Internal Combustion Engines MEng 4167

1
1. Introduction
An Automobile (A Motor Vehicle):- is a land vehicle (a moving machine
or system), which can develop its own power and used to transport
passengers, goods or can be used for other applications.
Automotive (Motor Vehicle) engineering:- is that branch of engineering
concerned with the design and construction of automobiles. It combines:
mechanical engineering, vehicle dynamics, engine design and drive train
design to form a subject that deals with all aspects of vehicle design.

Automotive (Motor Vehicle) engineers:- are professionals, concerned

with the design and construction of automobiles. 2
1. Introduction…
Automobile

Chassis Body

Engine Power Running Ride Control Electrical Accessories

Train Gear Systems Systems

Mechanisms Systems
• Crank gear • Starting
• Valve gear • Intake
• Fuel
• Ignition
• Exhaust
• Charging
• Lubrication
• Cooling 3
1. Introduction…
Engine:- consists of: Mechanisms and Systems.
Power Train (Transmission):- consists of: the Clutch, Gear box,
Universal joint, Propeller shaft, Final drive (Differential), Wheel and Tyre.
Running gear:- consists of: the Frame, Suspension (leaf springs or
springs and shock absorbers) and Axle.
Ride Control systems:- consists of: the Steering and Braking systems.
Electrical systems:- consists of: the Starting, Ignition, Charging, Lighting
and Horn circuits.
Accessories:- consist of: Indicators(on the dash board), Radio, Air
Conditioner (Heating and Cooling systems), Windscreen wiper, etc.

Some component parts of an automobile chassis. 4

1. Introduction…
In the discussion of thermodynamics, machines were classified as:
• work developing (eg:- turbines, engines,…),
• work absorbing (eg:- pumps, compressors, blowers, fans,…),
• non-work developing and absorbing ( eg:- nozzles, heat exchangers,
…).

5
1. Introduction…
A Heat Engine:- is a work developing machine which is used to convert
the chemical energy of a fuel into heat (thermal) energy and then to
mechanical energy.

Heat Engine

External Combustion (EC) Internal Combustion (IC)

Reciprocating Rotary Gas turbines

(Wankel
)
SI (Gasoline)
CI (Diesel)

Two-stroke Four-stroke Two-stroke Four-stroke

7
8
Continued…..

9
1. Introduction…
Historical developments of IC engines and Automobiles
The history of IC engines dating back as far as 17 th century. Most of these
early engines were steam-driven prototypes which never became practically
operating vehicle engines. Major development of modern engine and
railroad locomotives occurred in the second half of the 19 th century.
Accordingly,
In 1860, the first fairly practical engine was built by J.J.E. Lenoir (a French
engineer).The Lenoir cycle is approximated by an ideal (air-standard) cycle
as shown on a p-v diagram.
During the first half of the stroke (process
1-2), air and fuel entering the cylinder at
atmospheric pressure. At point 2, the
intake valve is closed, air-fuel mixture is
ignited without any compression and
combustion commences in the slow
moving engine (process 2-3). Then, the
piston expands during expansion stroke
(process 3-4).
10
1. Introduction…
Historical developments of IC engines and Automobiles…
Near BDC, the exhaust valve is opened and
blowdown is taking place (process 4-5). This is
followed by displacement (process 5-1) to
complete a two-stroke cycle in one revolution.
Hence, process 1-2-3-4-5 is the first stroke (from
TDC towards BDC) and process 5-1 is the
second stroke (from BDC towards TDC).
In this engine, there is no clearance volume.

At that time, several hundreds of

such engines were built with power
output up to about 4.5 kW (6 HP)
and mechanical efficiency of about
5 %.

The Lenoir non-compression engine. 11

1. Introduction…
Historical developments of IC engines and Automobiles…
In 1867, E.Langen and N.A.Otto (German engineers) were built an
atmospheric engine with the power stroke propelled by atmospheric
pressure acting against a vacuum. The mechanical efficiency of this engine
was about 11 % (which was better than Lenoir’s engine).
In 1876, N.A.Otto (a German engineer) was built a four-stroke engine
known as “Otto cycle” with an efficiency of about 14 %.
In 1866, D.Clerk was built the first two-stroke engine.
In 1885, Bery was built a one cycle, four-stroke engine and fitted into a
vehicle.
In 1885, G.Daimler was built a vertical cylinder engine with a carburetor.

In 1890, W.Maybach was built the first four-cylinder, four-stroke engine.

In 1892, Rudolf Diesel (a German engineer) was built the first four-stroke
compression ignition engine known as “Diesel cycle”.
In 1957, Wankel was built the first rotary engine. 12
1. Introduction…
Historical developments of IC engines and Automobiles…

13
1. Introduction…
Historical developments of IC engines and Automobiles…

14
1. Introduction…
Main Component parts of IC engines
1. Valve
2. Cylinder
3. Cylinder head
4. Piston rings
5. Piston
6. Connecting rod
7. Flywheel
8. Cylinder block
9. Crankshaft
10.Main bearings
11.Timing gear

15
Cross-section (Full-sectional view) of an IC engine

16
1. Introduction…
Areas of applications of IC engines
IC engines are used:
a) to propel a vehicle (automobiles, trucks, locomotives, ships,
airplanes, etc.).
b) to run stationary engines which are used to drive generators or
used for other applications.
Classification of Reciprocating IC Engines
Reciprocating IC engines can be classified in a number of different ways:
1. Types of Ignition
a) Spark Ignition (SI)
b) Compression Ignition (CI)
2. Engine stroke
a) Four-stroke
b) Two-stroke

17
1. Introduction…
Engine classification…
3. Valve train arrangements
a) Over Head Valve (OHV)
b) Over Head Camshaft (OHC)
c) Double Over Head Cam (DOHC)
4. Number of Cylinders
a) Single cylinder
b) Multi-cylinder
5. Cylinder arrangements
a) In-Line
b) V Engine
c) Opposed cylinder engine
d) Opposed piston engine
e) Radial engine
6. Air Intake Process
a) Naturally aspirated
b) Supercharged
c) Crankcase compressed
18
1. Introduction…
Engine classification…
7. Method of Fuel Input
a) Carburetor
b) Fuel Injection
8. Fuel used
a) Gasoline
b) Diesel Oil
c) LPG, Natural Gas, Methane
d) Alcohol (Ethyl, Methyl)
e) Dual(mixed) fuel
f) Gasohol
g) Biodiesel fuel(Vegetable oil)
9. Type of cooling
a) Air Cooled
b) Liquid Cooled (Water Cooled)

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1. Introduction…
IC Engine Terminologies (Nomenclature)

• Bore(d) • Clearance volume(vc)

• TDC • Cylinder volume(v)
• BDC • Compression ratio(r)
• Stroke(s) • indicated mean effective pressure (imep)
•Swept volume(vs) 20
1. Introduction…
Measurement of indicated mean effective pressure (imep) using a
high speed engine indicator.

