NEXT GENERATION SMART SUBSTATION THROUGH

GSM TECHNOLOGY

ABSTRACT

Transformers are basic design of electrical device which provide power

transmission by transforming induced current from one circuit to another in
substation. The induced current can be converted step up or step down of
current or voltage. This application mainly concentrates on the three-phase
circuit breaker which are used in between electric poles and the Power
transformers. The real time controlling is done on the basic features like gas
level, oil aging and regulation of overload and temperature maintenance. These
features are essential for effective power transmission and long life of
substation transformers if any problem controlling circuit breaks. In this
project, proposed to monitoring and control of the substation through GSM
technology. This system is fully utilizing the embedded system as well as
wireless communication protocol to safeguard the whole power system network
from the serious accident.
 INTRODUCTION

Electricity is an extremely handy and useful form of energy. It plays an ever

growing role in our modern industrialized society. The electrical power systems
are highly non-linear, extremely huge and complex networks. Such electric
power systems are unified for economic benefits, increased reliability and
operational advantages. They are one of the most significant elements of both
national and global infrastructure, and when these systems collapse it leads to
major direct and indirect impacts on the economy and national security.

A power system consists of components such as generators, lines, transformers,

loads, switches and compensators. However, a widely dispersed power sources
and loads are the general configuration of modern power systems. Electric
power systems can be divided into two sub-systems, namely, transmission
systems and distribution systems. The main process of a transmission system is
to transfer electric power from electric generators to customer area, whereas a
distribution system provides an ultimate link between high voltage transmission
systems and consumer services.

In other words, the power is distributed to different customers from the

distribution system through feeders, distributors and service mains. Supplying
electricity to consumers necessitates power generation, transmission, and
distribution. Initially electric power is generated by using electric generators
such as: nuclear power generators, thermal power generators and hydraulic
power generators and then transmitted through transmission systems using high
voltage. Power departs from the generator and enters into a transmission
substation, where huge transformers convert the generator's voltage to
extremely high voltages (155kV to 765 kV) for long-distance (up to about 300
miles) transmission. Then, the voltage level is reduced using transformers and
power is transferred to customers through electric power distribution systems.
Power starts from the transmission grid at distribution substations where the
voltage is stepped-down (typically to less than 10kV) and carried by smaller
distribution lines to supply commercial, residential, and industrial users.

Novel electric power systems encompassing of power transmission and

distribution grids consist of copious number of distributed, autonomously
managed, capital-intensive assets. Such assets comprise: 1.) power plants, 2.)
transmission lines, 3.) transformers, and 4.) protection equipment. Electric
utility substations are used in both the transmission and distribution system and
operate independently to generate the electricity. A typical substation facility
consists of a small building with a fenced-in yard that contains transformers,
switches, voltage regulators, and metering equipment that are used to adjust
voltages and monitor circuits. A reliable and efficient process of these networks
alone is not very significant when these electricity systems are pressed to their
parameters of its performance, but also under regular operating conditions.
Generators and loads are some components that coerce the continuous dynamic
behavior.

The distance between the Generators and loads may be in terms of hundreds of
miles. Hence, the amount of huge power exchanges over long distances has
turned out as a result of the lack of quality of the electric power. During the
earlier development stages the issues on quality of power were not frequently
reported. Quality of supply is a mixture of both voltage quality and the non-
technical features of the interaction from the power network to its customers.
Demanding the quantity of power being delivered at the user side has raised the
alarm due to the increase in demand of electricity in the customer’s side. The
power generated at the main stations is transported hundreds of miles using
transmission lines before they reach the substations. A huge amount of power is
lost during the transportation of the generated power which leads to the
reduction in the quantity of power received at the substations. Also the electric
lines users have identified that the number of drawbacks caused by electrical
power quality variations are increasing rapidly. These variations have already
existed on electrical systems, but recently they are causing serious problems.
Therefore, measurements must be acquired either from one end or from both the
ends of a faulted line. Only meager recorded data is available at limited
substation locations in certain systems. When a fault occurs in such systems,
only a few (two or three) recording devices are triggered. The most likely case
is that the measurements could not be obtained at either or both ends of the
faulted transmission line leads to drop in the quality of the power.

To improve the quality of power with sufficient solutions, it is necessary to be

familiar with what sort of constraint has occurred. Additionally, if there is any
inadequacy in the protection, monitoring and control of a power system, the
system might become unstable. Therefore, it necessitates a monitoring system
that is able to automatically detect, monitor, typify and classify the existing
constraints on electrical lines. This brings up advantages to both end users and
utility companies.
 LITERATURE SURVEY

1) IEEE standard for SCADA and automation systems, IEEE Std C37.1-,
2007.

The requirements for SCADA and automation systems in substations are

defined. This standard defines the process of substation integration as the design
process that is the foundation for substation automation. Functional and
environmental requirements are provided for all IEDs located in the system.
Tutorial material is included in the annexes to address common issues with
systems without introducing requirements. Information is also presented in the
annexes regarding SCADA masters.

2) L. A. Basile, S. Riendeau, H. Bertrand, and J. Béland, ‘The Deployment

of Wireless Networks in High Voltage Substations: A Feasibility Study’, in
2012 IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference (EPEC), pp. 46-50,
London, Ontario, Canada, Oct 10-12, 2012.

The use of wireless technologies in high voltage environments is increasing

with the growing need for monitoring and preventive maintenance in electricity
utilities. The feasibility of deploying wireless technologies in high voltage
environments such as substations is addressed in this paper. High voltage
substations are different from common area due to the presence of many
metallic structures causing multiple reflexions, diffractions and scattering. The
simulations are performed using realistic substations representation and up-to-
date radio equipments specifications. The propagation coverage and the
maximum throughput achievable are presented for three wireless technologies,
WiFi, WiMAX and 900 MHz systems. The simulation results are discussed and
some recommendations are given. Note that the impact of impulsive noise such
as partial discharges is not addressed in this paper which only focuses on the
evaluation of wireless systems under specific multipath scenario of substations.

3) F. Cleveland, 'Use of Wireless Data Communications in Power System

Operations', in Power Systems Conference and Exposition, PSCE '06 IEEE
PES, pp. 631 - 640, Oct. 29 -Nov. 1, 2006.

Wireless data communications are becoming widespread in many industries,

since they offer significant benefits over wired communications, including low
cost installations, rapid deployment, easy user access, and mobility. At the same
time, the use of wireless technologies in power system environments presents a
number of security and reliability concerns. These concerns include the impact
of noisy electrical environments on the wireless media, the reliability of the
currently available commercial wireless equipment, the overloading of the
available bandwidth (particularly during emergency conditions), and the
security of communications. Utilities are therefore wisely skeptical and cautious
about introducing wireless communications in their substations. Nonetheless,
the potential advantages of wireless technologies cannot be ignored. The
possible uses of wireless technologies in power system operations therefore
should be analyzed to determine where wireless could be a viable and attractive
alternative to wired solutions, and what additional development of wireless
technologies are needed.

4) Y. Wang, F.A.M. Mir, and W.H. Siew, ' Digital wireless data acquisition
system for measurement in high-voltage substations', IEEE Power
Engineering Society General Meeting, pages: 1-6, 2006.
This project describes a new digital wireless data acquisition system that can be
used to measure electromagnetic interference (EMI) in power stations or other
similar harsh environments. It comprises of a remote acquisition unit (RAU), a
wireless data communication network (WDCN) and a PC-based control
platform as a front end of the field-distributed-data-acquisition system, RAU
captures, digitizes and stores the EMI signals in its memory and sends the
information to the PC using the wireless data communication network. The
WDCN acts as a bi-directional data communication link between the RAU &
the control platform. It is based on Bluetooth technology and has a point-to-
multipoint topology. The RAU serves as the acquisition function of a digital
storage oscilloscope (DSO) while the control platform carries out the display &
control function of a DSO. The whole system, as such, may be regarded as a
`computerized wireless oscilloscope'. The system offers an innovative way for
implementing monitoring, protection and testing systems based on wireless
sensor networks.

5) P.C. Baker, M.D. Judd, and S.D.J. McArthur, ‘A frequency-based RF

partial discharge detector for low-power wireless sensing’, IEEE Trans. on
Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, 2010. Vol.17, No.1, pp. 133-140.

