BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN Civil ENGINEERING

GE3–MATHEMATI CS I N THE MODERN

WORLD

Gabriel C. Montañez

College of Engineering
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World i

PREFACE

This module is designed to cover the scope requirement of a one-semester general education
course, specifically, mathematics in the modern world, as outlined by the Commission on
Higher Education (CHED).

This self-learning module deals with the nature of mathematics, appreciation of its practical,
intellectual, and aesthetic dimensions, and application of mathematical tools in daily life.

It begins with an introduction to the nature of mathematics as an exploration of patterns (in

nature and the environment) and as an application of inductive and deductive reasoning. By
exploring these topics, students are encouraged to go beyond the typical understanding of
mathematics as merely a set of formulas but as a source of aesthetics in patterns of nature,
for example, and a rich language in itself (and of science) governed by logic and reasoning.

It then proceeds to survey ways in which mathematics provides a tool for understanding and
dealing with various aspects of present-day living, such as managing personal finances,
making social choices, appreciating geometric designs, understanding codes used in data
transmission and security, and dividing limited resources fairly. These aspects will provide
opportunities for actually doing mathematics in a broad range of exercises that bring out the
various dimensions of mathematics as a way of knowing, and test the students’
understanding and capacity. (CMO No. 20, series of 2013)

This module is divided into four (4) learning packets. Learning Packets 1 and 2 covers the
topics for the midterm while learning packets 3 and 4 covers the final term.

This learning material is for instructional delivery purposes of the faculty members of Samar
State University (SSU) only. This is intended solely for the consumption of officially enrolled
students in the course and this should not be sold, reproduced, shared nor copied by other
individuals.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 16

UNIT 2: MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

2.0. Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:
a. Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics
b. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language
c. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly

2.1. Introduction
Language is used to express ideas. There are many languages that is used
throughout the world. The Philippines alone has several languages used by
locals. In our region, Region 8, we use at least 4 languages such as Waray-
Waray, Bisaya, Tagalog, and English to express our thoughts.

Although ideas may be simple, one cannot access these ideas without the
knowledge of the language in which these ideas are expressed. If we relate this
to the study of mathematics, even if the mathematical idea is simple, one might
find it difficult to understand without the basic knowledge of the language of
mathematics.

In this unit, we will discuss the language of mathematics to enhance your ability
to read, write, speak, and understand mathematics.

2.2.1. Characteristics of Mathematical Language: Precise, Concise, &

Powerful
The language of mathematics is used to conveniently to express the thoughts
that mathematicians would like to express. Like other foreign language, it can
be learned but it would require effort to do so.

The following are the characteristics of mathematical language:

 Precise – able to make fine distinctions.
 Concise – able to say things briefly.
 Powerful – able to express complex thoughts that can be easily
understand.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 17

2.2.2. Expressions Vs. Sentences

2.2.2.1 The Noun and Sentences of Mathematics
All languages have its vocabulary (the words), and rules for joining these
words into complete thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is not an
exemption.

To understand the language of mathematics, let us first define the “nouns”

and “sentences” of mathematics.
 “Noun” of Mathematics – used to name the mathematical object of
interest.
 “Sentence” of Mathematics – states the complete mathematical
thoughts.

2.2.2.2 ENGLISH: Noun Vs. Sentences

In the English language, noun is the name of things we want to talk about
(e.g. people, places, and things) while sentences are the combination of words
that states the complete thought.

Example: Sentence  Rhiz loves to draw

Noun  Rhiz

2.2.2.3 MATHEMATICS: Expressions Vs. Sentences

The mathematical equivalent of a “noun” is called an expression. Whereas, the
mathematical equivalent of a “sentence” is also called a sentence.
 Expression – is the name given to a mathematical object of interest. It
does not make sense to ask if an expression is true or false since it does
not state a complete thought.
 Sentence – like the English sentence, must state a complete thought.

Example:
5 is an expression
1+2 is an expression
x+6 is an expression
2+2=4 is a (true) sentence
2+1=7 is a (false) sentence
x+2=5 is a (sometimes true/sometimes false) sentence
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 18

Consider the table below, don’t worry about the truth of the sentences since it
will be addressed later.
ENGLISH MATHEMATICS
NOUN (person, place, things) EXPRESSION
Name given to an
Examples: Rhiz, Catbalogan, Examples: 3, 1 + 2,
1
object of interest:
book 3

SENTENCE
Examples:
SENTENCE
The capital of W. Samar is
A complete Examples:
Catbalogan City
thought: 3+1=4
3+1=9
The capital of W. Samar is
Calbayog City

2.2.2.4 Verb in Mathematics

Just as the English sentences has verbs, so do mathematical sentences. The
verb in English sentence is a word used to describe action, state, or
occurrence.

In the mathematical sentence the verb could be:

the equal sign =, or an inequality <, or >
2.2.2.5 Truth of Sentences
Sentences can be true or false. The notion of truth or the property of being
true or false is important in the mathematical language.

In the mathematical sentence:

“3 + 1 = 4”, we know that this expression is true, whereas, the expression “3 +
1 = 9”, is false.

