Quantum Mechanics

Schrödinger Theory of Quantum

Mechanics
Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur

JURUSAN FISIKA UNIVERSITAS ANDALAS

 Introduction
❑ 1924: de Broglie suggests particles are waves

❑ Mid-1925: Werner Heisenberg introduces Matrix Mechanics

✓ Semi-philosophical, it only considers observable quantities
✓ It used matrices, which were not that familiar at the time
✓ It refused to discuss what happens between measurements
✓ In 1927 he derives uncertainty principles

❑ Late 1925: Erwin Schrödinger proposes wave mechanics

✓ Used waves, more familiar to scientists at the time
✓ Initially, Heisenberg’s and Schrödinger’s formulations were competing
✓ Eventually, Schrödinger showed they were equivalent; different
descriptions which produced the same predictions

❑ Both formulations are used today, but Schrödinger is easier to understand

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 2

Early Questions in Quantum Mechanics

❖ Question of Interpretation
• What does quantum mechanics mean?
• Inherently statistical?

❖ Question of Execution
• How do we do calculations?
• What is a state?
• How does a state change in time?

3 Different Answers
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The Three Pictures of Quantum Mechanics

Schrödinger Heisenberg Dirac

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Wave Mechanics (Schrödinger’s Picture)
❑ Quantum systems are regarded as wave functions which
solve the Schrödinger equation.
❑ Observables are represented by Hermitian operators which
act on the wave function.

❑ In the Schrödinger picture, the operators stay fixed while the Schrödinger
equation changes the basis with time.
 =  (t ) Oˆ  Oˆ (t )
❑ The differential equation leads to an expression for the wave function
ˆ
 S (t ) = e − iH t /  S (0)
s

❑ A quantum operator as the argument of the exponential function is

defined in terms of its power series expansion

( )
n

1 i ˆ  i ˆ 1 ˆ 2
e − iHˆ s t /
=   − H St  = 1 − H St + H S t + ...
n =0 n!   2

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Matrix Mechanics (Heisenberg’s Picture)
❑ In the Heisenberg picture, it is the operators which change in
time while the basis of the space remains fixed.
❑ Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics actually came before
Schrödinger’s wave mechanics but were too mathematically
different to catch on.
❑ A fixed basis is, in some ways, more mathematically pleasing. This
formulation also generalizes more easily to relativity - it is the nearest
analog to classical physics.
❑ In the Schrödinger picture, the operators are constant while the basis
changes is time via the Schrödinger equation.

Oˆ = Oˆ (t )
ˆ
 H = e − iH t / S
 S (t ) =  S (0)

❑ The differential equation leads to an expression for the wave function.

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 Matrix Mechanics (Heisenberg’s Picture)
❑ We may define operators in the Heisenberg picture via expectation values.
O =  S (t ) Oˆ  S (t ) =  S (0) eiH t / Oe
ˆ − iHˆ t /  (0) =  (0) eiHˆ t / Oe
ˆ − iHˆ t /  (0)
ˆ
S S S S
S H H

❑ Operators in the Heisenberg picture, therefore, pick up time- dependence

through unitary transformations.
ˆ iHˆ t / ˆ − iHˆ t /
OH = e Oe S S

❑ We may ascertain the operators’ time-dependence through differentiation.

dOˆ i ˆ iHˆ t / ˆ − iHˆ t / i iHˆ t / ˆ ˆ − iHˆ t / Oˆ i  ˆ ˆ  Oˆ
= H S e Oe S S
− e OH S e S
+
S
= H S ,O +
dt t t
❑ The operators are thus governed by a differential equation known as
Heisenberg’s equation.
dOˆ i  ˆ ˆ  Oˆ
= H S ,O +
dt t
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 Interaction Picture (Dirac’s Picture)
❑ In the Dirac (or, interaction) picture, both the basis and the
operators carry time-dependence.
❑ The interaction picture allows for operators to act on the state
vector at different times and forms the basis for quantum field
theory and many other newer methods.

