ICE 405: SENSORS ENGINEERING

1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems

● The sensor’s output signal may be in the form of
● A sensor is often defined as a “device that receives and
voltage, current, or charge. These may be further
responds to a signal or stimulus.” This definition is
described in terms of amplitude, polarity, frequency,
broad. In fact, it is so broad that it covers almost
phase, or digital code.
everything from a human eye to a trigger in a pistol.
● The operator adjusts the ● This set of characteristics is called the output signal
level of fluid in the tank by format. Therefore, a sensor has input properties (of any
manipulating its valve. kind) and electrical output properties.
Variations in the inlet flow ● Any sensor is an energy converter. No matter what you
rate, temperature changes try to measure, you always deal with energy transfer
(these would alter the fluid’s from the object of measurement to the sensor. The
viscosity and consequently process of sensing is a particular case of information
the flow rate through the transfer, and any transmission of information requires
valve), and similar transmission of energy.
disturbances must be
● The term sensor should be distinguished from
compensated for by the operator. Without control, the
transducer. The latter is a converter of any one type of
tank is likely to flood, or run dry. To act appropriately,
energy into another, whereas the former converts any
the operator must obtain timely information about the
type of energy into electrical energy.
level of fluid in the tank.
● Transducers may be used as actuators in various
● In this example, the information is generated by the
systems. An actuator may be described as an opposite
sensor, which consists of two main parts: the sight tube
to a sensor; it converts electrical signals into generally
on the tank and the operator’s eye, which produces an
nonelectrical energy.
electric response in the optic nerve. The sight tube by
itself is not a sensor, and in this particular control
system, the eye is not a sensor either.
This world is divided into natural and
human-made objects.
● The natural sensors, like those found in living
organisms, usually respond with signals, having an
electrochemical character, that is, their physical nature
is based on ion transport, like in the nerve fibers (such ● Transducers may be parts of complex sensors. It
as an optic nerve in the fluid tank operator). consists of a nonelectrical transducer and a simple
● In man-made devices, information is also transmitted (direct) sensor converting heat to electricity.
and processed in electrical form, however, through the
● The direct sensors are those that employ certain
transport of electrons. Sensors that are used in the
physical effects to make a direct energy conversion into
artificial systems must speak the same language as the
an electrical signal generation or modification.
devices with which they are interfaced.
● This language is electrical in its nature and a man-made There are two types of sensors:
sensor should be capable of responding with signals
★ DIRECT SENSORS
where information is carried by displacement of
★ COMPLEX SENSORS
electrons, rather than ions.
“A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and ● A direct sensor converts a stimulus into an electrical
responds with an electrical signal.” signal or modifies an electrical signal by using an
appropriate physical effect.
● The stimulus is the quantity, property, or condition that
● A complex sensor in addition needs one or more
is received and converted into an electrical signal.
transducers of energy before a direct sensor can be
measurand which has the same meaning, however with
employed to generate an electrical output.
the stress on quantitative characteristic of sensing.
● A sensor does not function by itself; it is always a part of
● When we say “electrical,” we mean a signal, which can a larger system that may incorporate many other
be channeled, amplified, and modified by electronic detectors, signal conditioners, signal processors,
devices. memory devices, data recorders, and actuators.
● The sensor’s place in a device is either intrinsic or
extrinsic. It may be positioned at the input of a device
to perceive the outside effects and to signal the system
about variations in the outside stimuli.
● A sensor is always a part of some kind of a data
acquisition system. Often, such a system may be a part
of a larger control system that includes various
feedback mechanisms.
1.2 Sensor Classification
● Sensor classification schemes range from very simple to
complex. Depending on the classification purpose,
different classification criteria may be selected.
1. All sensors may be of two kinds:
★ PASSIVE SENSOR
★ ACTIVE SENSOR
● A passive sensor does not need any additional energy
source and directly generates an electric signal in
response to an external stimulus. That is, the input
stimulus energy is converted by the sensor into the
output signal.
● The examples are a thermocouple, a photodiode, and a
piezoelectric sensor. Most of passive sensors are direct
sensors
● The active sensors require external power for their
operation, which is called an excitation signal. That
signal is modified by the sensor to produce the output
signal.
● The active sensors sometimes are called parametric
because their own properties change in response to an
external effect and these properties can be
subsequently converted into electric signals.
2. Depending on the selected
reference, sensors can be
classified into:
★ ABSOLUTE SENSOR
★ RELATIVE SENSOR
● An absolute sensor detects a stimulus in reference to
an absolute physical scale that is independent of the
measurement conditions.
