Sensors Engineering Compilation

Chapter 1
Data Acquisition
It’s as large as life, and twice as natural.

– Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass
1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems
A sensor is often defined as a “device that receives and responds to a signal or

stimulus.” This definition is broad. In fact, it is so broad that it covers almost
everything from a human eye to a trigger in a pistol. Consider the level-control
system shown in Fig. 1.1 [1]. The operator adjusts the level of fluid in the tank by
manipulating its valve. Variations in the inlet flow rate, temperature changes (these
would alter the fluid’s viscosity and consequently the flow rate through the valve),
and similar disturbances must be compensated for by the operator. Without control,
the tank is likely to flood, or run dry. To act appropriately, the operator must obtain
timely information about the level of fluid in the tank. In this example, the
information is generated by the sensor, which consists of two main parts: the
sight tube on the tank and the operator’s eye, which produces an electric response
in the optic nerve. The sight tube by itself is not a sensor, and in this particular
control system, the eye is not a sensor either. Only the combination of these two
components makes a narrow-purpose sensor (detector), which is selectively sen-
sitive to the fluid level. If a sight tube is designed properly, it will very quickly
reflect variations in the level, and it is said that the sensor has a fast speed response.
If the internal diameter of the tube is too small for a given fluid viscosity, the level
in the tube may lag behind the level in the tank. Then, we have to consider a phase
characteristic of such a sensor. In some cases, the lag may be quite acceptable,
while in other cases, a better sight tube design would be required. Hence, the
sensor’s performance must be assessed only as part of a data acquisition system.
This world is divided into natural and human-made objects. The natural sensors,
like those found in living organisms, usually respond with signals, having an
J. Fraden, Handbook of Modern Sensors, 1

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-6466-3_1, # Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC 2010
2 1 Data Acquisition
Fig. 1.1 Level control system. A sight tube and operator’s eye form a sensor, a device which
converts information into an electrical signal
electrochemical character, that is, their physical nature is based on ion transport,
like in the nerve fibers (such as an optic nerve in the fluid tank operator). In man-
made devices, information is also transmitted and processed in electrical form,
however, through the transport of electrons. Sensors that are used in the artificial
systems must speak the same language as the devices with which they are inter-
faced. This language is electrical in its nature and a man-made sensor should be
capable of responding with signals where information is carried by displacement of
electrons, rather than ions.1 Thus, it should be possible to connect a sensor to an
electronic system through electrical wires rather than through an electrochemical
solution or a nerve fiber. Hence, in this book, we use a somewhat narrower
definition of sensors, which may be phrased as
A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and responds with an electrical
signal.
The term stimulus is used throughout this book and needs to be clearly under-
stood. The stimulus is the quantity, property, or condition that is received and
converted into an electrical signal. Some texts (for instance, [2]) use a different
term, measurand which has the same meaning, however with the stress on quanti-
tative characteristic of sensing.
1
There is a very exciting field of the optical computing and communications where information is
processed by a transport of photons. That field is beyond the scope of this book.
1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 3
The purpose of a sensor is to respond to some kind of an input physical property

(stimulus) and to convert it into an electrical signal that is compatible with ele-
ctronic circuits. We may say that a sensor is a translator of a generally nonelectrical
value into an electrical value. When we say “electrical,” we mean a signal, which
can be channeled, amplified, and modified by electronic devices. The sensor’s
output signal may be in the form of voltage, current, or charge. These may be
further described in terms of amplitude, polarity, frequency, phase, or digital code.
This set of characteristics is called the output signal format. Therefore, a sensor has
input properties (of any kind) and electrical output properties.
Any sensor is an energy converter. No matter what you try to measure, you
always deal with energy transfer from the object of measurement to the sensor. The
process of sensing is a particular case of information transfer, and any transmission
of information requires transmission of energy. Of course, one should not be
confused by an obvious fact that transmission of energy can flow both ways – it
may be with a positive sign as well as with a negative sign; that is, energy can flow
either from an object to the sensor or from the sensor to the object. A special case is
when the net energy flow is zero, which also carries information about existence of
that particular case. For example, a thermopile infrared radiation sensor will
produce a positive voltage when the object is warmer than the sensor (infrared
flux is flowing to the sensor) or the voltage is negative when the object is cooler than
the sensor (infrared flux flows from the sensor to the object). When both the sensor
and the object are at the same temperature, the flux is zero and the output voltage is
zero. This carries a message that the temperatures are the same.
The term sensor should be distinguished from transducer. The latter is a
converter of any one type of energy into another, whereas the former converts
any type of energy into electrical energy. An example of a transducer is a loud-
speaker, which converts an electrical signal into a variable magnetic field and,
subsequently, into acoustic waves.2 This is nothing to do with perception or
sensing. Transducers may be used as actuators in various systems. An actuator
may be described as an opposite to a sensor; it converts electrical signal into
generally nonelectrical energy. For example, an electric motor is an actuator; it
converts electric energy into mechanical action. Another example is a pneumatic
actuator that is enabled by an electric signal.
Transducers may be parts of complex sensors (Fig. 1.2). For example, a chemical
sensor may have a part, which converts the energy of a chemical reaction into heat
(transducer) and another part, a thermopile, which converts heat into an electrical
signal. The combination of the two makes a chemical sensor, a device which
produces electrical signal in response to a chemical reagent. Note that in the
above example a chemical sensor is a complex sensor; it is comprised of a
nonelectrical transducer and a simple (direct) sensor converting heat to electricity.
This suggests that many sensors incorporate at least one direct-type sensor and a
2
It is interesting to note that a loudspeaker, when connected to an input of an amplifier, may
function as a microphone. In that case, it becomes an acoustical sensor.
Fig. 1.2 A sensor may incorporate several transducers. s1, s2, and so on are various types of
energy. Note that the last part is a direct sensor producing electrical output e
number of transducers. The direct sensors are those that employ certain physical
effects to make a direct energy conversion into an electrical signal generation or
modification. Examples of such physical effects are photoeffect and Seebeck effect.
These will be described in Chap. 3.
In summary, there are two types of sensors; direct and complex. A direct sensor
converts a stimulus into an electrical signal or modifies an electrical signal by using
an appropriate physical effect, whereas a complex sensor in addition needs one or
more transducers of energy before a direct sensor can be employed to generate an
electrical output.
A sensor does not function by itself; it is always a part of a larger system that
may incorporate many other detectors, signal conditioners, signal processors,
memory devices, data recorders, and actuators. The sensor’s place in a device is
either intrinsic or extrinsic. It may be positioned at the input of a device to perceive
the outside effects and to signal the system about variations in the outside stimuli.
Also, it may be an internal part of a device that monitors the devices’ own state to
cause the appropriate performance. A sensor is always a part of some kind of a data
acquisition system. Often, such a system may be a part of a larger control system
that includes various feedback mechanisms.
To illustrate the place of sensors in a larger system, Fig. 1.3 shows a block
diagram of a data acquisition and control device. An object can be anything: a car,
space ship, animal or human, liquid, or gas. Any material object may become a
subject of some kind of a measurement. Data are collected from an object by a
number of sensors. Some of them (2, 3, and 4) are positioned directly on or inside
the object. Sensor 1 perceives the object without a physical contact and, therefore,
is called a noncontact sensor. Examples of such a sensor are a radiation detector and
a TV camera. Even if we say “noncontact,” we remember that energy transfer
always occurs between any sensor and an object.
Sensor 5 serves a different purpose. It monitors internal conditions of a data
acquisition system itself. Some sensors (1 and 3) cannot be directly connected to
standard electronic circuits because of inappropriate output signal formats. They
require the use of interface devices (signal conditioners). Sensors 1, 2, 3, and 5 are
passive. They generate electric signals without energy consumption from the
electronic circuits. Sensor 4 is active. It requires an operating signal, which is
provided by an excitation circuit. This signal is modified by the sensor in
1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems 5
Fig. 1.3 Positions of sensors in a data acquisition system. Sensor 1 is noncontact, sensors 2 and 3
are passive, sensor 4 is active, and sensor 5 is internal to a data acquisition system
accordance with the converted information. An example of an active sensor is a