❑ The Dirac picture is a sort of intermediary between the Schrödinger

picture and the Heisenberg picture as both the quantum states and the
operators carry time dependence.
❑ It is especially useful for problems including explicitly time-dependent
interaction terms in the Hamiltonian.
❑ Consider some Hamiltonian in the Schrödinger picture containing both a
free term and an interaction term.
Hˆ S = Hˆ 0,S + VˆS
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 8
 Interaction Picture (Dirac’s Picture)
❑ In the interaction picture, state vectors are again defined as
transformations of the Schrödinger states.
These state vectors are transformed only by the free part of the
Hamiltonian.
− iHˆ 0 ,S t /
I =e  S (t )
❑ The Dirac operators are transformed similarly to the Heisenberg
operators.
Oˆ I (t ) = e Oˆ S e
iHˆ 0 ,S t / − iHˆ 0 ,S t /

❑ Consider the interaction picture counterparts to the Schrödinger

Hamiltonian operators.
ˆ
H 0, I (t ) = e
iHˆ 0 ,S t / ˆ
H 0,S e
− iHˆ 0 ,S t /
= Hˆ 0, S
This follows from Hˆ 0,S commuting with itself in the series expansion of
the exponential.
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 The Dirac Picture
❑ The interacting term of the Schrödinger Hamiltonian is defined similarly.
Vˆ (t ) = e
iHˆ t / ˆ − iHˆ t /
Ve I
0 ,S
I
0 ,S

❑ States in the interaction picture evolve in time similarly to Heisenberg

states… but with a twist.
d i d i  i ˆ 
 I (t ) = Hˆ 0,S  I (t ) + e  S (t ) = Hˆ 0,S  I (t ) + e
iHˆ 0 ,S t / iHˆ 0 ,S t /

 − H  (t ) 
 
S S
dt dt
VˆS e  I (t ) = VˆI (t )  I (t )
iHˆ 0 ,S t /
− iHˆ
= e 0 ,S t /

❑ Therefore, the state vectors in the interaction picture evolve in time

according to the interaction term only
d
 I (t ) = VˆI (t )  I (t )
dt
❑ It can be easily shown through differentiation that operators in the
interaction picture evolve in time according only to the free Hamiltonian.
dOˆ I i  ˆ ˆ 
 Oˆ I 
=  H 0, I , O  +  
dt  t 
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 The Schrödinger Equation
❑ Schrödinger Equation: Standing-wave motion of a particle of mass m under
the influence of a potential V(x,y,z).
❑ De Broglie’swork attributes wave-like properties to electrons in atoms, and
the uncertainty principle shows that detailed trajectories of electrons
cannot be defined.
❑ Consequently, we must deal in terms of the probability of electrons having
certain positions and momenta.
❑ These ideas are combined in the fundamental equation of quantum
mechanics, the Schrodinger equation.
❑ He reasoned that an electron (or any other particle) with wave-like
properties should be described by a wave function that has a value at each
position in space.
❑ This wave function (y(x,y,z)) is the “height” of the wave at the point in
space defined by the set of Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z).
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 11
 The Schrödinger Equation
❑ Erwin Schrödinger developed a wave equation for determining the wave
function of the particle (1925).
❑ The theoretical framework called as Wave mechanic called mechanics
independently developed by Schrödinger and others forms a significant
part of a new branch of physics called as Quantum Physics.

❑ In classical physics, a particle is described by specifying its position and

velocity accurately.

❑ In Quantum Physics According to the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,

these properties cannot be measured simultaneously with precision for a
quantum particle.

❑ Instead, a mathematical function called as the wave function Ψ of the

particle is specified as particles like electrons, exhibit wavelike
properties.