● An example of an absolute sensor is a thermistor, a
temperature-sensitive resistor. Its electrical resistance
directly relates to the absolute temperature scale of
Kelvin.
● A relative sensor produces a signal that relates to some
special case.
● A temperature sensor thermocouple is a relative sensor.
It produces an electric voltage, which is a function of a
temperature gradient across the thermocouple wires.
Thus, a thermocouple output signal cannot be related
to any particular temperature without referencing to a
known baseline.
● Another example of the absolute and relative sensors is
a pressure sensor.
● An absolute pressure sensor produces a signal in
reference to vacuum – an absolute zero on a pressure
scale. A relative pressure sensor produces a signal with
respect to a selected baseline that is not zero pressure.
3. Another way to look at a sensor is
to consider some of its properties
that may be of a specific interest.
1.3 Units of Measurements
● The base measurement system is known as SI, which
stands for Le Systeme International d’Unite ́s in French.
● Often it is not convenient to use base or derivative units
directly; in practice quantities may be either too large
or too small. For convenience in the engineering work,
multiples and submultiples of the units are generally
employed. They can be obtained by multiplying a unit
by a factor
● Sometimes, two other systems of units are used. They
are the Gaussian System and the British System, which
in the United States is modified as the U.S. Customary
System.
● In the United States and many other countries, electric
potential difference is called “voltage,” while in other
countries “electric tension” or simply “tension” is in
common use
SENSORS CHARACTERISTICS
★ STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
★ DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
● Static Characteristics are the properties of the system
after all the transient effects have settled to their final
or steady state.
● Dynamic Characteristics are the properties of the
system transient response to an input.
Static Characteristics
-Accuracy -Dead band/time -Resolution
-Precision -Transfer Function -Excitation
-Linearity -Calibration -Reliability
-Sensitivity -Span -Saturation
● Accuracy: is the capacity of a measuring instrument to
give RESULTS close to the TRUE VALUE of the
measured quantity.
● Precision: is the capacity of a measuring instrument to
give the same reading when repetitively measuring the
same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
❖ Precision implies agreement between successive
readings, NOT closeness to the true value
❖ Precision is related to the variance of a set of
measurements.
❖ Precision is a necessary but not sufficient condition
for accuracy.
Two terms closely related to precision:
★ Repeatability
★ Reproducibility
● Repeatability: is the precision of a set of measurements
taken over a short time interval
● Reproducibility: is the precision of a set of
measurements BUT:
❖ taken over a long time interval or
❖ Performed by different operators or
❖ with different instruments or
❖ in different laboratories
● Linearity: is the property of a mathematical
relationship or function which means that it can be
graphically represented as a straight line.
● Sensitivity: is defined as the ratio of change in output
value of a sensor to the per unit change in input value
that causes the output change.
● Resolution: is the smallest detectable incremental
change of input parameter that can be detected in the
output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a
proportion of the full-scale reading or in absolute
terms.
● Transfer Function: represents the relation between
stimulus s and response electrical signal S produced by
the sensor.
● Calibration: is a test during which known values of
measure are applied to the transducer and
corresponding output readings are recorded under
specific conditions.
● Error: is the difference between the result of the
measurement and the true value of the quantity being
measured.
Types of Error:
★ Systematic Error
★ Random Error
● Systematic Error is an error which, in the course of a
number of measurements carried out under the same
conditions of a given value and quantity, either remains
constant in absolute value and sign, or varies according
to definite law with changing conditions.
What causes Systematic errors?
★ Instrumental Errors
★ Observational Errors
★ Environmental Errors
★ Theoretical Errors
● Instrumental Errors occur due to wrong construction
of the measuring instruments. These errors may occur
due to hysteresis or friction. These types of errors
include loading effect and misuse of the instruments. In
order to reduce the gross errors in measurement,
different correction factors must be applied and in the
extreme condition instruments must be recalibrated
carefully.
● The environmental Errors occur due to some external
conditions of the instrument. External conditions
mainly include pressure, temperature, humidity or due
to magnetic fields.
● In order to reduce the environmental errors; Try to
maintain the humidity and temperature constant in the
laboratory by making some arrangements. Ensure that
there shall not be any external electrostatic or magnetic
field around the instrument.
● Observational Errors occur due to wrong observations
or reading in the instruments particularly in case of
energy meter reading. The wrong observations may be
due to PARALLAX. In order to reduce the PARALLAX
error highly accurate meters are needed: meters
provided with mirror scales.
