Senior High School

NOT

Government Property

NOT FOR SALE

Quarter 3 - Module 1B
Properties of Liquids

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

 What I Know
(Pre-test}

Directions: Read and answer each item carefully and choose the letter of the best
answer.

1. Which of the following properties refers to the resistance of liquid to flow?

a. surface tension
b. viscosity
c. vapor pressure
d. heat of vaporization

2. Which of the following properties explains why raindrops are spherical in

shape?
a. surface tension
b. viscosity
c. vapor pressure
d. heat of vaporization

For numbers 3-5, refer to the table below.

Liquid Normal Boiling Point (°C)
J 46.0
K 61.7
L 78.5

3. Which liquid would have the highest vapor pressure?

a. J
b. K
c. L
d. It depends on the temperature.

4. Which has the weakest intermolecular forces?

a. J
b. K
c. L
d. They are equally weak.

5. Which liquid would be the most viscous?

a. J
b. K
c. L
d. They would be equally viscous.
 Lesson
Properties of Liquids
1

What I Need to Know

At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

1. describe the properties of liquids: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure,
boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization;
2. explain the effect of intermolecular forces on these properties; and
3. relate the properties of water to intermolecular forces that operate among its
molecules.

What is It

You should be familiar with the following relevant vocabulary that will be used
in the lesson:

Fluid
A liquid or gas; a substance that flows.

Surface tension
It is the elastic force in the surface of a liquid. It is the amount of energy required to
increase or stretch the surface of a liquid by a unit area.

Capillary action
It is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to be drawn into small
openings.

Viscosity
A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

Vapor
A gaseous substance that exists naturally as a solid or liquid at normal temperature.

Vaporization
The change of phase from liquid to gas/vapor.

Vapor pressure of a liquid

The pressure exerted by the vapor above the surface of the liquid in a closed
container. It is the equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid.

Boiling point
The temperature at which a liquid boils. Normal boiling point is boiling point of a
liquid when the external pressure is 1 atm.

Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap)

The amount of energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at
a specific temperature.

1) Now that you are familiar with those words, we will continue our discussion
on the Properties of Liquid

Intermolecular forces give rise to several structural features and properties of liquids.
In this section we will look at five such phenomena associated with liquids
in general: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, ang molar heat of
vaporization. The properties of liquids that were observed are consequences of the
interactions of particles that make up the liquid.

1. Surface Tension
Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces.
There is no tendency for them to be pulled in any one way. However, molecules at
the surface are pulled sideways and downward by other molecules, but not upward
away from the surface (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Intermolecular
forces acting on a molecule in
the surface layer of a liquid and
in the interior region of the liquid

Karp, 2010

These intermolecular attractions appear to draw the molecules into the liquid
and like an elastic film, cause the surface to tighten. A drop of water assumes the
form of a small round bead. There is little to no attraction between polar water
molecules and the nonpolar molecules since a sphere minimizes the surface area of
a liquid. This effect is also created by a wet apple's waxy surface (Figure 2).

Figure 2.Water beads on an

apple, which has a waxy
surface

Surface tension is a measure of the elastic force on a liquid's surface. It is the

amount of energy needed by a unit area to stretch or increase the surface of a fluid
(for example, by 1 cm 2). There are also high surface tensions in liquids that have
solid intermolecular forces. Thus, water has a much greater surface tension than
most other liquids because of hydrogen bonding.
 Figure 3. Surface tension
enables the water strider to
“walk” on water.

Karp, 2010

Capillary action is another example of surface tension. Figure 4(a) reveals a

capillary tube, water rises spontaneously. A thin water film adheres to the wall of a
tube of glass. This film is caused to contract by the surface tension of water as it
pulls the water up the tube.
Capillary action is brought on by two types of forces: cohesion and adhesion.
Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between similar molecules (water
molecules, in this case). Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules, such
as those in water and in the sides of a glass tube. If adhesion is stronger than
cohesion, as it is in Figure 4(a), the contents of the tube will be pushed upward. This
process continues until the adhesive force is balanced by the weight of the water in
the tube. This action is by no means universal among liquids, as Figure 4(b) shows.
In mercury, cohesion is greater than the adhesion between mercury and glass, so
that when a capillary tube is dipped in mercury, the result is a depression at the
mercury level—that is, the height of the liquid in the capillary tube is below the
surface of the mercury.