Partial discharge (PD) monitoring has been the subject of significant research in
recent years, which has given rise to a range of well-established PD detection
and measurement techniques, such as acoustic and RF, on which condition
monitoring systems for high voltage equipment have been based. This paper
presents a novel approach to partial discharge monitoring by using a low-cost,
low-power RF detector. The detector employs a frequency-based technique that
can distinguish between multiple partial discharge events and other impulsive
noise sources within a substation, tracking defect severity over time and
providing information pertaining to plant health. The detector is designed to
operate as part of a wireless condition monitoring network, removing the need
for additional wiring to be installed into substations whilst still gaining the
benefits of the RF technique. This novel approach to PD detection not only
provides a low-cost solution to on-line partial discharge monitoring, but also
presents a means to deploy wide-scale RF monitoring without the associated
costs of wide-band monitoring systems.

6) R. Moghe, A. R. Iyer, F.C. Lambert and D. M. Divan, ‘A Low-Cost

Wireless Voltage Sensor for Monitoring of MV/HV Utility Assets’, IEEE
Transactions on Smart Grid, Vol. 5, N0. 4, July 2014, pp. 2002-2009.

Voltage sensing of the utility network provide critical information for asset
management, prioritizing asset replacements, increasing situational awareness
and providing increased visibility of the grid. For ease of use, and to increase
commercial appeal among utilities, these sensors should be designed to have a
low cost, long life ( > 10 years), be self-powered, and require no maintenance.
This paper deals with the development of a novel low-cost wireless voltage
sensor for medium- and high-voltage (MV/HV) utility assets such as cables,
transformers, switchgear, capacitor banks, and conductors. A review of existing
techniques along with their drawbacks is outlined in this paper. Further, the
challenges pertaining to the development a low-cost floating voltage sensor
such as variability of voltage, self-calibration requirements, and distance-to-
earth variations are presented. These challenges are circumvented by deriving a
detailed mathematical model of the sensor. Further, using a set of valid
assumptions, a new moving average voltage sensing (MAVS) algorithm is
proposed, tested using simulations and validated using a high-voltage prototype.
The wireless voltage sensor prototype is tested at up to 35 kV and is built to
accommodate electric field energy harvesting in addition to voltage sensing.

7) L. Juan, J. Shaohua, W. Yirong, W. and Hui, ‘Online Insulation

Monitoring System of High-voltage Capacitive Substation Equipment
Based on WSN’, in China International Conference on Electricity
Distribution (CICED), pp.1 -6, 13 Sep - 16 Sep, 2010.

This project introduces an online insulation monitoring system of high-voltage

capacitive substation equipment based on Zigbee wireless sensor network.
According to the voltage level, a number of Zigbee subnets are installed in the
substation to measure the leakage current of the capacitive equipment with the
improved accuracy and reliability of the measurement. The clocks of different
devices are synchronized to realize the synchronized phase measurements and
achieve the precise dielectric loss factor. Several Zigbee subnets construct the
sensor net of the substation capacitive equipment state monitoring system. The
monitoring master of capacitive devices can be included in the intelligent
substation automation system as interval level devices, and can also be
connected to a distance substation monitoring master through 3G
communication network.

8) X. Wang, Z. Li, Y. Huang, R. Zeng, L. Yao, C. Sasse, and M. Han, ‘

Reliability Test of Using 802.11b Technology in Switchgear for
Measurement and Control', in 2006 International Conference on Power
System Technology. Power Con 2006, pages: 1 - 6, 22-26 Oct. 2006.

In this project the typical interference sources for wireless communication in

medium voltage (MV) switchgear are first studied and summarized, and the gap
breakdown is then chosen as the primary interference source for IEEE 802.11b
communication. The immunity tests to the interference of gap breakdown and
narrow-band signals are carried out. The results show that both SF6 and vacuum
gap breakdown have remarkable impacts on IEEE 802.11b communication. It is
found that when the strength of radio signal is strong enough, it will also cause
802.11b working abnormally. According to the test results, the reliability
performance of 802.11b devices is assessed preliminary.
9) P. P. Parikh, T. S. Sidhu and A. Shami, ‘A Comprehensive Investigation
of Wireless LAN for IEC 61850–Based Smart Distribution Substation
Applications’, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Vol. 9, No.3,
August 2013, pp. 1466 – 1476.

Today's power grid is facing many challenges due to increasing load growth,
aging of existing power infrastructures, high penetration of renewable, and lack
of fast monitoring and control. Utilizing recent developments in Information
and Communication Technologies (ICT) at the power-distribution level, various
smart-grid applications can be realized to achieve reliable, efficient, and green
power. Interoperable exchange of information is already standardized in the
globally accepted smart-grid standard, IEC 61850, over the local area networks
(LANs). Due to low installation cost, sufficient data rates, and ease of
deployment, the industrial wireless LAN technologies are gaining interest
among power utilities, especially for less critical smart distribution network
applications. Extensive work is carried out to examine the wireless LAN
(WLAN) technology within a power distribution substation. The first phase of
the work is initiated with the radio noise interference measurements at 27.6- and
13.8-kV distribution substations, including circuit breaker switching operations.
For a detailed investigation, the hardware prototypes of WLAN-enabled IEC
61850 devices are developed using industrial embedded systems, and the
performance of smart distribution substation monitoring, control, and protection
applications is analyzed for various scenarios using a round trip-time of IEC
61850 application messages.

10) A. Abdrabou and A. M. Gaouda, ‘Uninterrupted Wireless Data

Transfer for Smart Grids in the Presence of High Power Transients’, IEEE
Systems Journal, Vol. 9, No.2, June 2015, pp. 567-577.
This project studies the effect of electromagnetic interference radiated by some
power system components in the presence of high-power transients (HPTs) on
wireless communications. We propose an analytical method to estimate the
maximum interference power, which is radiated when a power system
component such as a transformer is subject to HPTs. Our method relies on
mathematically modeling an envelope for the strongest HPT signal, which
usually appears just before power component failure when the component is
subject to a high-power impulse. By the aid of the proposed model, we found
that WiFi-5 GHz (IEEE 802.11a) provides better HPT interference immunity
than both ZigBee (IEEE 802.15.4) and WiFi-2.4 GHz (IEEE 802.11g), which
makes it a more suitable candidate for real-time applications of smart grids.
Furthermore, the proposed method offers a tool to place wireless transceivers
inside power substations in optimal locations where the wireless data transfer of
real-time applications does not suffer abnormal packet loss or retransmission
delays during the occurrence of HPT interference. Experimental results validate
our mathematical model and show that our analytical method is effective in
estimating the status of a wireless link under the effect of HPT interference.
 SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION

EXISTING SYSTEM

 The existing system is only based on manual onsite verification.

 The protecting devices such as CB, fuses are the responsible for
protecting the transmission line.
 The man effort is needed for verifying the line parameters.
 The time taken for this system is comparatively large.