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Schrödinger theory of quantum mechanics
Example:  ( x, t ) = sin 2  x −  t  = sin( kx − t ), for k = 2 and  = 2
  
 ( x, t )  2  ( x, t )
= k cos( kx − t ), = − k 2
sin(kx − t )
x x 2

 ( x, t )  2  ( x, t )
= − cos( kx − t ), = −  2
sin( kx − t )
t t 2

Plausibility argument leading to Schroedinger equation:

(1) de Broglie-Einstein relation:  = h / p and  = E / h
(2) total energy: E = K + V K = p 2 / 2m
(3) linear wave function :  ( x, t ) = c11 ( x, t ) + c2  2 ( x, t )
(4) potential energy V ( x, t )  F = −V ( x, t ) / x
example: V constant  F = 0
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 13
 The Free Schrödinger Equation
❑ 1925: Erwin Schrödinger proposes wave mechanics
❑ Peter Debye suggested to him he needed to find a wave
equation for quantum mechanics
❑ He hit on the idea of using complex waves  ( x, t )
p2
❑ Starting point: Energy/Momentum relationship E =
2m 2
❑ Multiply by the wave function on the right p
E  ( x, t ) =  ( x, t )
❑ Use de Broglie relations to rewrite 2m
2
E=  p= k  ( x, t ) = k 2  ( x, t )
2m
❑ Use relationships for complex waves to rewrite with derivatives
 1   ( x, t ) exp ( ikx − it )
→ ik k→
x i x
   2
2
→ −i  → i i  ( x, t ) = −  ( x, t )
t t t 2m x 2

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 The Schrödinger Equation
❑ The General Prescription for Classical → Quantum:
1. Write a formula for the energy in terms of momentum and position
2. Transform Energy and momentum using the following prescription:
 
E →  →i p→ k→
t i x
3. Rewrite it as a wave equation
❑ What if we have forces?
Need to add potential energy V(x,t) on top of kinetic energy term
p2  2
2
E= + V ( x, t ) i =− + V ( x, t )
2m t 2m x 2

 2
2
i  ( x, t ) = −  ( x, t ) + V ( x , t )  ( x , t )
t 2m x 2

 2
 2
i =− +V 
t 2m x 2

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 Comments on Schrödinger Equation
1. This equation is inherently
 2
2
complex i  ( x, t ) = −  ( x, t ) + V ( x , t )  ( x , t )
t 2m x 2
✓ You MUST use complex
wave functions Initial conditions:
Classical physics
2. This equation is first order in time x(t = 0) and v(t = 0)
✓ It has only first derivatives with respect to time
✓ If you know the value at t = 0, you can work it out at subsequent times
✓ Proved using Taylor expansion:
  2
 ( x, t +  ) =  ( x, t ) +   ( x, t ) + 12  2 2  ( x, t ) +
t t

  ( x, t ) +   ( x, t )
Initial conditions: t
Quantum physics
(x,t = 0)   2
 2

=  ( x, t ) +  −  ( x, t ) + V ( x, t )  ( x, t ) 
i  2m x 2

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 The Superposition Principle
 2
2
3. This equation is linear i  ( x, t ) = −  ( x, t ) + V ( x , t )  ( x , t )
t 2m x 2
✓ The wave function
appears to the first power everywhere Let 1 and 2 be two solutions
✓ You can take linear combinations of of Schrödinger. Then so is
solutions:  ( x, t ) = c11 ( x, t ) + c2  2 ( x, t )
where c1 and c2 are
 ( x, t ) 1 ( x, t )  2 ( x, t ) arbitrary complex numbers
i = c1i + c2i
t t t
 2  2 1 ( x, t )   2  2  2 ( x, t ) 
= c1  − + V ( ) 1 ( ) 2 
x , t  x , t + c − + V ( ) 2 ( )
x , t  x , t
 2 m x 2
  2 m  x 2

2
2
2  1 1(
=− c  x, t ) + c2  2 ( x, t )  + V ( x, t ) c11 ( x, t ) + c2  2 ( x, t ) 
2m x
2
 2  ( x, t )
=− + V ( x, t )  ( x, t ) Q.E.D
2m x 2

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 Time Independent problems
❑ Often the potential does
 2
 2
not depend on time: i  ( x, t ) = −  ( x, t ) + V ( x )  ( x , t )
V = V(x). t 2m x 2

❑ To solve this equation, we try separation of variable:  ( x, t ) =  ( t )y ( x )

 2
2
❑ Plug this guess in: i y ( x )  ( t ) = −  ( t ) 2 y ( x ) + V ( x )  ( t )y ( x )
t 2m x

❑ Divide by the original i d ( t ) 2

d 2y ( x )
=− +V ( x)
wave function  ( t ) dt 2my ( x ) dx 2

❑ Note that left side is independent of x, and right side is independent of t.