thermistor, which is a temperature-sensitive resistor. It needs a constant current
source, which is an excitation circuit. Depending on the complexity of the system,
the total number of sensors may vary from as little as one (a home thermostat) to
many thousands (a space shuttle).
Electrical signals from the sensors are fed into a multiplexer (MUX), which is a
switch or a gate. Its function is to connect sensors one at a time to an analog-
to-digital converter (A/D or ADC) if a sensor produces an analog signal, or
directly to a computer if a sensor produces signals in a digital format. The
computer controls a multiplexer and an A/D converter for the appropriate timing.
Also, it may send control signals to the actuator, which acts on the object.
Examples of the actuators are an electric motor, a solenoid, a relay, and a
pneumatic valve. The system contains some peripheral devices (for instance, a
data recorder, a display, an alarm, etc.) and a number of components that are not
shown in the block diagram. These may be filters, sample-and-hold circuits,
amplifiers, and so forth.
To illustrate how such a system works, let us consider a simple car door
monitoring arrangement. Every door in a car is supplied with a sensor, which
detects the door position (open or closed). In most cars, the sensor is a simple
electric switch. Signals from all door sensors go to the car’s internal processor
(no need for an A/D converter as all door signals are in a digital format: ones or
zeros). The processor identifies which door is open and sends an indicating signal to
the peripheral devices (a dashboard display and an audible alarm). A car driver (the
actuator) gets the message and acts on the object (closes the door).
An example of a more complex device is an anesthetic vapor delivery system.
It is intended to control the level of anesthetic drugs delivered to a patient by means
of inhalation during surgical procedures. The system employs several active and
passive sensors. The vapor concentration of anesthetic agents (such as halothane,
isoflurane, or enflurane) is selectively monitored by an active piezoelectric sensor
installed into a ventilation tube. Molecules of anesthetic vapors add mass to the
oscillating crystal in the sensor and change its natural frequency, which is a measure
of vapor concentration. Several other sensors monitor the concentration of CO2 to
distinguish exhale from inhale, and temperature and pressure, to compensate for
additional variables. All of these data are multiplexed, digitized, and fed into the
microprocessor, which calculates the actual vapor concentration. An anesthesiolo-
gist presets a desired delivery level and the processor adjusts the actuators (the
valves) to maintain anesthetics at the correct concentration.
Another example of a complex combination of various sensors, actuators, and
indicating signals is shown in Fig. 1.4. It is an advanced safety vehicle (ASV) that
was developed by Nissan. The system is aimed at increasing safety of a car. Among
many others, it includes a drowsiness warning system and drowsiness relieving
system. This may include the eyeball movement sensor and the driver head incli-
nation detector. The microwave, ultrasonic, and infrared range measuring sensors
are incorporated into the emergency braking advanced advisory system to illumi-
nate the break lamps even before the driver brakes hard in an emergency, thus
advising the driver of a following vehicle to take evasive action. The obstacle
warning system includes both the radar and infrared (IR) detectors. The adaptive
cruise control system works like this: if the driver approaches too closely to a
preceding vehicle, the speed is automatically reduced to maintain a suitable safety
distance. The pedestrian monitoring system detects and alerts the driver to the
Fig. 1.4 Multiple sensors, actuators, and warning signals are parts of the advanced safety vehicle
(Courtesy of Nissan Motor Company)
1.2 Sensor Classification 7
presence of pedestrians at night as well as in vehicle blind spots. The lane control
system helps in the event that the system detects and determines that incipient lane
deviation is not the driver’s intention. It issues a warning and automatically steers
the vehicle, if necessary, to prevent it from leaving its lane.
In the following chapters we concentrate on methods of sensing, physical
principles of sensors operations, practical designs, and interface electronic circuits.
Other essential parts of the control and monitoring systems, such as actuators,
displays, data recorders, data transmitters, and others are beyond the scope of this
book and mentioned only briefly.
The sensor’s input signals (stimuli) may have almost any conceivable physical
or chemical nature (e.g., light, temperature, pressure, vibration, displacement,
position, velocity, ion concentration, etc). The sensor’s design may be of a general
purpose. A special packaging and housing should be built to adapt it for a particular
application. For instance, a micromachined piezoresistive pressure sensor may be
housed into a water-tight enclosure for the invasive measurement of aortic blood
pressure through a catheter. The same sensor will be given an entirely different
enclose when it is intended for measuring blood pressure by a noninvasive oscillo-
metric method with an inflatable cuff. Some sensors are specifically designed to be
very selective in a particular range of input stimulus and be quite immune to signals
outside the desirable limits. For instance, a motion detector for a security system
should be sensitive to movement of humans and not responsive to movement of
smaller animals, like dogs and cats.
1.2 Sensor Classification
Sensor classification schemes range from very simple to the complex. Depending
on the classification purpose, different classification criteria may be selected. Here,
I offer several practical ways to look at the sensors.
1. All sensors may be of two kinds: passive and active. A passive sensor does not
need any additional energy source and directly generates an electric signal in
response to an external stimulus. That is, the input stimulus energy is converted
by the sensor into the output signal. The examples are a thermocouple, a
photodiode, and a piezoelectric sensor. Most of passive sensors are direct
sensors as we defined them earlier.
The active sensors require external power for their operation, which is called an
excitation signal. That signal is modified by the sensor to produce the output signal.
The active sensors sometimes are called parametric because their own properties
change in response to an external effect and these properties can be subsequently
converted into electric signals. It can be stated that a sensor’s parameter modulates
the excitation signal and that modulation carries information of the measured value.
For example, a thermistor is a temperature sensitive resistor. It does not generate
any electric signal, but by passing an electric current through it (excitation signal)
its resistance can be measured by detecting variations in current and/or voltage
across the thermistor. These variations (presented in ohms) directly relate to
ttemperature through a known transfer function. Another example of an active
sensor is a resistive strain gauge in which electrical resistance relates to a strain.
To measure the resistance of a sensor, electric current must be applied to it from an
external power source.
2. Depending on the selected reference, sensors can be classified into absolute and
relative. An absolute sensor detects a stimulus in reference to an absolute
physical scale that is independent of the measurement conditions, whereas a
relative sensor produces a signal that relates to some special case. An example
of an absolute sensor is a thermistor, a temperature-sensitive resistor. Its
electrical resistance directly relates to the absolute temperature scale of Kelvin.
Another very popular temperature sensor thermocouple is a relative sensor. It
produces an electric voltage, which is a function of a temperature gradient
across the thermocouple wires. Thus, a thermocouple output signal cannot be
related to any particular temperature without referencing to a known baseline.
Another example of the absolute and relative sensors is a pressure sensor. An
absolute pressure sensor produces signal in reference to vacuum – an absolute
zero on a pressure scale. A relative pressure sensor produces signal with respect
to a selected baseline that is not zero pressure, for example, to the atmospheric
pressure.
3. Another way to look at a sensor is to consider some of its properties that may be
of a specific interest. Below are the lists of various sensor characteristics that
may be considered (Tables 1.1–1.7).
Table 1.1 Sensor Sensitivity Stimulus range (span)

specifications
Stability (short- and long-term) Resolution
Accuracy Selectivity
Speed of response Environmental conditions
Overload characteristics Linearity
Hysteresis Dead band
Operating life Output format
Cost, size, weight Other
Table 1.2 Sensor material Inorganic Organic

Conductor Insulator
Semiconductor Liquid gas or plasma
Biological substance Other
1.2 Sensor Classification 9
Table 1.3 Detection means Biological

used in sensors Chemical
Electric, magnetic or electromagnetic wave
Heat, temperature
Mechanical displacement or wave
Radioactivity, radiation
Other
Table 1.4 Conversion Physical Thermoelectric

phenomena Photoelectric
Photomagnetic
Magnetoelectric
Electromagnetic
Thermoelastic
Electroelastic
Thermomagnetic
Thermooptic
Photoelastic
Other
Chemical Chemical transformation
Physical transformation
Electrochemical process Spectroscopy
Other
Biological Biochemical transformation, Physical
transformation
Effect on test organism Spectroscopy
Other
Table 1.5 Field of Agriculture Automotive

applications
Civil engineering, Domestic, appliances
construction
Distribution, commerce, Environment, meteorology,
finance security
Energy, power Information, telecommunication
Health, medicine Marine
Manufacturing Recreation, toys
Military Space
Scientific measurement Other
Transportation (excluding
automotive)
Table 1.6 Stimulus Stimulus

Acoustic Wave amplitude, phase, polarization
Spectrum
Wave velocity
Other
Biological Biomass (types, concentration, states)
Other
Chemical Components (identities, concentration, states)
Other
Electric Charge, current
Potential, voltage
Electric field (amplitude, phase, polarization,
spectrum)
Conductivity
Permittivity
Other
Magnetic Magnetic field (amplitude, phase, polarization,
spectrum)
Magnetic flux
Permeability
Other
Optical Wave amplitude, phase, polarization, spectrum
Wave velocity
Refractive index
Emissivity, reflectivity, absorption
Other
Mechanical Position (linear, angular)
Acceleration
Force
Stress, pressure
Strain
Mass, density
Moment, torque
Speed of flow, rate of mass transport
Shape, roughness, orientation
Stiffness, compliance
Viscosity
Crystallinity, structural integrity
Other
Radiation Type
Energy
Intensity
Other
Thermal Temperature
Flux
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
Other
1.3 Units of Measurements 11
Table 1.7 SI basic units

Quantity Name Symbol Defined by. . . (year established)
Length Meter m . . .the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum in
1/299,792,458 of a second. . . (1983)
Mass Kilogram kg . . .after a platinum-iridium prototype (1889)
Time Second s . . .the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two
hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133
atom (1967)
Electric current Ampere A Force equal to 2 107 newton per meter of length
exerted on two parallel conductors in vacuum when
they carry the current (1946)
Thermodynamic Kelvin K The fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature
temperature of the triple point of water (1967)
Amount of Mole mol . . .the amount of substance which contains as many
substance elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of
carbon 12 (1971)
Luminous Candela cd . . .intensity in the perpendicular direction of a surface of
intensity 1/600,000 m2 of a blackbody at temperature of
freezing Pt under pressure of 101,325 newton per m2
(1967)
Plane angle Radian rad (supplemental unit)
Solid angle Steradian sr (supplemental unit)
1.3 Units of Measurements
In this book, we use base units that have been established in The 14th General
Conference on Weights and Measures (1971). The base measurement system
is known as SI, which stands for Le Systéme International d’Unités in French
(Table 1.7) [4]. All other physical quantities are derivatives of these base units.3
Some of them are listed in Table A-3.
Often it is not convenient to use base or derivative units directly; in practice
quantities may be either too large or too small. For convenience in the engineering
work, multiples and submultiples of the units are generally employed. They can be
obtained by multiplying a unit by a factor from Table A-2 When pronounced, in all
cases the first syllable is accented. For example, 1 ampere (A) may be multiplied by
factor of 103 to obtain a smaller unit 1 milliampere (mA), which is one thousandth
of an ampere.
Sometimes, two other systems of units are used. They are the Gaussian
System and the British System, which in the United States is modified as the U.S.
Customary System. The United States is the only developed country where SI still
is not in common use. However, with the increase of world integration, interna-
tional cooperation gains a strong momentum. Hence, it is appears unavoidable that
America will convert to SI in the future, though maybe not in our lifetime. Still, in
3
The SI is often called the modernized metric system.
this book, we will generally use SI units, however, for the convenience of
the reader, the U.S. customary system units will be used in places where U.S.
manufacturers employ them for the sensor specifications. For the conversion to SI
from other systems4 the reader may use Tables A-4 of the Appendix. To make a
conversion, a non-SI value should be multiplied by a number given in the table.
For instance, to convert acceleration of 55 ft/s2 to SI, it must to be multiplied by
0.3048:
55 ft=s2 0:3048 ¼ 16:764 m=s2
Similarly, to convert electric charge of 1.7 faraday, it must be multiplied by