PROPOSED SYSTEM

 This project is proposing a novel inspection and control embedded

system for the substation. This project is individually of the substation
breaker control through GSM.
 The control signal is recognized and then transmitted SMS through
Mobile via GSM modem.
 Thus the proposed system is fully utilizing the embedded system as well
as wireless communication protocol to safeguard the whole power system
network from the serious accident.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

BLOCK DESCRIPTION

In our proposed system, we are using an ATMEGA328 microcontroller

which is interface with IR sensor and GSM module where IR sensor is used for
monitoring if any worker is at the sub transformer. If it senses any movement
then the GSM module is used for send message to the office. The
microcontroller is also connected with the Driver IC and it is connected to the
loads through relays. The relay acts link switches the current transformer is used
to measure the current to load. If over current passed in transmission line or
short circuit fault is detected, the controller to trip the power line. The V-I
attenuator are used for measuring the gain values of the PT and CT. The output
of the attenuator is given to the embedded controller. The LCD is used for
viewing the reading and status of the controller unit. A power supply unit is
used for giving power supply to the proposed system.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

In this project we monitoring and controlling substation through smart

phone. Power supply gives supply to all components. It is used to convert AC
voltage into DC voltage. Transformer used to convert 230V into 12V AC.12V
AC is given to diode. Diode range is 1N4007, which is used to convert AC
voltage into DC voltage. LM 7805 regulator is used to maintain voltage as
constant. Controller we use Atmega328 controller. It has 28 ports. Reset switch
is connected to controller port 1. Current is measured by using current
transformer. Current transformer is connected in series with the load. A
resistance of suitable value is connected across the secondary of the current
transformer. Here the current is converted into voltage. It is given to attenuator
unit. In the attenuator circuit is used to reduce the voltage as required level and
the output is connected to controller port A0. If over current passed in
transmission line or short circuit fault is detected, the controller to trip the
power line through driver unit. ULN2003 is used as driver, is connected to
controller port D10 to D13. It is used to drive the load through relay. Relay is
act as a switch. Two relay we used. It is connected to driver output port 16 &
15. First relay is used to trip the load, and the second relay to run the motor for
safeguard. Power indicator is connected to pole. It is used to indicate the
whether the transformer is ON/ OFF. The information is send to smartphone
through GSM module. The GSM is interface with the MAX232 port T2 Out and
R2 IN. The controller is connected with the MAX232 IC port T2 IN and R2
OUT as well through port D0/Rx and D1/Tx of the controller it is interfaced to
controller port 2 & 3. LCD display is used to display the short messages in our
project. The IR sensor is connected to the port A1 of the controller unit which is
used for detecting is any one is working at the substation unit, if there any
movement is sensed them GSM is used for intimating the office for warning.

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

ATMEGA 328

ATMEGA 328 microcontroller, which acts as a processor for the arduino

board. Nearly it consists of 28 pins. From these 28 pins, the inputs can be
controlled by transmitting and receiving the inputs to the external device. It also
consists of pulse width modulation (PWM). These PWM are used to transmit
the entire signal in a pulse modulation. Input power supply such as Vcc and
Gnd are used. These IC mainly consists of analog and digital inputs. These
analog and digital inputs are used for the process of certain applications.
DESCRIPTION OF INPUT:
ANALOG INPUT:
Arduino atmega-328 microcontroller board consist of 6 analog inputs
pins. These analog inputs can be named from A0 to A5. From these 6 analog
inputs pins, we can do the process by using analog inputs. Analog inputs can be
used in the operating range of 0 to 5V. Analog signal is considered as the
continuous time signal, from which these analog signal can be used for certain
applications. These are also called as non-discrete time signal. Inputs such as
voltage, current etc.., are considered to be either analog signal or digital signal
only by analysing the time signal properties. Various applications of arduino
microcontroller can use only an analog input instead of digital inputs. For these
applications, analog input ports or pins can be used.
DIGITAL INPUT:
Digital inputs can be defined as the non-continuous time signal with
discrete input pulses. It can be represented as 0’s and 1’s. These digital inputs
can be either on state or in off state. Arduino atmega328 microcontroller also
consists of 12 digital input pins. It can be stated as D0 to D11. Nearly 12 inputs
can be used for digital input/output applications. The working of the digital
input ports is where the discrete input pulses can be triggered and supplied to
the ports. These ports receive the input and therefore the port can be used for
both input and output process. These digital pins can access only the digital
inputs.
ATMEGA-328 IC:

This ATMEGA-328 integrated chip consists of 28 pins. It consists of 6

analog inputs that are shown in the pin diagram. Analog inputs can be
represented as PC0 to PC5. These analog input pins possess the continuous time
signal which acts as an analog input for the system. Further it also consists of 12
digital inputs. It can be represented as PD1 to PD11 which act as a digital input
ports based on pulse width modulation (PWM). These PWM, which transmits
the signal in the form of discredited form. Both analog and digital input ports
can be used for various applications for the input power supply, VCC and GND
pins are used. Pins PB6 and PB7, which acts as a crystal to generate a clock
signal. By using these crystal, we can generate the clock signals and by these
clock signals, we can use this clock signals for input sources. PC6 pin are the
one where it can be used for the reset option. Resetting the program can be done
by using this PC6 pin.

The table below gives a description for each of the pins, along with their
function. 

Pin
Description Function
Number

1 PC6 Reset

2 PD0 Digital Pin (RX)

3 PD1 Digital Pin (TX)

4 PD2 Digital Pin

5 PD3 Digital Pin (PWM)

6 PD4 Digital Pin

7 Vcc Positive Voltage (Power)

8 GND Ground

9 XTAL 1 Crystal Oscillator

10 XTAL 2 Crystal Oscillator

 11 PD5 Digital Pin (PWM)

12 PD6 Digital Pin (PWM)

13 PD7 Digital Pin

14 PB0 Digital Pin

15 PB1 Digital Pin (PWM)

16 PB2 Digital Pin (PWM)

17 PB3 Digital Pin (PWM)

18 PB4 Digital Pin

19 PB5 Digital Pin

20 AVCC Positive voltage for ADC (power)

21 AREF Reference Voltage

22 GND Ground

23 PC0 Analog Input

24 PC1 Analog Input

25 PC2 Analog Input

26 PC3 Analog Input

27 PC4 Analog Input

28 PC5 Analog Input

Features:

 High Performance, Low Power Design

 8-Bit Microcontroller Atmel® AVR® advanced RISC architecture
o 131 Instructions most of which are executed in a single clock cycle
o Up to 20 MIPS throughput at 20 MHz
 o 32 x 8 working registers
o 2 cycle multiplier
 Memory Includes
o 32KB of of programmable FLASH
o 1KB of EEPROM
o 2KB SRAM
o 10,000 Write and Erase Cycles for Flash and 100,000 for
EEPROM
o Data retention for 20 years at 85°C and 100 years at 25°C
o Optional boot loader with lock bits
 In System Programming (ISP) by via boot loader
 True Read-While-Write operation
o Programming lock available for software security
 Features Include
o 2 x 8-bit Timers/Counters each with independent prescaler and
compare modes
o A single 16-bit Timer/Counter with an independent prescaler,
compare and capture modes
o Real time counter with independent oscillator
o 10 bit, 6 channel analog to digital Converter
o 6 pulse width modulation channels
o Internal temperature sensor
o Serial USART (Programmable)
o Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface – (Philips I2C compatible)
o Programmable watchdog timer with independent internal oscillator
o Internal analog comparator
o Interrupt and wake up on pin change
  Additional Features
o Internal calibrated oscillator
o Power on reset and programmable brown out detection
o External and internal interrupts
o 6 sleep modes including idle, ADC noise reduction, power save,
power down, standby, and extended standby
 I/O and Package
o 23 programmable I/O lines
o 28 pin PDIP package
 Operating voltage:
o 1.8 – 5.5V
 Operating temperature range:
o -40°C to 85°C
 Speed Grades:
o 0-4 MHz at 1.8-5.5V
o 0-10 MHz at 2.7-5.5V
o 0-20 MHz at 4.5-5.5V
 Low power consumption mode at 1.8V, 1 MHz and 25°C:
o Active Mode: 0.3 mA
o Power-down Mode: 0.1 μA
o Power-save Mode: 0.8 μA (Including 32 kHz RTC)

APPLICATIONS:
 DIY project prototyping.
 Developing varied varieties of projects that require a code based control.
 Automation System development.
 Learning AVR programming.
 Entry level circuit designing.
IR SENSOR

Infrared radiation is the portion of electromagnetic spectrum having

wavelengths longer than visible light wavelengths, but smaller than
microwaves, i.e., the region roughly from 0.75µm to 1000 µm is the infrared
region. Infrared waves are invisible to human eyes. The wavelength region of
0.75µm to 3 µm is called near infrared, the region from 3 µm to 6 µm is called
mid infrared and the region higher than 6 µm is called far infrared. (The
demarcations are not rigid; regions are defined differently by many).
 IR sensors are used to produce IR waves. IR sensors consist of IR
Transmitter and IR receiver. IR transmitter is the one type of LED which emits
infrared rays generally called IR transmitter. One important point is that both IR
transmitter and receiver it placed in the straight line to each other.
Specifications:
 Operating Voltage: 3.0V – 5.0V
 Detection range: 2cm – 30cm (Adjustable using potentiometer)
 Current Consumption: at 3.3V : ~23 mA, at 5.0V: ~43 mA
 Active output level: Outputs Low logic level when obstacle is detected
 On board Obstacle Detection LED indicator