Both sides must be independent of both x and t. Both sides must be equal
to a constant, called E (the energy)
i d ( t ) 2
d 2y ( x )
=E=− +V ( x)
 ( t ) dt 2my ( x ) dx 2

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 Time Independent problems
Solving the time equation  ( x, t ) =  ( t )y ( x )
i d ( t ) 2
d 2y ( x )
=E=− +V ( x)
 ( t ) dt 2my ( x ) dx 2

❑ We have turned one equation into two

❑ But the two equations are now ordinary differential equations
❑ Furthermore, the first equation is easy to solve:

d ( t ) Edt d −iE −iEt

=  =  dt ln ( ( t ) ) =  ( t ) = e−iEt
 (t ) i 
❑ These types of solutions are called stationary states
❑ Why? Don’t they have time in them?  ( x, t ) = e −iEt y ( x )
❑ The probability density is independent of time

 ( x, t ) = e y ( x) e y *( x) = y ( x)
2 − iEt iEt 2

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The Time Independent Schrödinger Eqn.
2
d 2y ( x ) d 2y ( x )
2
E=− +V ( x) Ey ( x ) = − + V ( x )y ( x )
2my ( x ) dx 2
2m dx 2

Multiply by y(x) again

❑ This equation is much easier to solve than the
2
d 2y
Ey = − 2
+ Vy
original equation 2m dx
❑ ODE’s are easier than PDE’s
❑ It can pretty easily be solved numerically, if necessary
❑ Note that it is a real equation – you don’t need complex numbers
❑ Imagine finding all possible solutions yn(x) with energy En
❑ Then we can find solutions of the original Schrödinger Equation
 ( x, t ) = y n ( x ) exp ( − iEnt )
❑ The most general solution is superposition of this solution
 ( x, t ) =  cny n ( x ) exp ( − iEnt )
n
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 20
The Wave Function: what does it mean?
❑ We are talking about one particle – but it is  ( x, t )
not at one location in space.
❑ If we measured its position, where would
we be likely to find it?
❑ The Wave Function is also called the probability amplitude.

❑ Clearly, where the wave function is small (or zero), you wouldn’t expect to
find the particle

❑ Where it’s negative or imaginary, wouldn’t expect to have negative or

imaginary probability. The probability is always positive.

❑ How about we make probability density proportional to wave function

magnitude squared:
 ( x, t )
2

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 21

Born’s interpretation of wave functions
❑ Classical wave theory:
 2  ( x, t ) 1  2  ( x, t )
= 2
x 2
c t 2
  ( x, t ) = cos( kx − t ) + c sin(kx − t ) c is real
Wave function is a real function.

❑ Max Born (1926):

− 2  2  ( x, t )  ( x, t )
+ V  ( x , t ) = i
x 2 t
0
2m
 ( x, t ) = cos( kx − t ) + i sin( kx − t ) complex wave function
P ( x, t ) =  * ( x, t )  ( x, t ) probability density

P(x,t)dx is the probability that the particle with wave function Ψ(x,t)
will be found at a coordinate between x and x+dx.
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 22
Born’s interpretation of wave functions
Example: (1) Evaluate the probability density for the simple harmonic
oscillator lowest energy state wave function  ( x, t ) = Ae − ( Cm / 2 ) x e − ( i / 2)(
2
C /m )t

(2) Evaluate the probability density of Simple Harmonic Oscillation in

classical mechanics.
Quantum mechanics:
P =  * ( x, t )  ( x, t ) = A 2 e − ( Cm / ) x 2 Q.M.

