Materials in Mechanical Design: ME-311 Fundamentals of Machine Design

ME-311
Fundamentals of Machine Design

Materials in Mechanical Design
Prof A P Harsha
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology (BHU)
E-mail : apharsha.mec@itbhu.ac.in
ME 311_Materials in Design
8/7/2023 1
Tension Test
Brittle material
produces little
(%EL<5%) or no
plastic deformation
before failure
Failure of a brittle
material from a The %ELs for low carbon (AISI
standard tensile test 1020), medium-carbon (AISI
Ductile material from a standard apparatus. 1040), and high carbon steels
tensile test apparatus. (a) (AISI 1080) are 37%, 30%, and
Necking; (b) failure. 25%, respectively.
8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 2

Stress Strain Curve
Proportional limit (point P)
Elastic limit (point E)
Yield strength (point Y):
The yield point
Ultimate strength (point U)
is determined
Fracture stress (point R) by starting a line
at a
deformation of
0.002 (0.2%) on
the x-axis
Typical stress-strain curve Typical stress-strain behavior for ductile metal

for a ductile material. showing elastic and plastic deformations and
yield strength Sy.

Brittle materials
Brittle & Ductile Materials Ceramic Behavior have
considerably
higher (typically
10 times or
greater)
ultimate
strength in
compression
than in tension
Stress-strain diagram for ceramic in tension

Typical tensile stress-strain diagrams for and in compression.
brittle and ductile metals loaded to
fracture.
Bending Test Specimens Before and After Failure (a)Ductile Steel (b)Brittle
Cast Iron

Strength to Density Ratio
Strength/density ratio for various materials

Polymer Behavior
The glass transition temperature,
Tg , is the temperature at which a
polymer transforms from a hard
and brittle material to a rubbery
or leathery solid.
Stress-strain diagram for polymer below, at, and above its glass transition temperature, Tg.

Composite Material
The three main types of composite material are:
1. Particle reinforced, which contain particles
with approximately the same dimensions in all
directions distributed in a matrix, such as
concrete.
2. Discontinuous fiber reinforced, which use
fibers of limited length-to-diameter ratio in a
matrix, such as fiberglass.
3. Continuous fiber reinforced, where
continuous fibers are incorporated, such as seen in
graphite tennis rackets
Cross section of fiber-reinforced composite material.

Classification and types of
composite materials. a
Dispersed particle-reinforced,
b discontinuous
fiber-reinforced (aligned), c
discontinuous fiber-reinforced
(randomly oriented), d
continuous fiber-reinforced
(aligned), e continuous
fiber-reinforced (aligned 0o
–90o fiber orientation angle),
and f continuous
fiber-reinforced
(multidirectional fiber
orientation angle)

Physical Properties of Materials

Elastic Modulus of
Materials
Modulus of elasticity for various metals,

polymers and ceramics at room temperature (20°
C).

Density of Materials
Density for various metals, polymers and ceramics at room

temperature (20°C).

Young’s modulus E
versus density ρ for
various materials.

Thermal Conductivity of
Materials
The rate at which heat is conducted
through a solid at steady state (meaning
that temperature does not vary with time)
is a measure of the thermal conductivity,
Kt.
Thermal conductivity for various metals, polymers and

ceramics at room temperature (20°C).

Linear Thermal Expansion
Coefficient
where a is called the linear expansivity or linear thermal

expansion coefficient. The SI unit of a is (C)-1.
Linear thermal expansion coefficient for various

metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature
(200C).

Specific Heat Capacity of
Materials
The nature of a material determines the amount of heat required to
change its temperature by a given amount. In an experiment in which a
cast iron ball and a Babbitt (lead based white metal) ball of the same size
are heated to the temperature of boiling water and then laid on a block
of wax.
The cast iron ball would melt a considerable amount of wax, but the
Babbitt ball, in spite of its greater mass, would melt hardly any. It
therefore would seem that different materials, in cooling through the
same temperature range, release different amounts of heat.
Specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers and ceramics

at room temperature (20°C).