TYPES OF INFRARED SENSORS

1) ACTIVE INFRARED SENSORS
Active infrared sensors employ both infrared source and infrared
detectors. They operate by transmitting energy from either a light emitting diode
(LED) or a laser diode. A LED is used for a non-imaging active IR detector, and
a laser diode is used for an imaging active IR detector.
In this types of IR sensors, the LED or laser diode illuminates the target, and
the reflected energy is focused onto a detector. Photoelectric cells, Photodiode
or phototransistors are generally used as detectors. The measured data is then
processed using various signal-processing algorithms to extract the desired
information.
  Active IR detectors provide count, presence, speed, and occupancy data
in both night and day operation. The laser diode type can also be used for target
classification because it provides target profile and shape data.
  These sensors are used as reflective opto-sensors. Reflective opto-sensors
are either intensity based or use modulated IR. Intensity based sensors are
affected by ambient light. Modulated Infrared sensors wherein emitter is turned
ON and OFF rapidly, are less susceptible to ambient light. Reflective opto-
sensors are used in two configurations.
2) Break Beam Sensors
This type of sensors consists of a pair of light emitting and light detecting
elements. Infrared source transmits a beam of light towards a remote IR receiver
creating an “electronic fence”. Once a beam is broken/interrupted due to some
opaque object, output of detector changes and associated electronic circuitry
takes appropriate actions.
Typical applications of such sensors are intrusion detection, shaft encoder (for
measurement of rotation angle/rate of rotation)

3) Reflectance Sensors
This type of sensors house both an IR source and an IR detector in a
single housing in such a way that light from emitter LED bounces off an
external object and is reflected into a detector. Amount of light reflected into the
detector depends upon the reflectivity of the surface.
  This principle is used in intrusion detection, object detection (measure the
presence of an object in the sensor’s FOV), barcode decoding, and surface
feature detection (detecting features painted, taped, or otherwise marked onto
the floor), wall tracking (detecting distance from the wall), etc.

It can also be used to scan a defined area; the transmitter emits a beam of light
into the scan zone, the reflected light is used to detect a change in the reflected
light thereby scanning the desired zone.
PROS AND CONS
Advantages:
1. Low power requirements: therefore ideal for laptops, telephones, PDAs
2. Low coding/decoding, simple circuitry.
3. Beam directionality ensures that data isn't leaked or spilled to nearby
devices during transmission.
4. Few international regulatory constraints.
5. Relatively high noise immunity.

Disadvantages:
1. Line of sight requirement.
2. Blocked by common objects
3. Short range
4. Direct sunlight, rain, fog, dust, pollution can affect transmission
5. Lower data rate
MAX 232

Circuit Diagram – MAX 232

 It used for interfacing with PC

 It is serial port
 It is used to convert TTL signal to RS232 level
 Typical voltage 1.5V,hysteresis voltage 0.5V

Pin Diagram – MAX 232

The MAX232 IC is used to convert the TTL/CMOS logic levels to RS232 logic
levels during serial communication of microcontrollers with PC. The controller
operates at TTL logic level (0-5V) whereas the serial communication in PC
works on RS232 standards (-25 V to + 25V). This makes it difficult to establish
a direct link between them to communicate with each other.

The intermediate link is provided through MAX232. It is a dual driver/receiver

that includes a capacitive voltage generator to supply RS232 voltage levels from
a single 5V supply. Each receiver converts RS232 inputs to 5V TTL/CMOS
levels. These receivers (R1 & R2) can accept ±30V inputs. The drivers (T1 & T2),
also called transmitters, convert the TTL/CMOS input level into RS232 level.

The transmitters take input from controller’s serial transmission pin and send
the output to RS232’s receiver. The receivers, on the other hand, take input
from transmission pin of RS232 serial port and give serial output to
microcontroller’s receiver pin. MAX232 needs four external capacitors whose
value ranges from 1µF to 22µF.
Microcontroller MAX232 RS232
Tx T1/2 In T1/2 Out Rx
Rx R1/2 Out R1/2 In Tx

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Capacitor 1 +
2 Capacitor 3 +
3 Capacitor 1 -
Capacitor connection pins
4 Capacitor 2 +
5 Capacitor 2 -
6 Capacitor 4 -
Output pin; outputs the serially transmitted data at RS232
7 T2 Out
logic level; connected to receiver pin of PC serial port 
Input pin; receives serially transmitted data at RS 232
8 R2 In
logic level; connected to transmitter pin of PC serial port
Output pin; outputs the serially transmitted data at TTL
9 R2 Out
logic level; connected to receiver pin of controller.
10 Input pins; receive the serial data at TTL logic level; T2 In
11 connected to serial transmitter pin of controller. T1 In
Output pin; outputs the serially transmitted data at TTL
12 R1 Out
logic level; connected to receiver pin of controller.
Input pin; receives serially transmitted data at RS 232
13 R1 In
logic level; connected to transmitter pin of PC serial port
Output pin; outputs the serially transmitted data at RS232
14 T1 Out
logic level; connected to receiver pin of PC serial port
15 Ground (0V) Ground
16 Supply voltage; 5V (4.5V – 5.5V) Vcc

GSM MODEM
 A GSM modem is a specialized type of modem which accepts a SIM
card, and operates over a subscription to a mobile operator, just like a mobile
phone. From the mobile operator perspective, a GSM modem looks just like a
mobile phone.

When a GSM modem is connected to a computer, this allows the

computer to use the GSM modem to communicate over the mobile network.
While these GSM modems are most frequently used to provide mobile internet
connectivity, many of them can also be used for sending and receiving SMS and
MMS messages.

A GSM modem can be a dedicated modem device with a serial, USB or

Bluetooth connection, or it can be a mobile phone that provides GSM modem
capabilities.

For the purpose of this document, the term GSM modem is used as a
generic term to refer to any modem that supports one or more of the protocols in
the GSM evolutionary family, including the 2.5G technologies GPRS and
EDGE, as well as the 3G technologies WCDMA, UMTS, HSDPA and HSUPA.
 A GSM modem exposes an interface that allows applications such as
Now SMS to send and receive messages over the modem interface. The mobile
operator charges for this message sending and receiving as if it was performed
directly on a mobile phone. To perform these tasks, a GSM modem must
support an “extended AT command set” for sending/receiving SMS messages,
as defined in the ETSI GSM 07.05 and and 3GPP TS 27.005 specifications.

GSM modems can be a quick and efficient way to get started with SMS,
because a special subscription to an SMS service provider is not required. In
most parts of the world, GSM modems are a cost effective solution for receiving
SMS messages, because the sender is paying for the message delivery.

A GSM modem can be a dedicated modem device with a serial, USB or

Bluetooth connection, such as the Falcom Samba 75. (Other manufacturers of
dedicated GSM modem devices include Wavecom, Multitech and iTegno.
We’ve also reviewed a number of modems on our technical support blog.) To
begin, insert a GSM SIM card into the modem and connect it to an available
USB port on your computer.

A GSM modem could also be a standard GSM mobile phone with the
appropriate cable and software driver to connect to a serial port or USB port on
your computer. Any phone that supports the “extended AT command set” for
sending/receiving SMS messages, as defined in ETSI GSM 07.05 and/or 3GPP
TS 27.005, can be supported by the Now SMS & MMS Gateway. Note that not
all mobile phones support this modem interface.

Due to some compatibility issues that can exist with mobile phones,
using a dedicated GSM modem is usually preferable to a GSM mobile phone.
This is more of an issue with MMS messaging, where if you wish to be able to
receive inbound MMS messages with the gateway, the modem interface on
most GSM phones will only allow you to send MMS messages. This is because
the mobile phone automatically processes received MMS message notifications
without forwarding them via the modem interface.

It should also be noted that not all phones support the modem interface for
sending and receiving SMS messages. In particular, most smart phones,
including Blackberries, iPhone, and Windows Mobile devices, do not support
this GSM modem interface for sending and receiving SMS messages at all at
all. Additionally, Nokia phones that use the S60 (Series 60) interface, which is
Symbian based, only support sending SMS messages via the modem interface,
and do not support receiving SMS via the modem interface.

