ME-311

Fundamentals of Machine Design

Materials in Mechanical Design

Prof A P Harsha
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology (BHU)
E-mail : apharsha.mec@itbhu.ac.in
ME 311_Materials in Design
08/10/2023 1
 Tension Test
Brittle material
produces little
(%EL<5%) or no
plastic deformation
before failure

Failure of a brittle
material from a The %ELs for low carbon (AISI
standard tensile test 1020), medium-carbon (AISI
Ductile material from a apparatus. 1040), and high carbon steels
standard tensile test apparatus. (AISI 1080) are 37%, 30%, and
(a) Necking; (b) failure. 25%, respectively.

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Stress Strain Curve
Proportional limit (point P)
Elastic limit (point E)
Yield strength (point Y):
The yield point
Ultimate strength (point U)
is determined
Fracture stress (point R) by starting a line
at a
deformation of
0.002 (0.2%) on
the x-axis

Typical stress-strain curve Typical stress-strain behavior for ductile metal

for a ductile material. showing elastic and plastic deformations and
yield strength Sy.

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 Brittle materials
Brittle & Ductile Materials Ceramic Behavior have
considerably
higher (typically
10 times or
greater)
ultimate
strength in
compression
than in tension

Stress-strain diagram for ceramic in tension

Typical tensile stress-strain diagrams for and in compression.
brittle and ductile metals loaded to
fracture.
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Bending Test Specimens Before and After Failure (a)Ductile Steel (b)Brittle
Cast Iron

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 Strength to Density Ratio

Strength/density ratio for various materials

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Polymer Behavior
The glass transition
temperature, Tg , is the
temperature at which a
polymer transforms from
a hard and brittle material
to a rubbery or leathery
solid.

Stress-strain diagram for polymer below, at, and above its glass transition temperature, Tg.

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 Composite Material
The three main types of composite material
are:
1. Particle reinforced, which contain particles
with approximately the same dimensions in
all directions distributed in a matrix, such as
concrete.
2. Discontinuous fiber reinforced, which use
fibers of limited length-to-diameter ratio in a
matrix, such as fiberglass.
3. Continuous fiber reinforced, where
continuous fibers are incorporated, such as
seen in graphite tennis rackets

Cross section of fiber-reinforced composite material.

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Classification and types of
composite materials. a
Dispersed particle-reinforced,
b discontinuous fiber-
reinforced (aligned), c
discontinuous fiber-reinforced
(randomly oriented), d
continuous fiber-reinforced
(aligned), e continuous fiber-
reinforced (aligned 0 o –90 o
fiber orientation angle), and f
continuous fiber-reinforced
(multidirectional fiber
orientation angle) 

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 Physical Properties of Materials

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 Density of Materials

Density for various metals, polymers and ceramics at

room temperature (20°C).

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 Thermal Conductivity of
Materials
The rate at which heat is conducted
through a solid at steady state
(meaning that temperature does not
vary with time) is a measure of the
thermal conductivity, Kt.

Thermal conductivity for various metals,

polymers and ceramics at room temperature
(20°C).

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 Specific Heat Capacity of
Materials
The nature of a material determines the amount of heat required to
change its temperature by a given amount. In an experiment in which a
cast iron ball and a Babbitt (lead based white metal) ball of the same size
are heated to the temperature of boiling water and then laid on a block
of wax.
The cast iron ball would melt a considerable amount of wax, but the
Babbitt ball, in spite of its greater mass, would melt hardly any. It
therefore would seem that different materials, in cooling through the
same temperature range, release different amounts of heat.

Specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers and

ceramics at room temperature (20°C).

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 Elastic Modulus of
Materials

Modulus of elasticity for various metals,

polymers and ceramics at room temperature
(20°C).

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Poisson’s ratio for an element in tension
The negative sign simply means that the transverse
deformation will be in the opposite sense to the axial
deformation.

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 Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity
Shear stress and strain are proportional to each other; that is

τ=Gγ
The three material properties E, G, and γ are related by the following equation:

where G is the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. This relation is only

true for the linear-elastic region of the shear stress-strain curve

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Hardness Tests

General characteristics of
selected hardness tests,
with equations for
calculating hardness.
Source: From Kalpakjian
and Schmid [2013].

