What is HVDC?

High-voltage direct current (HVDC) is a technology developed by ABB more than 50 years
ago to increase the efficiency of power transmission over long distances.

The background and technology

Power stations generate alternating current (AC) and most power lines carry AC that
oscillates with 50 or 60 cycles per second, whether for the high, medium or low-voltage
distribution grid. Power also reaches consumers in homes, industries and offices as AC.

Direct current doesn't oscillate, so less energy is lost during transmission using DC. The
current is changed in a converter station and transmitted to the receiving point by an overhead
line or cable. It is then restored to AC in another converter station and injected into the
receiving AC network.

ABB completed the first HVDC link in 1954 and has supplied more than half of the world's
HVDC projects. ABB in 1997 made the first installation of HVDC Light, a development of
the technology that opened up new possibilities for improving the quality of supply in AC
networks. HVDC Light uses underground or underwater cables as the transmission link.

HVDC and energy efficiency

HVDC is attractive because less electricity is lost in transmission than with conventional AC
technology. It also requires fewer transmission lines, meaning that less land has to be cleared.
Because special equipment is needed to convert electricity from alternating current to direct
current, HVDC is cheaper only over long distances, typically more than 600 kilometers (373
miles) for overhead lines and more than 50 km for underwater cables.

In the example of a line with a bulk power transmission need of 6 gigawatts (GW), about 5
percent of the electricity will be lost over a distance of 1,500 kilometers when using an 800
kilovolt (kV) DC line. The losses climb to 6 percent with a 500 kV DC link and about 7
percent with conventional 800 kV AC lines.

Demand for long-distance transmission is increasing because of the rising energy needs of
developing countries and efforts to tap more renewable sources of energy.

Whereas non-renewable energy sources like coal, oil and gas can be transported and used
where the power is needed, hydro, wind, sun and wave energy can only be transported as
electricity. In addition, the largest sources of renewable energy tend to be situated far from
the urban and industrial centers where electricity is used.

A further advantage of HVDC is that it can be used to connect different alternating current
networks and increase the efficiency of each. The technology allows the power flow to be
controlled rapidly and accurately in terms of both the power level and the direction. It can
compensate fluctuations in the power flow, making it the ideal technology for linking wind
farms whose uneven production could otherwise disrupt the reliability of the network.
What is FACTS?
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) is a generic term for a group of
technologies that increase the transmission capacity of the electricity network, maintain or
improve voltage stability and grid reliability and reduce overall power losses.

The background and technology

FACTS consists of two main technologies: series compensation and dynamic shunt
compensation.

Series compensation was invented by ABB in 1950. It made possible the world's first 400
kilovolt (kV) transmission in 1952 by resolving the issue of how to transmit power over long
distances. The solution lay in making the distance between the power-generation plant and
the end-users of electricity seem shorter, in an electrical sense. As a result, power can be
transmitted at levels considerably higher than the natural loading of the transmission lines.

Dynamic shunt compensation is a technology that uses high-power semiconductors to

automatically adjust the voltage level in a specific area of the power system if necessary. This
helps avoid sudden surges and improves the stability of the grid.

FACTS and energy efficiency

Electricity is lost during transmission and losses can be minimized by increasing the voltage.
FACTS technologies provide a fast and effective way of increasing the capacity of electrical
grids by offering remedies for voltage and stability issues and allow the transmission system
to run more efficiently.

FACTS therefore enables more power to reach consumers with minimum impact on the
environment and at a fraction of the cost compared with the alternative of building new
transmission lines or power plants.

Building a new overhead transmission line takes several years and has a huge impact on the
environment, whereas a FACTS installation requires no or limited access to new land and is
normally in service 12 to 18 months after a contract is awarded to the supplier.

China, for instance, increased capacity by 40 percent on a transmission corridor into Beijing
in 2004 by using series compensation, one of the FACTS technologies. The increase helped
the Chinese capital meet the demands of its rapid expansion ahead of the Olympic Games in
2008.

In Sweden, eight 400 kilovolt (kV) systems equipped with FACTS transport electrical energy
from the north, where hydropower is generated, to the south, where it is used. An additional
four 400 kV transmission systems would be necessary if FACTS were not used on the
existing systems.
What is network management?
Network management systems monitor and control the electricity network to keep power
flowing and to preserve the balance between generation and consumption. They are the brain
and central nervous system of the network and are known in the industry as SCADA, or
systems control and data acquisition.

The background and technology

The roots of power control go back to the 1920s when ABB supplied its first remote control
system for a power plant. It was not until the 1960s and the advent of computerized process
control that modern power network control systems as we know them today became possible.

ABB has been at the forefront of developing this technology over the past 40 years and has
delivered more network management systems than any other company.