A wireless modem is a type of modulator-demodulator which connects

to a wireless network instead of using telephone or cable television lines. A
mobile Internet user can connect using a wireless modem to a wireless Internet
Service Provider (ISP) to get Internet access.

Types of devices used

A 2008 Kyocera iBurst desktop wireless modem with Ethernet interface

Mobile phones, smartphones, and PDAs can be employed as data modems to
form a wireless access point connecting a personal computer to the Internet (or
some proprietary network). In this use the mobile phone is providing a gateway
between the cellular service provider's data network technology and Point-to-
Point Protocol (PPP) spoken by PCs. Almost all current mobile phone models
support the Hayes command set, a standard method of controlling modems. To
the PC, the phone appears like an external modem when connected via serial
cable, USB, IrDA infrared or Bluetooth wireless. Some cellular providers forbid
this kind of usage, or charge an extra fee.

Wireless FireWire, USB and Serial modems are also used in the Wi-Fi
and WiMAX standards, operating at microwave frequencies, to give a laptop,
PDA or desktop computer an access point to a network. The modems may be as
large as a regular cable modem to as small as a dongle or USB-stick. If
combined with Voice over IP (VoIP) technology, these computing devices can
make and receive telephone calls.

PCMCIA, ExpressCard and Compact Flash modems are also used.

These card-modems can also have GPS included.[1]

Service providers

There are competing common carriers broadcasting signal in most nations

of the earth.

Technologies

 GPRS (2.5G)  HSDPA (3.5G)

 CDPD  iBurst (pre-4G)
 CDMA2000  HiperMAN (pre-4G)
 EDGE  WiMAX (pre-4G)
 UMTS (3G)  WiBro (pre-4G)
 GPRS Core Network  GAN (UMA) (pre-4G)
 IP Multimedia Subsystem
GSM MODEM SIM900:
The GSM modem is a specific type of device, which accepts a SIM card
operate on a subscriber’s mobile number over a network, as a cellular phone.
Modem sim300 is tri band GSM/GPRS locomotives that perform on
EGSM900MHz, DCS1800MHz and PCS1900MHz frequencies. GSM Modem
is used as a RS232-logic level compatible, i.e., it various from -3v to -15v as
logic high and +3v to +15 as logic low.MAX232 is used to convert TTL into
RS232 logic level converter is used between the microcontroller and the GSM
board. The microcontroller signal is sent to the GSM modem through pin 11 of
max232. The pin2 of the GSM modem received the signal from microcontroller.
The GSM modem transmits the signals from pin3 to the microcontroller through
MAX232.
FEATURES OF GSM
 Single supply voltage 3.2v-4.5v
 Typical power consumption in SLEEP Mode: 2.5mA.
 SIM300 tri-band
 Typical power consumption in SLEEP Mode: 2.5mA.
 SIM300tri-band
 MT, MO, CB, text and PDU mode, SMS storage: SIM card
 Supported SIM Card: 1.8V, 3V

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
 The current transformer is used with its primary winding connected in
series with the line carrying the current to be measured and therefore the
primary current is dependent upon the load connected to the system and is not
determined by the load (burden) connected on the secondary winding of the
current transformer. The primary winding consists of very few turns and
therefore there is no appreciable voltage drop across it. The secondary winding
of the current transformer has larger number of turns, the exact number being
determined by the turn’s ratio. The ammeter, or wattmeter current coil are
connected across the secondary winding terminals. Thus a current transformer
operates its secondary winding nearly under short circuit conditions. One of the
terminals of the secondary winding is earthed so as to protect equipment and
personnel in the vicinity in the event of the insulation breakdown in the current
transformer.

EFFECT OF SECONDARY OPEN CIRCUIT:

Current transformers are always used with the secondary winding circuit
closed through ammeters, wattmeter current coils, or relay coils. A precaution
which should always be observed in using current transformers is that, the
secondary of the current transformer should never be open circuited if the
primary of the current transformer is energized. Failure to observe this leads to
serious consequences to the operating personnel and to the current transformer
itself.
The difference between a current transformer and a Power transformer is
that in a Power Transformer the current flowing in the primary winding is
largely the reflection of that following in the secondary circuit, whereas in the
current transformer, the primary winding is connected in series with the line
whose current being measured or indicated and this current is no way controlled
or determined by the conditions of the secondary winding circuit of the current
transformer. Under normal operating conditions both primary and secondary
windings produce mmfs, which act against each other. The secondary mmf is
slightly less than the primary mmf and consequently the resultant mmf is small.
This resultant mmf being the magnetizing mmf required for maintenance of flux
in the core and to supply iron losses. This resultant mmf is responsible for
production of flux in the core and as this mmf is small, the flux density is quite
low under normal operating conditions and hence a small voltage is induced in
the secondary winding.
If the secondary winding is open-circuited when the primary winding is
energized, the primary winding mmf remains the same while the opposing
secondary winding mmf reduces to zero. Therefore the resultant mmf is equal to
the primary winding mmf IpNp which is very large. This mmf produces a large
flux in the core till it saturates. This large flux linking the turns of the
secondary winding, would induce a high voltage in the secondary winding
which could be dangerous to the transformer insulation and to the person who
has opened the circuit. Also the eddy current and hysteresis losses would be
very high and under these conditions and due to this the transformer may be
overheated and completely damaged. Even if it does not happen, the core may
become permanently magnetized and this gives appreciable ratio and phase
angle errors. Most current transformers are provided with a short-circuiting link
or a switch at the secondary winding terminals. If such a link is provided, it
should always be closed before any change is made in the secondary winding
circuit with primary winding excited. The secondary winding may safely be
short-circuited since when used for measurement it is practically short-circuited
by the ammeter.

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
A Potential transformer or voltage transformer can be defined as an
electrical device that gets used in electrical power system for stepping down the
system voltage to a safe value which can be fed to low ratings meters and
relays. This so because the commercially available relays and meters used for
protection and metering, are designed for low voltage. This is perhaps the
simplest definition for a potential transformer.

Theory of Voltage or Potential Transformer

Theory of a potential transformer is just like a theory of general
purpose step down transformer. Primary of this transformer is connected across
the phase and ground. Just like the transformer used for stepping down purpose,
potential transformer i.e. PT has lower turns winding at its secondary. The
system voltage is applied across the terminals of primary winding of that
transformer, and then proportionate secondary voltage appears across the
secondary terminals of the PT.
The secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110 V. In an ideal potential
transformer or voltage transformer, when rated burden gets connected across
the secondary; the ratio of primary and secondary voltages of transformer is
equal to the turn’s ratio and furthermore, the two terminal voltages are in
precise phase opposite to each other. But in actual transformer, there must be an
error in the voltage ratio as well as in the phase angle between primary and
secondary voltages.
The errors in potential transformer or voltage transformer can be best
explained by phasor diagram, and this is the main part of potential
transformer theory.
Error in PT or Potential Transformer
Is - Secondary current.
Es - Secondary induced emf.
Vs - Secondary terminal voltage.
Rs - Secondary winding resistance.
Xs - Secondary winding reactance.
Ip - Primary current.
Ep - Primary induced emf.
Vp - Primary terminal voltage.
Rp - Primary winding resistance.
Xp - Primary winding reactance.
KT – Turns ratio = Numbers of primary turns/number of secondary turns.
I0 - Excitation current.
Im – Magnetizing component of I0.
Iw - Core loss component of I0.
Φm - Main flux. β - Phase angle error.
 As in the case of current transformer and other purpose electrical power
transformer, total primary current Ip is the vector sum of excitation current and
the current equal to reversal of secondary current multiplied by the ratio 1/KT.