21
1. Introduction…
Engine Nomenclature…
Determination of imep from the indicator diagram
The area of an indicator diagram can be calculated with sufficient accuracy
by the mid-ordinate rule.
Mid-Ordinate rule
1. Divide the horizontal length of the
indicator diagram into a number of equal
parts (say 10).
2. Mid way between each vertical, erect
parallel mid-ordinate: ab,cd,ef, etc.
3. Then, the mean height is given by,
sum of mid ordinates
mean height of diagram 
number of mid ordinates
ab  cd  ef  ...
mean height of diagram 
number of mid ordinates

4. Finally, the imep is given by,

imep  mean height of diagram  multiplying factor ( such as : spring scale number)
Note:- The unit of mean height should match the units of spring number.22
1. Introduction…
Mechanisms and Systems of IC Engines

IC Engines

Mechanisms Systems
• Crank gear • Starting
• Valve gear • Intake
• Fuel
• Ignition
• Exhaust
• Charging
• Lubrication
• Cooling

Question:- What is the first operation to drive a car ?

Answer:- ‘Starting’ by turning the ignition switch to “Start” position.
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1. Introduction…
Mechanisms of an IC Engine
The mechanisms of an IC engine are:
•The Crank gear mechanism:- consists of:
the cylinder, cylinder head, piston, piston
rings (compression and oil control rings),
piston pin, connecting rod, crankshaft,
bearings, flywheel and vibration damper.
•The Valve gear mechanism:- consists of:
the camshaft, cam, follower, push rod,
rocker arm assembly and valve assembly.
The two mechanisms are connected by
means of a gear or chain or toothed belt
drive. As a result, power is transmitted from
the crankshaft to the camshaft to actuate
the valve(s).

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1. Introduction…
Valve timing diagram
The valve timing diagram:- shows the opening and closing of intake (In.)
and exhaust (Ex.) valves with reference to the crankshaft position or crank
angle.
Note:- In a four-stroke engine the camshaft is rotating at half the speed of
the crankshaft.

25
1. Introduction…
The opening and closing points of valves on a P- , P-v and Cam lift
diagram.

P-  diagram

26
P-v diagram Cam lift diagram
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines
1. Starting system
STARTING SYSTEM

• Battery
• Cables (Wires)
• Ignition Switch
• Starter motor
• Ring gear at flywheel

Group or Peer discussion

1. Explain the purpose of the
starting system.
2. Name the component parts
in their right order of
energy(current) flow.
3. Discuss the principle of
operation.
27
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
2. Intake system
INTAKE SYSTEM

• Air cleaner (Filter)

• Carburetor (Diesel: has no
carburetor ! )
• Intake manifold
• Intake valve
Group or Peer discussion
1. Explain the purpose of the
intake system.
2. Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(air) flow.
3. Discuss the principle of
operation.

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1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
3. Fuel system ( for Gasoline engines)
FUEL SYSTEM
( Gasoline – with Carburetor)

• Fuel tank with strainer

• Fuel line or pipe
• Fuel pump
• Fuel filter
• Carburetor

Group or Peer discussion

1. Explain the purpose of the
fuel system.
2. Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(fuel) flow.
3. Discuss the principle of
operation.
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1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
3. Fuel system ( for Diesel engines) FUEL SYSTEM
(Diesel Engine)

• Fuel tank with strainer

• Fuel line or pipe
• Fuel feed pump
• Fuel filter(s)
• Injection pump
• Fuel lines
• Injection nozzles
Group or Peer discussion
1. Explain the purpose of the
fuel system.
2. Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(fuel) flow.
3. Discuss the principle of
operation. 30
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines… IGNITION SYSTEM
( SI engines - Conventional)
4. Ignition system
• Battery
• Cables (Wires)
• Ignition switch
• Ignition coil
• High tension cable (h.t)
• Distributor
• Spark plugs

Group or Peer discussion

1. Explain the purpose of the
ignition system.
2. Name the component parts
in their right order of
energy(current) flow.
3. Discuss the principle of
operation.
31
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
5. Exhaust system
EXHAUST SYSTEM

• Exhaust valve
• Exhaust manifold
• Exhaust pipe
• Catalytic converter
• Muffler (Silencer)
• Tail pipe
Group or Peer discussion
1. Explain the purpose of the
exhaust system.
2. Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(exhaust gas) flow.
3. Discuss the principle of
operation.
32
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
6. Charging system
CHARGING SYSTEM

• Battery
• Cables (Wires)
• Ignition switch
• Alternator
• Regulator

Group or Peer discussion

1. Explain the purpose of the
charging system.
2. Name the component parts
in their right order of
energy(current) flow.
3. Discuss the principle of
operation.
33
1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines…
7. Lubrication system
LUBRICATION SYSTEM

• Oil sump
• Strainer
• Oil pump
• Oil filter
• Gallery (oil passages)
• Lubrication points
Group or Peer discussion
1. Explain the purpose of the
lubrication system.
2. Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(oil) flow.
3. Discuss the principle of
operation.
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1. Introduction…
Systems of IC engines… COOLING SYSTEM
( Liquid cooled )
8. Cooling system
• Cooling fan
• Radiator
• Lower hose
• Water pump
• Water jacket (passages)
• Thermostat
• Upper hose
• Radiator cap
Group or Peer discussion
1. Explain the purpose of the
cooling system.
2. Name the component parts
in their right order of
fluid(coolant) flow.
3. Discuss the principle of
operation.
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Four-stroke and Two-stroke engines
FOUR STROKE GASOLINE ENGINE

36
1. Introduction…
Four-stroke and Two-stroke engines…

Four-stroke CI engine cycle of operation

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Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle of Operation

38
1. Introduction…
Two-stroke CI engine cycle of operation

Brainstorming !
1. What would happen if you refuel a gasoline engine with a diesel oil
and vice versa ? 39
1. Introduction…
Operation of Rotary (Wankel) engines

Rotary engines operate on a four-

stroke cycle but uses a rotor
instead of a piston, connecting
rod and crankshaft to achieve
intake, compression, power, and
exhaust strokes.
Advantages
• Fewer moving parts.
• Rotational motion causes less vibration.
• Slower moving parts.
• Smaller size.
Disadvantages
• Difficult to meet emission regulations.
• More expensive.
• Less fuel efficient.