● Theoretical Errors are caused by simplification of the
model system. For example, a theory states that the
temperature of the system surrounding will not change
the readings taken when it actually does, then this
factor will begin a source of error in measurement.
● Random Errors are caused by the sudden change in
experimental conditions and noise and tiredness in the
working persons. These errors are either positive or
negative.
● A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by
a sensor is called a span or an input full scale (FS). It
represents the highest possible input value that can be
applied to the sensor without causing an unacceptably
large inaccuracy.
● Full-scale output (FSO): is the algebraic difference
between the electrical output signals measured with
maximum input stimulus and, the lowest input stimulus
applied. This must include all deviations from the ideal
transfer function.
● Saturation: every sensor has its operating limits. Even if
it is considered linear, at some levels of the input
stimuli, its output signal no longer will be responsive. A
further increase in stimulus does not produce a
desirable output. It is said that the sensor exhibits a
span-end nonlinearity or saturation
● Excitation: is the electrical signal needed for the active
sensor operation. Excitation is specified as a range of
voltage and/or current. For some sensors, the
frequency of the excitation signal and its stability must
also be specified. Variations in the excitation may alter
the sensor transfer function and cause output errors.
● Reliability: is the ability of a sensor to perform a
required function under stated conditions for a stated
period. It is expressed in statistical terms as a
probability that the device will function without failure
over a specified time or a number of uses. It should be
noted that reliability is not a characteristic of drift or
noise stability. It specifies a failure, either temporary or
permanent, exceeding the limits of a sensor’s
performance under normal operating conditions.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
● Dynamic Characteristics - how fast is the sensor
responds to a change in input
● Sensors can be approximated to Zero, First or Second
Order response.
● A Zero Order System is the one in which output
changes instantaneously as the input changes.
● First Order System - Static sensitivity can be defined
as the ratio of change in the magnitude of a given
output system to the change in magnitude input of that
same system under steady-state (unchanging)
conditions. The Time constant defines how fast it takes
a system to respond to a change.
● Second Order System - Damping Ratio is dimensionless
parameter which describes how an oscillating or
vibrating body comes to rest. The natural frequency is
the rate at which an object vibrates when it is not
disturbed by an outside force.
TYPES OF SENSORS
★ LEVEL SENSOR
★ TEMPERATURE SENSOR
★ FLOW SENSOR
★ PRESSURE SENSOR
★ SPEED SENSOR
★ POSITION SENSOR
LEVEL SENSOR
● Level Sensors are devices that can be used to monitor
or establish the level of a liquid or solid(powderized) in
a tank, vessel, or another container used as part of a
process or system
Two Methods of Level Sensor
★ DIRECT METHOD
★ INDIRECT METHOD
● Direct method is a method by varying level of the liquid
as a means of obtaining the measurement
● Indirect method is a method by using a variable, which
change with the liquid level, to actuate the measuring
mechanism.
Two Types of Level Sensor
★ Point Level Sensor
★ Continuous Level Sensor
● Point Level Sensor is one that is designed to monitor
when the level in a container has reached a specific
point or position (high and low).
Samples of Point Level Sensor
★ Float Sensors
★ Conductive Sensors
★ Optical Level Sensors
★ Vibrating Tuning Fork
● The Primary device is a float that by reason of its
buoyancy will follow the changing level of the liquid,
and a mechanism that will transfer the float action to a
pointer.
● Conductive Level Sensor/Conductivity Level Switches
are sensors with an electrical contact output at a
specific liquid level. It makes use of conductivity
sensing technology or conductance method for liquid
level detection.
● Optical Level Sensors also called Optical Level
Switches, work on the principle of refraction of light
Optical level sensors are point sensors and are suitable
to monitor high, low, or intermediate conditions of fluid
level
● Vibrating level sensors or tuning fork level sensors
consist of two tines that resemble a tuning fork used by
piano technicians and musicians. The sensor has a
natural resonant frequency at which it will vibrate in
the absence of any media. Once the sensor comes in
contact with a media, its resonant frequency shifts,
which can be used to establish the level of media in the
tank or vessel
● Continuous Level Sensor are designed to provide a
level reading at all positions of the fluid level in a
container
Samples of Continuous Level Sensor
★ Capacitance Level Sensors
★ Ultrasonic Wave Sensors
★ Electromagnetic Sensors / Radar Sensors
● Capacitance Level Sensors, a proximity sensor that
gives off an electrical field and detects a level by the
effect on its electrical field. Capacitive level sensors rely
on the fact that the media or fluid being monitored
possesses a different dielectric constant than that of air,
using this difference to detect when the level of fluid in
the tank has reached the level of the sensor.