9.65 1019:
1:7 faraday 9:65 1019 ¼ 1:64 1020 C
The reader should consider the correct terminology of the physical and technical
terms. For example, in the United States and many other countries, electric potential
difference is called “voltage,” while in other countries “electric tension” or simply
“tension” is in common use (for example: Spannung in German and ÇŁ
in Russian). In this book, we use terminology that is traditional in the United States
of America.
References
1. Thompson S (1989) Control systems: engineering and design. Longman Scientific & Technical,
Essex, England
2. Norton HN (1989) Handbook of transducers. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
3. White RW (1991) A sensor classification scheme. In: Microsensors. IEEE Press, New York,
pp 3–5
4. Thompson A, Taylor BN (2008) Guide for the use of the international system of units (SI).
NIST Special Publication 811, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,
MD 20899
4
Nomenclature, abbreviations, and spelling in the conversion tables are in accordance with ASTM
SI10–02 IEEE/ASTM SI10 American National Standard for Use of the International System of Units
(SI): The Modern Metric System. A copy is available from ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Dr., West
Conshocken, PA 19428–2959, USA. Tel.: (610) 832–9585, www.astm.org/Standards/SI10.htm
SENSORS – SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
PREPARED BY: DBA
SOURCE:
1. SENSOR TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK (J. WILSON)

OBJECTIVES
1. To know the importance of signal conditioning from
a sensor
2. To gain understanding on how sensors condition and
process signals.
3. To know and distinguish the difference between
signal conditioning terms.
SIGNAL CONDITIONING OPERATIONS
Signal conditioning system enhances the quality of signal coming

from a sensor in terms of:
1. Protection
To protect the damage to the next element of mechatronics
system such microprocessors from the high current or voltage signals.
2. Right type of signal
To convert the output signal from a transducer into the desired
form i.e. voltage / current.
3. Right level of the signal

To amplify or attenuate the signals to a right /acceptable level
for the next element.
4. Noise
To eliminate noise from a signal.
5. Manipulation
To manipulate the signal from its nonlinear form to the linear
form.
SIGNAL CONDITIONING PROCESSES
1. FILTERING
2. AMPLIFICATION
3. ATTENUATION
4. EXCITATION
5. LINEARIZATION
6. ELECTRICAL ISOLATION
1. FILTERING
Output signals from sensors contain noise due to various external factors
like improper hardware connections, environment etc. Noise gives an error
in the final output of system. Therefore it must be removed. In practice,
change in desired frequency level of output signal is a commonly noted
noise. This can be rectified by suing filters. Following types of filters are
used in practice:
1. Low Pass Filter
2. High Pass Filter
3. Band Pass Filter
4. Band Reject Filter
1.1 Low Pass Filter
Low pass filter is used to allow low frequency content and to
reject high frequency content of an input signal.
SIGNAL CONDITIONING PROCESSES 155Hz
1.1 Low Pass Filter
1.147 kHz
1.56 kHz
1.2 High Pass Filter
These types of filters allow high frequencies to pass through it
and block the lower frequencies.
SIGNAL CONDITIONING PROCESSES 60Hz
1.2 High Pass Filter
10KH
z
30KH
z
1.3 Band Pass Filter
In some applications, we need to filter a particular band of
frequencies from a wider range of mixed signals. For this purpose, the
properties of low-pass and high-pass filters circuits can be combined to
design a filter which is called as band pass filter.
1.3 Band Pass
Filter
1.4 Band Reject Filter (Band Stop Filter)
These filters pass all frequencies above and below a particular range set
by the operator/manufacturer. They are also known as band stop filters or
notch filters. They are constructed by connecting a low-pass and a high-pass
filter in parallel as shown in Figure 2.6.10
2. AMPLIFICATION
Various applications of Mechatronics system such as machine tool
control unit of a CNC machine tool accept voltage amplitudes in range of 0
to 10 Volts. However many sensors produce signals of the order of milli
volts. This low level input signals from sensors must be amplified to use
them for further control action. Operational amplifiers (op-amp) are widely
used for amplification of input signals.
2. AMPLIFICATION
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMPS)

non-inverting
2. AMPLIFICATION For the non-inverting amplifier shown in the figure
below, calculate
i) The gain of the amplifier, ACL
ii) The output voltage, VO
If R2 = 10k and RF = 20k
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMPS)

2. AMPLIFICATION
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER SUMMARY
• A NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER USES A VOLTAGE-DIVIDER-BIAS NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK CONNECTION.
• THE VOLTAGE GAIN IS ALWAYS GREATER THAN ONE.
• THE VOLTAGE GAIN IS POSITIVE, INDICATING THAT FOR AC INPUT, THE OUTPUT
IS IN-PHASE WITH THE INPUT SIGNAL AND FOR DC INPUT THE OUTPUT POLARITY
IS SAME AS THE INPUT POLARITY.
• THE VOLTAGE GAIN OF NON-INVERTING OP-AMP DEPENDS ONLY ON THE
RESISTOR VALUES, AND IS INDEPENDENT OF THE OPEN-LOOP GAIN OF THE
OP-AMP.
• THE DESIRED VOLTAGE GAIN CAN BE OBTAINED BY CHOOSING THE
APPROPRIATE VALUES OF THE RESISTORS.
3. ATTENUATION
An attenuator is an electronic device that reduces the power of a signal
without appreciably distorting its waveform.
An attenuator is effectively the opposite of an amplifier, though the two
work by different methods. While an amplifier provides gain, an attenuator
provides loss, or gain less than 1.
4. EXCITATION
External power is required for the operation of an active sensor. (E.g. a
temperature sensor like a thermistor & RTD, a pressure sensor
(piezo-resistive and capacitive), etc.). The stability and precision of the
excitation signal directly relates to the sensor accuracy and stability.
Wheatstone bridge
Wheatstone bridge is used to convert a resistance change detected by a
transducer to a voltage change.
5. LINEARIZATION
Linearization is necessary when sensors produce voltage signals that are
not linearly related to the physical measurement. Linearization is the process
of interpreting the signal from the sensor and can be done either with signal
conditioning or through software.
Thermisto
r
5. LINEARIZATION
6. ELECTRICAL ISOLATION
Electronic isolation is a means of preventing the transfer of direct current (dc) and unwanted
alternating current (ac) between two parts of a system while still enabling signal and power
transfer between those two parts. This kind of isolation is required in a number of instances,
such as:
• Protecting industrial operators from high voltage.
• Protecting expensive processors and related circuits from high voltage.
• Preventing ground loops in communications networks.
• Improving noise immunity.
• Communicating with high-side devices in a motor drive or power-converter systems.
Industrial equipment that requires isolation includes programmable logic controllers (PLCs),
motor drives, medical equipment, solar inverters, electrical vehicles (EVs), and some special
power supplies.
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
Analog-to-Digital converters (ADC) translate analog signals, real world
signals like temperature, pressure, voltage, current, distance, or light
intensity, into a digital representation of that signal. This digital
representation can then be processed, manipulated, computed, transmitted or
stored.
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
There are various techniques of converting Analog Signals into Digital
signals which are enlisted as follows:
1. Direct Conversion ADC or Flash ADC 6.Wilkinson AD
2. Successive Approximation ADC 7. Integrating ADC
3. A ramp-compare ADC 8. Pipeline ADC
4. Sigma-delta ADC 9. Time-interval ADC
5. Delta-encoded ADC or counter-ramp
SENSORS CHARACTERISTICS
PREPARED BY: DBA

SOURCE:
1. INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS CHARACTERISTICS - HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=8IZSKUMBGKM&T=2116S
2. SENSOR TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK (J. WILSON)
3. HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS (J. FRADEN)

OBJECTIVES:
1. TO GAIN UNDERSTANDING OF DIFFERENT

CHARACTERISTICS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF A SENSOR
SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS
• Static Characteristics
-The properties of the system after all the transient effects have
settled to their final or steady state.
• Dynamic Characteristics
-The properties of the system transient response to an input.
• Static Characteristics
-Accuracy -Dead band/time
-Precision -Transfer Function -Excitation
-linearity -Calibration -Reliablity
-Sensitivity -Span
-Resolution -Saturation
• Dynamic Characteristics
-Zero Order Systems
-First Order Systems
-Second Order Systems
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
1. Accuracy
Accuracy: is the capacity of a measuring
instrument to give RESULTS close to the
TRUE VALUE of the measured quantity.
1. Accuracy
*How close are we to the true value?