Poisson’s ratio for an element in tension
The negative sign simply means that the transverse
deformation will be in the opposite sense to the axial
deformation.

Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity
Shear stress and strain are proportional to each other; that is
τ=Gγ
The three material properties E, G, and γ are related by the following equation:
where G is the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. This relation is only true for
the linear-elastic region of the shear stress-strain curve

Hardness Tests
General characteristics of
selected hardness tests,
with equations for
calculating hardness.
Source: From Kalpakjian
and Schmid [2013].

Indentation Geometry
Indentation geometry in Brinell hardness testing: (a) annealed metal; (b) work-hardened metal; (c) deformation of mild steel
under a spherical indenter. Note that the depth of the permanently-deformed zone is about one order of magnitude larger than the
depth of indentation. For a hardness test to be valid, this zone should be fully developed in the material. Source: From
Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010].

Resilience and Toughness
Resilience is a material’s capacity to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon
unloading, to release this energy. The modulus of resilience, Ur , is the strain energy per unit volume
required to stress a material from an unloaded state to the point of yielding.
Where Ɛy is the yield strain, or the strain when the stress is the yield strength, Sy. For the
linear-elastic region, the area below the stress-strain diagram is the modulus of resilience
An example of a material with high modulus of

resilience is high-carbon steel. Resilience is
Using the equation extremely useful in selecting a material for
springs, or for energy storage, making
high-carbon steel alloys primary candidate
materials for such applications

Toughness, Impact Energy
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb applied energy without failure.

• Parts subjected to suddenly applied loads, shock, or impact need a high level of
toughness.
• Several methods are used to measure the amount of energy required to break a
particular specimen made from a material of interest.
• The energy absorption value from such tests is often called impact energy or
impact resistance.
• That value is reported in energy units of J (Joules or N.m) or ft.lb.
• Some highly ductile metals and many plastics do not break during the test, and the
result is then reported as No Break.

The data for impact
energy are divided
by the actual width
of the specimen, and Joules or N.m
the results are or ft.lb.
reported in units of
N. m/m or ft.lb/in.

Fracture Toughness

When materials are subjected to high loads
Creep continuously, they may experience progressive
elongation over time. This phenomenon, called
creep, should be considered for metals operating
at high temperatures.
Creep is an important for critical members in

internal combustion engines, furnaces, steam
turbines, gas turbines, nuclear reactors, or rocket
engines. The stress can be tension, compression,
flexure, or shear.

Codes and Standards
Refer Appendix I, and III, Page 453,
Cast iron Data Handbook
By definition, cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon, containing more than 2%
of carbon. In addition to carbon, cast iron contains other elements like silicon,
manganese, Sulphur and phosphorus.
Typical composition of ordinary cast iron is as follows:

carbon = 3.0 – 4.0%
silicon = 1.0 – 3.0%
manganese = 0.5 – 1.0%
Sulphur = up to 0.1%
phosphorus = up to 0.1%
iron = remainder

Cast irons are classified on the basis of distribution of carbon content in
their microstructure. There are three popular types of cast iron—grey,
malleable and ductile.
Grey cast iron is specified by the symbol FG followed by the tensile
strength in N/mm2. For example, FG 200, in general, means a grey cast
iron with an ultimate tensile strength of 200 N/mm2
There are three basic types of malleable cast iron—blackheart, pearlitic and
whiteheart—which are designated by symbols BM, PM and WM, respectively and
followed by minimum tensile strength in N/mm2. For example,
(i) BM 350 is blackheart malleable cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 350
N/mm2;
(ii) PM 600 is pearlitic malleable cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 600
N/mm2;
(iii) WM 400 is whiteheart malleable cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 400
N/mm2.