● Ultrasonic Wave Sensor an electronic device that
measures the distance of a target object by emitting
ultrasonic sound waves, and converts the reflected
sound into an electrical signal
● Electromagnetic Level Sensors, or Radar Level
Sensors, make use of radio frequency or microwave
energy generated by a transmitter which is directed
downwards towards the surface of the media in the
tank from an antenna mounted at the top.
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
● Temperature Sensor is a type of electronic device that
measures the temperature of its environment and
converts the measured data into electronic data in
order to record, monitor, or signal temperature
changes
Three Types of Temperature Sensors
★ Thermocouple
★ RTD
★ Thermistor
● Thermocouples consist of two wire legs made from
different metals. The wires legs are welded together at
one end, creating a junction. This junction is where the
temperature is measured. When the junction
experiences a change in temperature, a voltage is
created.
Two Junctions
★ Hot Junction
★ Cold Junction
● Hot Junction is the sensing end of a thermocouple
● Cold Junction is the wiring terminals on the measuring
instrument
Eight Types of Thermocouple
★ Type J
★ Type K
★ Type T
★ Type E
★ Type N
★ Type R
★ Type S
★ Type B
● J type of thermocouple is formed with Iron and
Constantan. -210 to 760 °C is its temperature range.
Owing to the low-temperature range of the
thermocouple, its life span reduces in high
temperatures.
● J types thermocouple is best suited for vacuum and
inert environment. Injection molding is one of the most
common applications of such types of the
thermocouple.
● Chromel and Alumel form a K-type thermocouple. The
temperature range is between -270 and 1372 °C. The
neutral or oxidizing environment is best suited for
these types of the thermocouple. It generates an EMF
variation below 1800°F due to hysteresis, which
restricts its use in an inert and oxidizing environment
below this temperature. They are most commonly used
in refineries.
● Type T is formed with Copper and Constantan. The
temperature range is between -270 to 400°C. This type
of thermocouple is suitable for the inert atmosphere as
well as the vacuum. They are widely used as they
generally resist decomposition even in a moist
environment. They are commonly used in food
production and cryogenics.
● Chromel and Constantan are the alloys that form an
E-type thermocouple. The temperature range is
between -270 to 1000 °C. This thermocouple does not
focus on the oxidation in the atmosphere and can be
used in an inert environment. However, they need to be
protected against the sulfurous environment. They are
commonly used in power plants.
● Type N is a combination of alloys Nicrosil and Nisil. The
temperature range is between -270 to 1300 °C. Unlike
K-type thermocouples, the N-type thermocouple offers
very high resistance for degradation due to green rot
and hysteresis. They are most commonly used in
refineries and petrochemical industries.
● A combination of Platinum (13% Rhodium) and Platinum
forms R type thermocouple. The temperature range is
between -50 to 1768 °C. It is costlier than S type
thermocouple as it contains a higher percentage of
Rhodium. Its high accuracy and stability make it an
ideal thermocouple to used in Sulfur recovery units.
● Type S is a combination of Platinum (10% Rhodium) and
Platinum. The temperature range is between -50 to 1768
°C. S type thermocouple is used in applications
involving very high temperatures. This type is widely
used across various l industries.
● The alloy combination of Type B is of Platinum (6%
Rhodium) and Platinum (30% Rhodium). This
thermocouple exhibits a temperature range between 0
to 1820 °C. It is mainly used in applications executed at
extremely high temperatures, such as glass production.
● Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a device
which used to determine the temperature by measuring
the resistance of pure electrical wire. This wire is
referred to as a temperature sensor.
● In PT100 the ‘PT’ defines that the metal is Platinum and
the ‘100’ is the resistance in ohms at ice point (or 0°C).
These are generally wire wound and are quite common
in industrial uses.
Configurations of RTD
★ 2-wire RTD
★ 3-wire RTD
● 2-wire RTD is the most simple one and has the chances
of errors. In this configuration, RTD is connected to a
Wheatstone bridge circuit using two wires. The voltage
output is monitored to get the the desired output.
● 3-wire RTD are the most common type of RTD installed in series with a circuit, and used to protect
assembly. Typically, they are connected to standard against overcurrent conditions, as resettable fuses.
bridge circuit, which allows lead wire resistance to be
compensated. They are more accurate than two wire FLOW SENSOR
RTDs and are used in most industrial applications. ● Flow sensor are a class of device that is designed to
Types of RTD measure the flow rate of a gas such as air or a liquid
★ Wire Wound through a pipe or conduit.