2. Precision
Precision: is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the
same reading when repetitively measuring the same quantity
under the same prescribed conditions.
Precision implies agreement between successive readings, NOT
closeness to the true value
Precision is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
Precision is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
2. Precision
Two terms closely related to precision Repeatability and Reproducibility.
Repeatability: is the precision of a set of measurements taken over a short time
interval
Reproducibility: is the precision of a set of measurements BUT:
taken over a long time interval or
Performed by different operators or
with different instruments or
in different laboratories
2. Precision or Repeatability
*Capability to give the same result

3. Linearity
Linearity is the property of a mathematical
relationship or function which means that it can be
graphically represented as a straight line.
3. Linearity
3. Linearity
4. Sensitivity
Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio
of change in output value of a sensor to the per
unit change in input value that causes the output
change.
4. Sensitivity
- Change in output for a small change in input
Non linear Sensor

4. Sensitivity
Linear Sensor
5. Resolution
Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental

change of input parameter that can be detected
in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed
either as a proportion of the full-scale reading or
in absolute terms.
6. Resolution
*Minimal change in input is necessary to produce a detectable

change in output
7. Transfer Function
An ideal or theoretical input–output (stimulus–response) relationship exists for every sensor.
If a sensor is ideally designed and fabricated with ideal materials by ideal workers
working in an ideal environment using ideal tools, the output of such a sensor would always
represent the true value of the stimulus. This ideal input–output relationship may be
expressed in the form of a table of values, a graph, a mathematical formula, or as a
solution of a mathematical equation. If the input–output function is time invariant it is
commonly called transfer function.
The transfer function represents the relation between stimulus s and response electrical
signal S produced by the sensor. This relation can be written as S = f(s).
Normally, stimulus s is unknown while the output signal S is measured. An inverse

f –1(S) of the transfer function is required to compute the stimulus from the sensor’s
response S.
8. Calibration
If sensor’s manufacturer tolerances and tolerances of the interface (signal conditioning) circuit are broader than the
required system accuracy, a calibration of the sensor or a combination of a sensor and an interface circuit is required to
minimize errors. For example, if one needs to measure temperature with accuracy ±0.1 C, and the available sensor is
rated as having accuracy of ±1 C it does not mean that the sensor cannot be used. Rather this particular sensor needs
calibration. That is, its unique transfer function should be found to fit the real sensor’s response or the specific transfer
function parameters should be adjusted to allow for a more accurate computation of the stimulus from the sensor’s
response.
There is no need to calibrate a sensor at many input stimuli. Usually, it is sufficient to calibrate only at a few sample
points (stimuli) that are generated by a known reference source. The input and output points will lie on the real transfer
function. The purpose of the calibration then is to find the unknown coefficients (parameters) of the inverted transfer
function so that the fully defined function can be employed during the measurement process to compute any stimulus in
the desirable range, not only at the points used during the calibration but anywhere in-between. In calibration, several
input stimuli are paired with the corresponding output electric responses and the resulting pairs are plugged into the
inverted transfer function to compute its parameters (coefficients). After the function parameters are established and
stored, the sensor is ready for use.
CALIBRATION, AS DEFINED IN ISA, IS “A TEST DURING WHICH KNOWN VALUES OF MEASURE ARE APPLIED TO THE TRANSDUCER AND
CORRESPONDING OUTPUT READINGS ARE RECORDED UNDER SPECIFIED CONDITIONS.”
8. Calibration
Temperature sensor
(Physical Quantity) Voltage

Temperature (Sensor)
TMP35
T = f(V)
8. Calibration
Temperature sensor
(Physical Quantity) Voltage

Temperature (Sensor)
TMP35
T = f(V)
9. Errors
Error is the difference between the result of the
measurement and the true value of the quantity
being measured.
Types of error:
Systematic Error
Random Error
9. Errors
Systematic errors – Systematic error is an error which, in the
course of a number of measurements carried out under the
same conditions of a given value and quantity, either remains
constant in absolute value and sign, or varies according to
definite law with changing conditions.
What cause Systematic errors?
-Instrumental Errors -Observational Errors
-Environmental Errors -Theoretical Errors
Instrumental Errors - Instrumental errors occur due to wrong construction of the
measuring instruments. These errors may occur due to hysteresis or friction. These types
of errors include loading effect and misuse of the instruments. In order to reduce the
gross errors in measurement, different correction factors must be applied and in the
extreme condition instrument must be recalibrated carefully.
Environmental Errors - The environmental errors occur due to some external conditions
of the instrument. External conditions mainly include pressure, temperature, humidity or
due to magnetic fields. In order to reduce the environmental errors
Try to maintain the humidity and temperature constant in the laboratory by making
some arrangements.
Ensure that there shall not be any external electrostatic or magnetic field around the
instrument.
Observational Errors - As the name suggests, these types of errors occurs due
to wrong observations or reading in the instruments particularly in case of energy
meter reading. The wrong observations may be due to PARALLAX. In order to
reduce the PARALLAX error highly accurate meters are needed: meters provided
with mirror scales.
Theoretical Errors - Theoretical errors are caused by simplification of the model

system. For example, a theory states that the temperature of the system surrounding
will not change the readings taken when it actually does, then this factor will begin
a source of error in measurement.
Random Errors
Random errors are caused by the sudden change in
experimental conditions and noise and tiredness in the working
persons. These errors are either positive or negative. An
example of the random errors is during changes in humidity,
unexpected change in temperature and fluctuation in voltage.
These errors may be reduced by taking the average of a
large number of readings.
10. Span (Full-scale input) / Input Range
A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor is
called a span or an input full scale (FS). It represents the highest
possible input value that can be applied to the sensor without
causing an unacceptably large inaccuracy.
11. Full-scale output
Full-scale output (FSO) is the algebraic difference between the
electrical output signals measured with maximum input stimulus and
the lowest input stimulus applied. This must include all deviations
from the ideal transfer function.
12. Saturation
Every sensor has its operating limits. Even if it is considered linear,
at some levels of the input stimuli, its output signal no longer will be
responsive. A further increase in stimulus does not produce a
desirable output. It is said that the sensor exhibits a span-end
nonlinearity or saturation
13. Dead band/time
The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the
application of an input until the output begins to respond or
change.
14. Excitation
Excitation is the electrical signal needed for the active sensor operation. Excitation is
specified as a range of voltage and/or current. For some sensors, the frequency of the
excitation signal and its stability must also be specified. Variations in the excitation
may alter the sensor transfer function and cause output errors.
15. Reliability
Reliability is the ability of a sensor to perform a required function under stated
conditions for a stated period. It is expressed in statistical terms as a probability that
the device will function without failure over a specified time or a number of uses. It
should be noted that reliability is not a characteristic of drift or noise stability. It
specifies a failure, either temporary or permanent, exceeding the limits of a sensor’s
performance under normal operating conditions.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
Dynamic Characteristics
-how fast is the sensor responds to a change in input
*Behavior of the sensor when the input changes
Sensors can be approximated to Zero, First or Second Order

response
ZERO-ORDER SYSTEM
A zero order system is the one in which output

changes instantaneously as the input changes.
ZERO-ORDER SYSTEM
FIRST-ORDER SYSTEM
Static sensitivity can be defined as the ratio of change in the magnitude of a given output system to the
change in magnitude input of that same system under steady-state (unchanging) conditions. The Time constant
defines how fast it takes a system to respond to a change.
FIRST-ORDER SYSTEM
SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM
Damping Ratio is dimensionless parameter which describes how an

oscillating or vibrating body comes to rest.
The natural frequency is the rate at which an object vibrates when it is

not disturbed by an outside force.
SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM
Process Measurement
Methods of Measurement
Direct Method
the process variable is directly measured in units that
represent the basic nature of that variable.
Inferential Method
is the measurement of a process variable indirectly by
using another variable.
Direct Method
The measurement for level

in this tank is measured
directly in units of height
since the level of the tank
is seen directly through a
sight glass (scaled)
representing the current
level of the tank.
Inferential Method
The level of liquid is

measured based on the
hydrostatic pressure
below the tank. Since
pressure is directly
proportional to the height
of the liquid, any change
in level will also have the
same proportionate
Types of Measurement
Single Point Type

the measurement depends on a fixed value of the
process variable.
the reading is indicated either as high or low
Continuous Type
Single Point Type Measurement
Sensor A and Sensor

B will only trigger
when the level
reaches the set height
high and low
respectively.
Continuous Type Measurement
The magnetic float
indicates the current
measurement of the
level through a sight
glass according to its
range regardless of the
current height of the
liquid in the tank. The
actual level, in real
Instrument Range - refers to the
capability of the instrument to
measure a variable.
Calibration Range - refers to the set of

values within the instrument
measuring range where the scaled
output; 4-20 mA, 3-15 psi or 1-5 V is
set during calibration.
Instrument Span
It is the distance (or difference)
between the upper range value (URV) and
lower range value (LRV).
Upper Range Value (URV) is the highest value

of the measured process variable that the
output of a transmitter is currently configured
to measure.
Lower Range Value (LRV) is the lowest value
of the measured process variable that the
Discrete Process
Measurement
In engineering, a “discrete” variable or
measurement refers to a true-or-false
condition. Thus, a discrete sensor is one that
is only able to indicate whether the measured
variable is above or below a specified
setpoint.
Discrete sensors typically take the form of
“switches”, built to trip when the measured
quantity either exceeds or falls below a
specified value. These devices are less
sophisticated than so-called continuous
“Normal” Status of a Switch
The “normal” status for a switch is the status

