Internal Combustion Engines

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Internal Combustion Engines

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Internal Combustion Engines

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Internal Combustion Engines
Heavy Duty IC Engines
Euro 6, turbocharged Diesel engine. Cursor 11, FPT-CNH (11 L capacity)

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Internal Combustion Engines
SI engine, nat. aspirated, high performance
(12 cyl, V, Lamborghini)
Spark-ignition
SI engine,combustion
ignition process
Diesel engine injector

Diesel fuel injector, high pressure (2000 bar), common rail system.
IC engines for motorcycles
IC engines for outdoor equipments
IC engines for passenger cars
IC engines for trucks
IC engines for industrial vehicles
IC engines for marine propulsion
IC engines for marine propulsion
IC-engines: classification
IC engines for electricity production
How many engines per year in the world?
Around 230 millions…
SI engine, how does it work?
IC engine, is it an old
technology?
CI engine, how does it work?
IC engines: development will never stop!
Continuous development of IC engines
required during the next decades…
Efficiency increase Pollutant emission control

Combustion systems After-treatment

Direct injection Alternative fuels

Downsizing Waste heat recovery

New York in the end of 1800…

Carriages and horses

Forecast of mid-long term market share

The total number of light vehicles in the world will likely increase by 50-60% in 2040.

(From 98 to 140-160 millions

Source: ExxonMobil, Energy Outlook (2019) of light vehicles in 2040)

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Forecast of mid-long term market share
Forecast of mid-long term market share

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Hybrid and electric vehicles
Electrified vs. electric vehicles

‘Electrified’ vehicle vs. ‘electric’ vehicle,

big difference:
‘Electrified’: IC engine on-board
Electrified vs. electric vehicles

‘Electrified’ vehicle vs. ‘electric’ vehicle,

big difference:
‘Electric’: only batteries and
motor on-board
CO2 emissions: EU regulatory framework

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The target of 60 g/km CO2 for the fleet of new

passenger cars in 2030 can be achieved only by the
significant contribution of “zero” emission vehicles
(this “zero” is dictated by the current “tank-to-wheel”
EU regulation, is not real).
Automotive propulsion systems:
Thermal engines, electric motors,
electrified vehicles

«electric revolution»,
«disruptive electrification»,
«transition to electric mobility»…

The most likely scenario is that the «transition to electric mobility» finally will
result in a «transition to 25-30% of electric mobility», whereas the rest of light
vehicles will use an advanced IC engine in hybrid/electrified configurations (that
do not represent only a «transition» solution).

Actually 25-30% of BEV is an opportunity but also a real challenge…

Automotive propulsion systems:
Thermal engines, electric motors,
electrified vehicles

The electric mobility is

not «the future», is
«part of the future»

The most likely scenario is that the «transition to electric mobility» finally will
result in a «transition to 25-30% of electric mobility», whereas the rest of light
vehicles will use an advanced IC engine in hybrid/electrified configurations (that
do not represent only a «transition» solution).

Actually 25-30% of BEV is an opportunity but also a real challenge…

Automotive propulsion systems:
Thermal engines, electric motors,
electrified vehicles

The electric vehicle is not

«the solution», is «part of
the solution».

The most likely scenario is that the «transition to electric mobility» finally will
result in a «transition to 25-30% of electric mobility», whereas the rest of light
vehicles will use an advanced IC engine in hybrid/electrified configurations (that
do not represent only a «transition» solution).

Actually 25-30% of BEV is an opportunity but also a real challenge…

Automotive propulsion systems:
Thermal engines, electric motors,
electrified vehicles

The IC engine is not «the

problem», can help to
solve the problem

The most likely scenario is that the «transition to electric mobility» finally will
result in a «transition to 25-30% of electric mobility», whereas the rest of light
vehicles will use an advanced IC engine in hybrid/electrified configurations (that
do not represent only a «transition» solution).

Actually 25-30% of BEV is an opportunity but also a real challenge…

Automotive propulsion systems:
Thermal engines, electric motors,
electrified vehicles
Remember the goal:
decarbonization of the
transport sector by
2050, with zero impact
pollutant emissions

The most likely scenario is that the «transition to electric mobility» finally will
result in a «transition to 25-30% of electric mobility», whereas the rest of light
vehicles will use an advanced IC engine in hybrid/electrified configurations (that
do not represent only a «transition» solution).