2.2.3. Conventions in the Mathematical Language

A mathematical convention is a fact, name, notation, or usage which are
agreed by mathematicians. Like the fact that in a mathematical
expression, we evaluate first the multiplication before addition
(PEMDAS). Mathematicians follow conventions in order to allow other
mathematicians to understand what they write without constantly
having to redefine basic terms.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 19

Example: Sentences Vs. Expressions

 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 20

Solutions:
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 21

Example: Truth of Sentences _

Solution:
2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 22
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 23

©2004 Carol J.V. Fisher

2.2.4. Four Basic Concepts: Sets, Functions, Relations, & Binary Operations
The word “is” which is used in different sentences has three distinct meaning
depending on the sentence where it is used. The three meanings are illustrated
in the following sentences:

1. “5 is the square root of 25”

In this sentence, the word “is” could be replaced by “equals”. It shows
two expressions (the 5 and the square root of 25) that are in fact the same
expression.

We can write this in a symbolic way: 5 = √25

 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 24

2. “5 is less than 10”

In this sentence, the word “is” has a different role from the previous
sentence. The usage of the word “is” here is similar to the usage of “is”
in the English sentence “The cup is red”.

The words “less than 10” forms an adjectival phrase (adjectives in English
sentence are words that describes the noun). It specifies a property that the
expression (noun) may or may not have.

We can write this in a symbolic way: 5 < 10

3. “5 is a prime number”
In this sentence, the word “is” means “an example of”, comparable in
the English sentence “Darahuway is an island”.

This sentence would normally not be written in a symbolic way since the
concept of a prime number is not basic enough to have a universally
recognized symbol.

However, there are times that it is useful to do so. Thus, when this case
arises, one must invent a suitable symbol. One way to do it is to adopt
the convention that if “n” is a positive integer, then “P(n)” stands for the
sentence “n is a prime”. Another way which does not hide the word “is”,
is to use the language of sets.

2.2.4.1 Sets
Generally, a set is defined as a collection of objects. In mathematics, these
objects are usually numbers that is called elements of a set.

To indicate that an object is a member of a set (element) or belonging to a set

we use the symbol “∈”, usually read “is an element of”.
Thus, another way of writing the sentence “5 is a prime number” in a purely
symbolic way is 𝟓 ∈ 𝑷 that is read as “5 is an element of P”. Note that the P here
stands for set of prime number.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 25

The following are ways to in writing a set:

 List the elements inside a curly bracket
Example: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}, is the set whose elements are the eight
numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 and 19.

 Use dots to imply too long to write down elements since there are sets
that are infinite
Example:
{1, 2, 3, .......... , 100}, the set of all positive integers up to 100
{2, 4, 6, 8, .......... }, the set of all positive even numbers

 Define set via property

Example:
{x: x is prime and x < 20}
Read as “The set of x such that x is prime and x is less than 20”

“The set of “because of the curly brackets.

The colon itself is read as “such that”.
Finally, one reads what comes after the colon, which is the property that
determines the elements of the set.

2.2.4.2 Functions
A function is a relation such that each element of the domain is paired with
exactly one element of the range. It is a way of matching members of set “A” to
a set “B”.

The notation 𝒇: 𝑨𝑩 is used to denote a function with domain A and range B;
f(x) = y means that f transforms x (which must be an element of A) into y (which
must be an element of B).

© 2017 MathsIsFun.com
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 26

A General Function points from each member of "A" to a member of "B".

It never has one "A" pointing to more than one "B", so one-to-many is not
OK in a function (so something like "f(x) = 7 or 9" is not allowed)

But more than one "A" can point to the same "B" (many-to-one is OK)

Injective, surjective, and bijective tells us how a function behaves. Let us

discuss these terms:

 Injective Functions
- The function f is said to be injective if whenever
𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2, then 𝑓(𝑥1) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2).
- Injective means we won't have two or more "A"s
pointing to the same "B".
- So many-to-one is NOT OK (which is OK for a general
function).
- As it is also a function one-to-many is not OK
- But we can have a "B" without a matching "A"
- Injective is also called "One-to-One"

 Surjective Functions
- Surjective means that every "B" has at least
one matching "A" (maybe more than one).
- There won't be a "B" left out.

 Bijective Functions
- Bijective means both Injective and Surjective together.
- Think of it as a "perfect pairing" between the sets: every
member has a partner and no one is left out. So, there is
a perfect "one-to-one correspondence" between the
members of the sets. (But don't get that confused with
the term "One-to-One" used to mean injective).
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 27

2.2.4.3 Relations
A relation (symbol ~) is just a set or collection of ordered pairs. There is
absolutely nothing special at all about the numbers that are in a relation. In other
words, a group of numbers is a relation as long as these numbers come in
ordered pairs.

This is an example of an ordered pair:

x-coordinate
(1, 4)
y-c oordinate

Thus, an example of relations (set of ordered pairs):

 {(0, −2), (1,4), (5,2)}
 {(−1, −3), (3,6), (7,2), (10, −12)}
 {(−1, −3), (1,3)}

2.2.4.4 Binary Operations

Before we discuss binary operations, it is important to remember the following
notations useful in this discussion. Consider the table below.

