indications for
the designers: sets, lights, costumes, or sound.
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Dramaturgy
Dramaturgy is a term used in the context of theater and drama to refer to the art and practice of
dramatic composition and theatrical representation. It involves the study, analysis, and
interpretation of dramatic works, as well as the creative process behind the development and
production of plays and performances. The person responsible for dramaturgy is known as a
dramaturg.

A dramaturge or dramaturg is a literary adviser or editor in a theatre, opera, or film

company who researches, selects, adapts, edits, and interprets scripts, libretti, texts, and
printed programmes, consults authors, and does public relations work.

Dramaturgy is an interdisciplinary practice that draws on literature, history, cultural studies, and
performance theory. It serves as a bridge between the artistic vision of the playwright or director
and the realization of that vision on the stage. The goal of dramaturgy is to deepen the artistic
and intellectual engagement with dramatic works and to contribute to the overall richness and
meaning of theatrical performances.

Key aspects of dramaturgy include:

1. Literary Analysis: Dramaturgs engage in literary analysis of dramatic texts, including

plays, scripts, and other forms of theatrical writing. They study the structure, themes,
character development, and historical context of the works to gain a deeper
understanding of the playwright's intentions.

2. Historical Research: Dramaturgs often conduct historical research to contextualize a

play within its time and cultural setting. This research helps provide insights into the
social, political, and artistic influences that may have shaped the work.

3. Collaboration with Playwrights: Dramaturgs work closely with playwrights during the
play development process. They may offer feedback, suggestions, and research support
to help the playwright refine their work and achieve their artistic vision.

4. Supporting Directors and Production Teams: In collaboration with directors and

production teams, dramaturgs contribute to the conceptualization of a theatrical
production. They may assist in selecting plays, exploring potential themes, and providing
background information to inform the directorial vision.

5. Providing Context for Actors: Dramaturgs offer context and background information to
actors to aid in their understanding of the characters, historical period, and the overall
world of the play.

6. Audience Engagement: Dramaturgs create program notes and other educational

materials to provide audience members with insights into the play's background, themes,
and historical significance. This enhances the audience's appreciation and
understanding of the performance.
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7. New Play Development: In contemporary theater, dramaturgs play a significant role in

the development of new plays and works. They may work with playwrights, directors,
and theater companies to workshop, revise, and refine new scripts.

8. Cultural and Artistic Context: Dramaturgy helps situate a play within broader cultural
and artistic movements, exploring how it fits into the wider theatrical landscape.

Set Design
Stage design refers to all the visual elements on stage in a performance, including the set, the
props, the costumes, and the lights. Stage design is also referred to as production design and
scenic design. Stage design considers what the stage picture will look like in a performance.
Often, the art of stage design is referred to as scenography. This term refers to a holistic
approach to stagecraft that considers all elements of the production design. A scenographer
may lead the production design, but, as theatre is by necessity always a collaborative art, they
must work with others. Often, each discipline (set, costumes, and lights) will have an individual
designer. Props are typically covered by the set designer or the costume designer. Since their
goal is to create a singular, cohesive world for the play, the designers collaborate to make sure
that the stage design meets the needs of the performance and creates a unified setting for the
play.

The scenic design of a play provides the audience with essential visual information about where
and when the play is set. Whether they are realistic or abstract, the visual elements, like the set
and costumes, provide context for the drama to unfold.

The Process of Stage Set Design

Stage design is a multistep process that involves research, collaboration, and revision. In each
step, they work with the director and other designers so that they can create a cohesive design
that supports the director's vision of the play.

1. Read the script: Designers must read the script to learn what is needed of the design
from the play. Here, the designers also discover the play's aesthetic and identify images
and themes. Costume designers will delineate each costume item needed. The same is
true for scenic designers who itemize set pieces and props.

2. Research: Designers conduct research to inspire their designs. This is particularly true
of plays that require a specific historical setting or geographic location. However,
research helps designers do more than nail down the facts; it also inspires their creativity
and helps them problem solve.