In a SCADA installation, meters collect information from hundreds of thousands of data

points in national and regional power networks and feed it into a computer system for storage
and analysis.

Network management and energy efficiency

Network management is an important tool in reducing losses as it enables utilities to monitor
and control their entire transmission and distribution networks from a single control room and
in real time.

Armed with the data collected, utilities can perform network modeling and simulate power
outages, helping them to devise the safest and most efficient way of operating their network.
Network losses are minimized by controlling the voltage level in the transmission grid.

Network management enables immediate action to be taken to restore power if outages occur,
and allows load shedding in a systematic manner to avoid grid collapse and complete black
out. The immediate benefits include increased network uptime and optimal resource
allocation.

ABB's SCADA system is called Network Manager and consists of 14 different software
components that can be combined to meet the needs of a variety of customers including small
municipalities, distribution companies serving big cities, countrywide transmission systems
and industries and railways.

ABB installed the first network management systems for urban power distribution networks
in India as part of a nationwide effort to stem losses. ABB was also chosen in 2003 to supply
China's first energy management and power trading system for East China Electrical Power
Group Corporation.
What is process automation?
Process automation involves using computer technology and software engineering to help
power plants and factories in industries as diverse as paper, mining and cement operate more
efficiently and safely.

The background and technology

In the absence of process automation, plant operators have to physically monitor performance
values and the quality of outputs to determine the best settings on which to run the production
equipment. Maintenance is carried out at set intervals. This generally results in operational
inefficiency and unsafe operating conditions.

Process automation simplifies this with the help of sensors at thousands of spots around the
plant that collect data on temperatures, pressures, flows and so on. The information is stored
and analyzed on a computer and the entire plant and each piece of production equipment can
be monitored on a large screen in a control room.

Plant operating settings are then automatically adjusted to achieve the optimum production.
Plant operators can manually override the process automation systems when necessary.

Process automation and energy efficiency

Factory owners want their equipment to deliver the highest output with as little production
cost as possible. In many industries including oil, gas and petrochemicals, energy costs can
represent 30 to 50 percent of the total production cost.

In process automation, the computer program uses measurements to show not only how the
plant is working but to simulate different operating modes and find the optimal strategy for
the plant. A unique characteristic of this software is its ability to "learn" and predict trends,
helping speed up the response time to changing conditions.

The software and controls regulate equipment to run at the optimum speed that requires the
least energy. They also ensure the consistency of quality, meaning less energy is wasted
producing products that turn out to be defective, and they forecast when maintenance is
needed so less time and energy is spent stopping and restarting equipment for routine
inspections.

ABB's technology can be used, for instance, to help power plant managers optimize their
combustion process and reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants by
improving boiler controls, monitoring flame quality or measuring coal flow.

It can also be used to measure soot on the inside of boilers in coal-fired plants. Soot reduces
the amount of heat generated by the boiler, so controls that help plant operators and engineers
choose the right moment for regular cleaning can translate into significant fuel savings.

An asset optimization system can be installed in a new plant so that the facility operates at
high efficiency from the start, reaping the immediate rewards of lower costs. Existing plants
can achieve the same benefits with techniques that deliver greater performance from systems
they already have installed.
What is a variable speed drive?
A variable speed drive is a piece of equipment that regulates the speed and rotational force, or
torque output, of an electric motor.

The background and technology

There are millions of motors in use in industry and offices around the world. They operate
sewage and irrigation pumps, milking machines and ski lifts, paper machines and power-plant
fans, sawmill conveyors and hospital ventilation systems, to name just a few examples.

In fact, more than 65 percent of industrial electrical energy is consumed by motors.

In many cases, motors are controlled by means of a valve that regulates the flow of fuel or a
vane that controls the airflow while the speed of the motor itself remains unchanged. These
and other methods, such as using two-speed motors or controlling them by switching on or
off, are inefficient from an energy point of view.

One of the main reasons why drives save energy is because they can change the speed of an
electrical motor by controlling the power that is fed into the machine.

Drives and energy efficiency

ABB estimates that its drives in operation worldwide save about 115 million megawatt hours
of electricity every year, the equivalent of 14 nuclear reactors.

That also amounts to a reduction of carbon dioxide emissions by 97 million tons per year,
more than the annual emissions of Finland.

Using a drive with a 30 kilowatt (kW) motor running 5,000 hours a year to control the air
flow in a ventilation system brings an annual saving of 76,500 kW hours of electricity
compared with regulating the flow rate by adjusting a damper.

The saving is 51,000 kW hours per year compared with modulating the fans on or off and
52,500 kW hours versus the use of a two-speed motor.

The energy savings achieved can result in the investment to install drives being recovered in
as little as a few months. For many pump and fan applications expenditure is often recouped
in less than a year.