Number
Symbol Description Example
System
It is an expression
involving combination Real part
of real and imaginary
Complex numbers.
−2 + 3𝑖
C
Numbers
Written as:
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 Imaginary part
Where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real
numbers
It is a set of numbers
Real 1 3 3
R composed of rational {2, − 5, 0, , − , √2, 𝜋, √5}
Numbers 3 4
and irrational numbers.
Positive It is a set of POSITIVE
1 3
R+ Real rational and irrational {2, 0, , √2, 𝜋, √5}
3
Numbers numbers
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 28

It is a set of numbers
Rational 1 3
Q composed of integers {2, − 5, 0, , − }
Numbers 3 4
and non-integers.
It is a set of natural
numbers (counting
numbers), along with
Z Integers {−7, −2, − 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 7}
their negatives and
zero. It is a set of
WHOLE numbers only.
Positive An integer is positive if
Z+ {1, 2, 3, 7,100}
Integers it is greater than zero.
It is a set of POSITIVE
integers or counting
Natural
N numbers. Same as Z+ {1, 2, 3, 7,100}
Numbers
Note that zero is NOT
included.

Now, that we are already familiar with the symbols that is useful in the
discussion of binary operations. Let us discuss the four basic operations in
mathematics.

The following are the four basic operations in mathematics:

 Addition (+)
 Subtraction (−)
 Multiplication (× 𝑜𝑟 ∙)

 Division (÷ 𝑜𝑟 )

Note: we will use the symbol for multiplication as dot ∙ or × (e.g. when we multiply
element a and b it will be like 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 × 𝑏) so that we will not be confused in the
later topic of binary operation on a set that uses the symbol *.

These basic operations in mathematics are performed on two operands. Even

when we try to add three numbers, we add two of them and then add the third
number to the result of the first two numbers. Same goes when we multiply
three numbers.

Thus, the basic mathematical operations are performed on two numbers and
are known as binary operation (the word binary means two). In this section we
will discuss binary operation performed on a set.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 29

Binary Operation on a Set

The binary operation on a set can be defined as a function of any operation
(symbol *) in which if performed on a set, the result should be an element that
belongs to the same set.

Let say we have set S, the binary operation on set S,

∗: 𝑆 ∗ 𝑆 → 𝑆

The notation means that:

A binary operation on a Set S is a function that takes two of elements of S and
produces an element of S from them.

When the operations such as addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, etc.

performed between two elements (say a and b) that belongs to a set (say Set S),
the result/answer of the operation on a and b is another element that belongs
to the same set S.

Symbol
For Addition: +: 𝑆 ∗ 𝑆 → 𝑆
For Subtraction: −: 𝑆 ∗ 𝑆 → 𝑆
For Multiplication: ×∶𝑆∗𝑆 →𝑆
For Division: ÷: 𝑆 ∗ 𝑆 → 𝑆

Example:
Check whether addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on Z (set of
integers) is a binary operation or not.

Given: Z (set of integers)

Required: Check if it is a binary operation on:
a. Addition on Z
b. Subtraction on Z
c. Multiplication on Z
d. Division on Z
Solution:
Remember that Z is a symbol used to represent a set of integers. Integers are composed
of positive whole numbers, negative whole numbers, and zero.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 30

Strategy:
To check if an operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) on
a set of integers (Z) is a binary operation, let us take two members (elements)
in the set Z and perform the operation on that chosen members (elements), if it
produces an element that still belongs to set Z, then we can safely say that the
performed operation on Z is a binary operation.

Symbol
For Addition: +: 𝑍 ∗ 𝑍 → 𝑍
For Subtraction: −: 𝑍 ∗ 𝑍 → 𝑍
For Multiplication: ×∶𝑍∗𝑍 →𝑍
For Division: ÷: 𝑍 ∗ 𝑍 → 𝑍

a. Addition on Z
Symbol: +: 𝑍 ∗ 𝑍 → 𝑍

Let us take two members of Z (say a and b)

(𝑎, 𝑏) → (𝑎 + 𝑏)

For the it to be a binary operation, the result of the addition of these elements
should be an element of Z: (𝑎 + 𝑏) ∈ 𝒁

Let us take 𝑎 = −5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 0

(𝑎, 𝑏) → (𝑎 + 𝑏)
Since (𝑎 + 𝑏) = (−5 + 0)
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = −5

Now, (𝑎 + 𝑏) ∈ 𝒁? Is the result of addition of the two integers is an

integer also?
YES. Since, -5 is also an integer, it is an element of Z, −5 ∈ 𝒁.
THEREFORE, addition on Z is a binary operation.

b. Subtraction on Z
Symbol: −: 𝑍 ∗ 𝑍 → 𝑍

Let us take two members of Z (say a and b)

(𝑎, 𝑏) → (𝑎 − 𝑏)

For the it to be a binary operation, the result of the subtraction of these

elements should be an element of Z: (𝑎 − 𝑏) ∈ 𝒁
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 31

Let us take 𝑎 = −5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 0

(𝑎, 𝑏) → (𝑎 − 𝑏)
Since (𝑎 − 𝑏) = (−5 − 0)
(𝑎 − 𝑏) = −5

Now, (𝑎 − 𝑏) ∈ 𝒁? Is the result of subtraction of the two integers is an

integer also?
YES. Since, -5 is also an integer, it is an element of Z, −5 ∈ 𝒁.
THEREFORE, subtraction on Z is a binary operation.