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1. Introduction…
Comparison of Reciprocating IC engines
Comparison of SI and CI engines
Parameters SI CI
Power and Torque Develops more power but Develops relatively less power
relatively less torque and but more torque and operates
operates over wide speed over narrow speed range due to
range due to shorter stroke. longer stroke (Higher ‘ r ’ ).
Thermal Efficiency (b,th) 20 – 30%, Relatively higher 30 – 40%, Relatively lower fuel
(Fuel Consumption) fuel consumption. consumption.

Emissions Produces HC, CO and NOx. Produces smoke and relatively

Quieter. Good cold starting. higher NOx. Noisy and Poor
cold staring.
Cost Lower initial cost, but more Higher initial cost, but lower
running cost. running cost.
Reliability Relatively less reliable or Relatively more reliable or
durable and needs frequent durable, needs less
maintenance. maintenance.
Safety Higher fire risk due to Lower fire risk due to the
ignition system and highly absence of ignition system and
volatile fuel. less volatile fuel. 41
1. Introduction…
Comparison of Two- and Four-stroke IC engines
Parameters Two-stroke
Power and Torque Develops more power ( double)
for the same engine capacity.
Thermal Efficiency Lower thermal efficiency due to
(Fuel Consumption) larger overlapping of the ports for
effective scavenging and the
scavenging process causes loss of
combustible mixture. Hence, lower
fuel consumption.
Emissions Produces more pollutants due to
the scavenging process.
Noisy due to sudden release of
burned gases. .
Cost Lower initial cost and lighter as it
uses less component parts of valve
gear mechanism.
Four-stroke
Develops less power ( half)
for the same engine capacity.
Relatively higher thermal
efficiency due to shorter
overlapping of the valves.
Hence, lower fuel
consumption.
Produces relatively less
pollutants.
Relatively quieter in operation.
Relatively higher initial cost
and heavier as it uses more
component parts of valve gear
mechanism.
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1. Introduction…
Ex. 1-1
A four-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled, OHC automotive SI (Carburetor)
engine is being designed to provide a maximum brake torque of 95 Nm at
an engine speed of 3500 rpm. The compression ratio is 9.2, brake mean
effective pressure (bmep) 8.85 bar, mechanical efficiency 85%, stroke to
bore ratio 0.9 and crank radius to connecting rod length ratio 0.25.
Determine,
a)the engine capacity (Ec) and swept volume (Vs) in ‘cm3 or cc ‘,
b)bore (d) in ‘mm’,
c)stroke (s) in ‘mm’,
d)clearance volume (Vc) and the cylinder volume (V) in ‘cc’,
e)crank radius (rcr) and connecting rod length ( l ) in ‘mm’.
f)the indicated mean effective pressure (imep) per cylinder in ‘bar’.

Summary 1-1, 1-2, 1-3

Worksheet 1-1
Lab. 1-1
43
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines

Main application areas

of
Thermodynamics

Power cycles Refrigeration cycles

• Refrigerators
• Heat pumps
Vapor power Gas
cycles power cycles
• Gasoline (Otto cycle) or SI engines
• Steam power plants
• Diesel (Diesel cycle) or CI engines
• Nuclear power plants
• Gas turbines (Brayton cycle)
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Two important areas of application of thermodynamics are power
generation and refrigeration.

The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often
called heat engines, and the thermodynamic cycles on which they operate
are called power cycles. Heat engines may also be classified as Internal
Combustion (IC) Engines and External Combustion (EC) Engines
depending on how combustion is taking place.

The devices or systems used to produce a refrigeration effect are called

refrigerators, air conditioners, and also heat pumps, and the cycle on which
they operate are called refrigeration cycles.

Power cycles may also be classified as gas power cycles and vapor power
cycles. In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase
throughout the entire cycle, whereas in vapor cycles the working fluid exists
in the vapor phase during one part of the cycle and in the liquid phase
during another part.

45
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
The main application areas of Gas Power Cycles are in the design and
operation of IC Engines and Gas Turbines.

IC Engines Gas Turbines

Otto cycle * Brayton cycle
Diesel cycle

46
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as: closed and open
cycles. In closed cycles, the working fluid is returned to the initial state at
the end of the cycle and is circulated. In open cycles, the working fluid is
renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being re-circulated. For
instance, in automobile engines the combustion gases are exhausted and
replaced by fresh air-fuel mixture at the end of each cycle. The engine
operates on a mechanical cycle, but the working fluid does not go through
a complete thermodynamic cycle.
Most power producing machines operate in an open cycle. Such cycles in
actual machines are difficult for mathematical modeling because of the
presence of irreversibilities and other losses. Hence, it is better to model
actual cycles by their corresponding ideal (reversible) cycles and later on,
the ideal cycle is made to be resembled the actual cycle in a step-by-step
approach. The conclusions reached from the analysis of ideal cycles are
also appreciably applicable to actual cycles. For instance, the thermal
efficiency of the Otto cycle (a closed cycle) which is the ideal cycle for
spark ignition (SI) automobile engines (an open cycle), increases with the
compression ratio. This is also true for actual automobile engines.
47
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
In gas power cycles, the working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire
cycle. Spark Ignition (SI) engines, Compression Ignition (CI) engines, and
conventional gas turbines are familiar examples of machines that operate
on a gas cycle. In all these engines, energy is provided by burning a fuel
within the system boundaries. That is, they are internal combustion (IC)
engines. Because of this combustion process, the composition of the
working fluid changes from air and fuel to combustion products during the
course of the cycle. Eventhough IC engines operate on a mechanical cycle
(as the piston returns to its starting position at the end of each revolution),
the working fluid does not undergo a complete thermodynamic cycle (as
new fresh mixture is inducted into the engine cylinder at the beginning of
each cycle). Hence, working on an open cycle is the characteristics of all IC
engines.
It is ,therefore, true that the thermodynamic processes of all actual gas
power cycles are complex and are difficult for mathematical modeling. To
reduce the complexity of mathematical modeling of such engines, it is
better to use the Ideal cycle and The Fuel-air cycle.

