PCT 302

Rheology

Determination of Viscosity – Principles of capillary tube, Redwood and falling sphere

viscometers, rotational viscometers

By

Oyeniyi Oluwapelumi
Determination of Viscosity

Newtonian Viscosity

Capillary Viscometers: Ostwald and Ubbelohde glass capillary viscometers are those in which the
viscosity of the liquid is dependent on the rate of flow through the capillary, as shown in Figure
1. The viscosity is measured at one shear stress only. The capillary method, therefore, is applied
to the measurement of the viscosities of Newtonian fluids. A known volume of liquid is placed in
the tube and drawn into the upper reservoir bulb (above point 1 in Fig. 1) by suction.

Figure 1: Capillary viscometers (a) Ostwald capillary viscometer and (b) Ubbelohde viscometer
Then the suction is removed and the liquid is left to flow out of the upper reservoir to the lower
reservoir, and the time for complete transfer from the upper to lower reservoirs is measured. A
glass capillary viscometer can be placed in a temperature-controlled water bath to minimize
temperature-induced variation in viscosity. Based on Poiseuille’s law, the volume of liquid (V)
flowing per unit time (t) in a capillary is expressed as

V/t = (πR4 ΔP)/8Lη

where R is the radius of the capillary in centimeters, ΔP is the pressure difference in dynes/cm2,
L is the length of the capillary in centimeters, and h is the viscosity of the liquid in poise.
Rearranging the equation by replacing ΔP with hρg where h is the height of the liquid in the
capillary in centimeters, ρ is the density in g/cm3, and g is the acceleration caused by gravity (i.e.,
980 cm/s2), the viscosity of the liquid is determined as:

η = Kρt

where K is considered an instrumental constant (K = πR4 hG/8LV). The viscosity of the liquid of
interest is dependent on the time of flow through two points of the capillary viscometer and the
density. Calibration of the instrument consists of measuring the instrumental constant (K) with a
liquid of known viscosity. Alternatively, the viscosity of the liquid of interest (η2) can be calculated
from the following equation by comparing the flow time with a reference standard: η2/η1 =
t2r2/t1r1 or η2 = (t2r2/t1r1) h1 where η1 is the viscosity, t1 is the time of flow, r1 is the density of the
reference standard, and t2 and r2 are the time of flow and the density of the liquid of interest,
respectively. The η2/η1 ratio is known as the relative viscosity of the liquid of interest.

Example 1:

The time taken for a 10% (w/v) aqueous glycerin solution (r = 1.20 g/cm3) to pass through a glass capillary
viscometer at 25°C (77°F) is 1.24 min. If it takes pure water (r = 1.00 g/cm3) 20 s to pass through the same
distance and the viscosity of water is 1.00 cps, calculate the viscosity of a 10% (w/v) glycerin solution at
25°C (77°F).
Solution

Using the equation η2 = (t2r2/t1r1) h1:

η2 = {[(74.4) (1.2)]/ [(20) (1.00)] (1.00)}

= 4.46 cps

Practice Question: In Ostwald viscometer the flow time for water at 20°C was measured as 225
s. Similar measurements for an oil of density 0.75 g/cm3 were 450 s. What is the viscosity of the
oil if the density of water at 20°C is 1.0 g/cm3, and the viscosity is 1.00 cp.

Falling Sphere Viscometers:

Principle: Falling sphere viscometer is based on the Stokes’ law, according to which motion of a
body through a viscous medium is resisted by viscous drag. Initially, the body experiences
acceleration due to gravity, but soon this acceleration is balanced by the viscous drag and the
body falls with uniform terminal velocity.

The viscosity of a liquid is measured from the terminal velocity of a falling or sliding sphere. The
falling sphere method is designed for measuring the absolute viscosity of Newtonian fluids, since
the value can be obtained only at one shear stress. For the best measurements, the magnitude
of the time of fall over the distance of the viscometer should not be less than 30 s. Based on
Stoke’s law, the rate of sedimentation of a sphere (v) is inversely proportional to the viscosity of
the liquid:

v = {[2R2 (d2 − d1)g]/9η} where R is the radius of the sphere, (d2 − d1) is the difference in the
densities of the sphere and the liquid, g is the acceleration caused by gravity (i.e., 980 cm/s2 ),
and η is the viscosity of the liquid. Rearranging the preceding equation, the viscosity of the liquid
will be determined as:

η = {[2R2 (d2 − d1) g]/9v}

Figure 2: Hoppler falling sphere viscometer

Example 2:

Using a falling sphere viscometer, the terminal velocity of a sphere with a radius of 0.05 cm in a Newtonian
liquid at 25°C (77°F) was determined to be 15.4 cm/s. Determine the viscosity of the liquid (in centipoise)
if the density difference (d2 − d1) was 1.65 g/cm3 and the acceleration caused by gravity was 980 cm/s2.

Solution

Using the equation h = {[2R2 (d2 − d1)g]/9v},

viscosity will be determined as η = {[2(0.05)2 (1.65)980]/[(9) (15.4)]} = 0.058 poise or η = 5.80 cps
Non-Newtonian Viscosity

Dynamic (or apparent) viscosity takes into account the effect of shear rate and time and is
therefore the only type of viscosity relevant for non-Newtonian systems. Dynamic viscosity is
measured with dynamic instruments, either rotating (shearing) or oscillating. An instrument
capable only of measuring shearing viscosities is called a viscometer, and the oscillating type is
called a rheometer. Rotational viscometers are very popular for measurements of dynamic
viscosity because they can measure at different shear stresses to account for shear-thinning or
shear-thickening behaviors. The shear stress exerted by the torque of a solid rotating body
creates viscous drag, which is proportional to the viscosity of the material. Modern viscometers
are interfaced with computers to automate the analysis and obtain the apparent viscosities at
various shear stresses, the viscosity at zero shear stress, and the yield value directly from the
instrument. Temperature control of viscometers is also an important variable, and many newer
instruments have built-in temperature settings. The majority of rotational viscometers fall within
two main categories: those where the two concentric cylinders rotate relative to one another
around a common axis and those consisting of a cone and a plate.

Coaxial-Cylinder Viscometers: Laboratory models of coaxial-cylinder viscometers use the sample

in the beaker as an outer cylinder and place another rotating inner cylinder centrally within it.
The shear stress is applied by the torque of the rotating cylinder (also called a spindle), as shown
in Figure 3, which can be varied by the speed. The instrument then provides a dial reading of the
apparent viscosity value at that shear stress.

Figure 3: Schematics of coaxial-cylinder viscometer

Cone-and-Plate Rotational Viscometer: As shown in Figure 4, cone-and-plate rotational

viscometers consist of a rotating cone with a very obtuse angle and a stationary flat plate. The
plate is raised until it just touches the apex of the cone. The liquid or semisolid material fills the
triangular space between the cone and the plate. Surface tension prevents the fluid from
spreading on the plate. The viscous drag created by the rotating cone on a stationary plate is
proportional to the apparent viscosity of the material. The speed of the cone can be changed to
achieve variation in the shear stress values, and the magnitude of apparent viscosity at different
shear stresses can be obtained.
Figure 4: Schematics of cone-and-plate viscometer