Pmax = A2 (at x = 0)
Classical mechanics:
P = B2 / v
1 1
E = K +V = mv 2 + Cx 2
2 2 C.M.
2 cx 2 B2
v= E− P=
m 2 2 / m E − cx 2 / 2
Pmax →  at x =  2 E / C

In C.M., no uncertainty principle.

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 23
Born’s interpretation of wave functions
❑ What Does Probability Density Mean?
✓ The probability density (in 1D) has units of m-1
✓ In a small region of size dx, the probability of finding the particle is there
is given by ||2dx.
P ( a  x  b ) =  ( x, t ) dx
b

2
✓ To find probability over a larger a
region, you have to integrate it 
 ( x, t ) dx

2
❑ Normalization: The probability that the particle 1=
−
is somewhere must be 1
✓ If we integrate over all x, we must get 1
… in the region
✓ In some cases, the problem implies that we restrict
0<x<a …
to some region

 ( x, t ) dx →   ( x, t ) dx
a

2 2

− 0

1  x  2  2 x  x  2 x  
a
=  sin 2   + sin   + 2 sin   sin   cos  
t  
a 0  a   a   a   a  
1a a 
=  + + 0 cos ( t   )  =1
a2 2 
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 24
Born’s interpretation of wave functions
Example 1: Normalize the wave function of S.H.O. expressed as
 ( x, t ) = Ae − ( Cm / 2 ) x 2
e − ( i / 2) C / mt

  
 Pdx = −  dx = A  dx = 1
* 2 − ( Cm / ) x 2
− −
e

 2A 2

0
e − ( Cm / ) x 2
dx = 2 A2 ( )1/ 2 / 2(Cm)1/ 4 = 1
(Cm)1/8
 A=
( )1/ 4 Useful integration form:

I = 0 e − ax dx
2

   
I 2 = 0 e − ax dx 0 e − ay dy = 0  e− a ( x + y2 )
2 2 2

0
dxdy
π/2    
= 0  e − ar r dr d =  re − ar dr =
2 2

0 0
2 4a
1 
I= a = Cm /
2 a
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 25
 

( p ) =  x p −1e − x dx
0

I = 0 e − ax 2
dx
du du
u = ax 2 → du = 2ax dx  dx = =
2ax 2a u / a
x = 0 →u = 0
x =  →u = 
  du 1  1 1 1 
 e − ax dx = 0 e − u = 1/ 2  u −1/ 2e − u du =  =  =
2
(1 / 2)
0
2a u / a 2a 0
2a1/ 2 2a1/ 2 2 a


 2 A2 0 e − ( Cm / ) x 2
dx = 1
 Cm (Cm)1/8
A 2
=1  A = 4
 A=
Cm /  ( )1/ 4

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 26

Born’s interpretation of wave functions
Example 2: A wave in the region 0 < x < a has the wave function above.
What is the probability density at all locations x at all times t?
1  −i1t   x  −i2t  2 x  
 ( x, t ) = e sin  a  + e sin  
a     a 

1  −i1t   x  −i2t  2 x  
 ( x, t )
2
= e sin  a  + e sin  
a     a 
Helpful Identity:
1  i1t   x  i2t  2 x   ei + e − i = 2 cos 
 e sin  a  + e sin  a  
a     

1  2 x  2  2 x    x   2 x  i1t −i2t i2t −i1t 

= sin   + sin   + sin   sin   (e +e ) 
a  a   a   a   a  
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 27
Born’s interpretation of wave functions
Example 2: A wave in the region 0 < x < a has the wave function above.
What is the probability density at all locations x at all times t?