48
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
The IC engine thermodynamic cycles are:
•Ideal cycles.
•Fuel-air cycles.
•Actual cycles.

Ideal cycles
Ideal or Air-standard cycles:- are idealized cycles in which the working
substance is assumed to be ideal gas.
• use air as the working medium.
• operate in a closed thermodynamic cycle.
• operate in a mechanical cycle.
The most widely used ideal or air-standard cycles for IC engines are:
• The Otto cycle.
• The Diesel cycle.
• The Diesel-Dual cycle.

49
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Ideal (Air-standard) cycle assumptions:

1.The working fluid is a fixed mass of air, which continuously circulates in a

closed cycle and assumed to behaves as an ideal gas.
2.There are no intake and exhaust processes.
3.All processes that make up the cycle are reversible and adiabatic.
4.The combustion process is replaced by a heat addition process from an
external source.
5.The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process that restores
the working fluid to its initial state.
6.The specific heats (cv and cp) of air are assumed to be constant, which
means they do not depend on temperature and pressure.
This simplified model enables engineers to study qualitatively the influence
of major parameters (variables) on the performance of the actual engines.
However, the results obtained from the ideal cycle , such as: temperature
(T), pressure (p), indicated thermal efficiency (i,th), bmep, etc., will greatly
differ compared to the case of actual cycle.

50
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Ideal cycles…
Otto cycle (p-v and T-s Diagrams)
The Otto cycle is the ideal
cycle for Spark Ignition (SI)
reciprocating engines. It is
named after Nikolaus A.Otto,
who built a successful four-
stroke engine in 1876 in
Germany.
The ideal Otto cycle
composed of four reversible
processes: isentropic
compression (1-2), constant
volume instantaneous heat
addition (2-3), isentropic
expansion (3-4) and constant
volume heat rejection (4-1).

51
Group Assignment
1.Show that the indicated thermal efficiency of an OTTO CYCLE is given by,

1
 i ,t h ,O t t o = 1 -  -1
What do you observe and conclude ?
( r )
Ex. 2-1
2. A four-cylinder, four-stroke automotive SI engine working on an Otto cycle has a
cylinder diameter of 85 mm, stroke of 85 mm, develops the net indicated power ( P i )
of 50 kW for a maximum cycle pressure of 75 bar. The pressure and temperature at
the beginning of compression stroke is the same as the ambient condition which is 1
bar and 270C. The compression ratio is 10. Determine,
a) The temperature (K), volume (m3), pressure (bar) and mass (kg) at the end of
each salient (state) points.
b) The net heat and work transfer during the cycle in ‘kJ’ .
c) The net entropy change during the cycle in ‘kJ/K’ .
d) The indicated thermal efficiency (i,th) of the cycle in ‘ % ’.
e) The engine cycle per minute and engine speed in ‘rpm’ .
f) The engine torque in ‘Nm’.
g) The indicated mean effective pressure (imep) developed in ‘bar’ .
52
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Ideal Cycles…
Diesel cycle (p-v and T-s Diagrams)

The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle

for Compression Ignition (CI)
reciprocating engines. It is first
proposed by Rudolf Diesel, a
German engineer in 1892.
The ideal Diesel cycle composed
of four reversible processes:
isentropic compression (1-2),
constant pressure heat addition
(2-3), isentropic expansion (3-4)
and constant volume heat
rejection (4-1).

53
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Ex. 2-2
1.Show that the indicated thermal efficiency of a DIESEL CYCLE is given by,

1  r c  - 1  v3
 i ,t h , D i e s e l = 1 -   W h e r e , rc  is the ' C ut - o ff ' ra tio .
( r ) - 1   (r c - 1 )  v2
2. A four-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled automotive CI engine working on a
Diesel cycle has a cylinder diameter of 85 mm, stroke of 85 mm, develops the net
indicated power ( Pi ) of 50 kW for a maximum cycle pressure of 75 bar. The
pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression stroke is the same as
the ambient condition which is 1 bar and 270C. The compression ratio is 18 and
cut-off ratio 2. Determine,
a) The temperature (K), volume (m3), pressure (bar) and mass (kg) at the end of
each salient (state) points.
b) The net heat and work transfer during the cycle in ‘kJ’ .
c) The net entropy change during the cycle in ‘kJ/K’ .
d) The indicated thermal efficiency (i,th) of the cycle in ‘ % ’.
e) The engine cycle per minute and engine speed in ‘rpm’ .
f) The engine torque in ‘Nm’.
g) The indicated mean effective pressure (imep) developed in ‘bar’ .
54
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Ideal Cycles…
Diesel-Dual Cycle (p-v and T-s Diagrams)
The Diesel-Dual cycle is the ideal cycle
for Compression Ignition (CI)
reciprocating engines. This cycle closely
approximates the behavior of the actual
Diesel engines, because the combustion
process in actual diesel engines occurs
partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure.
The ideal Diesel-Dual cycle composed of
five reversible processes: isentropic
compression (1-2), constant volume heat
addition (2-3), constant pressure heat
addition (3-4), isentropic expansion (4-
5), and constant volume heat rejection
(5-1).