3. Create a concept board: Using their research, designers compile a concept or mood
board to show their research to their collaborators. They pull evocative images to show
the aesthetic of their design and demonstrates for what they will draw from as they
design.
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4. Draw preliminary designs: From the concept board, the designers then move to draw
drafts of what the design will look like. Set designers typically draw each scene to scale,
where costume designers illustrate each costume on the actor, if available.

5. Develop models and samples: Once the preliminary drafts are approved, the set
designers will create a 3-D model of their design before it goes into construction.
Similarly, costume designers often provide fabric samples. This allows for further revision
before the design is fully realized.

6. Create paperwork: Once the final design is set, the designers have a lot of paperwork
to do! In particular, the set designer is responsible for creating a floor plot, the elevation
sheets, schematics, and other blueprints that are necessary for the construction team to
build the set. The costume designer often must create the patterns for the tailors to use
when sewing the costumes. All designers must create a final inventory that shows where
each property needs to be during the play.

7. Paper tech: Paper tech is an opportunity for the designers and director to make sure
that everything goes smoothly during technical rehearsals. Together, they sit down and
work through the page line by line so they all are on the same page about when the
design elements will change.

8. Technical rehearsals: Technical rehearsals, otherwise known as tech, are the first time
that allows for the design elements are finally seen together. The set is built, the
costumes are on, the props are in place, and finally, the lighting and projections are on.
This is the last opportunity to make any small changes before the show.

Scenography is the visual language of the play. It conveys a significant amount of meaning to
the audience about the world of the play, but it also conveys major themes, changes in mood or
tone, and can create marvelous spectacles that enhance the excitement of a show. Illusions,
like perspective scenery and projects, help create realistic, visually rich worlds on stage. The
production design, including the set, the costumes, the props, and the lighting, create visual
clues that inform the audience where to look, and what is important context, while also serving
as artistic expressions of the play's text.

Theater Acting
For more than 2,000 years, acting was not taught; it was passed down from the master to the
apprentice. An aspiring actor would learn by doing and by watching. Acting styles were
determined in direct response to the physical and technical realities of the spaces in which
actors performed. Large auditoriums with inaccurate lighting required a large physical and vocal
style of acting in order to hold the audience's attention. The young actors of those times learned
at the feet of their masters. We might consider those older styles of acting hammy, but they
worked for actors and audiences of their times.
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Stage Movement & Blocking

Blocking in Theatre
What is blocking in theatre? Blocking is a term used in theatre to describe the location of actors
on the stage and the movements that they make. The process of blocking is done during
rehearsals and is a collaborative effort between the actors and the director. The director will
usually provide an artistic vision, while actors will see what feels natural to them as they move
through the space. The blocking theatre definition encompasses not only where an actor is on
the stage, which is also known as stage position, but also the specific movements that an actor
makes, the angle they are facing, and more.

Blocking is essential in theatre productions for several reasons. First, it allows actors to know
exactly where they are supposed to be at any given time, which avoids confusion and enhances
confidence. Second, blocking can help directors and actors express the subtext and themes of a
play in a variety of subtle ways. Finally, good blocking allows the audience to see all of the
relevant movements and expressions that the actors are making.

Stage Blocking Positions

Blocking positions are terms that describe which way a character is facing in relation to the
audience. An open position is one where the actor faces the audience completely, while a
closed position faces away from the audience.

Characters who are seen in profile by the audience while looking at each other are ''facing,'' and
if one character is open and the other is closed, the actors are in a ''forward/behind'' position. An
important trick that directors often employ is called cheating out. This is where characters who
are facing each other actually turn a three-quarter profile so that the audience can see more of
their faces and also hear their lines more clearly.

In addition to how an actor is oriented, blocking can also describe whether an actor is sitting,
standing, or lying down. They may need to interact with set pieces and props, or with other
actors, all of which are planned and rehearsed when setting up the blocking. Some plays might
have actors interact with special effects or even fly across the stage on wires. These elements
of the show are also part of blocking.