If Vp is the system voltage applied to the primary of the PT, then voltage
drops due to resistance and reactance of primary winding due to primary current
Ip will come into picture. After subtracting this voltage drop from Vp, Ep will
appear across the primary terminals. This Ep is equal to primary induced emf.
This primary emf will transform to the secondary winding by mutual
induction and transformed emf is Es. Again this Es will be dropped by
secondary winding resistance and reactance, and resultant will actually appear
across the burden terminals and it is denoted as Vs.
So if system voltage is Vp, ideally Vp/KT should be the secondary
voltage of PT, but in reality; actual secondary voltage of PT is Vs.
Voltage Error or Ratio Error
The difference between the ideal value Vp/KT and actual value Vs is the
voltage error or ratio error in a potential transformer, it can be expressed as,

Phase Error or Phase Angle Error

The angle ′β′ between the primary system voltage Vp and the reversed
secondary voltage vectors KT.Vs is the phase error.
Cause of Error in Potential Transformer
The voltage applied to the primary of the potential transformer first drops
due to the internal impedance of the primary. Then it appears across the primary
winding and then transformed proportionally to its turns ratio, to the secondary
winding. This transformed voltage across the secondary winding will again drop
due to the internal impedance of the secondary, before appearing across burden
terminals. This is the reason of errors in potential transformer.
CURRENT MEASURING CIRCUIT

The current drawn by the load is measured by using current transformer.

The primary of the current transformer is connected in series with the load. A
resistance of suitable value is connected across the secondary of the current
transformer. Here the current is converted into voltage. Now the voltage drop
across the resistor is applied to a rectifier. The rectifier converts the ac voltage
into a DC voltage. The attenuator circuit reduces the voltage to a required level.
The attenuator circuit usually passive devices made from simple voltage
divider networks. Switching between different resistances forms adjustable
stepped attenuators and continuously adjustable ones using potentiometers. A
capacitor is connected across the rectifier to filter out the ripples. Then the
filtered output is given to the micro controller.
VOLTAGE MEASURING CIRCUIT
 The load voltage is measured by using a potential transformer. The load
voltage is stepped down to a low value by using a potential transformer. The
output of the potential transformer is connected to an attenuator.
The attenuator circuit reduces the voltage to a required level. The
attenuator circuit mainly consists of an operational amplifier. A suitable value
of feedback resistance and input resistance are connected with the operational
amplifier. In the attenuator circuit the operational amplifier is used in the
inverting mode. So, the output voltage of the attenuator has a negative sign. So
output of the attenuator is connected to a sign changer, which will change the
sign of the measured voltage. Then the measured voltage is connected to a
rectifier. The rectifier converts the AC voltage in to DC voltage. A capacitor is
connected across the rectifier to filter-out the ripples. Then the filtered output is
given to the micro controller.
RELAY DRIVER
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

DRIVER:
Driver is used for drive the relay. ULN2003A IC is used as driver. This
IC has some special features
 Seven Darlington’s per package
 output current 500ma per driver (600ma peak)
 output voltage 50v
 integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads
 outputs can be paralleled for higher current
 ttl/cmos/pmos/dtl compatible inputs

DESCRIPTION
 The ULN2001A, ULN2002A, ULN2003 and ULN2004Aare high
voltage, high current Darlington arrays each containing seven open collector
dar-lington pairs with common emitters. Each channel rated at 500mAand can
withstand peak currents of 600mA. Suppression diodes are included for
inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned opposite the outputs to simplify
board layout. The four versions interface to all common logic families

These versatile devices are useful for driving a wide range of loads
including solenoids, relays DC motors; LED displays filament lamps, thermal
print-head sand high power buffers ULN2001A/2002A/2003Aand 2004A is
sup-plied in 16 pin plastic DIP packages with a copper lead frame to reduce
thermal resistance. They are available also in small outline package (SO-16) as
ULN2001D/2002D/2003D/2004D.

Pin Diagram – ULN 2003

 The ULN2003A is a high voltage, high current, Darlington Arrays each
containing seven open collection Darlington pairs with common emitters. Each
channel rated at 500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA.
Suppression diodes are included for inductive load driving and the inputs are
pinned opposite to outputs to simplify layout. It is a 5V TTL, CMOS. This
versatile device is useful for driving a wide range of loads including solenoids,
relays, DC motors, LED displays, and high power buffers. Outputs can be
paralleled for higher current.
The output of MC is applied to the input of relay driver transistor at its
phase terminals. When the input base voltage is reduced so that the relay is de-
energized, the collector current falls to zero abruptly. This sudden switching off
the relay current induces a very high back emf in the relay coils, which may be
high enough to puncture the collector-emitter junction at the transistor and
damage it. A large capacitor connected in parallel with the relay coil absorbs
this transient and protects the transistor. However large capacitor connected in
parallel with the relay coil absorbs this transient, protects the transistor and
sluggish the relay operations.
 In an alternative method, a diode is connected in parallel with relay coil
instead of the capacitor. During normal operation, the diode is reversed biased
and has no effects on circuit performance, but, when the high back emf is
induced, it has the proper polarity for the diode to conduct. The diode there after
conducts heavily and absorbs all the transient voltage. The use of a diode is
parallel with the relay coil is highly recommended.
RELAY

Relay Pin Diagram

Relays are switching devices. Switching devices are the heart of industrial
electronic systems. When a relay is energized or activated, contacts are made or
broken. They are used to control ac or dc power. They are used to control the
sequence of events in the operation of a system such as an electronic heater,
counter, welding circuits, and X-ray equipment, measuring systems, alarm
systems and telephony. Electromagnetic relays are forms of electromagnets in
which the coil current produces a magnetic effect. It pulls or pushes flat soft
iron armatures or strips carrying relay contacts. Several relay contact can be
operated to get several possible ON/OFF combinations.

OPERATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY

Relays are usually dc operated. When dc is passed to the coil, the core gets
magnetized. The iron armature towards the core contacts 1 and 2 open and
contacts 2 and 3 close. When coil current is stopped, the attraction is not there
and hence the spring tension brings 1 and 2 to closed position, opening the other
set 2 and 3.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAY
RELAY CONTACTS AND IDENTIFICATION

The heart of the relay is the ‘junction’ of the contact points. The relay contact
points may be flat, spherical, pointed and combination of all these. Flat contacts
require more pressure for perfect contact closing. Half round contacts are better
because the surface contamination will be minimum. The twin contacts give
reliable operation.

Relay contacts are made of silver and silver alloys in small power applications.
For large relays, contacts are made up of copper. Certain relays use silver –
palladium of platinum – ruthenium alloys for contacts. The special types
mentioned above give long life, carry moderate currents and keep shape for
long time.

To identify relay contacts, some important contact arrangements must be

remembered.

SPST - Single Pole Single Throw

SPDT - Single Pole Double Throw

NO - Normally Opened

NC - Normally Closed

Break - Relay action opens or breaks

contacts
Make - Relay action makes or closes
contacts

Relays are electromagnetic device by which operation of one or more circuits

can be controlled by the operation of some other circuit. Relay is a type of
switch where switching completely depends upon the electromagnetism. When
winding of insulted wire is made on soft iron rod and apply is given across its
end then magnetic field develops around the rod and due to this magnetic field,
magnetism also becomes magnet. In this way, can be said that on giving supply
to the coil winded over a core, it becomes magnet. This magnet is known as
electromagnet.

Relay is a device which can turn ON/OFF any external circuit in some special
circumstances. The principal relay is a one pole 2 way switch. The difference is
that simple switch is manual switch whereas relay is an automatic switch to
some extent. It has a coil in it.

When this coil gets enough supply then it becomes electromagnet and attracts
the strip of pole towards itself and changes the position of switch. When supply
cuts off then coil demagnetizes and thus switch comes in its normal position. In
telephony, the relays are used widely. The relay that we used in this circuit has
two states.

 Normally closed state (NC)

 Normally opened state (NO)

The control circuit of the relay transistor is shown in figure. When the input to
transistor is logic 0, the transistor will be open. So the relay will be holding +12
and which will be in normally closed state.
Relays are electro mechanical switches and are electrically operated power
switches. A relay consists of an electromagnet which when energized pulls the
armature. The armature carries heavy electrical contacts that make or break an
electric circuit. General purpose relays can handle current of five or ten
amperes. Relays that have contact ratings of about 25A or more are known as
contactors. A single relay can make or break a number of contacts
simultaneously.

The amount of electrical power required to drive a relay is very small. Most
Voltage stabilizers use relay coils of 720mw.It means that 12v relay coil will
have resistance of 200 ohms and operated up to 60mA.The same relay with 450
ohms coil will operate on 18v with 40mA.Transistor circuits can easily supply
this much of power and this much of power and thus control large amount of
power through relay contacts.