55
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Ex. 2-3
1.Show that the indicated thermal efficiency of a DIESEL-DUAL CYCLE is given by,

1  r p ( rc - 1 )  W here , r p  P 3
 i ,t h , D u a l = 1 -  1   P2
r  (r p - 1 ) +  r p (r c - 1 )  is the ' pressure ratio '.
2. A four-cylinder, four-stroke automotive CI engine working on a Dual cycle has a
cylinder diameter of 85 mm, stroke of 85 mm, develops the net indicated power ( P i
) of 50 kW for a maximum cycle pressure of 75 bar. The pressure and temperature
at the beginning of compression stroke is the same as the ambient condition which
is 1 bar and 270C. The compression ratio is 14, the cut-off ratio is 1.5 and the
pressure ratio 1.8. Determine,
a) The temperature (K), volume (m3), pressure (bar) and mass (kg) at the end of
each salient (state) points.
b) The net heat and work transfer during the cycle in ‘kJ’ .
c) The net entropy change during the cycle in ‘kJ/K’ .
d) The indicated thermal efficiency (i,th) of the cycle in ‘ % ’.
e) The engine cycle per minute and engine speed in ‘rpm’ .
f) The engine torque in ‘Nm’.
g) The indicated mean effective pressure (imep) developed in bar.
Worksheet 2-1
56
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Comparison of Otto, Dual and Diesel cycles
a) For the same: initial condition (p1,v1) and peak pressure (p3).

Which one is
having the
highest i,th ?

b) For the same: initial condition (p1,v1) and compression ratio (r).
Which one is having
the highest i,th ?

Worksheet 2-1
Lab. 2-1

57
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...

Fuel-air cycles
Fuel-air cycles:- are relatively closer to the actual
cycles as compared to the ideal cycles.
• use fuel-air mixture as the working medium.
• operate in an open thermodynamic cycle.
• operate in a mechanical cycle.

The most widely used fuel-air cycles for IC engines are:

• The Otto (Fuel-air) cycle.
• The Diesel (Fuel-air) cycle.
• The Diesel-Dual (Fuel-air) cycle.

58
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Fuel-air Cycle Assumptions:
1.The working fluid is a mixture of Fuel and air, which enter into the engine
cylinder during intake stroke when the intake valve is open at TDC. Hence,
it is a “filling” process.
2.There is an intake and exhaust process.
3.All processes that make up the cycle are irreversible .
4.The combustion process is due to instantaneous chemical reaction.
5.The exhaust gas is a mixture of various gases, which leave the engine
cylinder during exhaust stroke when the exhaust valve is open at BDC.
Hence, it is an “emptying” process.
6.The specific heats (cv and cp) of mixtures are assumed to be constant,
which means they do not depend on temperature and pressure.
This cycle closely resembles to the actual cycles as compared to the ideal
cycle. Hence, this is a one step forward towards the actual cycle
processes and makes the performance evaluation of the actual engine
relatively more reliable. But, its mathematical modeling is not as simple as
the ideal cycle.
59
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Otto (fuel-air) cycle (p-v and T-s Diagrams)

The Otto (fuel-air) cycle

composed of six processes:
constant pressure intake (6-
1), polytropic compression
(1-2), constant volume
(instantaneous) heat addition
(2-3), polytropic expansion
(3-4), constant volume heat
rejection (4-5) and constant
pressure exhaust (5-6).

60
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines (Supercharging)…
Supercharging
An engine that uses normal vacuum to draw in air (air-fuel mixture) is called
normally aspirated (not supercharged). Use of supercharger to deliver an air
or an air-fuel mixture to the engine cylinder at a pressure higher than
atmospheric is called supercharging.

Normally aspirated Supercharged

The amount of air pressurization above the ambient (atmospheric) pressure

61
that a supercharger can deliver is called boost.
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines (Supercharging)…
Consider the analytical relation for the brake power (P b) of an engine.
F
Pb   m  c i ,th  v   a   QLHV  n  Vs  z
A
This shows that one of the parameters which affects the engine brake
power is air density (a). This means the brake power of an engine can be
increased by increasing the air density.
If the inducted air is compressed to a higher density than ambient prior to
entry into the engine cylinder, the maximum power of an engine of a fixed
dimensions can deliver will be increased. This is the primary purpose of
supercharging.
Supercharging can be of:
1. Turbocharging.
2. Mechanical supercharging.
3. Engine-driven compressor and turbocharger.
4. Two-stage turbocharging.
5. Turbocharging with turbocomponding.
6. Turbocharger with intercooler,…
62
Refer:- Reference – 1 (J.B. Heywood ) on page 250.
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines (Supercharging)…
The term supercharger usually applies to an air pressurizing pump which is
driven mechanically by the engine crankshaft through gears or belts or
chains and shafts. These mechanical linkages consume a lot of power from
the engine. AS a result, these types of superchargers are not popular for
passenger car engines.

The term turbocharger applies to a

supercharging device that uses exhaust
gas to turn or drive a turbine to force
more air into the engine cylinder through
a compressor attached to it by a shaft as
shown in the figure.
Turbocharers are widely used in CI
engines than SI engines.
Note:- The shaft of a tupercharger spins
at a speeds of about 50000 to 90000
rpm.
Peer discussion:- Explain the principle of operation of a turbocharger. 63
TURBOCHARGER

64
Advantages of a turbocharger
• Higher (more than 100%) can be
obtained. This increases the torque and
power output of the engine.
• Since the increase in power is as high
as 60%, the engine is smaller and lighter
than the same engine without a
turbocharger.
• Fuel consumption is improved by about
10%.
• Exhaust noise is reduced due to the
smoothing out of the exhaust pulsations.
• Utilization of the energy content
(enthalpy) of exhaust gas.
One of the disadvantage of a turbocharger is,
additional cost and more components. Performance curves for a turbocharged CI
(Diesel) engine. Broken lines represent
a normally aspirated engine.

65
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines (Supercharging)…
Mechanical Supercharger versus Turbocharger

Group discussion:- What is the main difference between the two types of superchargers ?

As it has already been discussed, turbochargers use the energy of

exhaust gas to drive the compressor whereas mechanical superchargers
extract power from the engine to drive the compressor.