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 Indentation Geometry

Indentation geometry in Brinell hardness testing: (a) annealed metal; (b) work-hardened metal; (c) deformation of
mild steel under a spherical indenter. Note that the depth of the permanently-deformed zone is about one order of
magnitude larger than the depth of indentation. For a hardness test to be valid, this zone should be fully developed
in the material. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010].

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 Resilience and Toughness
Resilience is a material’s capacity to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then,
upon unloading, to release this energy. The modulus of resilience, Ur , is the strain energy
per unit volume required to stress a material from an unloaded state to the point of yielding.

Where Ɛy is the yield strain, or the strain when the stress is the yield strength, Sy. For the
linear-elastic region, the area below the stress-strain diagram is the modulus of resilience

An example of a material with high

modulus of resilience is high-carbon steel.
Using the equation Resilience is extremely useful in selecting a
material for springs, or for energy storage,
making high-carbon steel alloys primary
candidate materials for such applications

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Toughness, Impact Energy

Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb applied energy without

failure.
• Parts subjected to suddenly applied loads, shock, or impact need a high
level of toughness.
• Several methods are used to measure the amount of energy required to
break a particular specimen made from a material of interest.
• The energy absorption value from such tests is often called impact energy
or impact resistance.
• That value is reported in energy units of J (Joules or N.m) or ft.lb.
• Some highly ductile metals and many plastics do not break during the test,
and the result is then reported as No Break.

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The data for
impact energy are
divided by the
actual width of the Joules or
specimen, and the N.m or ft.lb.
results are
reported in units of
N. m/m or ft.lb/in.

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 Fracture Toughness

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 When materials are subjected to high loads
Creep continuously, they may experience
progressive elongation over time. This
phenomenon, called creep, should be
considered for metals operating at high
temperatures.

Creep is an important for critical members in

internal combustion engines, furnaces, steam
turbines, gas turbines, nuclear reactors, or
rocket engines. The stress can be tension,
compression, flexure, or shear.

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 Codes and Standards
Refer Appendix I, and III, Page 453
Cast iron
By definition, cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon, containing more than 2%
of carbon. In addition to carbon, cast iron contains other elements like silicon,
manganese, Sulphur and phosphorus.

Typical composition of ordinary cast iron is as follows:

carbon = 3.0 – 4.0%
silicon = 1.0 – 3.0%
manganese = 0.5 – 1.0%
Sulphur = up to 0.1%
phosphorus = up to 0.1%
iron = remainder

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 Cast irons are classified on the basis of distribution of carbon content in
their microstructure. There are three popular types of cast iron—grey,
malleable and ductile.
Grey cast iron is specified by the symbol FG followed by the tensile
strength in N/mm2. For example, FG 200, in general, means a grey cast
iron with an ultimate tensile strength of 200 N/mm2
There are three basic types of malleable cast iron—blackheart, pearlitic and
whiteheart—which are designated by symbols BM, PM and WM, respectively and
followed by minimum tensile strength in N/mm2. For example,
(i) BM 350 is blackheart malleable cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 350
N/mm2;
(ii) PM 600 is pearlitic malleable cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 600
N/mm2;
(iii) WM 400 is whiteheart malleable cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 400
N/mm2.

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Ductile cast iron is also called nodular cast iron or spheroidal graphite
cast iron. In ductile cast iron, carbon is present in the form of spherical
nodules called ‘spherulites’ or ‘globules’ in a relatively ductile matrix.

• Ductile cast iron is designated by the symbol SG (spheroidal graphite)

followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm2 and minimum
elongation in per cent. For example, SG 800/2 is spheroidal graphite
cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 800 N/mm2 and a
minimum elongation of 2%.

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 Mechanical properties of cast iron
and Designation

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BIS SYSTEM OF DESIGNATION OF STEELS
A large number of varieties of steel are used for machine components. Steels are designated
by a group of letters or numbers indicating any one of the following three properties:
(i) tensile strength;
(ii) carbon content; and
(iii) composition of alloying elements.