★ Thin Film 3 Ways to Measure Flow
★ By its Mass
● ln the wire-wound type of
★ By its Volume
RTD, the sensing element is
★ By its Velocity
comprised of a small coil of
● By its Mass - measures the number of molecules in a
ultra-thin wire (typically
flowing gas
platinum). This wire coil can be
● By its Volume - measures the space that the molecules
packaged inside a ceramic or
occupy
glass tube. Wire-wound RTD
● By its Velocity - speed of which the media is moving
sensing elements can easily be
within the pipeline
made into pt100 probes by
mounting them inside metal tubes or sheaths. This Different Types of Flow Sensors
protects them from their surroundings and increases ★ Differential Pressure Flow Meter
their durability. ★ Electromagnetic Flow Meter
● Wire-wound RTDs (especially the inner-coil type) are ★ Ultrasonic Flow Meter
the most accurate type of RTD. Those with glass cores ★ Turbine Flow Meter
can readily be immersed in many liquids, while those ★ Vortex Flow Meter
with ceramic cores can be used to accurately measure ★ Positive Displacement Flow Meter
extremely high temperatures. However, they are more ★ Coriolis Mass Flow Meter
expensive to manufacture than thin-film types, ★ Thermal Mass Flow Meter
requiring skilled labor and advanced assembly facilities. Samples of Flow Sensors by its Mass
They also tend to be more vibration-sensitive.
● Thin-film RTD elements are made by depositing a very ★ Coriolis Mass Flow Meter
thin layer of metal (usually platinum) onto a ceramic ★ Thermal Mass Flow Meter
substrate material. The metal film is laser cut or etched Samples of Flow Sensors by its Volume
into an electrical circuit pattern that provides the ★ Differential Pressure Flow Meter
specified amount of resistance. Lead wires are then ★ Vortex Flow Meter
attached, and a thin protective glass coating is applied ★ Positive Displacement
to the entire element.
Samples of Flow Sensors by its Velocity
● This type of RTD is popular because of its ruggedness,
reliability and low cost. Thin-film elements are more ★ Electromagnetic Flow Meter
resistant to damage from shock or vibration than other ★ Ultrasonic Flow Meter
types of RTDs. Their flat profile makes for design ★ Turbine Flow Meter
flexibility, enabling their use in many different industrial
control and instrumentation applications. ● Differential Pressure Flow Meter measures the volume
● Thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure flow in gases, liquids and steam. The pressure
temperature changes, relying on the change in its difference of the flow due to the pipe construction
resistance with changing temperature. would be utilized to determine the flow rate.
● Unlike other sensors, thermistors are non-linear, 3 Parts of DPFT
meaning the points on a graph representing the ★ Primary Element
relationship between the resistance and temperature ★ Secondary Element
will not form a straight line. ★ Electronic Housing
Types of Thermistor ● Primary Element produce a difference in pressure as
★ NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) the flow in the pipe increases
★ PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) Types of Common Primary Element
★ Orifice Plate
● With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as
★ Venturi Tubes
temperature rises. An NTC is commonly used as a
★ Flow Nozzles
temperature sensor.
★ Pitot Tube
● With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as
★ Segmental Wedge Elements
temperature rises. PTC thermistors are commonly
★ V-cone Flow Meter
Types of Secondary Element
★ Differential Capacitance Sensors
★ Vibrating Wire Sensors
★ Strain Gauges Sensors
● An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is
usually placed in a pipe. When a fluid (whether liquid or
gaseous) passes through the orifice, its pressure builds
up slightly upstream of the orifice[1] but as the fluid is
forced to converge to pass through the hole, the
velocity increases and the fluid pressure decreases.
3 Types of Orifice Plate
★ Concentric Orifice Plate
★ Eccentric Orifice Plate
★ Segmental Orifice Plate
● Concentric Orifice Plate is used for ideal liquid as well
as gases and steam service.
● Eccentric Orifice Plate is useful for measuring
containing solids, oil containing water and wet steam.
● Segmental Orifice Plate has a hole in the form of
segment of a circle. This is used for colloidal and slurry
flow measurement.
● Venturi Pipe/Tube is a short pipe with a constricted
inner surface, used to measure fluid flows. Fluid passing
through the tube speeds up as it enters the throat, and
the pressure drops.
