HST206-handout-The Turkish Republic-1920s

THE TURKISH REPUBLIC – 1920s

Overall characteristics of the 1920s:

1. Establishment of the new structure through radical changes (extensive reforms)

* “revolutionary change” mentality – quick, radical and far-reaching
2. Elimination/Suppression of the opposition or any perceived threat – as of 1925
* political parties, press, opposition within, the Caliphal office
* in order to carry out the envisioned of the ruling elite without obstacles

Steps to the Declaration of the Republic: Year 1923

1. The Lausanne Peace Treaty

* establishes the borders of Turkey declares peace with the Allies
2. Establishment of the People’s Republican Party
* formed by the elite that led the war of independence
3. The occupation forces leave Istanbul – still the capital
4. Ankara is declared the new capital city
5. Declaration of the Republic
*a secular nation-state – secular not necessarily in the sense of the seperation of
state and religion where these two don’t interfere in the realms of the other; but
rather, secularism understood as religion having no place in the public realm and
state dictating the “right” version of Islam

Abolishing of the Caliphate and the formation of political opposition:

+ Two significant events: Year 1924

1. The issue of the Caliphate – abolished:
* Some members of the ruling elite, now the Republican People’s Party, had a
pro-Caliphate view and believed that it must be retained
* The press in the old Capital Istanbul also supported this view
* The Caliph at the time was a member of the Ottoman dynasty and this support
for retaining the office made him act in some ways like the Sultan (it was
abolished in 1922 before Lausanne)
* There were also some pressures from other countries to keep the Caliphate
* This support was believed to be a danger and a threat for the new regime and
the establishment of its authority
 Hence, the Caliphate was abolished and the Ottoman dynasty were exiled
from Turkey

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2. The establishment of an oppostion party: The Progressive Republican Party

* An oppostion that formed within the ruling elite and seperated itself from the
ruling party
* Have a liberal stance politically and economically
* Approve of secular and nationalist policies; however, oppose radical,
centralizing or authoritarian tendencies
* Therefore, defend the principle of separation of powers: legislative, executive,
and judicial
* Propose “evolutionary” change rather than “revolutionary” change

The Sheikh Sait Rebellion (1925):

+ A rebellion breaks out in the Diyarbakir region of Turkey (South Eastern part) in February
1925. It is led by a Kurdish Naqshbandi sheikh.

+ Historiograpy approaches the nature of this event from three different perspectives:

a. As the manifestation Kurdish nationalism:

* The Brish had approached Kurdish groups in the region at the very beginning
of the 1920s with promises of autonomy if they sided with them. The leaders of
the Anatolian resistance movement had made similar promises hence Kurdish
groups had sided with them. However, this issue never came up at the Lausanne
Conference. Kurdish leaders were frustrated, regarded it as the Republic not
keeping promises and instigated a nationalist rebellion.

b. As a religious movement:
* Based on the fact that the leader was a Naqshbandi sheikh (one of the
brotherhoods in Sufi Islam), the rallying cries in the upheaval asked for the re-
institution of the Sharia (Islamic Law) and the Caliphate

c. As a movement to keep the status quo:

* The social texture of the region was predominantly based on tribal
understandings. The leaders were afraid that the policies of the Republic would
dissolve this texture and leave them at a disadvatage. Hence they instigated a
revolt against these policies. Kurdish or religious issue were just the facade .

+ Results:
* The main preoccupation of the ruling elite at the was the establishment of the new
system in their vision – the rebellion gave them the chance to harshly suppress the
opposition voices. A new law called the Law for the Maintenance of Order was passed
that enabled the government to act authoritatively.
* The Kurdish question became a taboo subject
* Turkish nationalism gained momentum

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The Law for the Maintenance of Order (1925):

+ This law empowered the government for two years to ban any organization or
publication it considered might cause disturbance to law and order.

+ The opposition party, the Progressive Reublican party, opposed it as being too vague
and elastic.

+ The law would be in force in the whole country, not only in the southeast where the
rebellion took place.

+ At the same time two Independence Tribunals (courts) were formed, one for the
eastern provinces and one for the rest of the country.Their duty was only the trials related
to this law.