66
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines (Supercharging)…
Ex. 2-4
1. A four-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled,1.72 liter CI automotive engine
operates on a Diesel-Dual (air-fuel) cycle at 3000 rpm. The engine has a
compression ratio of 22, a mechanical efficiency of 85% and a stroke to
bore ratio of 1.154. Fuel used is light diesel (C 12H26) with an air-fuel ratio
(A/F) of 18, Lower Heating Value (QLHV) 42.5 MJ/kg and cut-off ratio 1.5.
At the beginning of compression stroke, conditions in the engine
cylinder are 1 bar and 500C and exhaust residual of 2%. It is required to
fit a turbocharger having an adiabatic efficiency of both the turbine and
the compressor 75%. Air is compressed adiabatically in a steady flow
compressor to 1.8 bar. The air is cooled in the intercooler to 37 0C before
entering the engine cylinder. Exhaust gas treated as perfect gas and
throttled to 1.9 bar before entering into the turbine where it expands
adiabatically to ambient pressure. Neglecting all the pressure and
frictional losses and assuming the index of compression and expansion
1.35 and R during the process 0.287 kJ/kgK, determine the additional
work available due to turbocharging.

67
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Fuel-air cycles…
Ex. 2-5
1. A four-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled,1.5 liter automotive SI engine operates
at a Wide Open Throttle (WOT) on an Otto (air-fuel) cycle. It has a compression
ratio of 10, a mechanical efficiency of 85%, a stroke to bore ratio of 0.909 and runs
at 3500 rpm. The fuel used is gasoline (C8H17) with an air-fuel ratio (A/F) of 12 and
Lower Heating Value (QLHV) of 44.5 MJ/kg. At the beginning of compression stroke,
conditions in the the engine cylinder are 1 bar and 600C. Assuming exhaust
residual of 4%. Determine:
a) The volume (m3), temperatures (K) and pressures (bar) at each state (salient
points).
b) The net heat and work transfer during the cycle in ‘kJ’.
c) The change in entropy during the cycle in ‘kJ/K’.
d) The indicated power (Pi) in ‘kW’.
e) The brake power (Pb) in ‘kW’ and in Horse Power ‘(HP)’.
f) The brake torque (Tb) in ‘Nm’.
g) The friction power (Pf) in ‘kW’.
h) The brake thermal efficiency (b,th) in ‘ % ’.
i) The brake mean effective pressure (bmep) in ‘bar’.
j) The brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) in ‘g/kWh’. 68
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Fuel-air cycles…

Assignment 2-1
1. On a p-v diagram, show the Diesel (fuel-air) and Diesel-Dual (fuel-air)
cycle processes,
a) For a Naturally Aspirated (NA) engine with Full load (WOT).
b) For a Naturally Aspirated (NA) engine with Part load.
c) For a Turbocharged engine with Full load (WOT).
d) For a Turbocharged engine with Part load.

Worksheet 2-2

Lab. 2-1

69
Actual cycles
Actual cycles:- are nearly closer to the real cycles obtained
from an ‘engine performance test’ using an ‘Engine Indicator’.
• use fuel-air mixture as the working medium.
• operate in an open thermodynamic cycle.
• operate in a mechanical cycle.

The most widely used actual cycles for IC engines are:

• The Otto (Actual) cycle.
• The Diesel (Actual) cycle.
• The Diesel-Dual (Actual) cycle.

70
Actual cycles…

The actual cycles for IC engines differ from the ideal (air-standard) cycles
and the fuel-air cycles in many respects. The actual cycle performance
and efficiency is much lower than the air-fuel cycle performance and
efficiency due to various losses occurring in the actual engine operation.
The major losses are due to:
1.Variation of specific heats with temperature.
2.Dissociation of the combustion products at high temperature (> 1600 K).
3. Progressive combustion (Time loss).
4. Incomplete combustion of the fuel.
5. Heat transfer (Heat loss).
6. Exhaust blow down loss.
7. Gas exchange process.

In addition to these, Friction, Fluid

flow, Leakage (Blow-by), residual
gases, etc., have to be considered.

71
Actual Cycle

72
Comparison of Ideal and Actual cycles

73
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Actual cycles…
From this one can conclude that the mathematical modeling of actual
cycles are tedious and difficult as it requires an in depth knowledge of:
• Advanced thermodynamics (Chemical thermodynamics).
• Advanced heat transfer.
• Advanced fluid mechanics.
• Advanced mathematics.
• Computer programming (C++, etc.).

Normally Aspirated (WOT) Turbocharged (WOT)

Actual cycles
This part is beyond the scope of this class ! 74
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines... CONTINUED

Engine efficiencies and Performance equations

Engine cycle energy balance
The figure shows the energy (power) flow through a reciprocating IC engine.
The analysis is based on the first law of thermodynamics which states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be converted from one
form to the other.
• In IC engines, fuel is fed to the combustion
chamber where it burns in the presence of air
(oxygen) and its chemical energy is converted
into heat (thermal) energy. The so obtained
energy is not entirely available for driving the
piston, since a portion of this energy is lost
through the coolant, exhaust and by radiation.
The remaining energy is converted to power
and is called indicated energy or indicated
power (Pi). The ratio of this power (energy)
to the input fuel energy (power) is called
indicated thermal efficiency (i,th).

75
Engine Cycle Energy Balance

76
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
 The power (energy) available at the
piston head (Pi) is transmitted through
the connecting rod to the crankshaft.
In the transmission process there are
losses due to friction, pumping, etc.
The remaining power (energy)
available at the crankshaft or flywheel
is called shaft energy or brake
power (Pb). The ratio of this brake
power to the INPUT FUEL ENERGY
(Pin) is called brake thermal efficiency
(b,th).
 The ratio of brake power (Pb) to
indicated power (Pi) is called
mechanical efficiency (m).
77
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Analytical relation of “Engine cycle energy balance”
Pi
 i , th  but, Pi  pim  a  s  n  z
Pin
where,
Pin is the input energy per unit time (Fuel energy)
Pi is the indicated power (I.P.)
ηi,th is the indicated thermal efficiency
pim is the indicated mean effective pressure (imep)
a is the cylinder cross-sectional area
s is the stroke
z is the number of cylinders
n is the number of cycles
N is engine speed in rpm
N
n
, for a 4-stroke engine 2
nN
, for a 2-stroke engine

78
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Analytical relation of “Engine cycle energy balance”…
Pi  Pim  a  s  n  z
F
and, Pin  m f  QLHV  c  m f m a 
A
F  a   v   a  Vs n  Vs   d 2
Pin  m a   QLHV  c  m s
A 4

F
Pin   c  v   a  Vs  n   QLHV  z
A
where,

m f is the mass flow rate of fuel,  c is the combustion efficiency,

 a is the mass flow rate of air,

m  v is the volumetric efficiency,
F
A is the Fuel-Air ratio, Vs is the swept volume,

 a is the density of air, d is the cylinder diameter (bore).