its electrical contacts are in under a condition of
minimum physical stimulus. For a
momentary-contact pushbutton switch, this
would be the status of the switch when it is not
being pressed.
Electrical switch contacts are typically
classified as either normally-open or normally
closed, referring to the open or closed status of
the contacts under “normal” conditions.
Normally-Open Status
The lamp will energize only if someone presses
the switch, holding its normally-open contacts in the
closed position. Normally-open switch are
sometimes referred to in the electrical industry as
form-A contacts
Normally-Closed Status
The lamp would energize only if the switch was
left alone, but it would turn off if anyone pressed the
switch. Normally-close switch are sometimes
referred to in the electrical industry as form-B
contacts.
Hand Switches
A hand switch is an electrical switch actuated
by a person’s hand motion. This may take a form of
toggle, pushbutton or rotary.
Limit Switches
A limit switch detects the physical motion of an
object by direct contact with that object. A limit
switch will be in its “normal” status when it is not in
contact with anything.
Proximity Switches
A proximity switch detects the proximity
(closeness) of an object. By definition, these
switches are non-contact sensors, using magnetic,
electric or optical means to sense the proximity of
objects.
Pressure Switches
A pressure switch detects the presence of fluid
pressure. Pressure switches often use diaphragms
or bellows as the pressure sensing elements, the
motion of which actuates one or more switch
contacts.
Level Switches
A level switch detects the level of liquid or solid
(granules or powder) in a vessel. Level switches
often use floats as the level-sensing element, the
motion of which actuates one or more switch
contacts.
Temperature Switches
A temperature switch detects the temperature
of an object. Temperature switches often use
bimetallic strips as the temperature-sensing
element.
Flow Switches
A flow switch detects the flow of some fluid
through pipe. Flow switches often use “paddles” as
the flow-sensing element, the motion of which
actuates one or more switch contacts.
Discrete Control
Elements
On/Off Valves
An on/off valve is
the fluid equivalent of
an electrical switch: a
device that either
allows unimpeded
flow or acts to prevent
flow altogether.
Valve styles
commonly used for
on/off service include
ball, plug, butterfly,
Continuous Process
Measurement
Analog Electronic Instrumentation
An “analog” electronic signal is a voltage or
current whose magnitude represents some physical
measurement or control quantity. An instrument is
often classified as being “ analog” simply by virtue of
using an analog standard to communicate
information.
4 to 20 mA Analog Current Signals
The most popular form of signal transmission
used in modern industrial instrumentation systems is
the 4 to 20 mA DC standard. This is an analog
signal standard, meaning that the electric current is
Relating 4 to 20 mA signals to instrument variables
To calculate the equivalent milliamp
value for any given percentage of signal
range, the equation takes the form of the
standard slope-intercept line equation
y=mx + b.
y = equivalent current in milliamps
x = the desired percentage of signal
m = the span of the 4-20 mA (16mA)
b = the offset value, or the “live zero” of 4mA
Example 1:
A flow transmitter is ranged 0 to 350
gallons per minute, 4-20mA output, direct
responding. Calculate the current signal
value at a flow rate of 204 GPM.
Example 2:
An electronic loop controller outputs a
signal of 8.55 mA to a direct-responding
control valve (where 4mA is shut and
20MA is wide open. How far open should
the control valve be at this MV signal
level?
Example 3:
A pneumatic temperature transmitter I
ranged 50 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit and
has a 3-15 PSI output signal. Calculate the
pneumatic output pressure if the
temperature is 79 degrees Fahrenheit.
Example 4:
A pH transmitter has a calibrated range
of 4pH to 10pH, with a 4-20mA output
signal. Calculate the pH sensed by the
transmitter if its output is 11.3mA.
Example 5:
A current-to-pressure transducer is
used to convert a 4-20mA electronic signal
into a 3-15 PSI pneumatic signal. This
particular transducer is configured for
reverse action instead of direct, meaning
that its pressure output at 4mA should be
15 PSI and its pressure output at 20mA
should be 3 PS I. Calculate the necessary
current signal value to produce an output
pressure of 12.7 PSI
“You don’t want to look back and know
you could’ve done better.”
-Anonymous
-end-
ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Objectives:
1. To familiarize with some commonly used electronic sensors.
2. To know the basic working principle of each sensors
3. To know the basic circuit wiring for each sensor
WHAT IS A SENSOR?
A sensor is a device that measures physical input from its environment
and converts it into data that can be interpreted by either a human or a
machine. Most sensors are electronic (the data is converted into electronic
data), but some are more simple, such as a glass thermometer, which
presents visual data. People use sensors to measure temperature, gauge
distance, detect smoke, regulate pressure and a myriad of other uses.
There are two types of electronic sensors: analog and digital. Analog
sensors convert physical data into an analog signal. Analog sensors are
much more precise than digital sensors, which are limited to a finite set of
possible values.
Source: https://www.fierceelectronics.com/sensors/what-a-sensor
TYPES OF SENSORS
1. Proximity Sensor
a. Inductive Sensor
b. Capacitive
c. Ultrasonic Sensor
d. IR Sensor
2. Temperature Sensor
3. Photoresistor Sensor
4. Flame Sensor
5. Shock Sensor
6. Tilt Sensor
7. Gas Sensor
8. Sound Sensor
9. Laser Sensor
10. Soil Moisture Sensor
11. Rain Sensor
1. Proximity Sensor
A proximity sensor is a non-contact sensor that detects the presence of an
object (often referred to as the “target”) when the target enters the sensor’s field.
Depending on the type of proximity sensor, sound, light, infrared radiation (IR), or
electromagnetic fields may be utilized by the sensor to detect a target. Proximity
sensors are used in phones, recycling plants, self-driving cars, anti-aircraft
systems, and assembly lines.
Types of Proximity Sensor
An inductive proximity sensor can
only detect metal targets. This is
because the sensor utilizes an
electromagnetic field. When a metal
target enters the electromagnetic
field, the inductive characteristics of
the metal change the field’s
properties, thereby alerting the
proximity sensor of the presence of a
metallic target. Depending on how
inductive the metal is, the target can
be detected at either a greater or
shorter distance.
Types of Proximity Sensor
Capacitive proximity sensors, on the
other hand, are not limited to metallic
targets. These proximity sensors are
capable of detecting anything that can
carry an electrical charge. Capacitive
sensors are commonly used in
liquid-level detection. Possible targets
for capacitive sensors include but are
but not limited to: glass, plastic, water,
wood, metals, and a myriad of targets of
other materials.
Source: https://www.fierceelectronics.com/sensors/what-a-proximity-sensor
Ultrasonic Sensors
An ultrasonic sensor is an electronic device that measures the distance of a
target object by emitting ultrasonic sound waves, and converts the reflected sound
into an electrical signal. Ultrasonic waves travel faster than the speed of audible
sound (i.e. the sound that humans can hear). Ultrasonic sensors have two main
components: the transmitter (which emits the sound using piezoelectric crystals)
and the receiver (which encounters the sound after it has travelled to and from the
target).
Basic connection of Ultrasonic Sensor
Note: LED output

is an indicator to
show that the
sensor is working
within its range.
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Ultrasonic Sensor
Ultrasonic sensors are used primarily as proximity sensors. They
can be found in automobile self-parking technology and anti-collision
safety systems. Ultrasonic sensors are also used in robotic obstacle
detection systems, as well as manufacturing technology. In comparison
to infrared (IR) sensors in proximity sensing applications, ultrasonic
sensors are not as susceptible to interference of smoke, gas, and other
airborne particles (though the physical components are still affected by
variables such as heat).
Ultrasonic Sensor
In order to calculate the distance between the sensor and the object,
the sensor measures the time it takes between the emission of the sound
by the transmitter to its contact with the receiver. The formula for this
calculation is D = ½ T x C (where D is the distance, T is the time, and C is
the speed of sound ~ 343 meters/second). For example, if a scientist set
up an ultrasonic sensor aimed at a box and it took 0.025 seconds for the
sound to bounce back, the distance between the ultrasonic sensor and
the box would be: D = 0.5 x 0.025 x 343 or about 4.2875 meters.
Source:
https://www.fierceelectronics.com/sensors/what-ultrasonic-sensor#:~:text=An%20ultrasonic%20sensor%20is%20an,soun
d%20that%20humans%20can%20hear).
Infrared Sensors
An infrared (IR) sensor is an electronic device that measures and detects infrared
radiation in its surrounding environment. Infrared radiation was accidentally
discovered by an astronomer named William Herchel in 1800. While measuring the
temperature of each color of light (separated by a prism), he noticed that the
temperature just beyond the red light was highest. IR is invisible to the human eye,
as its wavelength is longer than that of visible light (though it is still on the same
electromagnetic spectrum). Anything that emits heat (everything that has a
temperature above around five degrees Kelvin) gives off infrared radiation.
Infrared Sensors
Infrared Transmission
‘Infrared transmission‘ derives its name from infrared light rays. Infrared rays have a
wavelength that is greater than visible light, extending from the nominal red edge of
the visible spectrum at 700 nanometer to 1 mm.
Transmission Range
The transmission range, i.e., the distance up to

which two devices can connect and exchange
information, of Bluetooth is more than that of
Infrared. While Infrared offers a meager operational
range of 5 meters, Bluetooth’s minimum range is
10 meters, although it can extend up to almost 100
meters for more advanced settings.
Types of Infrared Sensors
Active infrared sensors both emit and detect infrared
radiation. Active IR sensors have two parts: a light emitting diode
(LED) and a receiver. When an object comes close to the sensor,
the infrared light from the LED reflects off of the object and is
detected by the receiver. Active IR sensors act as proximity
sensors, and they are commonly used in obstacle detection
systems (such as in robots).
Passive infrared (PIR) sensors only detect infrared
radiation and do not emit it from an LED. PIR sensors are most
commonly used in motion-based detection, such as in-home
security systems. When a moving object that generates infrared
radiation enters the sensing range of the detector, the difference
in IR levels between the two pyroelectric elements is measured.
The sensor then sends an electronic signal to an embedded
computer, which in turn triggers an alarm.
Source: https://www.fierceelectronics.com/sensors/what-ir-sensor
Basic connection of Infrared Sensor (Active)
(8) How to use IR sensor with