A symbol Fe followed by the minimum tensile strength in N/mm2 or a

symbol FeE followed by the yield strength in N/mm2.
• For example, Fe 360 indicates a steel with a minimum tensile strength of
360 N/mm2.
• Similarly, FeE 250 indicates a steel with a minimum yield strength of 250
N/mm2.

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 The designation of plain carbon steel consists of the following
three quantities:
(i) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon;
(ii) a letter C; and
(iii) a figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese.
• As an example, 55C4 indicates a plain carbon steel with 0.55%
carbon and 0.4% manganese.
• A steel with 0.35–0.45% carbon and 0.7–0.9% manganese is
designated as 40C8.

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 The designation of unalloyed free cutting steels consists of the following
quantities:
(i) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon;
(ii) a letter C;
(iii) a figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese;
(iv) a symbol ‘S’, ‘Se’, ‘Te’ or ‘Pb’ depending upon the element that is present
and which makes the steel free cutting; and
(v) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of the above element
that makes the steel free cutting.

• As an example, 25C12S14 indicates a free cutting steel with 0.25%

carbon, 1.2% manganese and 0.14% Sulphur.
• Similarly, a free cutting steel with an average of 0.20% carbon, 1.2%
manganese and 0.15% lead is designated as 20C12Pb15.

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The term ‘alloy’ steel is used for low and medium alloy steels
containing total alloying elements not exceeding 10%. The designation of
alloy steels consists of the following quantities:
(i) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon; and
(ii) chemical symbols for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its
average percentage content multiplied by a factor.
The multiplying factor depends upon the alloying element. The values of this
factor are as follows:

In alloy steels, the symbol ‘Mn’ for

manganese is included only if the
content of manganese is equal to or
greater than 1%.

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• As an example, 25Cr4Mo2 is an alloy steel having average 0.25% of carbon, 1% chromium and
0.2% molybdenum.
• Similarly, 40Ni8Cr8V2 is an alloy steel containing average 0.4% of carbon, 2% nickel, 2%
chromium and 0.2% vanadium.
• Consider an alloy steel with the following composition:
carbon = 0.12–0.18%
silicon = 0.15–0.35%
manganese = 0.40–0.60%
chromium = 0.50–0.80%
• The average percentage of carbon is 0.15%, which is denoted by the number (0.15 x
100) or 15.
• The percentage content of silicon and manganese is negligible and, as such, they are
deleted from the designation.
• The significant element is chromium and its average percentage is 0.65. The
multiplying factor for chromium is 4 and (0.65 x 4) is 2.6, which is rounded to 3.
Therefore, the complete designation of steel is 15Cr3.

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Consider a steel with the following chemical composition:
carbon = 0.12–0.20%
silicon = 0.15–0.35%
manganese = 0.60–1.00%
nickel = 0.60–1.00%
chromium = 0.40–0.80%
• The average percentage of carbon is 0.16% and multiplying this value by 100,
the first figure in the designation of steel is 16.
• The average percentage of silicon and manganese is very small and, as such,
the symbols Si and Mn are deleted.
• Average percentages of nickel and chromium are 0.8 and 0.6, respectively,
and the multiplying factor for both elements is 4.
Therefore,
nickel: 0.8 x 4 = 3.2 rounded to 3 or Ni3
chromium: 0.6 x 4 = 2.4 rounded to 2 or Cr2.
The complete designation of steel is 16Ni3Cr2.
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 The term ‘high alloy steels’ is used for alloy steels containing more than 10% of
alloying elements. The designation of high alloy steels consists of the following
quantities:
• (i) a letter ‘X’;
• (ii) a figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon;
• (iii) chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its
average percentage content rounded off to the nearest integer; and
• (iv) chemical symbol to indicate a specially added element to attain desired
properties, if any.

As an example, X15Cr25Ni12 is a
• high alloy steel with 0.15% carbon, 25% chromium and 12% nickel.