Still, less than 10 percent of the motors in use worldwide are equipped with drives.

Drives come in many different sizes and are typically encased in boxes that can be as small as
a milk carton or as big as a wardrobe, depending on the size of the motor or motors they
regulate.
What is Azipod?
Azipod is the registered trademark of a family of electric propulsion systems for ships, the
first of which was developed by ABB about two decades ago. The latest product in the range
is the most energy-efficient electric propulsion system on the market.

The background and technology

A typical power and propulsion-system arrangement in a cargo ship includes diesel
generators for generating the electrical power needed on board and a separate diesel engine
driving the main propeller shaft. This is a diesel-mechanical propulsion system and because
the engine and propeller speed are rigidly coupled, fuel efficiency drops considerably at low
speed.

Diesel-electric propulsion is a relatively new way of powering ships and differs by consisting
of a larger electrical power plant, usually with diesel-engine driven generators, and an
electrical motor driving the main propeller. ABB is the world's biggest maker of electric-
propulsion systems.

In this system, the electrical propeller motors, which are the largest consumers of electricity,
are controlled by drives that provide stepless power and control the speed of the propellers.
The electric propulsion system is therefore able to run the diesel engines at or close to their
optimum efficiency point regardless of the vessel's speed. Using electric cables rather than a
mechanical transmission system also reduces vibration on board.

Azipod and fuel efficiency

ABB electric propulsion systems range from variable-speed electric machinery to a unique
family of highly efficient products, the Azipod. The first Azipod propulsion system was
completed in 1990.

The Azipod unit is fixed outside the ship in a pod, or casing, which combines the functions of
a propulsion motor, main propeller, rudder and stern thruster. These traditionally separately
installed units are no longer needed, vacating space on board for other purposes.

The Azipod system arrangement in a cruise vessel has been shown to reduce fuel
consumption by about 10 percent when compared to diesel-electric propulsion systems with a
conventional shaft-line arrangement.

In 2002, ABB introduced the CRP Azipod. The CRP concept, which stands for contra-
rotating propeller, involves two propellers facing each other and rotating in opposite
directions and is achieved when an Azipod unit is installed in the place of the rudder in a
conventional shaft line arrangement.

It is most suitable for fast ferries and other ships that need very large propulsion power.
Two ferries built for ShinNihonkai, Japan's leading ferry operator, were equipped with the
CRP Azipod in 2004. The company reported fuel savings of 20 percent, as well as 15 percent
more transportation capacity, compared with ships of a similar size using diesel engines.

ABB’s Azipod systems are used in a wide variety of ships including luxury cruise vessels,
yachts, ferries, drilling rigs, arctic tankers, offshore supply vessels and icebreakers.
HVDC transmission for renewable energy

One limitation of renewable sources of energy is that they are often best captured in places
far from where energy is used: remote bays with large tides, desert areas with bright and
constant sun, and windswept ridges. In these cases, losses associated with transmitting the
power over standard alternating current (AC) power lines can lead to very significant losses.

This is where high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission lines come in. Originally
developed in the 1930s, HVDC technology is only really suited to long-range transmission.
This is because of the static inverters that must be used to convert the energy to DC for
transmission. These are expensive devices, both in terms of capital cost and energy losses.
With contemporary HVDC technology, energy losses can be kept to about 3% per 1000km.
This makes the connection of remote generating centres much more feasible.

HVDC has another advantage: it can be used as a link between AC systems that are out of
sync with each other. This could be different national grids running on different frequencies;
it could be different grids on the same frequency with different timing; finally, it could be
the multiple unsynchronized AC currents produced by something like a field of wind
turbines.

Building national and international HVDC backbones is probably necessary to achieve the
full potential of renewable energy. Because of their ability to stem losses, they can play a
vital role in load balancing. With truly comprehensive systems, wind power from the west
coast of Vancouver Island could compensate when the sun in Arizona isn’t shining. Likewise,
offshore turbines in Scotland could complement solar panels in Italy and hydroelectric dams
in Norway. With some storage capacity and a sufficient diversity of sources, renewables
could provide all the electricity we use - including quantities sufficient for electric vehicles,
which could be charged at times when demand for other things is low.

With further technological improvements, the cost of static inverters can probably be
reduced. So too, perhaps, the per-kilometre energy losses. All told, investing in research on
such renewable-facilitating technologies seems a lot more sensible than gambling on the
eventual existence of ‘clean’ coal.

High-voltage direct current

Long distance HVDC lines carrying hydropower from Canada's Nelson river to this station where it is
converted to AC for use in Winnipeg's local grid

A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system uses direct current for the
bulk transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more common alternating current
systems. For long-distance distribution, HVDC systems are less expensive and suffer lower electrical
losses. For shorter distances, the higher cost of DC conversion equipment compared to an AC system
may be warranted where other benefits of direct current links are useful.