Actually 25-30% of BEV is an opportunity but also a real challenge…

IC engines: zero impact emissions

Euro 6Dtemp
Euro 6D
Euro 7

(AVL)
CO2 zero emission vehicles
+ CO2 Synthetic fuel E-FUEL ICE
(e-fuel)
Waste to fuel
Bio-fuel

BEV

Renewable electricity

H2 FUEL CELL
Electrolysis
Synthetic fuels (e-fuels):
“carbon neutral”

(FEV)
 History of the Internal Combustion Engine

1700s - Steam engines (external combustion engines)

1858 - Barsanti & Matteucci’s engine (opposed pistons)

1860 - Lenoir engine (h = 5%)

1867 - Otto-Langen engine (h = 11%, 90 RPM max.)

1876 - Otto four stroke “spark ignition” engine (h = 14%, 160 RPM)

1880s - Two stroke engine

1892 - Diesel four stroke “compression ignition” engine (h = 25%, 180 RPM)

1957 - Wankel “rotary” engine

“Fire engine”by Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519)

Bore = 0.6 m
Stroke = 6 m
Height = 21 m

Mass = 1600 kg
Gunpowder = 0.22 kg
 Barsanti & Matteucci’s engine (opposed pistons), 1858

The first IC engine was invented by Barsanti & Matteucci. It was based on an
opposed piston lay-out. Global efficiency was around 14%.
Later on, in 1860, Lenoir built a similar engine with a global efficiency of 4%.
This engine, supported by the French government, had a big success and was
realized in 500 units.
In 1867 Otto & Langen presented an engine equivalent to that of
Barsanti & Matteuci at the International Exposition in Paris.
The global efficiency was around 12% and was very successful.
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Historical IC Engines

FLYWHEEL

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 Ideal thermodynamic Cycles

• Air-standard analysis is used to perform elementary analyses

of IC engine cycles.

• Simplifications to the real cycle include:

1) Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid
2) Duration of combustion process not considered
3) Intake and exhaust processes not considered
4) Engine friction and heat losses not considered
5) Specific heats independent of temperature

• The two types of reciprocating engine cycles analyzed are:

1) Spark ignition – Otto cycle
2) Compression ignition – Diesel cycle

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 Four stroke Spark Ignition (SI) Engine

Stroke 1: Fuel-air mixture introduced into cylinder through intake

valve
Stroke 2: Fuel-air mixture compressed
Stroke 3: Combustion (roughly constant volume) occurs and
product gases expand doing work
Stroke 4: Product gases pushed out of the cylinder through the
exhaust valve
Fuel has enough time to mix with air
FUEL therefore it is termed as well-mix mixture
A
I Ignition
R

Fuel/Air
Mixture Combustion
Products

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke

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 Ideal Otto cycle (air-standard)

Process 1→ 2 Isentropic compression

Process 2 → 3 Constant volume heat addition
Process 3 → 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 → 1 Constant volume heat rejection

Compression ratio:
v1 v4
r= =
v2 v3
Qin

Qout

v2 v1
BC TC BC
TC 58
 Actual SI Engine cycle
Pressure-Volume Graph 4-stroke SI engine

One power stroke for every two crank shaft revolutions

+work
Pressure Spark

Exhaust valve
Exhaust opens
valve
closes

1 atm Intake valve

-work
closes
Intake
valve
opens

TC BC

Cylinder volume 59
 First Law Analysis of Otto Cycle

1→2 Isentropic Compression AIR

Q W
(u 2 − u1 ) = − (− in )
m m
Win
= (u2 − u1 ) = cv (T2 − T1 )
m
k −1
T2  v1  k −1
P2 T2 v1
= 
=   =r P1 T1 v2
T1  v2 

2→3 Constant Volume Heat Addition

Qin W
(u3 − u 2 ) = (+ )− Qin
m m AIR
TC
Qin
= (u3 − u2 ) = cv (T3 − T2 )
m
P3 T3
= 60
P2 T2
3 → 4 Isentropic Expansion
Q W
(u 4 − u3 ) = − (+ out ) AIR
m m
Wout
= (u3 − u4 ) = cv (T3 − T4 )
m
k −1
T4  v3  1 P4 T4 v3
=   = = 
T3  v4  r k −1 P3 T3 v4

4 → 1 Constant Volume Heat Removal

Qout W
(u1 − u 4 ) = (− )−
m m AIR Qout
Qout
= (u4 − u1 ) = cv (T4 − T1 ) BC
m
P4 P1
=
T4 T1 61
 First Law Analysis Parameters

Net cycle work:

Wcycle = Wout − Win = m(u3 − u4 ) − m(u2 − u1 )

Cycle thermal efficiency:

Wcycle (u3 − u4 ) − (u2 − u1 ) = (u3 − u2 ) − (u4 − u1 ) = 1 − u4 − u1

hth = =
Qin (u3 − u2 ) u3 − u 2 u3 − u 2
cv (T4 − T1 ) T 1
= 1− = 1 − 1 = 1 − k −1
cv (T3 − T2 ) T2 r

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 Effect of Compression Ratio on Thermal Efficiency

1
hth = 1−
const cV r k −1
r is mostly not more than 11 due to auto-ignition.
Auto-ignition is the combustion of fuel during the
Typical SI compression stroke so by the time spark is lit some
engines of the fuel is already burnt.
9 < r < 11 This can also lead to knocking in which some of the
fuel is ignited by compression AFTER the spark is lit,
which means that at that moment some fuel is being
ignitedk by
= 1.4
spark (through the propagation of flame
front) while some due to compression.

• Spark ignition engine compression ratio is limited by T3 (autoignition)

and P3 (material strength), both ~rk

• For r = 8 the efficiency is 56% which is twice the actual indicated value
Effect of Specific Heat Ratio on Thermal Efficiency

1
hth = 1 −
r k −1

Specific heat
ratio (k)

Cylinder temperatures vary between 20°C and 2000°C, so 1.2 < k < 1.4
k = 1.3 most representative
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 Factors Affecting Work per Cycle
The net cycle work of an engine can be increased by either:
i) increasing the r (1’→2)
ii) increasing Qin (2→3”)

3’’
P

3 (ii)
4’’
Qin 4
Wcycle
4’
2
(i)

1
1’

V2 V1
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 Diesel engine:
Four stroke Compression Ignition (CI) Engine

Stroke 1: Air is introduced into cylinder through intake valve

Stroke 2: Air is compressed
Stroke 3: Combustion (roughly constant pressure) occurs and
product gases expand doing work
Stroke 4: Product gases pushed out of the cylinder through the
exhaust valve Fuel doesn't have enough time to mix with air
therefore it is termed as not well-mix mixture
A
I Fuel Injector
R

Air Combustion
Products

Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Stroke Stroke Stroke Stroke
There will be no knocking because it only occurs in
well-mixed mixtures. Here even though the fuel is
ignited by compression there will be no knocking.
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 Ideal Diesel cycle

Process 1→ 2 Isentropic compression

Process 2 → 3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3 → 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 → 1 Constant volume heat rejection

Cut-off ratio:
Qin
v3
rc =
v2

Qout

v2 v1
TC BC
TC BC
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 First Law Analysis of Diesel Cycle

Equations for processes 1→2, 4→1 are the same as those presented
for the Otto cycle.

2→3 Constant Pressure Heat Addition AIR

Qin
Qin P2 (V3 − V2 )
(u3 − u 2 ) = (+ )−
m m
Qin
= (u3 + P3v3 ) − (u 2 + P2 v2 )
m
Qin
= (h3 − h2 ) = c p (T3 − T2 )
m

RT2 RT3 T v
P= = → 3 = 3 = rc
v2 v3 T2 v2

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3 → 4 Isentropic Expansion
Q W
(u 4 − u3 ) = − (+ out ) AIR
m m
Wout
= (u3 − u4 ) = cv (T3 − T4 )
m
v4 v4 v2 v1 v2 r
note v4=v1 so =  =  =
v3 v2 v3 v2 v3 rc

P4 v4 P3v3 P T r
= → 4 = 4 c
T4 T3 P3 T3 r

k −1 k −1
T4  v3  r 
=   = c 
T3  v4  r

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 Thermal Efficiency

Qout m u4 − u1 Combustion Ratio

h Diesel = 1− = 1−
cycle Qin m h3 − h2

For cold air-standard the above reduces to:

h Diesel = 1 − k −1  
(
1  1 rck − 1  ) hOtto = 1 −
1
(
r  k rc − 1 

) r k −1

Note the term in the square bracket is always larger than 1, so for the
same compression ratio, r, the Diesel cycle has a lower thermal efficiency
than the Otto cycle.
usually r ~= 18 as we need high compression to ignite the fuel
Note: CI engine needs higher r compared to SI engine to ignite the fuel

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 Thermal Efficiency

At higher compression ratio the

diesel engine is more efficient
than spark-ignition engine

Typical CI
engines:
15 < r < 20

When rc (= v3/v2)→1 the Diesel cycle efficiency approaches the

efficiency of the Otto cycle 71
 Thermal Efficiency

Thermal Efficiency
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WRFt2l9XyWE