When the relay is not activated (ie.) in the reenergized state, NC contacts are
closed and NO connections are opened. When the relay is activated (ie.)in the
energized state, NC contacts broken and NO contacts are made. When the relay
is de energized the original states of the contacts are returned. The Above
relays are single contact relays. This means that the relays have one common
point, one NO contact and one NC contact.

Double contact relays are also present. These relays have a set of common
points, a set of NO contacts and set of NC contacts. In single contact relay, only
one relay independent load or a series of different loads can be connected.

In double contact relay, two independent loads can be connected at two

different contacts and these two different and these two loads can be operated as
desired.
LCD DISPLAY
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) have materials, which combine the
properties of both liquid and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they
have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as
they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered form similar to
a crystal. An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material
sand witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated
with transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to be
displayed polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the liquid
crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined
orientation angle. One each polarizer are pasted outside the two glass panels.
This polarizer would rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite
angle, in a particular direction. When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are
rotated by the two polarizer and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come
out of the LCD without any orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent.
When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal molecules
would be aligned in a specific direction.
 The LCDs are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since
the LCD’s consume power, they are compatible with low power electronic
circuits, and can be powered for long durations. The LCD does don’t generate
light and so light is needed to read the display. By using backlighting, reading is
possible in the dark. The LCD’s have long life and a wide operating temperature
range. Changing the display size of the layout size is relatively simple which
makes the LCD’s more customers friendly. The LCD’s used exclusively in
watches, calculators and measuring instruments are the simple seven-segment
displays, having a limited amount of numeric data. The recent advances in
technology have resulted in better legibility, more information displaying
capability and a wider temperature range. These have resulted in the LCDs
being extensively used in telecommunications and entertainment electronics.
The LCDs have even started replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for
the display of text and graphics, and also in small TV applications.
JHD162A LCD module 16×4
The JHD162A has 16 pins and can be operated in 4-bit mode or 8-bit
mode. Here we are using the LCD module in 4-bit mode. Before going in to the
details of the project, let’s have a look at the JHD162A LCD module.
Pin of the JHD162A LCD module is given below.

 Pin1 (Vss): Ground pin of the LCD module.

 Pin2 (Vcc):+5V supply is given to this pin.
 Pin3 (VEE): Contrast adjustment pin. This is done by connecting the
ends of a 10K potentiometer to +5V and ground and then connecting the
slider pin to the VEE pin. The voltage at the VEE pin defines the contrast.
The normal setting is between 0.4 and 0.9V.
 Pin4 (RS): Register select pin. The JHD162A has two registers namely
command register and data register. Logic HIGH at RS pin selects data
register and logic LOW at RS pin will select command register. If we
make the RS pin HIGH and put a data on the data lines (DB0 to DB7) it
will be recognized as a data. If we make the RS pin LOW and put a data
on the data lines, then it will be taken as a command.
 Pin5 (R/W): Read/Write modes. This pin is used for selecting between
read and write modes. Logic HIGH at this pin activates read mode and
logic LOW at this pin activates write mode.
 Pin6 (E): This pin is meant for enabling the LCD module. A HIGH to
LOW signal at this pin will enable the module.
 Pin7 (DB0) to Pin14 (DB7):  These are data pins. The commands and
data are put on these pins.
 Pin15 (LED+): Anode of the back light LED. When operated on 5V, a
560 ohm resistor should be connected in series to this pin. In arduino
based projects the back light LED can be powered from the 3.3V source
on the arduino board.
  Pin16 (LED-): Cathode of the back light LED.

POWER SUPPLY

Most electronic circuits require DC voltage sources or power supplies. If

the electronic device is to be portable, then one or more batteries are usually
needed to provide the DC voltage required by electronic circuits. But batteries
have a limited life span and cannot be recharged. The solution is to convert the
alternating current lose hold line voltage to a DC voltage source.

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR POWER SUPPLY

Block diagram of AC to DC power Supply consists,

1. Transformer: Steps the household line voltage up or down as required.

2. Rectifier: Converts ac voltage into dc voltage.

3. Filter: Smooth the pulsating DC voltage to a varying DC voltage.

4. Regulator: Fix the output voltage to constant value.

SINGLE POWER SUPPLY:

Power supply gives supply to all components. It is used to convert AC

voltage into DC voltage. Transformer used to convert 230V into 12V AC.12V
AC is given to diode. Diode range is 1N4007, which is used to convert AC
voltage into DC voltage. AC capacitor used to charge AC components and
discharge on ground. LM 7805 regulator is used to maintain voltage as constant.
Then signal will be given to next capacitor, which is used to filter unwanted AC
component. Load will be LED and resister. LED voltage is 1.75V.if voltage is
above level beyond the limit, and then it will be dropped on resister.
DUAL POWER SUPPLY:

Power supply gives supply to all components. It is used to convert AC

voltage into DC voltage. Transformer used to convert 230V into +12V and -
12V AC.12V AC is given to diode. Diode range is 1N4007, which is used to
convert AC voltage into DC voltage. AC capacitor used to charge AC
components and discharge on ground. LM 7805 and LM 7905 regulator is used
to maintain voltage as constant. Then signal will be given to next capacitor,
which is used to filter unwanted AC component. Load will be LED and resister.
LED voltage is 1.75V.if voltage is above level beyond the limit, and then it will
be dropped on resister.

Brief Introduction to an Electrical Transformer

 A Transformer is an electrical device that takes electricity of one voltage
and changes it into another voltage. In AC circuits, AC voltage, current and
waveform can be transformed with the help of Transformers. Transformer plays
an important role in electronic equipment. AC and DC voltage in Power supply
equipment are almost achieved by transformer’s transformation and
commutation. Figure 1 shows the Transformer.

Basically, a Transformer changes electricity from high to low voltage or

low to high voltage using two properties of electricity. In an electric circuit,
there is magnetism around it. Second, whenever a magnetic field changes (by
moving or by changing strength) a voltage is made. 

A Transformer takes in electricity at a higher voltage and lets it run

through lots of coils wound around an iron core. “. A single-phase Transformer
can operate to either increase or decrease the voltage applied to the primary
winding. Because the current is alternating, the magnetism in the core is also
alternating. Also around the core is an output wire with fewer coils. The
magnetism changing back and forth makes a current in the wire. Having fewer
coils means less voltage. When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the
secondary winding with respect to the primary it is called a Step-down
Transformer. When a Transformer is used to “increase” the voltage on its
secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up
Transformer. However, a third condition exists in which a transformer
produces the same voltage on its secondary as is applied to its primary winding.
In other words, its output is identical with respect to input. This type of
Transformer is called an “Impedance Transformer” and is mainly used for
impedance matching or the isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.

Working of a Transformer

The working principle of Transformer is very simple. It depends

upon Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction
between two or more winding is responsible for transformation action in an
Electrical Transformer. According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction, “Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly
proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor or coil”. When one winding
which is supplied by an alternating electrical source as shown in figure 2. The
alternating current through the winding produces a continually changing flux or
alternating flux that surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought
nearer to the previous one, obviously some portion of this flux will link with the
second. As this flux is continually changing in its amplitude and direction, there
must be a change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil.
 According to Faraday’s law, there must be an EMF induced in the
second. If the circuit of the later winding is closed, there must be an electric
current flowing through it. Now let us see the working of a Transformer in
detail. The winding which takes electrical power from the source, is generally
known as Primary winding of Transformer as shown in figure 2. The winding
which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual induction in the
transformer, is commonly known as Secondary winding of Transformer. The
difference in voltage between the Primary and the Secondary windings is
achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the Primary winding
compared to the number of coil turns on the Secondary winding. As the
Transformer is a linear device, a ratio is done between the numbers of turns of
the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio,
called the ratio of transformation, more commonly known as a Transformers
“turns ratio”. This turn’s ratio value dictates the operation of the Transformer
and the corresponding voltage available on the secondary winding. If the
Transformer’s ratio is 10:1, then if there are 2200 volts on the Primary winding
there will be 220 volts on the Secondary winding. Then we can see that if the
ratio between the numbers of turns changes the resulting voltages must also
change by the same ratio.