+ Two years after the expiry, it was extended for two more years until 1929.

+ In the framework of the enforcement of it:

* Sheikh Sait was caught and executed along with leading figures of the rebellion
* Many newspapers in Istanbul, but also other regions were closed down.
* Leading press figures in Istanbul were arrested, later released but banned from
continuing their profession.
* The opposition party was shut down and disbanded with the argument that its
members had supported the rebellion.

HENCE BY 1925: a. Political opposition and the press were silenced

b. The pluralistic phase of the early of the Republic ended and an
authoritarian regime transpired
c. The alreday dominant People’s Rebublican Party established its
monopoly in government – single-party rule (will go on until 1946)
d. It used that monopoly to run a radical modernization program in its
vision  new wave of reforms

Outstanding Reforms and Changes in the Turkish Republic:

First wave: until 1925:

* Declaration of the Republic

* Abolition of the Caliphate
* Abolition of the ministries for the Sharia and the Waqfs
→ Establishment of the Departmen of Waqfs and the Directorate of Religios Affairs
* The Law for the Unification of Education
→ all educational institutions brought under one administrative roof

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Second Wave: after the rebellion 1925 and 1926

* All Sufi brotherhoods were closed down and declared illegal

* Traditional head gear like the fez and the sarik declared illegal except for religious personnel
→ the law for wearing the hat
* All old titles were lifted – except for army personnel
* European calendar and time adopted
* New bodies of laws: Family Law, Criminal Law, Commercial Law etc.

Third Wave: 1928 and 1929

* The decision to give out the Friday sermons in Turkish

* The clause “the religion of the state is Islam” has been removed from the Constitution
* Religious expressions were removed from official oaths
* International system of measures and digits adopted
* The Alphabet Reform – Arabic alpahbet was replaced by the Latin one
* Opening of Nation Shools – basically free courses that taught everyone the new alphabet and
mobilized masses to learn to read and write
* Removal of Arabic and Persian language courses from the curriculum.
* End of printing in the Arabic alphabet

The Izmir Conspiracy:

+ Mustafa Kemal sets out for an inspection visit to Southern and Western regions of Turkey.
He was expected in the city of Izmir on June 15 1926. A conspiracy plan to assasinate him is
uncovered.
+ Surviving memebers of the old Committee of Union Progress and the members of the closed-
down opposition party (Progressive People’s Party) are blamed
+ They are tried in the Independence Tribunal – first on spot later in Ankara
+ 20 execution and several jail sentences are given

HENCE: * This incident gave another excuse for a liquidation

* In addition to political opposition and the press that were silenced after the
Sheikh Sait rebellion, also the figures who were seen as potential threats were
silenced
* Some leading figures among the arrested ones were soon released but sent into
retirement

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“The Speech” – Mustafa Kemal’s address delivered in 1927:

+ The term is used to refer to the speech Mustafa Kemal delivered between 15-20 October 1927
in the Congress of the People’s Republican Party. (in 6 days, total of 36 hours)

+ Later it was published with the title The Speech

+ Mustafa Kemal attributed a historical nature to this text and offered it as a history of the
events between 1919-1927. It starts with his arrival in Samsun in 1919
* It has been hotly discussed whether the text has a historical nature - however, it did
have a significan influence on historiography

+ Despite its claim to cover until 1927, the text more or less ends with the appearance of the
opposition party in 1924 – the Progressive People’s Party. Only 1.5% of the text is devoted to
the events after it.
* The text is rather a crticism of the opposition and the justification of their liquidation

+ Three points that stand out in The Speech:

* The Anatolian resistance movement is portayaed as having started with Mustafa

Kemal’s arrival in Samsun in 1919. It does not refer to already existing resistance
activities prior to it

* It presents the object of the resistance movement as having been the establishment of
Republic from the start

* The People’s Republican Party was actually formed in 1923. However, the text refers
to the Sivas Congress in 1919 as the fisrt Congress of that Party. In this way the text
identifies the party with the resistance movement and establishes an organic link
between them.