c. Multiplication on Z
Symbol: ×: 𝑍 ∗ 𝑍 → 𝑍

Let us take two members of Z (say a and b)

(𝑎, 𝑏) → (𝑎 × 𝑏)

For the it to be a binary operation, the result of the multiplication of these

elements should be an element of Z: (𝑎 × 𝑏) ∈ 𝒁

Let us take 𝑎 = −5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 0

(𝑎, 𝑏) → (𝑎 × 𝑏)
Since (𝑎 × 𝑏) = (−5 × 0)
(𝑎 × 𝑏) = 0

Now, (𝑎 × 𝑏) ∈ 𝒁? Is the result of multiplication of the two integers is

an integer also?
YES. Since, 0 is also an integer, it is an element of Z, 0 ∈ 𝒁.
THEREFORE, multiplication on Z is a binary operation.

d. Division on Z
Symbol: ÷: 𝑍 ∗ 𝑍 → 𝑍

Let us take two members of Z (say a and b)

(𝑎, 𝑏) → (𝑎 ÷ 𝑏)

For the it to be a binary operation, the result of the division of these elements
should be an element of Z: (𝑎 ÷ 𝑏) ∈ 𝒁
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 32

Let us take 𝑎 = −5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 0

(𝑎, 𝑏) → (𝑎 ÷ 𝑏)
Since (𝑎 ÷ 𝑏) = (−5 ÷ 0)
(𝑎 ÷ 𝑏) = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟

Now, (𝑎 ÷ 𝑏) ∈ 𝒁? Is the result of division of the two integers is an

integer also?
NO. Undefined is not a number much more it is not an integer.
THEREFORE, division on Z is a NOT a binary operation.

Self-Assessment
1. Check whether addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on N
(set of natural numbers) is a binary operation or not.
2. Check whether addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on Q
(set of rational numbers) is a binary operation or not.

Properties of Binary Operations

 Associative Property
A binary operation * on a set S is said to be associative if
𝑎∗𝑏= 𝑏∗ 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆

The associate property defines that grouping of more than two numbers
and performing the basic arithmetic operations of addition and
multiplication does not affect the final result. Note that grouping means
placing the parenthesis.

 Commutative Property
A binary operation * on a set S is said to be commutative if
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆

For addition:
Changing the order of addends does not change the sum. The addends
may be numbers or expressions. That is (a + b) = (b + a) where a and b are
any scalar.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 33

For multiplication:
Changing the order of factors does not change the product. The factors
may be numbers or expressions. That is, (a × b) = (b × a).

2.2.5. Elementary Logic: Connectives, Negation, Quantifiers, & Variables

Logic is the study of correct reasoning and is used as a basis in making
interpretation, decisions, and/or conclusions.

In this section we will focus on what we call symbolic logic. Symbolic logic is
known as the simplest kind of logic. This kind of logic uses symbols as a tool to
represent statements.

A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false BUT NOT BOTH
true and false.

Example:
Sentence Statement or Not a Statement?
“When will this pandemic end?” It is a NOT a statement since it is not
a declarative sentence.
“Catbalogan is a City in Samar It is a statement.
Province”
“910 + 2 is a prime number” It is a statement. We may not know
whether this sentence is true or false,
however, we do know that it is a
whole number larger than 1, so it is
either a prime number or not a prime
number. The sentence is either true or
it is false, and it is not both true and
false, so it is a statement.
“x + 1 = 3” It is a statement. It is known as an
open statement. It is true for x = 4, and
it is false for any other values of x. For
any given value of x, it is true or false
but not both.

A statement can either be simple or compound. A simple statement is a

statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a statement that
conveys two or more ideas.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 34

2.2.5.1 Connectives
A word or a phrase that connects statements (simple or compound) such as
“and”, “or”, “if…then”, and “if and only if” is referred as logical connectives.

Consider the compound statement “I will watch movies or I will study my

modules”. It is composed of two simple statements, “I will watch movies” and
“I will study my modules”. The word “or” is the connective if the two simple
statements.

The study of symbolic logic uses symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent

simple statements and the symbols 𝖠 , ∨ , ∼ , → , and ↔ to represent
connectives.

Consider the table below, p and q represent simple statements like “I will watch
movies”. It summarizes the connectives used in different type of statement.

2.2.5.2 Negation
The negation of the statement “Rhiz is my sister”, is the statement “Rhiz is not
my sister”. In symbolic logic, the tilde symbol “∼” is used to denote the negation
of a statement.

If the statement p is true, its negation is ∼ 𝒑 is false, and if a statement p is false,

its negation is ∼ 𝒑 is true.

The negation of the negation of a statement, ∼ (∼ 𝒑) is the original statement p.