Ductile cast iron is also called nodular cast iron or spheroidal graphite
cast iron. In ductile cast iron, carbon is present in the form of spherical
nodules called ‘spherulites’ or ‘globules’ in a relatively ductile matrix.
• Ductile cast iron is designated by the symbol SG (spheroidal graphite)

followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm2 and minimum
elongation in per cent. For example, SG 800/2 is spheroidal graphite cast
iron with a minimum tensile strength of 800 N/mm2 and a minimum
elongation of 2%.
Note : Refer Table 1.2, Page 458

Mechanical properties of cast iron
and Designation
Refer Table 1.3, Page 459

BIS SYSTEM OF DESIGNATION OF STEELS
A large number of varieties of steel are used for machine components. Steels are designated
by a group of letters or numbers indicating any one of the following three properties:
(i) tensile strength;
(ii) carbon content; and
(iii) composition of alloying elements.
A symbol Fe followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm2 or a

symbol FeE followed by the yield strength in N/mm2.
• For example, Fe 360 indicates a steel with a minimum tensile strength of
360 N/mm2.
• Similarly, FeE 250 indicates a steel with a minimum yield strength of 250
N/mm2.
Note : Refer Table 1.7, Page 462

PLAIN CARBON STEELS
Carbon steels are classified into the following three groups:
(i) Low Carbon Steel Low carbon steel

contains less than 0.3% carbon.
(ii) Medium Carbon Steel Medium carbon
steel has a carbon content in the range of 0.3%
to 0.5%.
(iii) High Carbon Steel High carbon steel
contains more than 0.5% carbon.

Mechanical properties of plain carbon steels
Note: Refer Table 1.6, Page 461, Appendix I

The designation of plain carbon steel consists of the following
three quantities:
(i) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon;
(ii) a letter C; and
(iii) a figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of
manganese.
(iv) Symbols indicating special characteristics
• As an example, 55C4 indicates a plain carbon steel with 0.55%
carbon and 0.4% manganese.
• A steel with 0.35–0.45% carbon and 0.7–0.9% manganese is
designated as 40C8.

Examples for plain carbon steel
• 20C2KT3 - A killed, normalized steel with average 0.2 per cent carbon.
0.2 per cent manganese and phosphorus, and sulphur up to 0.055 per cent.
• 37C12GQ1 - A semi-killed, non-aging quality steel having 0.37 per cent
carbon,1.2 per cent manganese, and 0.055 per cent phosphorus and
sulphur. This steel is guaranteed for hardenability.
• 20C5F1 - A general-purpose finished sheet steel having 0.2 per cent
carbon and 0.5 per cent manganese. This steel is of semi-killed type
having commercial quality of formability.
Refer Page 453 & 454, Appendix I, Special symbols

The designation of unalloyed free cutting steels consists of the following
quantities:
(i) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon;
(ii) a letter C;
(iii) a figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese;
(iv) a symbol ‘S’, ‘Se’, ‘Te’ or ‘Pb’ depending upon the element that is present
and which makes the steel free cutting; and
(v) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of the above element
that makes the steel free cutting.
• As an example, 25C12S14 indicates a free cutting steel with 0.25%

carbon, 1.2% manganese and 0.14% Sulphur.
• Similarly, a free cutting steel with an average of 0.20% carbon, 1.2%
manganese and 0.15% lead is designated as 20C12Pb15.
Note : Refer Page 455, Appendix I

The term ‘alloy’ steel is used for low and medium alloy steels
containing total alloying elements not exceeding 10%. The designation of
alloy steels consists of the following quantities:
(i) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon; and
(ii) chemical symbols for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its
average percentage content multiplied by a factor.
The multiplying factor depends upon the alloying element. The values of this
factor are as follows:
In alloy steels, the symbol ‘Mn’ for

manganese is included only if the
content of manganese is equal to or
greater than 1%.
Refer Page 455, Appendix I

• As an example, 25Cr4Mo2 is an alloy steel having average 0.25% of carbon, 1% chromium and
0.2% molybdenum.
• Similarly, 40Ni8Cr8V2 is an alloy steel containing average 0.4% of carbon, 2% nickel, 2%
chromium and 0.2% vanadium.
• Consider an alloy steel with the following composition:
carbon = 0.12–0.18%
silicon = 0.15–0.35%
manganese = 0.40–0.60%
chromium = 0.50–0.80%
• The average percentage of carbon is 0.15%, which is denoted by the number (0.15 x
100) or 15.
• The percentage content of silicon and manganese is negligible and, as such, they are
deleted from the designation.
• The significant element is chromium and its average percentage is 0.65. The
multiplying factor for chromium is 4 and (0.65 x 4) is 2.6, which is rounded to 3.
Therefore, the complete designation of steel is 15Cr3.