 2 x  2  2 x  
sin  a  + sin  a  
1    
 ( x, t ) 
2
=
a   x   2 x  
 +2sin   sin   cos (1 − 2 ) t  
  a   a  

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 28

Born’s interpretation of wave functions
Example 3: A particle in the region shown below has a wave function of:
 N ( a − x ) for 0  x  a

 ( x, 0 ) =  N ( a + x ) for − a  x  0
 0 elsewhere

At t = 0, the wave function is given by the expression below.
(a) What is the normalization constant N?
(b) What is the probability that the particle is at x > ½a?

1= 
−

 ( x, 0 ) dx = N
2 2
 0

−a
( a + x ) dx + 0 ( a − x ) dx
2 a 2

=N 2
−a
0
(a 2
+ 2ax + x 2
) dx +  ( a
a

0
2

− 2ax + x 2 ) dx
3
= N ( a x + ax + 3 x ) + ( a x − ax + 3 x ) 
 N=
0 a
2 2 2 1 3 2 2 1 3
 −a 0 2a 3
= N 2 ( a 3 − a 3 + 13 a 3 ) + ( a 3 − a 3 + 13 a 3 )  = 23 N 2 a 3
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 29
Born’s interpretation of wave functions
Example 3: A particle in the region shown below has a wave function of:
 N ( a − x ) for 0  x  a

 ( x, 0 ) =  N ( a + x ) for − a  x  0
 0 elsewhere

At t = 0, the wave function is given by the expression below.
(a) What is the normalization constant N?
(b) What is the probability that the particle is at x > ½a?
 a
P ( x  12 a ) =  ( x, 0 ) dx = N ( a − x ) dx = N 2 ( a 2 x − ax 2 + 13 x 3 )
a

 
2 2 2

a/2
a/2 a/2

= N 2 ( a 3 − a 3 + 13 a 3 ) − ( 12 a 3 − 14 a 3 + 241 a 3 ) 
3 3 1 1 1 1 
= a 1 − 1 + − + −
2a 3  3 2 4 24 
3 1 1
=  =
2 24 16
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 30
Born’s interpretation of wave functions
Example 4: A particle in the region shown below has a wave function of:
Nx
y ( x) = 2 2
x +a
At t = 0, the wave function is given by the expression above.
(a) What is the most likely / least likely places to find the particle?
(b) What is the normalization constant N?
(c) What is the probability that the particle is at 0 < x < a?

The most likely / least likely places to find the particle

✓ Most likely when function is largest positive or negative

0=
dy
=
( x 2 + a 2 ) N − Nx ( 2 x ) N ( a 2 − x 2 )
=  x = a
dx (x + a )
2 2 2
(x + a )
2 2 2

✓ Least likely when function vanishes, at x = 0

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 31

Born’s interpretation of wave functions
Example 4: A particle in the region shown below has a wave function of:
Nx
y ( x) = 2 2
x +a
At t = 0, the wave function is given by the expression above.
(a) What is the most likely / least likely places to find the particle?
(b) What is the normalization constant N?
(c) What is the probability that the particle is at 0 < x < a?
Normalization: Let x = atan 
  2  2
N 2 x 2 dx N 2 a 2 tan 2  a sec 2  d N 2 a 3 tan 2  sec 2  d 2a
1=  =  =  N=
(x + a2 ) (a tan 2  + a 2 ) a 4 ( tan 2  + 1) 
2 2 2 2 2
− − 2 − 2

 2  2
N 2 tan 2  sec 2  d
( ) ( ) ( )
 2
=  = N 2
a  sin 2
 d  = N 2
a 1
 − 1
sin ( 2 ) =  N 2 2a
− 2
a sec 4
− 2
2 4 − 2

The probability that the particle is at 0 < x < a

2  1
a
N 2 x 2 dx N2
(  − sin ( 2 ) )
 4
P (0  x  a) =  = 1 1
=  − 
(x + a )   8 4
2 4
2 2 2 a 0
0