Figure 4. (a) When adhesion

is greater than cohesion, the liquid
(for example, water) rises in the
capillary tube. (b) When cohesion Brown, 2015
is greater than adhesion, as it is
for mercury, a depression of the
liquid in the capillary tube results.
Note that the meniscus in the tube
of water is concave, or rounded
downward, whereas that in the
tube of mercury is convex, or
rounded upward.
2. 2.

2. Viscosity

The term "slow as January molasses" owes its reality to another physical
property of liquids called viscosity. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid
to flow. The greater the viscosity, the more the liquid flows steadily. As temperature
increases, the viscosity of a liquid normally decreases; hot molasses thus flow much
faster than cold molasses.
Liquids with strong intermolecular forces are higher in viscosity than those with
weak intermolecular forces (Table 1). Owing to its ability to form hydrogen bonds,
water has a higher viscosity than many other liquids. It is noteworthy that glycerol's
viscosity is significantly higher than all of those other liquids mentioned in Table 1.
Glycerol has the structure like water. It can form hydrogen bonds. Each glycerol
molecule has three-OH groups that can participate in hydrogen bonding with other
glycerol molecules.
 Figure 5. 3D and 2D
structures of glycerol - a clear,
odorless, syrupy liquid used to
make explosives, lubricants
and ink.

Brown, 2015

Table 1. Viscosity of Some Common Liquids at 20°C

*The SI units of viscosity are newton-second per meter squared.

3. Vapor Pressure

By evaporation, molecules may escape from the surface of a liquid into the
gas phase. Suppose we place in an evacuated, closed container a quantity of
ethanol (CH3CH2OH), as in (Figure 6). Quickly, the ethanol starts evaporating. The
pressure exerted by the vapor in the space above the liquid increases consequently.
The pressure of the vapor reaches a constant value after a short period, which we
call vapor pressure.

Figure 6. Vapor pressure over a liquid

 Any of the ethanol molecules on the liquid surface have ample kinetic energy
at any moment to overcome their neighbors' attractive forces and thus, escape into
the gas phase. The passage of molecules from the liquid phase to the gas phase
continuously goes on at every given temperature. However, as the number of gas-
phase molecules increases, the likelihood increases that a molecule will reach the
liquid surface in the gas phase and be recaptured by the liquid, as shown in Figure 6
in the flask on the right. The rate at which molecules return to the liquid is, finally,
equal to the rate at which they escape. In the gas phase, the number of molecules
then reaches a stable value and the pressure exerted by the vapor becomes
constant.
The situation in which two opposing processes occur at equal rates
simultaneously is called dynamic equilibrium (or simply equilibrium). Chemical
balance, in which chemical reactions are the opposite mechanisms, is a type of
dynamic equilibrium. When evaporation and condensation occur at similar rates, a
liquid and its vapor are in dynamic equilibrium. It might appear that since there is no
net shift in the system, nothing happens in equilibrium. In fact, however, as
molecules constantly move from liquid state to gas state and from gas state to liquid
state, a great deal happens. The vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted
by its vapor when the liquid and vapor are in dynamic equilibrium.