 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 35

Example: Write Compound Statements in Symbolic Form _

Consider the following simple statements:
p: Today is Wednesday
q: It is scorching hot outside
r: I am going to watch a K-drama
s: I am not going for a walk
Write the following statements in a symbolic form:
a. Today is Wednesday and it is scorching hot outside.
b. It is not scorching hot outside and I am going for a walk.
c. I am going to watch a K-drama or I am going for a walk.
d. If it is scorching hot outside, then I am not going for a walk.
Solution:
a. 𝒑 𝖠 𝒒
b. ∼ 𝒒 𝖠 ∼ 𝒔
c. 𝒓 ∨∼ 𝒔
d. 𝒒 → 𝒔

Self-Assessment
3. Consider the following simple statements:
p: Today is Friday
q: It is raining
r: I am going to a movie
s: I am not going to the basketball game
Write the following compound statements in symbolic form:
a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
4. Consider the following statements.
p: The game will be played in China.
q: The game will be shown on GMA.
r: The game will not be shown on ABS-CBN.
s: The Gilas Pilipinas are favored to win.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.
a. 𝑞 𝖠 𝑝
b. ∼ 𝑟 𝖠 𝑠
c. 𝑠 ↔∼ 𝑝
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 36

2.2.5.3 Quantifiers
In a statement, the word “some” and the phrases “there exists” and “at least
one” are called existential quantifiers (symbol: ∃ ). Existential quantifiers are
used as a prefix to assert the existence of something.

While, the words “none”, “no”, “all”, and “every” are called universal
quantifiers (symbol: ∀). The universal quantifiers “none” and “no” deny the
existence of something, whereas the universal quantifiers “all” and “every” are
used to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some condition.

2.2.5.4. Variables
Suppose we say something like, “At time t the speed of the projectile is v.” The
letters t and v stand for real numbers, and they are called variables, because in
the back of our mind is the idea that they are changing.

More generally, a variable is any letter used to stand for a mathematical object,
whether or not one thinks of that object as changing through time.

2.2.6. Formality
An expression is considered formal when it is context-independent and precise. It
means that it represents a clear distinction which remains unchanged even with the
change in context (situation, state, or condition).

For example, the statement “I will see you on Sunday” will have a different meaning
when spoken by different people or on different dates. On the other hand, the
statement “Mark Joseph B. Arce will see Paolo B. Monteza on December 31, 2021” will
usually always refer to the same person, event, moment or circumstance.

The language of mathematics typically uses a careful compromise between fully

colloquial (informal which would have risk of being imprecise) and fully formal and
symbolic (which is a nightmare to read).

The ideal is to write in as friendly and approachable way as possible, while making
sure that the reader (who, one assumes, has plenty of experience and training in how
to read mathematics) can see easily how what one writes could be made more formal
if it became important to do so. And sometimes it does become important: when an
argument is difficult to grasp it may be that the only way to convince oneself that it is
correct is to rewrite it more formally.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 37

Assessment
Exercise No.2:
Answer all the self-check questions in this unit and write/encode it into a sheet
of bond paper (Long).

Quiz No. 1:
1. How does mathematical language differ from the English language?
2. Explain the importance of symbols and conventions of the language of
mathematics.
3. Why is division on Z is NOT a binary operation?
4. Why is subtraction on N is NOT a binary operation?
5. Write at least five (5) mathematical expressions that uses variables.

2.3. References

Aufmann, R., Lockwood, J., Nation, R., et.al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern
World. Philippine Edition. Rex Bookstore.

Aufmann, R., Lockwood, J., Nation, R., and Clegg, K. (2013). Mathematical
Excursions, 3rd Edition. Cengage Learning.

Fisher, C. (2004). One Mathematical Cat, Please! A First Course in Algebra (A

Truth and Language Book in Mathematics) from
http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/algebra_book/pdf_files/1LANG_algM
ERGED.pdf 2.
Fisher, C. (2004). One Mathematical Cat, Please! A First Course in Algebra (A
Truth and Language Book in Mathematics) from
https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf
AoPS Online. (2020). Mathematical Conventions. retrieved from
https://artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Mathematical_conventio
n#:~:text=Mathematicians%20abide%20by%20conventions%20in,names%20a
nd%20symbols%20are%20conventional.
Math is Fun. (2017). Injective, Surjective, and Bijective. retrieved from
https://www.mathsisfun.com/sets/injective-surjective-bijective.html
Heylighen, F. (2000 Jan 14). Formality. Principia Cybernetica Web (Principia
Cybernetica, Brussels). Retrieved from
http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/REFERPCP.html

2.4. Acknowledgement

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 38

UNIT 3: PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

3.0. Intended Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:
a. Use the correct type of reasoning to justify statements and arguments
made about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
b. Differentiate proof, intuition, and certainty.
c. Solve problems involving patterns problems following Polya’s four
steps.

3.1. Introduction
As we mature and progress, we are expected to solve various problems that we
would encounter in our everyday life. You may not notice it but every day we
are solving problems, may it be significant or not.

Many professions require good problem-solving skills, engineers as you are

expected to be in the near future, must solve complex problems as they design,
construct, and model processes, machineries, electronics, and buildings.

So, what exactly is a problem? In essence, a problem is a matter or a situation

that is needed to be delt with and overcome. And of course, a problem can be
solved or overcome in different ways, the goal is to solve it in the most practical,
economical, easy, and safe way, or to make things short – you have to solve it
in a smart way.