Consider a steel with the following chemical composition:
carbon = 0.12–0.20%
silicon = 0.15–0.35%
nickel = 0.60–1.00%
chromium = 0.40–0.80%
• The average percentage of carbon is 0.16% and multiplying this value by 100,
the first figure in the designation of steel is 16.
• The average percentage of silicon and manganese is very small and, as such,
the symbols Si and Mn are deleted.
• Average percentages of nickel and chromium are 0.8 and 0.6, respectively,
and the multiplying factor for both elements is 4.
Therefore,
nickel: 0.8 x 4 = 3.2 rounded to 3 or Ni3
chromium: 0.6 x 4 = 2.4 rounded to 2 or Cr2.
The complete designation of steel is 16Ni3Cr2.
The term ‘high alloy steels’ is used for alloy steels containing more than 10% of
alloying elements. The designation of high alloy steels consists of the following
quantities:
• (i) a letter ‘X’;
• (ii) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon;
• (iii) chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its
average percentage content rounded off to the nearest integer; and
• (iv) chemical symbol to indicate a specially added element to attain desired
properties, if any.
As an example, X15Cr25Ni12 is a
• high alloy steel with 0.15% carbon, 25% chromium and 12% nickel.
Refer Page 456, Appendix I

As a second example, consider a steel with the following chemical composition:
carbon = 0.15–0.25%
silicon = 0.10–0.50%
nickel = 1.5–2.5%
chromium = 16–20%
The average content of carbon is 0.20%, which is denoted by a number (0.20 x

100) or 20. The major alloying elements are chromium (average 18%) and nickel
(average 2%). Hence, the designation of steel is X20Cr18Ni2.

ALLOY STEELS
Alloy steel is defined as carbon steel to which one or more alloying elements are added
to obtain certain beneficial effects. The commonly added elements include silicon,
manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum and tungsten.
The term ‘alloy steels’ usually refers to ‘low’ alloy steels containing from about 1 to 4
per cent of alloying elements. On the other hand, stainless and heat resisting steels are
called ‘high’ alloy steels.
Alloying elements can affect constitution, characteristics and behaviour of these steels.
The effects of major alloying elements are as follows:
(i) Silicon is present in almost all steels. It increases strength and hardness without
lowering the ductility. Silicon is purposely added in spring steel to increase its
toughness.

(ii) Manganese Most steels contain some manganese remaining from the deoxidisation and
desulphurisation processes. However, when it exceeds 1 per cent, it is regarded as an alloying
element. It increases hardness and strength. It also increases the depth of hardening.
Manganese is an important alloying element in free cutting steels.
(iii) Nickel increases strength, hardness and toughness without sacrificing ductility. The
main effect of nickel is to increase toughness by limiting grain growth during the heat
treatment process.
(iv) Chromium increases hardness and wear resistance. They retain strength and hardness at
elevated temperatures. Chromium steels containing more than 4 per cent chromium have excellent
corrosion resistance.
(v) Molybdenum increases hardness and wear resistance. It resists softening of steel during
tempering and heating.
(vi) Tungsten Tungsten and molybdenum have similar effects. It is an expensive

alloying element and about 2 to 3 per cent tungsten is required to replace 1 per cent of
molybdenum. It is an important alloying element in tool steels.