4. Boiling Point

A liquid's boiling point is the temperature at which its vapor pressure, acting
on the liquid surface, equals the external pressure. The thermal energy of the
molecules at this temperature is high enough for the molecules within the liquid to
break free from their neighbors and enter the gas phase. As a consequence,
bubbles of vapor form inside the liquid. If the external pressure rises, the boiling point
increases. The boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm (760 torr) pressure is called its
normal boiling point. From Figure 7, we see that the normal boiling point of water is
100°C.
The time required for food to be cooked in boiling water depends on the water.
The temperature is 100 °C in an open container, but it is possible to boil at higher
temperatures. Pressure cookers operate by only allowing steam to escape when it
exceeds a predetermined pressure; therefore, the pressure above the water can rise
above atmospheric pressure. The higher pressure allows the water to boil at a higher
temperature, making it easier for the food to get hotter and cook quicker.
The influence of pressure on the boiling point also explains why cooking food at
high elevations takes longer than it does at sea level. At higher altitudes, the air
pressure is lower, so water boils at a temperature lower than 100 °C, and food
typically takes longer to cook.
 Figure 7. Vapor pressure for four liquids as a function of temperature.

5. Molar Heat of Vaporization

A measure of the strength of intermolecular forces in a liquid is the molar

heat of vaporization (ΔHvap), defined as the energy (usually in kilojoules) required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid. The molar heat of vaporization has a direct relationship
to the strength of intermolecular forces that exist in the liquid.

Table 2.Molar heats of vaporization and boiling points of some substances

ΔHvap (kJ/ Boiling Point*

Substance
mol) (OC)

Argon (Ar) 6.3 -186

Pentane(C5H12) 26.5 36.1
Acetone (CH3COCH3) 30.3 56.5
Ethanol (C2H5OH) 39.3 78.3
Water (H2O) 40.79 100

*Measured at 1 atm

Rubbing ethyl alcohol on your hands is a realistic way to illustrate variations in

the molar heat of vaporization. Compare what is felt while using water. Ethyl alcohol
has a lower ΔHvap than water so that heat from our hands is enough to increase the
kinetic energy of these molecules and provide additional heat to vaporize them. As a
consequence of the loss of heat from the skin, our hands feel cool.
B. The Structure and Properties of Water

On Earth, water is so prevalent a material that we often forget its special

existence. All processes of life include water. For several ionic compounds, as well
as other substances capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water, water is an
excellent solvent.

Table 3. The Specific Heats of Some Common Substances

Substance Specific Heat (J/goC)

Al 0.900
Au 0.129
C (graphite) 0.720
C (diamond) 0.502
Cu 0.385
Fe 0.444
Hg 0.139
H2O 4.184
C2H5OH (ethanol) 2.460

As Table 3 shows, water has a high specific heat. The explanation is that to
boost water temperature (that is, to raise the average kinetic energy of the water
molecules), we must break the several hydrogen intermolecular bonds first. Water
can also consume a large quantity of heat while its temperature increases just
slightly. The reverse is also true: with just a small reduction in its temperature, water
will give off a lot of heat. For this reason, by absorbing heat in the summer and giving
off heat in the winter, with just minor changes in the temperature of the body of
water, the vast amounts of water that are present in our lakes and oceans will
effectively moderate the climate of neighboring land areas. Water's most striking
property is that its solid form is less dense than its liquid form on the surface of liquid
water, that is why ice floats (Figure 9). The density of almost all other substances is
greater in the solid state than in the liquid state.

We have to analyze the electronic structure of the H2O molecule to understand

why water is different. There are two pairs of nonbonding electrons, or two lone
pairs, on the oxygen atom:

Figure 8. Electrostatic
potential map of water.
 Karp, 2010
Figure 9.Left: Ice cubes float on water. Right: Solid benzene
sinks to the bottom of liquid benzene.

While intermolecular hydrogen bonds can be formed by many compounds, the

difference is that each oxygen atom will form two hydrogen bonds between H 2O and
other polar molecules, such as NH3 and HF, the same as the number of lone
electron pairs on the oxygen atom. Thus, in an extensive three-dimensional network
in which each oxygen atom is roughly tetrahedrally bound to four hydrogen atoms,
by two covalent bonds and by two hydrogen bonds, water molecules are joined
together. This equality in the number of hydrogen atoms and lone pairs does not
define NH3 or HF, or any other molecule capable of forming hydrogen, for that
matter. Consequently, rings or chains, but not three-dimensional structures, may be
formed by these other molecules.