In this unit, you will be introduced to theories and strategies that is essential
for you become a good problem solver.

3.2.1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

When we encounter a situation or a problem that needs to be solved, as humans,
our immediate action is to think about it in a logical or sensible way as to how we
are going to deal with the situation at hand. This “action of thinking” is known as
reasoning. We use reasoning when we want to justify our actions, statements, or
decisions to others. By definition, reasoning is making inferences or making
connections and formulating conclusion based on known facts.

In reasoning, we always start with an idea or a statement that would support or

provides basis for conclusion. These statements in an argument is called a premise.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 39

3.2.1.1 Inductive Reasoning

An inductive reasoning is a process of reaching a
general conclusion by examining specific premises.
Specific
Premises
The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is often called a conjecture (a hypothesis
that is not yet proven), since it may or may not be
correct (probability). The more data (or examples)
General
we have the higher probability of that the conclusion Conclusion
is inferred correct.

Examples:

Premise 1 Jake, an Engineer, is loyal

Premise 2 Lea, an Engineer, is loyal
Premise 3 Fin, an Engineer, is loyal
Conclusion All engineers are loyal

Premise 1 Jake is right-handed

Premise 2 Rick is right-handed
Premise 3 Jake and Rick are humans
Conclusion All humans are right-handed

Premise 1 My neighbor’s dog always barks at me

Premise 2 At the pets’ store, the dog barks at me
Conclusion All dogs hate me

Consider the above examples, it all started with a specific observation and
reached a general conclusion. The conclusions formed in inductive reasoning
follows NOT with certainty with some PROBABILITY.

If the acceptance of the conclusion depends on the strength of the statements

(premise) in which the statements (premise) do not prove but merely support
the conclusion, it is an inductive reasoning.

In inductive reasoning, the way we arrive the truth is to make repeated specific
observations, and out these specific observations, we generalize probable
conclusion.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 40

3.2.1.1 Deductive Reasoning

A deductive reasoning is a process of reaching a
General
specific conclusion based on general premises.
Premises

A reasoning in which the conclusion NECESSARILY

FOLLOWS the premise. Say, if the premises are true,
then the conclusion is also true. It is called
Specific
deductive reasoning. Conclusion

In deductive reasoning, general premises lead to

prove the conclusion.

Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the

process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and
procedures.

Examples:

Premise 1 All humans are mortal

Premise 2 Reyn is a human
Conclusion Reyn is mortal

Premise 1 All even numbers are divisible by 2

Premise 2 18 is an even number
Conclusion 18 is divisible by 2

Notice that when the premise is true, the conclusion is also true. These general
premises lead to a true conclusion.

Consider the premises below:

Premise 1 All dogs are mammals

Premise 2 All cats are mammals
Conclusion All cats are dogs

Notice that the two premises are true, while the argument is invalid, and
produces a false conclusion. This is an example of an invalid deductive
reasoning. Always remember that a deductive reasoning can be valid or
invalid.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 41

3.2.1.1 Deductive Reasoning Versus Inductive Reasoning

 Deductive reasoning follows a GENERAL premise  SPECIFIC
conclusion while inductive reasoning follows SPECIFIC premise 
GENERAL conclusion.

 In deductive reasoning, the premises are used to prove the conclusion

while in inductive reasoning, the premises are used to predict the
conclusion.

Self-Assessment
1. Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of
inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other
year. Last year the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree
will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The
contractor estimated that my home improvement will cost Php
45,000. Thus, my home improvement will cost more than Php
45,000
c. All Paulo Coelho novels are worth reading. The novel By the River
of Piedra I Sat Down and Wept is a Paulo Coelho novel. Thus, the
novel By the River of Piedra I Sat Down and Wept is worth reading.
d. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the next 10 tries,
because it has not paid out any money during the last 45 tries.
e. The number series 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 would have 12 as the next number.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 42

3.2.2. Proof, Intuition, and Certainty

Proof can be either informal proof or formal proof. Informally, proof is evidence and
reasoning that provides certainty of something. A formal proof is an argument that
follows a set of rules that in principle could be checked mechanically. It establishes
that its conclusions can be reached while following the given rules.

Intuition is an umbrella term for the mental processes that generates a perception that
something is likely to be true. (People use it to mean something more specific
sometimes.) It is possible to say that a person has an intuition when they also have a
proof; mathematicians often refer to the “intuition behind a proof”. The intuition
serves to grease the wheels of your understanding of the proof as it were. The intuitive
stories that accompany mathematical proofs are important to the development of
mathematics. If you have a proof, though, and you say only that you have an intuition
that the result proven is true, it would be a little like saying you “hope” you can get a
sandwich for lunch, when you already have your sandwich. It might be correct, but it
will seem odd. So, if someone mentions only an intuition and not a proof, it tends to
imply that it’s merely an intuition without an accompanying demonstration.

Intuitions sometimes come in the form of a “heuristic”, which is a kind of

approximation to the truth. The prime numbers for example are not random, but they
are a little bit like they are random. There are some results which seem intuitive
because for them to be false, the primes would have to behave in an unusual non-
random way.