The modern form of HVDC transmission uses technology developed extensively in the 1930s in
Sweden at ASEA. Early commercial installations included one in the Soviet Union in 1951 between
Moscow and Kashira, and a 10-20 MW system in Gotland, Sweden in 1954. The longest HVDC link in
the world is currently the Inga-Shaba 1700 km (1056 mile) 600 MW link connecting the Inga Dam to
the Shaba copper mine, in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
HVDC interconnections in western Europe - red are existing links, green are under construction, and
blue are proposed. Many of these transfer power from renewable sources such as hydro and wind.
For names, see also the annotated version.

Contents
1 High voltage transmission

2 History of HVDC transmission

3 Advantages of HVDC over AC transmission

4 Disadvantages

5 Costs of high voltage DC transmission

6 Rectifying and inverting

6.1 Components

6.2 Rectifying and inverting systems

7 Configurations

7.1 Monopole and earth return

7.2 Bipolar

7.3 Back to back

7.4 Systems with transmission lines

7.5 Tripole: current-modulating control

8 Corona discharge

9 Applications

9.1 Overview

9.2 AC network interconnections

9.3 Renewable energy

9.4 Smaller scale use

10 See also

11 References

High voltage transmission

High voltage is used for transmission to reduce the energy lost in the resistance of the wires. For a
given quantity of power transmitted, higher voltage reduces the transmission power loss. Power in a
circuit is proportional to the current, but the power lost as heat in the wires is proportional to the
square of the current. However, power is also proportional to voltage, so for a given power level,
higher voltage can be traded off for lower current. Thus, the higher the voltage, the lower the power
loss. Power loss can also be reduced by reducing resistance, commonly achieved by increasing the
diameter of the conductor; but larger conductors are heavier and more expensive.

High voltages cannot be easily used in lighting and motors, and so transmission-level voltage must
be reduced to values compatible with end-use equipment. The transformer, which only works with
alternating current, is an efficient way to change voltages. The competition between the DC of
Thomas Edison and the AC of Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse was known as the War of
Currents, with AC emerging victorious. Practical manipulation of DC voltages only became possible
with the development of high power electronic devices such as mercury arc valves and later
semiconductor devices, such as thyristors, insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), high power
capable MOSFETs (power metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors) and gate turn-off
thyristors (GTOs).

History of HVDC transmission

The first long-distance transmission of electric power was demonstrated using direct current in 1882
at the Miesbach-Munich Power Transmission, but only 2.5 kW was transmitted. An early method of
high-voltage DC transmission was developed by the Swiss engineer Rene Thuryand his method was
put into practice by 1889 in Italy by the Acquedotto de Ferrari-Galliera company. This system used
series-connected motor-generator sets to increase voltage. Each set was insulated from ground and
driven by insulated shafts from a prime mover. The line was operated in constant current mode,
with up to 5000 volts on each machine, some machines having double commutators to reduce the
voltage on each commutator. This system transmitted 630 kW at 14 kV DC over a distance of
120 km. The Moutiers-Lyon system transmitted 8600 kW of hydroelectric power a distance of 124
miles, including 6 miles of underground cable. The system used eight series-connected generators
with dual commutators for a total voltage of 150,000 volts between the poles, and ran from about
1906 until 1936. Fifteen Thury systems were in operation by 1913 Other Thury systems operating at
up to 100 kV DC operated up to the 1930s, but the rotating machinery required high maintenance
and had high energy loss. Various other electromechanical devices were tested during the first half
of the 20th century with little commercial success.

One conversion technique attempted for conversion of direct current from a high transmission
voltage to lower utilization voltage was to charge series-connected batteries, then connect the
batteries in parallel to serve distribution loads. While at least two commercial installations were
tried around the turn of the 20th century, the technique was not generally useful owing to the
limited capacity of batteries, difficulties in switching between series and parallel connections, and
the inherent energy inefficiency of a battery charge/discharge cycle.

HVDC in 1971: this 150 KV mercury arc valve converted AC hydropower voltage for transmission to
distant cities from Manitoba Hydro generators.