Figure 10. The three-dimensional

structure of ice. Each O atom is
bonded to four H atoms. The
covalent bonds are shown by short
solid lines and the weaker
hydrogen bonds by long dotted
lines between O and H. The empty
space in the structure accounts for
the low density of ice.

The highly ordered three-

dimensional ice structure (Figure 10) makes
it difficult for the molecules to get too close
to each other. But remember what happens with the melting of ice. A number of
water molecules have enough kinetic energy at the melting point to break free from
the intermolecular bonds of hydrogen. In the cavities of the three-dimensional
structure, which is broken down into smaller clusters, these molecules become
stuck. As a consequence, in liquid water, more molecules per unit volume are
present than in ice. Thus because of mass/volume density, the water density is
higher than that of ice. More water molecules are released from intermolecular
hydrogen bonding with further heating, so that the water density continues to rise
only above the melting point with the increasing temperature. Water expands as it is
heated at the same time of course, so that its density is decreased. These two
processes work in opposite directions: the trapping of free water molecules in
cavities and thermal expansion. Trapping prevails from 0 °C to 4 °C and water
becomes increasingly denser. However, thermal expansion predominates above 4
°C and water density decreases with rising temperatures (Figure 11).
 Figure 11.Plot of density versus temperature for liquid water. The maximum density of water is
reached at 4°C.The density of ice at 0°C is about 0.92 g/cm 3.

What I Have Learned

Directions: Read and answer each question carefully. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following affects the vapor pressure of a liquid?

a. Volume of the liquid
b. Surface area
c. intermolecular attractive forces
d. temperature
e. density of the liquid

2. a. What is the relationship between surface tension and temperature?

b. What is the relationship between viscosity and temperature?
c. Why do substances with high surface tension also tend to have high
viscosities?

3. Explain the following observations:

a. The surface tension of CHBr3 is greater than that of CHCl3.
b. As temperature increases, oil flows faster through a narrow tube.
c. Raindrops that collect on a waxed automobile hood take on a nearly
spherical shape.
d. Oil droplets that collect on a waxed automobile hood take on a flat
shape.

4. At 50 °C, the vapor pressure of ethanol is 0.30 atm, acetic acid is 0.08 atm,
water is 0.12 atm, and acetone is 0.84 atm.

a. Arrange these substances in order of increasing rates of evaporation.

b. Arrange these substances in order of increasing boiling point temperature.
c. Arrange these substances in order of increasing intermolecular forces.

Assessment: (Post-Test)
Directions: Read and answer each item carefully and choose the letter of the best
answer.

1. What would be the boiling point of liquid L at the top of a mountain where
the atmospheric pressure is lower than 1 atm?
a. 78.5 °C
b. less than 78.5 °C
c. greater than 78.5 °C
d. It depends on the amount of heat the liquid is exposed to.

2. The vapor pressure of ethyl alcohol at 60 °C is 47.02 kPa. What would

be its vapor pressure at 20 °C?
a. 47.02 kPa
b. greater than 47.02 kPa
c. less than 47.02 kPa
d. cannot be determined

3. With all other factors held constant, which of the following places will rice
cook for a longer time?
a. at the peak of a mountain
b. at sea level
 c. It would take the same time to cook rice regardless of location.
d. It depends on the variety of rice.

4. What property of water explains why water inside the tiny cracks in rocks
helps the latter break when it freezes?
a. Water has a high boiling point.
b. Water has high surface tension.
c. Water has a greater volume in its solid state.
d. Water has high heat of vaporization.

5. What property of water explains why our body temperature remains

essentially constant?
a. Water has high heat of vaporization.
b. Water has a high specific heat.
c. Water has high density in its liquid form.
d. Water has high boiling point.