Mechanical properties of alloy steels

OVERSEAS STANDARDS
Ultimate Tensile Strengths of

Some Aluminum Alloys
Steel designation system

Manufacturing Considerations in Design
• Design for Manufacturing (DFM) and Design for assembly (DFA) are the integration
of product design and process planning into one common activity.
• The goal is to design a product that is easily and economically manufactured.
Reduce the total number of parts
Develop a modular design
Use of standard components
Design parts to be multi-functional
Design parts for multi-use
Design for ease of fabrication
Guidelines that are structured to help the designer
Avoid separate fasteners
reduce the cost and difficulty of manufacturing an
Minimize assembly directions
items.
Maximize compliance
Minimize handling

• Design for Assembly - Determine parts presentation for ease of assembly

Types of manufacturing processes:
• Casting
• Deformation
• Material removal
• Joining processes
Selection of appropriate manufacturing method
•Material of the component
•Cost of manufacturing
•Geometric shape of the component
•Surface finish and tolerances required
•Volume of production

Manufacturing
Considerations
in Design
Sand Casting
Schematic illustration of the

sequence of operations for sand
casting Source: From Kalpakjian
and Schmid [2013].

Forging
An example of the steps in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine, and the die used Source:
From Schey [2000].

Extrusion
The extrusion process. (a) Schematic illustration of the forward or direct extrusion process Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid
[2013]. (b) Examples of extruded cross sections. Source: From Schey [2000].

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF CASTINGS
(a) Always keep stresse area of the part in compression
(a) Incorrect (Part in Tension) (b) Correct (Part in Compression)

Round All External Corners It has two
advantages—it increases the endurance limit of the
component and reduces the formation of brittle
chilled edges.
(a) Original Component

(b) Use of Tie-rod
(c) Use of Bearing-cap
When tensile stresses are unavoidable, a clamping

device such as a tie rod or a bearing cap should be
considered. The clamping device relieves the cast
iron components from tensile stresses.

Round all external corners. It has two advantages: (i) it increases endurance limit and (ii)reduces
formation of brittle chilled edges
Change in Section-thickness
Wherever Possible, the Section Thickness
throughout should be Held as Uniform as
Compatible with Overall Design
Considerations
Provision of Fillet Radius

Avoid Very Thin Sections
There are two ways to avoid the

concentration of metal. One is to
provide a cored opening in webs and
ribs.
Staggered Ribs
Cored Holes

Shot Blast the Parts wherever Possible The shot
blasting process improves the endurance limit of the
component, particularly in case of thin sections.
Uniform Wall-thickness

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF FORGINGS
Draft for Forgings

Grain Structure

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF WELDING
Saving of Preparatory Bevelling:

(a) Incorrect (b) Correct

TOLERANCES
Tolerance is permissible variation

in the dimensions of the
component Tolerance Nomenclature

Design for X

Materials in Mechanical Design: ME-311 Fundamentals of Machine Design

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Materials in Mechanical Design: ME-311 Fundamentals of Machine Design

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ME-311

Fundamentals of Machine Design

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 2

Typical stress-strain curve Typical stress-strain behavior for ductile metal

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 3

Stress-strain diagram for ceramic in tension

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 5

Strength/density ratio for various materials

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 6

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 7

Cross section of fiber-reinforced composite material.

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 9

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 11

Modulus of elasticity for various metals,

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 13

Density for various metals, polymers and ceramics at room

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 14

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 15

Thermal conductivity for various metals, polymers and

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 16

where a is called the linear expansivity or linear thermal

Linear thermal expansion coefficient for various

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 17

Specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers and ceramics

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 18

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 19

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 20

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 21

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 22

An example of a material with high modulus of

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 23

Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb applied energy without failure.

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 24

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 25

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 26

Creep is an important for critical members in

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 28

Typical composition of ordinary cast iron is as follows:

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 29

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 30

• Ductile cast iron is designated by the symbol SG (spheroidal graphite)

Note : Refer Table 1.2, Page 458

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 33

Refer Table 1.3, Page 459

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 34

A symbol Fe followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm2 or a

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 35

Carbon steels are classified into the following three groups:

(i) Low Carbon Steel Low carbon steel

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 36

Note: Refer Table 1.6, Page 461, Appendix I

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 38

Refer Page 453 & 454, Appendix I, Special symbols

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 39

• As an example, 25C12S14 indicates a free cutting steel with 0.25%

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 40

In alloy steels, the symbol ‘Mn’ for

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 41

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 42

Refer Page 456, Appendix I

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 44

The average content of carbon is 0.20%, which is denoted by a number (0.20 x

8/7/2023 ME 311_Materials in Design 45