Fisika Matematika 1 Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 32

 Expectation Values
The expection value of the x coordinate of the particle at the instant t is:

 
x = x = − xP ( x, t )dx / − P ( x, t )dx
 
= −  * ( x, t ) x ( x, t )dx / −  * ( x, t )  ( x, t ) dx

= −  * ( x, t ) x ( x, t )dx if  ( x, t ) is normalized


x 2
= −  * ( x, t ) x 2  ( x, t )dx


f ( x) = −  * ( x, t ) f ( x)  ( x, t ) dx


V ( x, t ) = −  * ( x, t )V ( x, t )  ( x, t ) dx

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 33

 Momentum and Energy operators
- 2  2  ( x, t )  ( x, t )
If + V  ( x , t ) = i
2m x 2 t
0

 ( x, t ) = cos( kx − t ) + i sin( kx − t )
 ( x, t ) p 2 p
= ik[cos(kx − t ) + i sin(kx − t )] = i  ( x, t ) for k = =
x 
 ( x, t ) 
 p ( x, t ) = −i  pop = −i
x x
 ( x, t )
= −i[cos( kx − t ) + i sin(kx − t )] = −i ( E / ) ( x, t )
t
 ( x, t ) 
 E  ( x, t ) = i  Eop = i
t t

 - 2 2   pop2  
 2m x 2 + V ( x, t )   ( x, t ) =  2m + V ( x, t )   ( x, t ) = i t  ( x, t ) = Eop  ( x, t )
   

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 34

Momentum and Energy expectation values
❑ Momentum expectation value

(1) p = −i − [ * ( x, t ) ( x, t )]dx = −i [  * ( x, t )  ( x, t )]− → 0
x
 
(2) p = −i −  * ( x, t ) ( x, t ) dx  nonsense
x
  ( x, t )
p = −i −  * ( x, t ) dx
x
❑ Energy expectation value
  ( x, t )
E =i − ( x, t )
 *
dx
t

2
2
= −  ( x, t )[−
*
+ V ( x, t )] ( x, t )dx
2m x 2

 
f ( x, p, t ) = −  * ( x, t ) f op ( x, −i , t )  ( x, t )dx
x
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 35
Momentum and Energy expectation values
Example: Consider a particle of mass m which can move freely along the x axis
between two walls at x=-a/2 and x=+a/2, and the particle can not penetrate
the two walls. Try to find the wave function of the particle and energy.
V ( x, t ) = 0 for − a / 2  x  + a / 2 and V ( x, t ) →  for x  −a / 2, x  + a / 2
− 2  2  ( x, t )  ( x, t )
= i
2m x 2 t
set  ( x, t ) = A ( x)T (t ) and  (  a / 2 ,t ) =  (  a / 2) = 0
− 2 d 2 ( x) dT (t )
AT (t ) = i A ( x )
2m dx 2 dt
1 − 2 1 d 2 ( x) 1 dT (t )
  = i =
 ( x)T (t ) 2m  ( x) dx 2
T (t ) dt
− d 2 ( x) d 2 ( x) −2m
(1) 2
=   ( x )  2
= 2
 ( x ) = − k 2
 ( x)
2m dx dx
(x) = cos( kx) and  ( a / 2) = cos(  ka / 2) = 0  ka = n n is odd
k 2 n 2 2 2
2
 n x 
= =  ( x) = cos   n = 1,3,5...
2m 2ma 2  a 
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 36
Momentum and Energy expectation values
dT (t )
(2) i =  T (t )  T (t ) = e − i t /
dt
n x − i t /
  ( x, t ) = A cos( )e
a
 + a/2 n x
−  ( x, t ) ( x, t ) = 1 =| A | − a / 2
* 2 2
cos ( ) dx
a
2 n x − i t /
| A |2 = 2 / a  A = 2 / a   ( x, t ) = cos( )e
a a
  ( x, t )  2 n x
 E = −  * ( x, t )i dx =  − cos( )dx = 
t a a
n 2 2 2 2 n x − iEt /
 energy level En = 2
 n
( x , t ) = cos( )e n = 1,3,5....
2ma a a
 n ( x, t ) : eigenfunction En : eigenvalue
2 2
2  x − iE t /
ground state n = 1  E1 = 2
 1 ( x, t ) = cos( )e 1