The grid controlled mercury arc valve became available for power transmission during the period
1920 to 1940. In 1941 a 60 MW, +/- 200 kV, 115 km buried cable link was designed for the city of
Berlin using mercury arc valves (Elbe-Project), but owing to the collapse of the German government
in 1945 the project was never completed. The nominal justification for the project was that, during
wartime, a buried cable would be less conspicuous as a bombing target. The equipment was moved
to the Soviet Union and was put into service there.
Introduction of the fully-static mercury arc valve to commercial service in 1954 marked the
beginning of the modern era of HVDC transmission. A HVDC-connection was constructed by ASEA
between the mainland of Sweden and the island Gotland. Mercury arc valves were common in
systems designed up to 1975, but since then, HVDC systems use only solid-state devices. From 1975
to 2000, line-commutated converters (LCC) using thyristor valves were relied on. According to
experts such as Vijay Sood, the next 25 years may well be dominated by force commutated
converters, beginning with capacitor commutative converters (CCC) followed by self commutating
converters which have largely supplanted LCC use. Since use of semiconductor commutators,
hundreds of HVDC sea-cables have been laid and worked with high reliability, usually better than
96% of the time.

Advantages of HVDC over AC transmission

The advantage of HVDC is the ability to transmit large amounts of power over long distances with
lower capital costs and with lower losses than AC. Depending on voltage level and construction
details, losses are quoted as about 3% per 1000 km. High-voltage direct current transmission allows
efficient use of energy sources remote from load centers.

In a number of applications HVDC is more effective than AC transmission. Examples include:

Undersea cables, where high capacitance causes additional AC losses. (e.g. 250 km Baltic Cable
between Sweden and Germany)

Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk power transmission without intermediate 'taps', for example, in
remote areas

Increasing the capacity of an existing power grid in situations where additional wires are difficult or
expensive to install

Power transmission and stabilization between unsynchronised AC distribution systems

Connecting a remote generating plant to the distribution grid, for example Nelson River Bipole

Stabilizing a predominantly AC power-grid, without increasing maximum prospective short circuit

current

Reducing line cost. HVDC needs fewer conductors as there is no need to support multiple phases.
Also, thinner conductors can be used since HVDC does not suffer from the skin effect

Facilitate power transmission between different countries that use AC at differing voltages and/or
frequencies

Synchronize AC produced by renewable energy sources

Long undersea cables have a high capacitance. While this has minimal effect for DC transmission, the
current required to charge and discharge the capacitance of the cable causes additional I2R power
losses when the cable is carrying AC. In addition, AC power is lost to dielectric losses.

HVDC can carry more power per conductor, because for a given power rating the constant voltage in
a DC line is lower than the peak voltage in an AC line. This voltage determines the insulation
thickness and conductor spacing. This allows existing transmission line corridors to be used to carry
more power into an area of high power consumption, which can lower costs.

Because HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronised AC distribution systems, it can
help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failures from propagating from one part of a
wider power transmission grid to another. Changes in load that would cause portions of an AC
network to become unsynchronized and separate would not similarly affect a DC link, and the power
flow through the DC link would tend to stabilize the AC network. The magnitude and direction of
power flow through a DC link can be directly commanded, and changed as needed to support the AC
networks at either end of the DC link. This has caused many power system operators to contemplate
wider use of HVDC technology for its stability benefits alone.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of HVDC are in conversion, switching and control.

The required static inverters are expensive and have limited overload capacity. At smaller
transmission distances the losses in the static inverters may be bigger than in an AC transmission
line. The cost of the inverters may not be offset by reductions in line construction cost and lower line
loss. With two exceptions, all former mercury rectifiers worldwide have been dismantled or replaced
by thyristor units.

In contrast to AC systems, realizing multiterminal systems is complex, as is expanding existing

schemes to multiterminal systems. Controlling power flow in a multiterminal DC system requires
good communication between all the terminals; power flow must be actively regulated by the
control system instead of by the inherent properties of the transmission line. High voltage DC circuit
breakers are difficult to build because some mechanism must be included in the circuit breaker to
force current to zero, otherwise arcing and contact wear would be too great to allow reliable
switching. Only one multi-terminal line is in operation, the Hydro Québec - New England
transmission from Radisson to Sandy Pond.

Costs of high voltage DC transmission

Normally manufacturers such as AREVA, Siermens and ABB do not state specific cost information of
a particular project since this is a commercial matter between the manufacturer and the client.

Costs vary widely depending on the specifics of the project such as power rating, circuit length,
overhead vs. underwater route, land costs, and AC network improvements required at either
terminal. A detailed evaluation of DC vs. AC cost may be required where there is no clear technical
advantage to DC alone and only economics drives the selection.

However some practitioners have given out some information that can be reasonably well relied
upon:

For an 8GW 40km link laid under the English Channel, the following are approximate primary
equipment costs for a 2000MW 500kV bipole conventional HVDC link (exclude way-leaving, on-shore
reinforcement works, consenting, engineering, insurance, etc.)

Converter stations ~£110M

Subsea cable + installation ~£1M/km

So for an 8GW capacity between England and France in four links, little is left over from £750M for
the installed works. Add another £200–300M for the other works depending on additional onshore
works required.