Stage Positions in Theatre

Whether an actor is sitting or standing and whether they are facing the audience is only half of
the process of blocking. Where the actor is situated on a stage is also important. The best way
to understand the various stage positions that an actor can occupy is to divide the stage into a
nine-square grid as seen from above. The bottom of the grid represents the edge of the stage
near the audience, while the top represents the back of the stage. An actor's location on the
stage can be succinctly described using these nine squares.
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Actors need to be familiar with these stage locations so that they can easily follow directions
and make their own suggestions to the show's blocking.

Stage Right vs. Stage Left

There is one essential detail to note when looking at theatre stage directions: left and right are
reversed. This is because stage directions are seen from the perspective of actors rather than
the perspective of the audience; someone standing in center stage and looking at the audience
would end up in the Stage Left quadrant if they were to walk to their left.

Stage left vs stage right are sometimes contrasted with ''house left'' and ''house right,'' which
refer to the audience's perspective. Stage left is therefore equivalent to house right, and so on.
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Stage Movement and Power

It is one thing for an actor to know where to stand on a stage and which direction to face, but
plays are dynamic experiences that require movement. There are several ways to describe an
actor's movement on the stage, which forms the final major component of blocking. Movements
can be described on a scale from weak to strong. The strong-to-weak scale describes
movements directed toward the audience (strong) and movements directed away from the
audience (weak). Sometimes, these movements are described on a scale from -2 to 2, with -2
movement being very weak, -1 somewhat weak, 0 neutral, 1 somewhat strong, and 2 very
strong.

Stage movements are often marked on a diagram like the one above using arrows. Movements
directed toward the audience are considered ''strong'' because they attract attention and carry
more intensity than weak movements do. Generally, movements from one quadrant to another
are given set values.

In addition to having power, stage movement can also have a variety of different qualities.
These are generally described using the eight Laban Movement terms, which divide types of
movement by direction (direct or indirect), weight (heavy or light), speed (quick or sustained),
and flow (bound or free). The eight movements, also called the Eight Efforts, are:

● Wring (indirect, heavy, sustained, and bound)

● Press (direct, heavy, sustained, bound)
● Flick (indirect, light, quick, free)
● Dab (direct, light, quick, free)
● Punch (direct, heavy, quick, bound)
● Slash (indirect, heavy, quick, bound)
● Glide (direct, light, slow, free)
● Float (indirect, light, slow, free)
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An actor can move using any of these qualities, though they may be expressed subtly rather
than overtly, while also producing weak or strong movement on the stage. Blocking has many
different elements and all of them come together to make a play.

Directing and Producing a Stage Play

Production Concept
The production concept is the unifying creative vision for the design elements of a stage play. It
allows such diverse elements as costumes, set design, and lighting to mutually support a
creative goal.

1. Interpretation is the act of drawing out and communicating underlying meaning from a
creative work. Through careful and comprehensive interpretation, central themes and
values can be identified within a play script and production elements designed
accordingly.

Every script has an essence and a story to tell, and interpretation allows that essence to
be defined and shared through a production concept. In brief, interpretation draws out
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the ideas of the play and sets them within a world that will be created on stage according
to the production concept.

The format and the author of a production concept will vary depending upon production
circumstances. In a smaller community theater, for example, the assigned director would
likely generate it, perhaps using a standard form or checklist. In professional companies,
there may be an individual assigned to each production and responsible for the
production concept, who then coordinates with the director. In an academic setting, a
production concept might be generated by faculty or even students. In all instances, the
production concept considers context and atmosphere and applies them to elements of
composition.

2. Context refers to environment, situation, and circumstances. For a play script, this might
include everything from historical era and geographical setting, or even season of the
year, to character circumstances like class, ethnicity, subculture, generation, or family
unit.