For example, the Goldbach conjecture says that each even number greater than 2 is a sum
of two primes. We can check that this is true for small even numbers. It seems intuitive
that it is true, and we have a heuristic as to how many different ways that an even
number can be written as a sum of two primes. It is not just that each even number
greater than 2 is a sum of two primes, but that they can be written as a sum of two
primes in an increasing number of different ways as the number increases.

Certainty is almost never absolute, although in mathematics it’s possible to come

close. Relative certainty is the likelihood of something being close to 100%.

Self-Assessment
2. In your own words, explain the difference of intuition, proof, and
certainty.

3.2.3. Problem Solving Strategy: Potya’s 4-step in Problem Solving

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was
George Polya (1887–1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States
in 1940. The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the
following four steps.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 43

1. Understand the Problem

This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. To solve a
problem, the first step is that you must have a clear understanding of the
problem. Consider the following guide questions. These would serve as a
guide in helping you understand the problem.
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
 Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve
the problem?
 Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the
problem?
 What is the goal?

2. Devise a Plan
Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to
solve a problem. Here are some frequently used procedures.
 Make a list of the known information.
 Make a list of information that is needed.
 Draw a diagram.
 Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
 Make a table or a chart.
 Work backwards.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
 Look for a pattern.
 Write an equation. If necessary, defi ne what each variable represents.
 Perform an experiment.
 Guess at a solution and then check your result.

3. Carry Out the Plan

Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
 Work carefully.
 Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 44

 Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you
may have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan.
4. Review the Solution
Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
 Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
 Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that
could apply to other problems.

Example: Apply Potya’s Strategy

Consider the map shown below. Allison wishes to walk along the streets from
point A to point B. How many direct routes can Allison take?

Solution:
Understand the Problem
We would not be able to answer the question if Allison retraced her path or
traveled away from point B. Thus, we assume that on a direct route, she always
travels along a street in a direction that gets her closer to point B.

Devise a Plan
The map in figure given has many extraneous
details. Thus, we make a diagram that allows us
to concentrate on the essential information.
See the figure at the right. Because there are
many routes, we consider the similar but simpler
diagrams.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 45

The number at each street intersection

represents the number of routes from point A
to that particular intersection.

Look for patterns. It appears that the number

of routes to an intersection is the sum of the
number of routes to the adjacent intersection
to its left and the number of routes to the intersection directly above. For
instance, the number of routes to the intersection labeled 6 is the sum of the
number of routes to the intersection to its left, which is 3, and the number of
routes to the intersection directly above, which is also 3.

Carry Out the Plan

Using the pattern discovered above, we see from
the figure at the left that the number of routes from
point A to point B is 20 + 15 = 35.

Review the Solution

Ask yourself whether a result of 35 seems
reasonable. If you were required to draw each
route, could you devise a scheme that would
enable you to draw each route without missing a
route or duplicating a route?

Example: Apply Potya’s Strategy

A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders
could they have two wins and two losses in four games?
Solution:
Understand the Problem
There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight games
and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two games and won
the last two (LLWW). Of course, there are other possibilities, such as WLWL.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 46

Devise a Plan
We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is a
list that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders
will be listed once and only once.

Carry Out the Plan

Each entry in our list must contain two W and two L. We will use a strategy
that makes sure each order is considered, with no duplications. One such
strategy is to always write a W unless doing so will produce too many Ws or a
duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it is not possible to write a W, then
and only then do we write an L.

This strategy produces the six different orders shown below.

1. WWLL (Start with two wins)
2. WLWL (Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (Start with two losses)

Review the Solution

We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list considers
all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which
a baseball team can win exactly two out of four games.

Example: Apply Potya’s Strategy

The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are
the same age. What are the ages of the teenagers?

Solution:
Understand the Problem
We need to determine three distinct counting numbers, from the list 13, 14, 15,
16, 17, 18, and 19, that have a product of 4590. We started from 13 since it
known that a teenager ranges from ages 13-19.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 47

Devise a Plan
If we represent the ages by x, y, and z, then xyz = 4590. We are unable to solve
this equation, but we notice that 4590 ends in a zero. Hence, 4590 has a factor
of 2 and a factor of 5, which means that at least one of the numbers we seek
must be an even number and at least one number must have 5 as a factor. The
only number in our list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus 15 is one of the numbers,
and at least one of the other numbers must be an even number. At this point
we try to solve by guessing and checking.

Carry Out the Plan

15 ∙ 16 ∙ 18 = 4320 No. This product is too small.
15 ∙ 16 ∙ 19 = 4560 No. This product is too small.
15 ∙ 17 ∙ 18 = 4590 Yes. This is the correct product.

The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.

Review the Solution

Because 15 ∙ 17 ∙ 18 = 4590 and each of the ages represents the age of a
teenager, we know our solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and
19 is a factor (divisor) of 4590, so there are no other solutions.