arduino? (With full code) -
YouTube
Basic connection of PIR Motion Sensor (Passive)
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2. Temperature Sensor
A temperature sensor is an electronic device that measures the
temperature of its environment and converts the input data into electronic
data to record, monitor, or signal temperature changes.
Types of Temperature Sensor
A temperature sensor consists of two basic physical types:
Contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature
sensor are required to be in physical contact with the object being sensed and
use conduction to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect
solids, liquids or gases over a wide range of temperatures.
Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature
sensor use convection and radiation to monitor changes in temperature. They
can be used to detect liquids and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises
and cold settles to the bottom in convection currents or detect the radiant energy
being transmitted from an object in the form of infrared radiation (the sun).
Source: https://www.fierceelectronics.com/sensors/what-a-temperature-sensor
Basic connection of Temperature Sensor TMP 36
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3. Photoresistor Sensor
The name photoresistor is the
combination of words: photon (light particles)
and resistor. A photoresistor is a type of
resistor whose resistance decreases when the
intensity of light increases. In other words, the
flow of electric current through the
photoresistor increases when the intensity of
light increases.
Photoresistors are also sometimes
referred as LDR (Light Dependent Resistor),
semiconductor photoresistor, photoconductor,
or photocell. Photoresistor changes its
resistance only when it is exposed to light.
How photoresistor works?
When the light falls on the photoresistor, some of the valence
electrons absorbs energy from the light and breaks the bonding with the
atoms. The valence electrons, which break the bonding with the atoms,
are called free electrons.
When the light energy applied to the photoresistor is
highly increased, a large number of valence electrons
gain enough energy from the photons and breaks the
bonding with the parent atoms. The large number of
valence electrons, which breaks the bonding with the
parent atoms will jumps into the conduction band.
The electrons present in the conduction band are not

belongs to any atom. Hence, they move freely from
one place to another place. The electrons that move
freely from one place to another place are called free
electrons.
When the valence electron left the atom, a vacancy is

created at a particular location in an atom from which
the electron left. This vacancy is called as hole.
Therefore, the free electrons and holes are generated
as pairs.
Basic connection of Photoresistor
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4. Flame Sensor
This Flame Sensor Module is used to detect fire/flame source or other light sources
of the wave length in the range of 760nm – 1100 nm. It is based on the YG1006 sensor
which is a high speed and high sensitive NPN silicon phototransistor. Due to its black
epoxy, the sensor is sensitive to infrared radiation. Sensor can be a great addition in a fire
fighting robot, it can be used as a robot eyes to find the fire source. When the sensor
detects flame the Signal LED will light up and the D0 pin goes LOW.
Source: https://www.elprocus.com/flame-sensor-working-and-its-applications/#:~:text=The%20flame%20detection%20response%20can,is%20properly%20working%20or%20not.
Flame Sensor Application
The common application for flame-sensor is the
Fire Alarm System.
Fire Alarm System is designed to alert us to an
emergency so that we can take action to protect
ourselves, staff and the general public.
Fire alarms are found in Offices, Factories, and

public buildings, they are a part of our everyday
routine but are often overlooked until there is an
emergency at which point, they might just save our
lives.
Whatever the method of detection is, if the

alarm is triggered, sounders will operate to warn
people in the building that there may be a fire and to
evacuate.
5. Shock Sensor
Shock Sensor is similar to Vibration Sensor Switch. When the
device is shaking or being shocked, the shock sensor provides signals
to trigger the function, e.g. alarm sound or sending a warning notice to
the server. It could be used to turn on/off devices as an auto-awake
function as well.
Source: https://www.oncque.com/shock-sensor.htm
6. Tilt Sensor
A tilt sensor is an instrument that is used for measuring the tilt in multiple
axes of a reference plane. Tilt sensors measure the tilting position with reference
to gravity and are used in numerous applications. They enable the easy detection
of orientation or inclination. Similar to mercury switches, they may also be known
as tilt switches or rolling ball sensors.
Source: https://www.azosensors.com/
Basic connection of Tilt Sensor
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7. Gas Sensor
Gas sensors are electronic devices
that detect and identify different types of
glasses. They are commonly used to detect
toxic or explosive gasses and measure gas
concentration. Gas sensors are employed in
factories and manufacturing facilities to
identify gas leaks, and to detect smoke and
carbon monoxide in homes. Gas sensors
vary widely in size (portable and fixed),
range, and sensing ability. They are often
part of a larger embedded system, such as
hazmat and security systems, and they are
normally connected to an audible alarm or
interface.
Source: https://www.fierceelectronics.com/sensors/what-a-gas-sensor
Basic connection of Tilt Sensor
https://www.tinkercad.c
om/things/kXbunyEYA
qa-copy-of-gas-sensor
-value-analog-read/edit
el?sharecode=RBMVgI
EIIZ8N0yKulH384egqo
T1ZiO2afp60j89-PZ4
8. Sound Sensor
A sound sensor is defined as a module that detects sound waves through its
intensity and converting it to electrical signals.Sound detection sensor works similarly
to our Ears, having diaphragm which converts vibration into signals. However, what’s
different as that a sound sensor consists of an in-built capacitive microphone, peak
detector and an amplifier (LM386, LM393, etc.) that’s highly sensitive to sound.
9. Laser Sensor
A laser sensor is a measurement value recorder working with laser technology
and turning the physical measured value into an analogue electrical signal. This
means that the laser sensor is conceived for contactless measurement. The laser
sensor works based on the triangulation principle. With a laser sensor you can
measure the length of a road, a distance’s length and positions, without any contact.
This happens at a very high resolution. Laser sensors also dispose of various
linearities, in addition to the various resolutions.
Source: https://www.fierceelectronics.com/sensors/what-a-gas-sensor
10. Soil Moisture Sensor
Soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content in soil. Since
the direct gravimetric measurement of free soil moisture requires removing, drying,
and weighing of a sample, soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water
content indirectly by using some other property of the soil, such as electrical
resistance, dielectric constant, or interaction with neutrons, as a proxy for the
moisture content.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_moisture_sensor
The relation between the measured property
and soil moisture must be calibrated and may vary
depending on environmental factors such as soil
type, temperature, or electric conductivity.
Reflected microwave radiation is affected by the
soil moisture and is used for remote sensing in
hydrology and agriculture. Portable probe
instruments can be used by farmers or gardeners.
Soil moisture sensors typically refer to
sensors that estimate volumetric water content.
Another class of sensors measure another
property of moisture in soils called water potential;
these sensors are usually referred to as soil water
potential sensors and include tensiometers and
gypsum blocks.
APPLICATION
Agriculture
Measuring soil moisture is important for agricultural applications to help
farmers manage their irrigation systems more efficiently. Knowing the exact
soil moisture conditions on their fields, not only are farmers able to generally
use less water to grow a crop, they are also able to increase yields and the
quality of the crop by improved management of soil moisture during critical
plant growth stages.
Research
Soil moisture sensors are used in numerous research applications, e.g. in
agricultural science and horticulture including irrigation planning, climate
research, or environmental science including solute transport studies and as
auxiliary sensors for soil respiration measurements
Landscape irrigation
In urban and suburban areas, landscapes and residential lawns are

using soil moisture sensors to interface with an irrigation controller.
Connecting a soil moisture sensor to a simple irrigation clock will convert it
into a "smart" irrigation controller that prevents irrigation cycles when the
soil is already wet, e.g. following a recent rainfall event.
Golf courses are using soil moisture sensors to increase the efficiency of
their irrigation systems to prevent over-watering and leaching of fertilizers
and other chemicals into the ground
11. Rain Sensor
A rain sensor or rain switch is a switching device activated by rainfall. There are
two main applications for rain sensors. The first is a water conservation device
connected to an automatic irrigation system that causes the system to shut down
in the event of rainfall. The second is a automotive sensors.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_sensor
How does this operate?
The rain sensor works on the principle of total internal reflection. ...
An infrared light beams at a 45-degree angle on a clear area of the
windshield from the sensor-inside the car. When it rains, the wet glass
causes the light to scatter and lesser amount of light gets reflected back to
the sensor
An additional application in professional satellite communications

antennas is to trigger a rain blower on the aperture of the antenna feed, to
remove water droplets from the mylar cover that keeps pressurized and
dry air inside the wave-guides.
Links for Video demo
1. Proximity Sensor
a. Inductive Sensor - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RLqjoJSE5IY
b. Capacitive Sensor -
c. Ultrasonic Sensor - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZejQOX69K5M
https://www.tinkercad.com/things/h7BXm3Jf2Be-super-wluff/editel?sharecode=5LGeg9k-P5FF
tbyqyu_dt62-IBI710h13jEAAds8UVQ
d. PIR Sensor - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Fdrr_1guok
https://www.tinkercad.com/things/h7BXm3Jf2Be-super-wluff/editel?sharecode=5LGeg9k-P5FF
tbyqyu_dt62-IBI710h13jEAAds8UVQ
2. Temperature Sensor -
https://www.tinkercad.com/things/cdjE9krKxel-copy-of-tmp36-temperature-sensor-with-arduino/editel
?sharecode=Jla-MuK3AFYUrMYbIP8Xh-GwJzrj56HJyCXeJ-v0yQQ
3. Photoresistor Sensor -
https://www.tinkercad.com/things/h7BXm3Jf2Be-super-wluff/editel?sharecode=5LGeg9k-P5FFtbyqy
5. Shock Sensor - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hDqkDn6dVJ4
Vibration sensor - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pc2ehkSEAI
6. Tilt Sensor -
https://www.tinkercad.com/things/2NiEAhRBqi3-copy-of-tilt-sensor-led-onoff/editel?sharecode=qOxZR2yN0tHSyzUPRY
RPW2WxwPw6152AvuBm0mnpGGA
7. Gas Sensor -
https://www.tinkercad.com/things/kXbunyEYAqa-copy-of-gas-sensor-value-analog-read/editel?sharecode=RBMVgIEIIZ8N0y
KulH384egqoT1ZiO2afp60j89-PZ4
8. Sound Sensor -
9. Laser Sensor - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KX_-MPOJNXY
10. Soil Moisture Sensor -
11. Rain Sensor -

TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
PREPARED BY: DBA

INDUSTRIAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
IN AN INDUSTRY, THERE IS ALWAYS A NEED TO MEASURE AND
MONITOR TEMPERATURE OF A PARTICULAR SPOT, FIELD OR
LOCALITY. THE INDUSTRIAL NAMES GIVEN TO SUCH TEMPERATURE
SENSORS ARE TEMPERATURE INDICATORS (TI) OR TEMPERATURE
GAUGES (TG).
TEMPERATURE IS A PHYSICAL QUANTITY EXPRESSING HOT AND

COLD. IT IS MEASURED WITH A THERMOMETER CALIBRATED IN ONE
OR MORE TEMPERATURE SCALES.
WHY TEMPERATURE IS IMPORTANT?
• MANY PHYSICAL PROCESSES ARE AFFECTED BY TEMPERATURE
• PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS INCLUDING THE PHASE,
DENSITY, SOLUBILITY, VAPOR PRESSURE, ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
• RATE AND EXTENT TO WHICH CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCUR
• THE AMOUNT AND PROPERTIES OF THERMAL RADIATION
EMITTED FROM THE SURFACE OF AN OBJECT
• SPEED OF SOUND IS A FUNCTION OF THE SQUARE ROOT OF THE
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE
TYPES OF TEMPERATURE SENSOR TO BE DISCUSSED IN
THIS CHAPTER
A. BIMETALLIC TEMPERATURE SENSOR
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Am3lqOGCuA&t=190s
B. FILLED-SYSTEM TEMPERATURE SENSOR