2ma a a
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 37
 Uncertainty of Expectation values
H  ( x, t ) = E  ( x, t ) Eigenvalue equation
pop2
H = K +V = + V Hamiltonian or total energy operator
2m
 2 + a/2 2 n x
x = −  ( x, t ) x ( x, t )dx =
*

−a/2
x cos ( ) dx = 0
a a
  + a/2 n x n x
p = −  ( x, t )(−i
*
) ( x, t )  − a / 2 cos( )sin( ) dx = 0
x a a
2 + a/2 2 2 n x a2  2 1
x = − a / 2 x cos (
2
)dx = 2 [ − 2]
a a  12 2n
 2   ( x, t )
2
n 2 2 2
p = −  ( x, t )(−
2 *
)dx =
x 2 a2
x = ( x − x )2 = x2 − 2x x + x = x2 − x
2 2

a n 2 2 1 n 
= − and p = p2 − p =
2

n 12 2 a
n 2 2 1
xp = −  Uncertainty principle
12 2 2
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 39
 The time-independent Schroedinger equation
2
 2  ( x, t )  ( x, t )
− + V ( x , t )  ( x , t ) = i ----(1)
2m x 2
t
if V ( x, t ) = V ( x)  set  ( x, t ) = y ( x) (t ) put into eq. (1)
2
d 2y ( x) d (t )
−  (t ) + V ( x )y ( x ) (t ) = i y ( x )
2m dx 2 dt
1 2
1 d 2y ( x) 1 d (t )
 − + V ( x )y ( x ) = i =E
y ( x) (t ) 2m y ( x) dx 2
 (t ) dt
d (t ) E E
i = E (t )   (t ) = e − iEt / = cos(2 t ) − i sin(2 t )
dt h h
for E / h =   E = h is total energy

2
d 2y ( x)
− 2
+ V ( x)y ( x) = Ey ( x) time-independent Schrödinger equation
2m dx
y (x): eigenfunction
(x,t ) = y ( x)e − iEt / wave function
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 40
Required properties of eigenfunctions
y ( x) and dy ( x) / dx must be finite , single-valued, and continuous

(1) Physical measurable quantities, e.g., p, x, are all finite and single-
valued, so y ( x), dy ( x) / dx are finite and single-valued.
(2) dy ( x) / dx is finite, it is necessary y ( x) is continuous.
(3) For finite V(x), E and y ( x) , d 2y ( x) / dx 2 must be continuous.

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 41

 The time-independent Schroedinger equation
Example: When a particle is in a state such that a measurement of its total
energy can lead (1) only to a single result, the eigenvalue E, it is described
by the wave function  ( x, t ) = y ( x)e − iEt / (2) two results, the eigenvalue E1 , E2
wave function is  ( x, t ) = c1y 1 ( x)e − iE t / + c2y 2 ( x)e − iE t / . What are their
1 2

probability density?
(1)  * = y * ( x)e + iEt / y ( x)e − iEt / = y * ( x)y ( x) independent of time

(2)  * = [c1*y 1* ( x)e + iE t / + c2*y 2* ( x)e + iE t / ]  [c1y 1 ( x)e − iE t / + c2y 2 ( x)e − iE t / ]

1 2 1 2

= c1*c1y 1* (x)y 1(x) + c*2c2y 2* (x)y 2 (x)

+ c2*c1y 2* (x)y 1 (x)ei ( E − E ) t /
2 1

+ c1*c2y 1* ( x)y 2 ( x)e − i ( E − E ) t /

2 1

E2 − E1 E2 − E1
= = oscillating frequency of probability density
2 h
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 42
 Konsultasi? Diskusi?

Dosen : Dr.rer.nat. Muldarisnur

Ruangan : Jurusan Fisika

E-mail : mrisnur@gmail.com

Telpon : 081378971***

The best way to handle exams is to be well-prepared.

Push yourself, because nobody else will do that for you…

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 43