3. Atmosphere describes the tone, mood, and general feeling within the context.

4. Composition is the cohesive integration of all the elements of theater.

5. Sound design has enormous potential for establishing and supporting atmosphere as a
whole, and, once more, the production concept provides a creative framework and a
motif for designers to follow.

A play is heard as well as seen. Even in a non-musical, selected integration of music and
sound is a staple for live theater

Theatre Director
A theatre director is responsible for leading the process of creating a show and representing
the script accurately by providing guidance to the members. This role oversees many aspects of
the performance side and the planning side.

A theatre director may also be referred to as a stage director, or simply a director. The theatre
director may have a role in a variety of productions and arts, including plays, musicals, ballets,
and operas.

The theatre director is considered a visionary and collaborates with multiple aspects of the
show, besides simply reviewing scripts. This involves determining the arc of the action and
developing the production concept based on the script, as well as casting the characters and
hiring other production positions. The director might also run rehearsals, oversee auditions,
create schedules and budgets, and outline concepts concerning the set design. Though the
theatre director may lead most of the planning and staging aspects, they may not be as
concerned with specific tasks like technical aspects of the play or scenic decorations.
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While the theatre director may have a variety of roles and responsibilities, their main job is to
interpret the script to make it into a piece that can be performed for an audience. The director
essentially moves the concept of the script to a show or performance.

Stage Director's Process

1. Script Interpretation

In order to properly conduct the play, the director must first understand the script. One of
the main functions of the director is to interpret the script. By analyzing the script, the
director can interpret it according to the perception of the writer. The director should
consider the theme, characters, and rules of the fictional world to ensure that the play is
represented accordingly.

Some directors may receive assistance from a dramaturg. The dramaturg is considered
an expert who can provide additional resources so that the play is accurately portrayed.
They conduct research to help the cast better understand their roles.

The director must work with other members that help with the creative aspect of the play.
This may include several members responsible for different parts including music, sound
effects, and costume design, among others. These members can help to convert the
story from a simple script to a show.

2. Directing a Play

The theatre director must work to stage the play once the script is fully understood. The
staging process involves many different aspects, which can only be completed with the
help of other members. Having specific members work on aspects like lighting,
costumes, and the set design allows the director to focus on overseeing the play as a
whole.

The director is generally directly involved in the audition process, selecting actors, and
running rehearsals. Running rehearsals is a crucial part of determining whether the
actors are performing up to standard. The director can provide guidance and tips for
improvement. These rehearsals may also include dress rehearsals to ensure the
costumes are in accordance with the expectations of the script.

Theatre Director: Tools and Techniques

A theatre director should have access to a variety of tools and make use of different techniques
as needed for the play. They should be implemented at various stages of the process, from
interpreting the script to staging production. Some of the common tools and terms used by
stage directors include:
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● Beats: A beat is a change in the complete action of an actor. This may include a change
in the mood or the subject within a scene of the play. Beats are placed together to form
the overall arc of the play's action.

● Objectives: In theatre, objectives refer to the goals for the actor in a specific scene. The
actors must understand the objectives to perform the part effectively.

● Blocking: Blocking is used by directors to show the movements of the actors on the
stage. This helps actors to understand where they need to be in relation to other actors
and props.

● Stage direction: Stage directions are a set of instructions for the cast and crew to follow
so that they understand the specific locations for their parts. These include terms like
stage left, stage right, onstage, offstage, upstage, and downstage.

● Tempo: Tempo is the speed of an action that occurs in the play. The director may use
tempo to impact the tension or mood of a specific scene.

● Mood: Just as in literature, mood refers to the atmosphere and the emotions that come
along with it. This considers the emotional impact of the play.

● Clarity: Clarity is used to determine whether the play is easily understood by the
audience. The director works to ensure the story isn't vague and that the lines and
gestures within each beat are understandable.