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 As a second example, consider a steel with the following chemical composition:

carbon = 0.15–0.25%
silicon = 0.10–0.50%
manganese = 0.30–0.50%
nickel = 1.5–2.5%
chromium = 16–20%

The average content of carbon is 0.20%, which is denoted by a number (0.20 x

100) or 20. The major alloying elements are chromium (average 18%) and nickel
(average 2%). Hence, the designation of steel is X20Cr18Ni2.

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 PLAIN CARBON STEELS

Carbon steels are classified into the following three groups:

(i) Low Carbon Steel Low carbon steel contains less than 0.3% carbon.
(ii)Medium Carbon Steel Medium carbon steel has a carbon content in the
range of 0.3% to 0.5%.
(iii)High Carbon Steel High carbon steel contains more than 0.5% carbon.

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 Mechanical properties of plain carbon steels

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 ALLOY STEELS

Alloy steel is defined as carbon steel to which one or more alloying elements are added
to obtain certain beneficial effects. The commonly added elements include silicon,
manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum and tungsten.

The term ‘alloy steels’ usually refers to ‘low’ alloy steels containing from about 1 to
4 per cent of alloying elements. On the other hand, stainless and heat resisting steels
are called ‘high’ alloy steels.

Alloying elements can affect constitution, characteristics and behaviour of these steels.
The effects of major alloying elements are as follows:

(i) Silicon is present in almost all steels. It increases strength and hardness without
lowering the ductility. Silicon is purposely added in spring steel to increase its
toughness.

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(ii) Manganese Most steels contain some manganese remaining from the deoxidisation and
desulphurisation processes. However, when it exceeds 1 per cent, it is regarded as an alloying
element. It increases hardness and strength. It also increases the depth of hardening.
Manganese is an important alloying element in free cutting steels.

(iii) Nickel increases strength, hardness and toughness without sacrificing ductility. The
main effect of nickel is to increase toughness by limiting grain growth during the heat
treatment process.
(iv) Chromium increases hardness and wear resistance. They retain strength and hardness at
elevated temperatures. Chromium steels containing more than 4 per cent chromium have excellent
corrosion resistance.
(v) Molybdenum increases hardness and wear resistance. It resists softening of steel during
tempering and heating.

(vi) Tungsten Tungsten and molybdenum have similar effects. It is an expensive

alloying element and about 2 to 3 per cent tungsten is required to replace 1 per cent of
molybdenum. It is an important alloying element in tool steels.

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 Mechanical properties of alloy steels

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OVERSEAS STANDARDS

Ultimate Tensile Strengths of

Some Aluminum Alloys
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 Steel designation system

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 Manufacturing
Considerations
in Design

Sand Casting

Schematic illustration of the

sequence of operations for sand
casting Source: From Kalpakjian
and Schmid [2013].

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 Forging

An example of the steps in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine, and the die used
Source: From Schey [2000].

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 Extrusion

The extrusion process. (a) Schematic illustration of the forward or direct extrusion process Source: From Kalpakjian
and Schmid [2013]. (b) Examples of extruded cross sections. Source: From Schey [2000].

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 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF CASTINGS

(a) Incorrect (Part in Tension) (b) Correct (Part in Compression)

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 Round All External Corners It has two
advantages—it increases the endurance limit of
the component and reduces the formation of
brittle chilled edges.

(a) Original Component (b)

Use of Tie-rod(c) Use of
Bearing-cap

When tensile stresses are unavoidable, a clamping

device such as a tie rod or a bearing cap should be
considered. The clamping device relieves the cast
iron components from tensile stresses.

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 Change in Section-thickness
Wherever Possible, the Section Thickness
throughout should be Held as Uniform as
Provision of Fillet Radius Compatible with Overall Design
Considerations

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 Avoid Very Thin Sections

There are two ways to avoid the

concentration of metal. One is to
provide a cored opening in webs and
ribs.

Staggered Ribs

Cored Holes

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Shot Blast the Parts wherever Possible The shot
blasting process improves the endurance limit of the
component, particularly in case of thin sections.
Uniform Wall-thickness

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF FORGINGS

Draft for Forgings

Grain Structure

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF WELDING

Saving of Preparatory Bevelling:

(a) Incorrect (b) Correct

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Design for X

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 TOLERANCES

Tolerance Nomenclature

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