Rectifying and inverting

Components

Early static systems used mercury arc rectifiers, which were unreliable. Two HVDC systems using
mercury arc rectifiers are still in service (as of 2008). The thyristor valve was first used in HVDC
systems in the 1960s. The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device similar to the diode, but
with an extra control terminal that is used to switch the device on at a particular instant during the
AC cycle. The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is now also used and offers simpler control and
reduced valve cost.

Because the voltages in HVDC systems, up to 800 kV in some cases, exceed the breakdown voltages
of the semiconductor devices, HVDC converters are built using large numbers of semiconductors in
series.

The low-voltage control circuits used to switch the thyristors on and off need to be isolated from the
high voltages present on the transmission lines. This is usually done optically. In a hybrid control
system, the low-voltage control electronics sends light pulses along optical fibres to the high-side
control electronics. Another system, called direct light triggering, dispenses with the high-side
electronics, instead using light pulses from the control electronics to switch light-triggered thyristors
(LTTs).

A complete switching element is commonly referred to as a 'valve', irrespective of its construction.

Rectifying and inverting systems

Rectification and inversion use essentially the same machinery. Many substations are set up in such
a way that they can act as both rectifiers and inverters. At the AC end a set of transformers, often
three physically separate single-phase transformers, isolate the station from the AC supply, to
provide a local earth, and to ensure the correct eventual DC voltage. The output of these
transformers is then connected to a bridge rectifier formed by a number of valves. The basic
configuration uses six valves, connecting each of the three phases to each of the two DC rails.
However, with a phase change only every sixty degrees, considerable harmonics remain on the DC
rails.

An enhancement of this configuration uses 12 valves (often known as a twelve-pulse system). The AC
is split into two separate three phase supplies before transformation. One of the sets of supplies is
then configured to have a star (wye) secondary, the other a delta secondary, establishing a thirty
degree phase difference between the two sets of three phases. With twelve valves connecting each
of the two sets of three phases to the two DC rails, there is a phase change every 30 degrees, and
harmonics are considerably reduced.
In addition to the conversion transformers and valve-sets, various passive resistive and reactive
components help filter harmonics out of the DC rails.

Configurations

Monopole and earth return

In a common configuration, called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is connected to
earth ground. The other terminal, at a potential high above, or below, ground, is connected to a
transmission line. The earthed terminal may or may not be connected to the corresponding
connection at the inverting station by means of a second conductor.

If no metallic conductor is installed, current flows in the earth between the earth electrodes at the
two stations. Therefore it is a type of Single wire earth return. The issues surrounding earth-return
current include

Electrochemical corrosion of long buried metal objects such as pipelines

Underwater earth-return electrodes in seawater may produce chlorine or otherwise affect water
chemistry.

An unbalanced current path may result in a net magnetic field, which can affect magnetic
navigational compasses for ships passing over an underwater cable.

These effects can be eliminated with installation of a metallic return conductor between the two
ends of the monopolar transmission line. Since one terminal of the converters is connected to earth,
the return conductor need not be insulated for the full transmission voltage which makes it less
costly than the high-voltage conductor. Use of a metallic return conductor is decided based on
economic, technical and environmental factors.

Modern monopolar systems for pure overhead lines carry typically 1500 MW. If underground or
underwater cables are used the typical value is 600 MW.

Most monopolar systems are designed for future bipolar expansion. Transmission line towers may
be designed to carry two conductors, even if only one is used initially for the monopole transmission
system. The second conductor is either unused, used as electrode line or connected in parallel with
the other (as in case of Baltic-Cable).

Bipolar
Bipolar system pylons of the Baltic-Cable-HVDC in Sweden

In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with respect to ground,
in opposite polarity. Since these conductors must be insulated for the full voltage, transmission line
cost is higher than a monopole with a return conductor. However, there are a number of advantages
to bipolar transmission which can make it the attractive option.

Under normal load, negligible earth-current flows, as in the case of monopolar transmission with a
metallic earth-return. This reduces earth return loss and environmental effects.

When a fault develops in a line, with earth return electrodes installed at each end of the line,
approximately half the rated power can continue to flow using the earth as a return path, operating
in monopolar mode.

Since for a given total power rating each conductor of a bipolar line carries only half the current of
monopolar lines, the cost of the second conductor is reduced compared to a monopolar line of the
same rating.

In very adverse terrain, the second conductor may be carried on an independent set of transmission
towers, so that some power may continue to be transmitted even if one line is damaged.

A bipolar system may also be installed with a metallic earth return conductor.

Bipolar systems may carry as much as 3000 MW at voltages of +/-533 kV. Submarine cable
installations initially commissioned as a monopole may be upgraded with additional cables and
operated as a bipole.