Stage Management
What is a stage manager? A stage manager is an individual with an extremely important role in
theatrical productions, managing all of the technical elements and departments. Most stage
manager definitions will note that while directors work primarily with actors, stage managers
work primarily with the backstage crew. Any piece of theatre with a crew, from community black
box theatre to Broadway plays, must have a stage manager to help keep the production running
smoothly. The stage manager has an immense responsibility because they are in charge of all
the technical aspects of a play.

Stage Manager Responsibilities

A stage manager's responsibilities will vary from one production to the next, as plays have
different needs and theatres have different budgets and setups. Generally, stage managers
need to be knowledgeable about a wide range of backstage processes so that they can
effectively be in charge of the entire crew. Potential duties that stage managers might need to
perform include:

● Scheduling rehearsals and technical setup

● Coordinating with the director to help create their vision

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● Overseeing carpenters and set builders

● Making sure the costume department and the actors have enough time and resources to
create costumes

● Liaising with the props department to make sure all props are accounted for and stored
properly

● Keeping track of directors' notes

● Making sure all actors have microphones if needed

● Calling lighting and sound cues throughout a performance

This is just a representative sample and not an exhaustive list of a stage manager's duties.
Sometimes, stage managers will even step in and run rehearsals for actors if directors are
needed elsewhere. In particularly large or complex productions, stage managers might work
with one or more assistant stage managers to whom they can delegate some of their duties.

Stage Manager Kit

Perhaps the most important asset that a stage manager can have is a stage manager kit. This is
a kit, usually a large box or bag, that contains many objects that stage managers use daily, as
well as several things necessary for emergency preparedness. Because stage managers are
regularly called on to perform such a wide variety of tasks, a stage manager's kit must contain
the right tools for many jobs. Generally, these kits contain basic tools, including:

● Screwdrivers
● Hammers
● Wrenches
● Multi-tools
● Work gloves
● Utility knives
● Screws
● Nails
● Measuring tapes
● Electrical tape
● Extension cords
● Flashlights
● Spare batteries
● Specialized tools
● Pens
● Pencils
● Markers
● Clipboards
● Staples
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A sewing kit with safety pins, thread, needles, and other personal items like bobby pins and hair
ties can come in handy if an actor's costume rips or someone needs an emergency fix to a
costume or prop. The other essential element of a stage manager kit is a first aid kit. Theatres
are often dark and many of the people working in them will take part in long days with few
breaks, which can lead to accidents. Stage managers need to be prepared for many
possibilities.

Stage Manager Duties During Rehearsal

Stage manager duties begin in the planning and rehearsal phases of a show. During this time,
stage managers need to communicate extensively with directors to understand exactly what is
needed to make the play as good as it can be. The rehearsal phase is when the director and
actors work out the blocking, which is a term for where actors move around the stage during the
show. Stage managers need to be aware of the blocking so that they can put tape markers on
the floor of the stage, instruct set dressers when setting up for performances, and instruct
lighting operators on how and when to light the characters.

Rehearsal is also a time when stage managers need to take detailed notes on the production.
This will let them know what their cues are for any lighting and sound effects. It will give them
detailed information on everyone's movements, both on and off the stage, so that they can
coordinate their crew efficiently during the show. Notes also allow stage managers to
communicate effectively with directors, actors, and crew members to make productions as
polished and smooth as possible. Stage managers need to keep track of any notes that
directors give to crew or actors so that nothing gets forgotten.

What Does a Stage Manager Do During the Show?

A theatre stage manager's duties do not end with the rehearsal period; if anything, stage
managers have to work harder during the run of a performance than they do beforehand. Stage
managers are often the first to arrive and the last to leave, since one of their major
responsibilities is making sure that everything is in the right place and locked up correctly at the
end of each day. During a show, stage managers call lighting and sound cues and help manage
any problems that may arise. They need to think quickly and give clear instructions to those
around them. Stage managers make sure that the technical aspects of a show go off without a
hitch, which is a serious challenge and part of what makes live theatre so difficult to create and
so compelling to watch.
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