Rectifiers

A rectifier circuit converts an AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage.

This is accomplished by using one or more diodes because diodes conduct
current in only one direction.

Types of Rectifiers:

 Half-wave Rectifier
 Full-wave Rectifier
  Full-wave bridge rectifier

Half-wave Rectifier

D1
DIODE
V1 V2 VL LOAD

T1
The transformer (T1) isolates the household voltage and also steps down
the household voltage to a more useful voltage level. The diode lets current flow
into the load in only one direction. The load current is unidirectional; therefore,
it has a significant dc component (or average value).When V2 is positive, diode
D1 conducts and VL=V2. When V2 is negative, diode D1 blocks the current
flow and VL=0volts. The load voltage consists of dc voltage along with ripple
voltage. In a half-wave rectifier circuit, the ripple component is larger than the
DC component, which is undesirable.

USEFUL FORMULAS:

 VAVG (DC) = 0.637V2

 VL (DC) = 0.318V2
 VL (AC) = 0.386V2
 %RIPPLE = VL (AC)/VL (DC) = 121%
 RIPPLE FREQUENCY = SUPPLY FREQUENCY
Full-wave Rectifier

The full wave rectifier circuit requires a transformer with two secondary
windings. i.e. center-tapped secondary winding. The secondary windings are
180 out of phase.

VL

D1 IL
LOAD
V2a
V1
V2b

D2

Diode D1 contacts when V2a is positive, producing a half-wave

rectified voltage across the load. Diode D1 does not conduct when V2a is
negative. Diode D2 contacts when V2b is positive and does not conduct when
V2b is negative. One of the two diodes is conducting at all times because V2a
and V2b are 180 out of phase and thus producing full-wave rectified voltage. In
the Full wave rectifier, Dc component is larger than ripple.

USEFUL FORMULAS:

 VL (DC) = 0.637V2
 VL (AC) = 0.307V2
 %RIPPLE = VL (AC)/VL (DC) = 48.2%
 RIPPLE FREQUENCY = 2 x SUPPLY FREQUENCY

Full-wave bridge rectifier:

 The full-wave bridge rectifier circuit requires four diodes. The
transformer has only one secondary winding.

IL

D1 D2
T1
V1 V2 VL LOAD

D4 D3

When V2 is positive, diodes D1 & D3 conduct current through the load.

Diodes D2 and D4 block current flow. When V2 is negative, diodes D2 and D4
conduct current through the load. Diodes D1 and D3 block current flow. The
full-wave bridge rectifier fully utilizes the transformer winding during both half
cycles.

USEFUL FORMULAS

 VL (DC) = 0.637V2
 VL (AC) = 0.307V2
 %RIPPLE = VL (AC)/VL (DC) = 48.2%
 RIPPLE FREQUENCY = 2 x SUPPLY FREQUENCY

Filters:
 The 121% ripple in the output of the half-wave rectifier and 48% in the
full-wave rectifier is more than can be normally tolerated. In the full wave
filtering, wherein the frequency of the ripple is 100Hz for a 50Hz ac line
voltage. This is an advantage where either an inductor is used to prevent the
passage of the ripple current(due to its high inductive reactance to ac but quite
low resistance to dc), or a capacitor is used to ‘short’ the ripple to ground but
leave the dc to appear at the output. Various combinations of L and C are also
used.

Regulators:

The simplest regulator is a large capacitor in parallel with the load. The
capacitor stores DC voltage while the load voltage increases to its peak value.
The capacitor converts the pulsating DC voltage of a rectifier into a smooth Dc
load voltage. Two important parameters of a capacitor regulator are its working
voltage and its capacitance. The working voltage must be at least equal to no-
load output voltage of power supply. The capacitance determines the amount of
ripple that appears on the Dc output when current is drawn from the circuit. The
amount of ripple decreases with increase in capacitance.

Capacitance regulator circuit

L-regulator circuit

This circuit consists of a series inductor and a capacitance in parallel with

load. The L-regulator is often used in high-power DC supplies.

MC 7800 and 7900 Regulators standard application circuit:

The Mc 7800 is a 3 terminal, positive, fixed voltage integrated circuit

regulator. These regulators employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown
and safe area compensation. The Mc 7900 is a 3 terminal, negative, fixed
voltage integrated circuit regulator. Mc 7800 and Mc 7900 series requires no
external components. The input voltage must be at least two volts higher than
the output voltage capacitor c1 is required if the regulator is located far from the
power supply. Capacitor c2 improve the transient response. Both series
available in To-220 plastic package and T01-3 metal package.

PIN DETAILS:

IC 7805:

FEATURES:

 Suitable for TTL, DTL, HTL, C-MOS Power supply.

 Internal short-circuit current limiting.
 Internal Thermal Overload Protection.
 Maximum Output Current of 150mA.
 Packaged in TO-92.

Electrical characteristics:

Input voltage :5V~15V.

Power dissipation :600 mW.
Operating Junction :-30~150 °C.
Temperature
Operating Temperature :-30~75 °C.

IC 7905:
Features:

 No external components required

 Internal thermal overload protection
 Internal short circuit current limiting
 Output transistor safe- Area compensation

Electrical characteristics:

Input voltage : -5V~-18V

Output voltage : -4.8V~-5.2V
Storage junction temperature range : -65 ~ +150 °C.
Junction temperature : +150 °C.
Ripple Rejection : 70 dB
Dropout voltage : 1.3 Vdc
Average temperature coefficient of output voltage : -1.0 mV/°C.

OTHER COMPONENTS

CAPACITORS:
Features:

 Enabled high ripple current by a reduction of impedance at high

frequency range.

Load Life : 105°C 2000~5000hours.

Operating Temperature Range :-40~+105°C
Rated Voltage Range :6.3~100V.DC
Capacitance Tolerance :±20%(20°C, 120Hz).

RESISTORS:

Color 1st 2nd 3rd band 4th band Temp.

band band (multiplier) (tolerance) Coefficient
Black 0 0 ×100
Brown 1 1 ×101 ±1% (F) 100 ppm
Red 2 2 ×102 ±2% (G) 50 ppm
Orange 3 3 ×103 15 ppm
Yellow 4 4 ×104 25 ppm
Green 5 5 ×105 ±0.5% (D)
Blue 6 6 ×106 ±0.25% (C)
Violet 7 7 ×107 ±0.1% (B)
Gray 8 8 ×108 ±0.05% (A)
White 9 9 ×109
Gold ×10−1 ±5% (J)
Silver ×10−2 ±10% (K)
None ±20% (M)

Features:

 Temperature Range -55°C ~ +155°C

 ±5% tolerance
 High quality performance at economical prices
 Compatible with automatic insertion equipment
 Flame retardant type available
 Tin coated annealed copper wire.

LIGHT EMITTIND DIODE (LED):

Features:

 Choice of various viewing angles

 Available on tape and reel.
 Reliable and robust
 Consumes very power.

Electrical characteristics:

Forward Current (IF) : 15 mA

Operating Temperature (Topr) : -40 to +85 ℃
Storage Temperature (Tstg) : -40 to +100 ℃
Soldering Temperature( Tsol) : 260 ± 5 ℃
Power Dissipation (Pd) : 45 mW
Peak Forward Current (IF Peak) :50 mA
Reverse Voltage (VR) :5 V

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

ADVANTAGES

1) Wireless Monitoring System.

2) Faster Control Action.
3) Automatic Control Action.
4) Accurate System.

APPLICATIONS
 1) In industries to monitor different modules located at different places.
2) Distribution Points (DP) where the huge amount of power distribution
takes place.
3) Monitoring and controlling the home appliances.

CONCLUSION

On completion of our project, a remote system for continuous monitoring

of secure and safety device based on wireless technology. We can improve the
quality of power transferred and provide uninterrupted power supply. Also, real
time monitoring of different parameters is done which can ensure safety to the
substation and its equipment. Besides, utilizing much propelled IC's with the
assistance of developing innovation, the undertaking has been effectively
executed. The exact location of the transformer can also be determined by
sending location coordinates of the substation. Finally the experimental output
verified.
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