Back to back

A back-to-back station is a plant in which both static inverters and rectifiers are in the same area,
usually in the same building. The length of the direct current line is kept as short as possible. HVDC
back-to-back stations are used for

coupling of electricity mains of different frequency (as in Japan)

coupling two networks of the same nominal frequency but no fixed phase relationship (as until
1995/96 in Etzenricht, Dürnrohr and Vienna).

different frequency and phase number (for example, as a replacement for traction current converter
plants)

The DC voltage in the intermediate circuit can be selected freely at HVDC back-to-back stations
because of the short conductor length. The DC voltage is as low as possible, in order to build a small
valve hall and to avoid series connections of valves. For this reason at HVDC back-to-back stations
valves with the highest available current rating are used.

Systems with transmission lines

The most common configuration of an HVDC link is two inverter/rectifier stations connected by an
overhead powerline. This is also a configuration commonly used in connecting unsynchronised grids,
in long-haul power transmission, and in undersea cables.

Multi-terminal HVDC links, connecting more than two points, are rare. The configuration of multiple
terminals can be series, parallel, or hybrid (a mixture of series and parallel). Parallel configuration
tends to be used for large capacity stations, and series for lower capacity stations. An example is the
2000 MW Quebec - New England Transmission system opened in 1992, which is currently the largest
multi-terminal HVDC system in the world.

Tripole: current-modulating control

A newly patented scheme (2004) (Current modulation of direct current transmission lines) is
intended for conversion of existing AC transmission lines to HVDC. Two of the three circuit
conductors are operated as a bipole. The third conductor is used as a parallel monopole, equipped
with reversing valves (or parallel valves connected in reverse polarity). The parallel monopole
periodically relieves current from one pole or the other, switching polarity over a span of several
minutes. The bipole conductors would be loaded to either 1.37 or 0.37 of their thermal limit, with
the parallel monopole always carrying +/- 1 times its thermal limit current. The combined RMS
heating effect is as if each of the conductors is always carrying 1.0 of its rated current. This allows
heavier currents to be carried by the bipole conductors, and full use of the installed third conductor
for energy transmission. High currents can be circulated through the line conductors even when load
demand is low, for removal of ice.

Combined with the higher average power possible with a DC transmission line for the same line-to-
ground voltage, a tripole conversion of an existing AC line could allow up to 80% more power to be
transferred using the same transmission right-of-way, towers, and conductors. Some AC lines cannot
be loaded to their thermal limit due to system stability, reliability, and reactive power concerns,
which would not exist with an HVDC link.

The system would operate without earth-return current. Since a single failure of a pole converter or
a conductor results in only a small loss of capacity and no earth-return current, reliability of this
scheme would be high, with no time required for switching.

As of 2005 no tri-pole conversions are in operation, although a transmission line in India has been
converted to bipole HVDC.

Corona discharge

Corona discharge is the creation of ions in a fluid (such as air) by the presence of a strong electric
field. Electrons are torn from neutral air, and either the positive ions or else the electrons are
attracted to the conductor, while the charged particles drift. This effect can cause considerable
power loss, create audible and radio-frequency interference, generate toxic compounds such as
oxides of nitrogen and ozone, and bring forth arcing.

Both AC and DC transmission lines can generate coronas, in the former case in the form of oscillating
particles, in the latter a constant wind. Due to the space charge formed around the conductors, an
HVDC system may have about half the loss per unit length of a high voltage AC system carrying the
same amount of power. With monopolar transmission the choice of polarity of the energised
conductor leads to a degree of control over the corona discharge. In particular, the polarity of the
ions emitted can be controlled, which may have an environmental impact on particulate
condensation. (particles of different polarities have a different mean-free path.) Negative coronas
generate considerably more ozone than positive coronas, and generate it further downwind of the
power line, creating the potential for health effects. The use of a positive voltage will reduce the
ozone impacts of monopole HVDC power lines.

Applications

Overview

The controllability of current-flow through HVDC rectifiers and inverters, their application in
connecting unsynchronized networks, and their applications in efficient submarine cables mean that
HVDC cables are often used at national boundaries for the exchange of power. Offshore windfarms
also require undersea cables, and their turbines are unsynchronized. In very long-distance
connections between just two points, for example around the remote communities of Siberia,
Canada, and the Scandinavian North, the decreased line-costs of HVDC also makes it the usual
choice. Other applications have been noted throughout this article.

AC network interconnections

AC transmission lines can only interconnect synchronized AC networks that oscillate at the same
frequency and in phase. Many areas that wish to share power have unsynchronized networks. The
power grids of the UK, Northern Europe and continental Europe are not united into a single
synchronized network. Japan has 50 Hz and 60 Hz networks. Continental North America, while
operating at 60 Hz throughout, is divided into regions which are unsynchronised: East, West, Texas,
Quebec, and Alaska. Brazil and Paraguay, which share the enormous Itaipu hydroelectric plant,
operate on 60 Hz and 50 Hz respectively. However, HVDC systems make it possible to interconnect
unsynchronized AC networks, and also add the possibility of controlling AC voltage and reactive
power flow.