Self-Assessment
Apply Potya’s 4 step strategy to the following problems:
3. A true-false quiz contains five questions. In how many ways can a
student answer the questions if the student answers two of the
questions with “false” and the other three with “true”?
4. If six people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with
one another, how many handshakes will take place?
5. Melody picks a number. She doubles the number, squares the
result, divides the square by 3, subtracts 30 from the quotient, and
gets 18. What are the possible numbers that Melody could have
picked? What operation does Melody perform that prevents us
from knowing with 100% certainty which number she picked?
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 48

Self-Assessment
Apply Potya’s 4 step strategy to the following problem:
6. Nothing is known about the personal life of the ancient Greek
mathematician Diophantus except for the information in the
following epigram. “Diophantus passed 1/6 of his life in
childhood, 1/12 in youth, and 1/7 more as a bachelor. Five years
after his marriage was born a son who died four years before his
father, at 1/2 his father’s (final) age.”

How old was Diophantus when he died? (Hint: Although an

equation can be used to solve this problem, the method of
guessing and checking will probably require less effort. Also
assume that his age, when he died, is a counting number.)

3.2.4. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

There are problems that follow certain patterns and upon unlocking or cracking these
patterns we can know predict what will happen or what will be the possible outcome.

Consider the list of ordered numbers below:

5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...

This list of numbers is known as sequence. The numbers that are separated by
commas are called terms of a sequence (e.g. in the above sequence, 5 is the first term,
14 is the second term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth
term). The three dots “…” means that the sequence continues beyond 65.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 49

It is customary to use the subscript notation an to designate the nth term of a sequence.

In the previous sequence, 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...

𝑎1 = 5 𝑎2 = 14 𝑎3 = 27 𝑎4 = 44 𝑎5 = 65

When we examine a sequence, it is natural to ask:

 What is the next term?
 What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?

To answer these questions, we often construct a difference table, which shows the
differences between successive terms of the sequence.

Example: Difference Table

The following table is a difference table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...

Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference between the two closest
numbers just above it (upper right number minus upper left number). The differences
in row (1) are called the first differences of the sequence. In this case, the first
differences are all the same.

Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict the next number in the sequence,
we predict that 14 + 3 =17 is the next term of the sequence. This prediction might be
wrong; however, the pattern shown by the first differences seems to indicate that each
successive term is 3 larger than the preceding term.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 50

Example: Difference Table

The following table is a difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...

In this table, the first differences are not all the same. In such a situation it is often
helpful to compute the successive differences of the first differences. These are shown
in row (2). These differences of the first differences are called the second differences.
The differences of the second differences are called the third differences.

To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a pattern in a row of
differences. For instance, in the following table, the second differences shown in blue
are all the same constant, namely 4. If the pattern continues, then a 4 would also be
the next second difference, and we can extend the table to the right as shown.

Now we work upward. That is, we add 4 to the first difference 21 to produce the next
first difference, 25. We then add this difference to the fifth term, 65, to predict that 90
is the next term in the sequence. This process can be repeated to predict additional
terms of the sequence.

Self-Assessment
7. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence. 2, 7, 24, 59,
118, 207, ...
8. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence. 1, 14, 51,
124, 245, 426, ...
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 51

In the previous examples, we used a difference table to predict the next term of a
sequence. In some cases, we can use patterns to predict a formula, called an nth-term
formula, that generates the terms of a sequence.

Example: Using nth-term formula

The sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114 follows the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛. Find the 40th term.

Solution:

To find the 40th term, replace each n in the formula given with 40.
𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛
𝑎40 = 3(40)2 + 40 = 4840

Example: Finding nth-term formula

Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the
sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?

Solution:
1. Examine the figures for patterns. Note that the second figure has two tiles on
each of the horizontal sections and one tile between the horizontal sections. The
third figure has three tiles on each horizontal section and two tiles between the
horizontal sections. The fourth figure has four tiles on each horizontal section
and three tiles between the horizontal sections.
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 52

Thus, the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two groups of n plus a
group of n less one. That is,
𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 1

2. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the sequence is:

𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 1
𝑎8 = 3(8) − 1
𝑎8 = 23
3. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we solve the
equation
𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 1
320 = 3𝑛 − 1
320 + 1 = 3𝑛
320 + 1 3𝑛
=
3 3
107 = 𝑛

The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.

Self-Assessment
9. Assume that the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following
figure continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth
figure of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the tenth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 419 tiles?
 2 | Mathematics in the Modern World 53

Assessment
Exercise No.3:
Answer all the self-check questions in this unit and write/encode it into a sheet
of bond paper (Long).

Quiz No. 2:
1. Construct a difference table to predict the next term of each sequence.
a. 1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, ...
b. -1, 4, 21, 56, 115, 204, ...
c. 9, 4, 3, 12, 37, 84, ...
2. Use the given nth-term formula to compute the first five terms of the
sequence.

a.
b.
3. Determine the nth-term formula for the number of square tiles in the nth
figure.

a.

b.

3.3. References

Aufmann, R., Lockwood, J., Nation, R., et.al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern
World. Philippine Edition. Rex Bookstore.

Aufmann, R., Lockwood, J., Nation, R., and Clegg, K. (2013). Mathematical
Excursions, 3rd Edition. Cengage Learning.

Ramsay, K. (2020). What are mathematical intuition, proof, and certainty? From
https://www.quora.com/What-are-mathematical-intuition-proof-and-
certainty

3.4. Acknowledgement

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.
6700