● Flow Nozzle is a flow tube consisting of a smooth
convergent section leading to a cylindrical throat area.
● Inside an electromagnetic flow meter, there is an
electromagnetic coil that generates a magnetic field,
and electrodes that capture electromotive
force(voltage). And from that voltage, we can measure
the flow rate.
● Ultrasonic Flow Meter is a type of flow meter that
measures the velocity of a fluid with ultrasound to
calculate volume flow. Using ultrasonic transducers, the
flow meter can measure the average velocity along the
path of an emitted beam of ultrasound,
● Turbine Flow Meter consists of a multi-bladed rotor
mounted at right angles to the fluid flow and suspended
in the fluid stream on a free-running bearing.
● Vortex Flow Meter is a type of volumetric flow meter
that makes use of a natural phenomenon that occurs
when a liquid flows around a bluff object. Vortex flow
meters operate under the vortex shedding principle,
where vortices are shed alternately downstream of the
object.
● Positive Displacement Flow Meter are the only flow
measuring technology to directly measure the volume
of fluid that passes though the flow meter. It achieves
this by trapping pockets of fluid between rotating
components housed within a high precision chamber.
● Rotor rotational velocity is directly proportional to
flow rate, since the flow of fluid is causing the rotation
● Coriolis mass flow meters measure mass through
inertia. A liquid or gas flows through a tube which is
being vibrated by a small actuator. This artificially
introduces a Coriolis acceleration into the flowing
stream, which produces a measurable twisting force on
the tube resulting in a phase shift.
● Thermal Mass Flow Meter are precision instruments
that directly measure gas mass flow (instead of
volumetric flow).
● They operate either by introducing a known amount of
heat into the flowing stream and measuring an
associated temperature change or by maintaining a
probe at a constant temperature and measuring the
energy required to do so. The components of a basic
thermal mass flow meter include two temperature
sensors and an electric heater between them.
PRESSURE SENSOR
● Pressure Sensor are instruments or devices that
convert the amount of the physical pressure imposed
on the sensor into an output signal that can be used to
calculate the pressure.
3 Common Types of Pressure
★ Gauge Pressure
★ Absolute Pressure
★ Differential Pressure
● Gauge Pressure is measured in relation to ambient
atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi).
● Absolute Pressure is the pressure of having no matter
inside a space, or a perfect vacuum.
● Differential Pressure the difference in pressure
between two given points.
6 Types of Pressure Sensor
★ Potentiometric Pressure Sensor
★ Capacitive Pressure Sensor
★ Inductive Pressure Sensor
★ Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor
★ Strain Gauge Pressure Sensor
★ Variable Reluctance Pressure Sensor
● Potentiometric Pressure Sensor
have an arm mechanically attached to
the elastic pressure sensing element.
When pressure changes, the elastic
element deforms, causing the arm to
move backwards or forward across a
potentiometer and a resistance
measurement is taken.
● Capacitive Pressure Sensor
convert pressure into electrical
quantity by means of change in
capacitance. It uses diaphragm that
is deflected by applied pressure
which results in change in the
capacitance valve which can then be calibrated to
provide pressure reading
 ● Inductive Pressure Sensor a
ferromagnetic core is attached to the
elastic element and has a primary
and 2 secondary windings. A current
is charged to the primary winding.
When the core is centered then the
same voltage will be induced to the
two secondary windings. When the
core moves with a pressure change,
the voltage ratio between the two secondary windings
changes. The difference between the voltages is
proportional to the change in pressure.
● Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor relies
on the ability of the piezoelectric
elements to generate an electrical
potential when material is subjected
to mechanical stress.
Piezoelectric Elements /
Materials
★ Crystalline
➔ Langasite
➔ Quartz
★ Ceramics
➔ Lead Zirconate Titanate
➔ Zinc Oxide
★ Lead Free Piezo Ceramics
➔ Sodium Niobate
➔ Bismuth Ferrite
● Strain Gauge Pressure Sensor
use the change in electrical
resistance of a material when
stretched to measure the pressure.
This is placed on top of a
diaphragm, which deforms with
change in pressure, straining the
wires attached to the diaphragm

● Variable Reluctance Pressure Sensor make use of a

diaphragm that is contained in a magnetic circuit.
When pressure is applied to the sensor, the diaphragm
deflection causes a change in the reluctance of the
circuit, and that change can be measured and used as
an indicator of the applied pressure
● Reluctance is the opposition to current flow that is
caused by magnetic circuits.