A generator connected to a long AC transmission line may become unstable and fall out of
synchronization with a distant AC power system. An HVDC transmission link may make it
economically feasible to use remote generation sites. Wind farms located off-shore may use HVDC
systems to collect power from multiple unsynchronized generators for transmission to the shore by
an underwater cable.

In general, however, an HVDC power line will interconnect two AC regions of the power-distribution
grid. Machinery to convert between AC and DC power adds a considerable cost in power
transmission. The conversion from AC to DC is known as rectification, and from DC to AC as
inversion. Above a certain break-even distance (about 50 km for submarine cables, and perhaps
600–800 km for overhead cables), the lower cost of the HVDC electrical conductors outweighs the
cost of the electronics.

The conversion electronics also present an opportunity to effectively manage the power grid by
means of controlling the magnitude and direction of power flow. An additional advantage of the
existence of HVDC links, therefore, is potential increased stability in the transmission grid.
Renewable energy

A number of studies have highlighted the benefits of very wide area super grids based on HVDC
since they can mitigate the effects of intermittency by averaging and smoothing the outputs of large
numbers of geographically dispersed wind farms or solar farms.

Smaller scale use

The development of insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) and gate turn-off thyristors (GTO) has
made smaller HVDC systems economical. These may be installed in existing AC grids for their role in
stabilizing power flow without the additional short-circuit current that would be produced by an
additional AC transmission line. ABB manufacturer calls this concept "HVDC Light" and Siemens
manufacturer calls a similar concept "HVDC PLUS" (Power Link Universal System). They have
extended the use of HVDC down to blocks as small as a few tens of megawatts and lines as short as a
few score kilometres of overhead line. The difference lies in the concept of the Voltage-Sourced
Converter (VSC) technology whereas "HVDC Light" uses pulse width modulation and "HVDC PLUS" is
based on multilevel switching.

References
General information

 AREVA T&D - HVDC Transmission

 History of HVDC

 World Bank briefing document about HVDC systems

 HVDC PLUS from Siemens

 UHVDC challenges explained from Siemens

Cited
1. ^ Narain G. Hingorani in IEEE Spectrum magazine, 1996.
2. ^ Donald Beaty et al, "Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 11th Ed.", McGraw Hill,
1978

3. ^ ACW's Insulator Info - Book Reference Info - History of Electrical Systems and Cables

4. ^ R. M. Black The History of Electric Wires and Cables, Peter Perigrinus, London 1983 ISBN
086341 001 4 pages 94-96

5. ^ Alfred Still, Overhead Electric Power Transmission, McGraw Hill, 1913 page 145, available
from the Internet Archive

6. ^ "Shaping the Tools of Competitive Power"

7. ^ Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power

8. ^ "HVDC TransmissionF"

9. ^ IEEE - IEEE History Center

10. ^ [|Vijay K. Sood]. HVDC and FACTS Controllers: Applications Of Static Converters In Power
Systems. Springer-Verlag. p. 1. ISBN 978-1402078903.
 http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1402078900/ref=sib_fs_top?
ie=UTF8&p=S00T&checkSum=kIuBlcbI0cpOJz1UiVfSKdIqFhPcDOXQ98WG3SabLpA
%3D#reader-link. "The first 25 years of HVDC transmission were sustained by converters
having mercury arc valves till the mid-1970s. The next 25 years till the year 2000 were
sustained by line-commutated converters using thyristor valves. It is predicted that the next
25 years will be dominated by force-commutated converters [4]. Initially, this new force-
commutated era has commenced with Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC) eventually
to be replaced by self-commutated converters due to the economic availability of high
power switching devices with their superior characteristics."

11. ^ ABB HVDC website

12. ^ ""HVDC multi-terminal system "". ABB Asea Brown Boveri (2008-10-23). Retrieved on
2008-12-12.

13. ^ Source works for a prominent UK engineering consultancy but has asked to remain
anonymous and is a member of Claverton Energy Research Group

14. ^ Basslink project

15. ^ Siemens AG - HVDC website

16. ^ ABB HVDC Transmission Québec - New England website

17. ^ Gregor Czisch (2008-10-24). "Low Cost but Totally Renewable Electricity Supply for a Huge
Supply Area – a European/Trans-European Example –" (pdf). University of Kassel. Retrieved
on 2008-07-16. The paper was presented at the Claverton Energy conference in Bath, 24th
October 2008. Paper Synopsis