79
Analytical relation of “Engine cycle energy balance”…
F
Pi  i ,th  Pin    c   i , th   v   a   QLHV  n  Vs  z
A

Pb
m 
Pi Pb   m
 Pi

 F
Pb   m  c i , th  v   a   QLHV  n  Vs  z
A
60 Pb F 1
 Tb   (60  m  c i , th  v   a   QLHV  n  Vs  z ) 
2 N A 2 N

f
m sfc 1
 bsfc   
Pb Pb  m  c i , th  QLHV  z
And
F
 bmep   m  c i , th  v   a   QLHV
A

80
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
ENGINE PERFORMANCE TEST
The primary tasks of the Engineer (IC Engine Designer) is:
• to maximize the engine power and torque output,
• to minimize the fuel consumption, emission, noise and overall cost.
This involves various design concepts as the parameters are many and
different in nature. That is almost physically impossible to take into
considerations all of them during engine design. It is, therefore, necessary
to conduct an engine performance test.

An engine performance test is the major work performed on an engine

during its production and servicing (repair and adjustment). This can be
done by mounting the engine on a test bed with a controlled load.
In order to evaluate the performance characteristics of the engine; fuel
consumption, speed, load, temperature of engine oil and working parts,
heat given off by the cooling system, exhaust temperature, nature of the
exhaust gases, etc. are checked and recorded.

81
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Engine Performance Test …
Some of the measuring devices to be used are: engine indicators (to
record the working pressure in the cylinder during a complete cycle of the
engine and to determine the indicated power (Pi ) in ‘kW’ ), dynamometers
( to measure the force or torque in ‘Nm’ and the brake power (Pb) in ‘kW’),
fuel flow meter ( to measure the amount of fuel consumed by the engine
(fc) in ‘cm3/s’ or (sfc) in ‘g/h’ or (bsfc) in ‘g/kWh’).The characteristics so
determined are tabulated and a suitable performance curves can be
plotted.
The curves of engine brake
power (Pb), torque (Tb) and
brake specific fuel
consumption (bsfc) plotted
against engine speed are
called engine performance
curves. Such curves can be
obtained at full-load or part-
load engine operation.
82
Engine Performance Curve

83
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Engine Performance Test …

In general, this test is used:-

•to compare the actual performance curves with the theoretical curves and
to validate the design parameters,
•to obtain information which can not be determined by calculations and to
formulate ‘empirical relations’,
•to know the overload carrying capacity and to check the steadiness of an
engine under various loads,
•to diagnose, adjust, repair engine parts and to observe the effects of
various engine operating parameters during part-load operations,
•to determine the efficiencies, to prepare the ‘heat balance sheet’ and
draw the ‘power flow diagram’,
•to prepare a ‘performance map’ so that the customer gets enough
information regarding the overall characteristics of the engine.

84
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Engine Performance Test …

Laboratory set-up for an engine performance test

1. Engine
3 2. Fluid friction dynamometer
3. Pendulum weighing machine
4. Control panel
5. Fuel flow meter
2 Air 11
1 6. Tachometer
7. Coolant temperature gauge
8. Oil temperature gauge
12 9. Torque meter
4 13 10. Oil Pressure gauge
14 11.Auxiliary cooling system
(Ventilator)
12. Ignition switch
9 10 5
6 7 8 13. Throttle control button
14. Load control button

85
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Engine Performance Test …
Type and Model of the engine:- ………………………………………
Throttle settings in ‘ % ‘ ………………………………………………...
No. of measurements 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
N ( rpm ) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Tb ( Nm )
Coolant temp. ( °C )
Oil temp. ( °C )
Oil pressure ( bar )
Fuel flow ( cm3/sec )
Pbm ( kW )
Pba (kW )
bsfc (g/kWh)
Pbm = ( 2NTb ) / ( 60 X 1000 ) in ‘kW’ Pv = 25.5 mmHg
 (273  t a )   P  Where, Pv is the vapour pressure.
Pba  Pbm     at STP:-
 (273  t)   (Pa  Pv ) 
t = 20 °C and P = 760 mmHg 86
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Engine Performance Parameters
Engine performance parameters are indicators of the degree of success
with which the engine does the assigned task.
In order to evaluate the performance of an engine certain basic
parameters have to be chosen and the effects of various operating
conditions are studied.
The basic performance parameters are:
1.Power and Mechanical efficiency.
2.mean effective pressure and Torque.
3.specific output.
4.specific weight.
5.Volumetric efficiency.
6.Fuel-air ratio.
7.specific fuel consumption.
8.Efficiencies, Power flow diagram and Heat balance
sheet.
87
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
1. Power and Mechanical efficiency
i) Indicated Power (Pi):- is the power available to drive the piston during
the combustion process.
Pi  pim  a  s  n  z
Note:- In the absence of an ‘engine indicator’, one can approximately
determine the indicated power (Pi) using ‘Morse (power balance) Test’.
ii) Brake Power (Pb):- is the power available at the output shaft.

2 π  N  Tb
Pb 
60
The ratio of Pb to Pi is called the mechanical efficiency (m).

Pb
m 
Pi

88
2. mean effective pressure (mep) and Torque
The mean effective pressure is defined as a hypothetical pressure which is
assumed to be acting on the piston throughout the power stroke.

If it is based on indicated power Pi , it is called indicated Mean

Effective Pressure (pim or imep).
If it is based on Brake power Pb , it is called brake mean Effective
Pressure p (pbm or bmep).
if it is based on frictional Power Pf, it is called frictional mean effective
power (pfm or fmep).
Pf  Pi  Pb and fmep  imep  bmep

Torque and mean effective pressure are related by the engine size and Power
is dependent on engine size and speed. Hence, it is not possible to compare
different engines on the basis of either power or torque. As a result, it is the
mean indicated pressure (bmep) is considered as a true indicator of the
relative performance of different engines.
89
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Engine Performance Curves

1. imep
2. Brake Torque and bmep
3. Indicated Power
4. Brake Power
5. Indicated thermal efficiency
6. Brake thermal efficiency
7. brake specific fuel
consumption (bsfc)

90
3. specific output (so)
The specific output is defined as the ratio of total brake power (Pb) to the
engine capacity (Ec). It is another indicator of the relative performance of
different engines.
P P
so  b  b
Ec Vs  z
4. specific weight (sw)
The specific weight is defined as the ratio of the weight (w) of the engine to
the total brake power (Pb). This is a measure of how bulky the engine is.
w
sw 
Pb
5. Volumetric efficiency (v)
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual mass flow rate of the
charge drawn in during the intake (induction) stroke per cylinder to the
swept volume of the piston.

m a
v  The average value of  v is  70 to 80 %.
 a  Vs  n
For a Turbochaged engine it may be more than 100 %.

91
Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume

92
6. Fuel-air ratio (F/A)
Fuel-air ratio is the ratio of the mass (mass flow rate) of fuel to the mass
(mass flow rate) of air in the mixture. F m f

A m a
7. brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc)
Brake specific fuel consumption is the ratio of the total fuel consumed by the
engine in ‘g/h’ to the total brake power of the engine in ‘kW’.
m f sfc
bsfc  
Pb Pb
8. Efficiencies, Power flow diagram and Heat balance sheet
Engine efficiencies are given as a ratio and in percentage.
Pi Pi
• Indicated thermal efficiency (i,th)  i ,th    100 %
Pin m f  QLHV  c

•
Pb Pb
•Brake thermal efficiency (b,th)  b ,th   100 %
Pin m f  QLHV  c
93
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
The performance of an engine is also given by a power flow diagram and a
heat balance sheet.

Power flow diagram

94
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...

Heat balance sheet in ‘minute’ basis

Heat supplied kJ/min % Heat distributed kJ/min %

Heat supplied 6000 100 1. Heat in exhaust 2040 34

by fuel 2. Heat in coolant 2100 35
3. Heat lost due to
friction, pumping, etc. 180 3
4. Heat in brake power 1500 25
5. Heat unaccounted 180 3

Total 6000 100 6000 100

95
2. Thermodynamic Cycles and Performance of IC Engines...
Engine Performance Map
An engine performance map shows the relationship among: Pb , Tb and
bsfc with engine speed (N). The contours are constant bsfc lines.

96
2. Summary
What are the major tasks of Engineers in the design of IC engines ?
The major tasks of Engineers (Professionals), in this field of study, are:
• to maximize the power and torque output of the engine,
•to minimize the fuel consumption, emission, noise, etc., during engine
design and servicing. To do so, it is compulsory to know the design and
operating factors which directly or indirectly affect or influence these main
performance parameters (Pb, Tb, bsfc, emission , etc.).
Mention, the factors which
affect engine Torque (Tb).
F 1
Tb  (60  m C i ,th  v   a   QLHV  Vs  z ) 
A 4

Why does the torque drop

towards the lower and higher
engine speed sides from Tbmax
position ?
• Towards the lower speed side, due to
longer time for heat loss.
• Towards the higher speed side, due
to drop in volumetric efficiency.  Recommend professional solutions !
97
2. Summary…
Mention, the factors which
affect engine Power (Pb).
F
Pb   m  c i ,th  v   a   QLHV  n  Vs  z
A
Why does the power drop
towars the lower and higher
engine speed sides from Pbmax
position ?
2 π  N  Tb
Pb 
60
• Towards the lower speed side, due
to the combined effect of speed
and torque (lower).
• Towards the higher speed side,
due to drop in torque and increase
in friction power.
 Recommend professional solutions !
98
2. Summary…
Mention, the factors which affect
engine Fuel consumption (bsfc).
m f sfc 1
bsfc   
Pb Pb  m  c i ,th  QLHV

Why does ‘bsfc’ increase with

lower compression ratio and with
lean and rich mixture ?
• As the compression ratio decreases, the
fuel conversion efficiency (i,th) also
decreases. As a result, bsfc .
• The main reason on both lean and rich
sides is due to incomplete combustion.
Why does ‘bsfc’ increase towards
the lower and higher engine speed
sides from ‘bsfcmin‘ position ?
• Towards the lower speed side, due to
longer time for heat loss.
• Towards the higher speed side, due to
increase in friction power.  Recommend professional solutions ! 99
2. Summary…
‘Dissociation (Chemical equilibrium loss)’ and its effect.
• ‘Dissociation’ refers to the disintegration
of burned gases at high temperature (more
than 1600 K). It is a reversible process and
increases with temperature.
• Due to dissociation, a considerable amount
of heat is absorbed during combustion
period and is released during expansion.
• Dissociation, in general, lowers the
temperature and hence the pressure at the
beginning of power stroke. This causes a
loss of power and efficiency.
• Dissociation is more sever in the
chemically correct mixture as the
temperature attains its peak value.
Dissociation is less in lean mixture than
rich mixture, as the temperature is lower
due to slow flame propagation.
Note:- Lean mixture causes engine overheating. Why ? 100
GROUP ASSIGNMENT ---- Ex. 2-6
1. The following data were recorded during performance test on a four-
stroke, water-cooled CI engine,
Number of cylinders 4
Diameter of piston 80 mm
Stroke 90 mm
imep 7 bar
Engine speed 2200 rpm
Number of explosions 990 per minute
Brake torque 130 Nm
Fuel consumption (fc) 0.3 kg/h
Calorific value of fuel 42.5 MJ/kg
Quantity of cooling water (coolant) 1000 kg/h
Rise in temperature of coolant 35 °c
Specific heat of coolant 4.18 kJ/kg K
Determine,
i) The mechanical efficiency.
ii) The brake thermal efficiency.
iii) The brake specific fuel consumption.
iv) The heat removed by the coolant.
101
MID 102