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WID5xEHNSWg
C. RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IeOeh1d-U3w
D. THERMOCOUPLE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3U2EA7U0NI8
E. THERMISTOR
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DDdlzDFnFu8
F. PYROMETER
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yetXIqoEsn0&t=2s
Note: All video links are optional, you may choose to access it or not, but I
believe the videos may help you to best appreciate the lesson.
A. BIMETALLIC TEMPERATURE SENSORS
• It uses the bimetallic strip which converts the temperature into the mechanical
displacement.
• This mechanical action from the bimetallic strip can be used to activate a
switching mechanism for getting electronic output. Also it can be attached to the
pointer of a measuring instrument or a position indicator.
Working Principle
• All metals change in dimension, that is expand or contract when there
is a change in temperature.
• The rate at which this expansion or contraction takes place depend on
the temperature co-efficient of expansion of the metal and this
temperature coefficient of expansion is different for different metals.
Hence the difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce
deflections which is proportional to temperature changes.
Types:
1. HELICAL TYPE (HELIX TYPE)
2. SPIRAL TYPE
3. CANTILEVER TYPE
1. Helical Type
The helix type bimetallic strip is mostly used for industrial applications. In this
thermometer, the helix shape strip is used for measuring the temperature. The free
end of the strip is connected to the pointer. The deflection of the strip shows the
variation of temperature.
1. Helical Type
2. Spiral Type
In bimetallic strip thermometer, the spiral-shaped strip is used. This type of
thermometer is used for measuring the ambient temperature. Because of the
thermal expansion property of metal the deformation occurs in the spring with the
variation of temperature. The pointer and dials attached to the spring, which
indicates the variation of temperature.
2. Spiral Type
3. Cantilever Type
The bimetallic strip is in the form of a cantilever beam. An increase in temperature
will result in the deflection of the free end of the strip and this deflection is linear
and can be related to temperature changes.
3. Cantilever Type
Important properties a material should have to be selected for
bimetallic thermometers:
1. Coefficient of expansion.
2. Modulus of elasticity.
3. Elastic limit after cold rolling.
4. Electrical conductivity.
5. Ductility.
6. Metallurgical ability.
Commonly used metal in Bimetallic thermometers:
High expansion
1. Brass
2. Nickel-iron alloy with chromium and manganese.
Low Expansion
1. Invar (alloy of nickel and iron).
2. Iron
Application of Bimetallic Strips and Thermometers:
• The bimetallic thermometer is used in household devices likes oven,
air conditioner, and in industrial apparatus like refineries, hot wires,
heater, tempering tanks etc. for measuring the temperature.
• By far the most common application of the bimetallic strip is as a
thermostat switch used for temperature and energy control.
Advantages of Bimetallic Thermometers:
1. They are simple, robust and inexpensive.
2. Their accuracy is between + or - 2% to 5% of the scale.
3. They can with stand 50% over range in temperatures.
4. They can be used wherever a mercury–in-glass thermometer is used.
Limitations of Bimetallic Thermometer:
1. They are not recommended for temperature above 400°C.
2. When regularly used, the bimetallic may permanently deform, which in
turn will introduce errors.
3. Their sensitivity and accuracy is less at low temperature.
B. FILLED-SYSTEM TEMPERATURE SENSORS
• A thermometer which has a bourdon tube connected by a capillary tube to a
hollow bulb.
• The standard classifies filled-system thermometers by the type of fill fluid used,
it is either liquid, vapor or gas.
• Bulb Design
The bulb volume varies over a range of 100 to 1 depending on the fill fluid, the
temperature span, and the capilliary length.
Different bulb materials are available but when used in Thermowell, standard
materials can be used. Some of this materials are copper, bronze or stainless steel. In case
of atmospheric corrosion, stainless steel is preferred.
• Capillary Tubing and Armoring
Capillary tubing is a small diameter tubing, usually made of stainless steel. Armor
should always be specified mot only because of mechanical strength but also to
distinguish with other tubing. Armor material shall be also a stainless steel material. Some
case where in corrosive atmosphere, the armor should be plastic coated.
Working principle:
•Filled-system thermometers use the phenomenon of thermal
expansion of matter to measure temperature change.
•Filled-bulb systems exploit the principle of fluid expansion
to measure temperature. If a fluid is enclosed in a sealed
system and then heated, the molecules in that fluid will exert
a greater pressure on the walls of the enclosing vessel.
• There are different types of filled-system thermometer that are identified by
“Class Numbers”
CLASS I: LIQUID FILLED
• Liquid actuated, solid filled with a high volumetric
expansion organic liquid (not mercury) The elastic
element responds to volumetric expansion of liquid
in the bulb.
• Common fill liquids are hydrocarbons and silicone
fluids Bulb size is dependent on temperature span
and fill medium Liquid filled systems are sensitive to
ambient temperature changes on the elastic element
and capillary unless some means of compensation is
employed
CLASS II: VAPOR FILLED
• It uses a volatile liquid/vapor combination to
generate a temperature-dependent fluid expansion.
• Vapour pressure systems are quite accurate and
reliable. This form of measurement is based on the
vapour-pressure curves of the fluid and measurement
occurs at the transition between the liquid and
vapour phase.
• Methyl Chloride, Ethane and Ethyl Chloride are
some of the fluid used in this class.
CLASS III: GAS FILLED
• This type of measurement is quite simple and low
cost.
• Nitrogen is quite commonly used with gas filled
systems because it does not react easily and is
inexpensive. At low temperature, helium should be
considered.
• Gas filled systems do provide a faster response than
the other filled devices because it converts
temperature directly into pressure that is particularly
useful in pneumatic systems.
CLASS IV: GAS WITH ADSORBENT
•Gas actuated thermometer with an adsorbent (such as
activated carbon) in the bulb The adsorbent amplifies the
pressure temperature relationship providing a pressure change
greater than that of an equivalent range Class 3 thermometer
This permits the use of smaller bulbs and narrower
temperature spans Lower operating pressures minimize
ambient temperature errors
CLASS V: MERCURY FILLED
•Mercury expansion systems are
different from other liquid filled
systems because of the properties of
the metal. Mercury is toxic and can
affect some industrial processes that's
why it is used less in filled system.
SOURCES OF ERRORS:
• Ambient temperature effect - The capillary tube and bourdon tube are exposed to surroundings and subjected
to a variable temperature widely different from that of the bulb, which results as an error in temperature
measurement.
• Head or elevation effect - If the long capillary tube is used and thermometer bulb is placed at a different
height with respect to the bourdon tube, then due to elevation difference between bulb and bourdon tube
deflecting end, pressure head is created which results as an error in temperature measurement.
• Radiation effect - This error occurs due to temperature difference between the bulb and other solid bodies
around it.
• Immersion effect - If the bulb is not properly immersed or head of bulb is not properly insulated, then heat
from the bulb may be lost due to conduction from bulb and hence temperature at the bulb may be reduced, so
that, it indicates lower temperature than the actual.
• Barometric effect - The tip travel of a bourdon tube is due to pressure difference between atmosphere and
filled system pressure. So if any variation in atmospheric pressure from designed pressure, the bourdon tube
tip travels and can cause an error in temperature measurement.
Advantages:
- Simplicity in use - Low cost
- Portable device - Power source not require
- Checking physical damage is easy
Disadvantages:
- Can't use for automatic reading
- Time lag in measurement
- Fragile construction
- Some fluid used is toxic like mercury
A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector is a
device which used to determine the temperature by measuring the
resistance of pure electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a
temperature sensor. If we want to measure temperature with high
accuracy, RTD is the only one solution in industries.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
• A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) functions on the resistance and
temperature relationship in metals. It works on the principle of measurement
which states that “The resistance of a material changes with temperature”.
• When the metal’s temperature increases, the resistance to the electron’s flow
also increases. Similarly, as and when the temperature of element used in the
Resistance Temperature Detector increases, the resistance increases too.
• RTD’s resistance and the temperature can be determined by applying a
constant current and evaluating the occurrence of voltage drop through the
resistor.
• The figure shows the
resistance-temperature characteristics
curve of the three different metals.
For Platinum, its resistance changes
by approximately 0.4 ohms per
degree Celsius of temperature.
• Copper, Nickel and Platinum are
widely used metals.
• These three metals are having
different resistance variations with
respective to the temperature
variations.
Cu
850 C
∎ Why platinum? PRT
Types
❑ Stable element
❑ Resists corrosion
❑ Easily workable
❑ High melting point
❑ Easily purified
PLATINUM TEMPERATURE
THERMOMETERS (PRT) are the
most common type of RTD
What are PT100 and PT1000 in RTD?
•In PT100 the ‘PT’ defines that the metal is Platinum and the ‘100’ is
the resistance in ohms at ice point (or 0°C). These are generally
wire wound and are quite common in industrial uses.
•PT1000 exhibits 1000Ω resistance at 0°C Celsius
temperature. These are generally thin film devices and are more
expensive.
•200 and 500 ohm Platinum RTD’s are available but are more
expensive and less common.
• PT100 (Platinum) Resistance table.
• Note: for PT 100, when the input
measurement is 0 deg C, the output
resistance is 100 ohms
Why is wire compensation needed in RTD?
• As RTD is a resistor, the ohm meter or the resistance measuring devices
are connected parallel to the lead wires of the RTD. The lead wire
resistance adds to the RTD resistance as the wires got resistance and this
combined resistance will be shown as the RTD resistance incorrectly. So
that lead compensation techniques are used in RTD connections.
• There are three connection circuits for RTD wire circuit:
• Two-wire circuit
• Three-wire circuit
• Four-wire circuit
RTD LEAD WIRE CONFIGURATION:
• Two Wire Configuration -It is the most simple one and has
the chances of errors. In this configuration, RTD is connected
to a Wheatstone bridge circuit using two wires. The voltage
output is monitored to get the the desired output.
• Three Wire Configuration - They are the most common ype
of RTD assembly. Typically, they are connected to standard
bridge circuit, which allows lead wire resistance to be
compensated. They are more accurate than two wire RTDs and
are used in most industrial applications.
• Four Wire Configuration - Four wire Resistance Temperature
Detectors are even more accurate than Three wire RTDs as they
are able to completely compensate for the resistance of the
wires without having to pay attention to the length of each of
the wires. This provides significantly increased accuracy at low
cost of increased copper extension wire.
ADVANTAGES:
•Linearity over wide operating range
•Wide temperature operating range
•High temperature operating range
•Interchangeability over wide range
•Good stability at high temperature
DISADVANTAGES:
•Low sensitivity
•Higher cost than thermocouples
•No point sensing
•Affected by shock and vibration
•Requires three or four-wire operation
APPLICATIONS
✔ In Automotive ✔ In Industrial
Industry – As audio Electronics – For gas
amplifiers and engine flow indicators and
oil temperature Plastic laminating
sensors. equipment.
✔ In Medical
Electronics – For
✔ In Communication blood dialysis
and Instrumentation equipment and Infant
– As temperature incubators.
sensors and amplifiers.
✔ In Consumer
Electronics – For
small appliance
controls and Fire
Detectors. NOTE: RTDs should be used when:
1. Stability and accuracy are a requirement of
the customer’s specification.
2. Accuracy extends over a wide temperature
range.
D. THERMOCOUPLE TEMPERATURE SENSOR
A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature.
Thermocouples consist of two wire legs made from different metals. The wires
legs are welded together at one end, creating a junction. This junction is where
the temperature is measured. When the junction experiences a change in
temperature, a voltage is created. The voltage can then be interpreted using
thermocouple reference tables to calculate the temperature.
The thermocouple principle mainly depends on the three effects namely Seebeck,
Peltier and Thompson.
See beck-effect - This type of effect occurs among two dissimilar metals. When the heat
offers to any one of the metal wire, then the flow of electrons supplies from hot metal
wire to cold metal wire. Therefore, direct current stimulates in the circuit.
Peltier-effect - This Peltier effect is opposite to the Seebeck effect. This effect states that
the difference of the temperature can be formed among any two dissimilar conductors by
applying the potential variation among them.
Thompson-effect - This effect states that as two disparate metals fix together & if they
form two joints then the voltage induces the total conductor’s length due to the gradient
of temperature. This is a physical word that demonstrates the change in rate and
direction of temperature at an exact position.
Types of Thermocouple:
Type K (Nickel-Chromium / Nickel-Alumel): The type K is the most common type of
thermocouple. It’s inexpensive, accurate, reliable, and has a wide temperature range
Type J (Iron/Constantan): The type J is also very common. It has a smaller temperature
range and a shorter lifespan at higher temperatures than the Type K. It is equivalent to
the Type K in terms of expense and reliability
Type T (Copper/Constantan): The Type T is a very stable thermocouple and is often
used in extremely low temperature applications such as cryogenics or ultra low freezers
Type E (Nickel-Chromium/Constantan): The Type E has a stronger signal & higher
accuracy than the Type K or Type J at moderate temperature ranges of 1,000F and lower.
See temperature chart (linked) for details.
Types of Thermocouple:
Type N (Nicrosil / Nisil): The Type N shares the same accuracy and temperature limits as the
Type K. The type N is slightly more expensive.
Type S (Platinum Rhodium - 10% / Platinum): The Type S is used in very high temperature
applications. It is commonly found in the BioTech and Pharmaceutical industries. It is sometimes
used in lower temperature applications because of its high accuracy and stability
Type R (Platinum Rhodium -13% / Platinum): The Type R is used in very high temperature
applications. It has a higher percentage of Rhodium than the Type S, which makes it more
expensive. The Type R is very similar to the Type S in terms of performance. It is sometimes used
in lower temperature applications because of its high accuracy and stability
Type B (Platinum Rhodium – 30% / Platinum Rhodium – 6%): The Type B thermocouple is used
in extremely high temperature applications. It has the highest temperature limit of all of the
thermocouples listed above. It maintains a high level of accuracy and stability at very high
temperatures
Cold junction options and compensation methods
1. COLD JUNCTION IN ICE-BATH
BY ITS NATURE, A THERMOCOUPLE JUNCTION DOES NOT GENERATE ANY THERMOVOLTAGE WHEN IT IS IN 0°C (32°F)
TEMPERATURE. SO, YOU COULD MAKE THE COLD JUNCTION AT THAT TEMPERATURE, FOR EXAMPLE IN AN ICE-BATH OR
AN ACCURATE TEMPERATURE BLOCK. YOU CAN CONNECT THE THERMOCOUPLE WIRES INTO COPPER WIRES IN THE
ICE-BATH, AND THERE IS NO THERMOVOLTAGE GENERATED IN THAT CONNECTION. THEN YOU WOULD NOT NEED TO
WORRY ABOUT THE COLD JUNCTION AT ALL.
THE CONNECTIONS NEED TO BE ELECTRICALLY ISOLATED FROM THE WATER IN THE ICE-BATH TO AVOID ANY LEAK
CURRENTS CAUSING ERRORS, OR POSSIBLE CORROSION BEING GENERATED.
THIS IS A VERY ACCURATE WAY AND IT’S SOMETHING CALIBRATION LABORATORIES TYPICALLY DO. IT IS ANYHOW NOT
VERY PRACTICAL ON A PROCESS PLANT FLOOR, SO IT IS NOT NORMALLY USED IN PROCESS PLANTS.
2. COLD JUNCTION IN A KNOWN, FIXED TEMPERATURE
SINCE THE ICE-BATH WAS FOUND TO BE IMPRACTICAL, YOU CAN ALSO DO THE COLD JUNCTION
CONNECTION IN SOME OTHER KNOWN, FIXED TEMPERATURE. YOU CAN HAVE A SMALL CONNECTION BOX
THAT HAS A TEMPERATURE CONTROL KEEPING THE BOX ALWAYS AT A CERTAIN TEMPERATURE.
TYPICALLY, THE TEMPERATURE IS HIGHER THAN ENVIRONMENT TEMPERATURE, SO THE BOX NEEDS ONLY
HEATING, NOT COOLING.
WHEN YOU KNOW THE TEMPERATURE THAT YOUR COLD JUNCTION IS IN, AND YOU ALSO KNOW THE TYPE
OF YOUR THERMOCOUPLE, YOU CAN CALCULATE AND COMPENSATE THE COLD JUNCTION
THERMOVOLTAGE.
MANY MEASUREMENT DEVICES OR TEMPERATURE CALIBRATORS HAVE A FUNCTIONALITY WHERE YOU

CAN ENTER THE TEMPERATURE OF THE COLD JUNCTION AND THE DEVICE WILL DO ALL THE
CALCULATIONS FOR YOU AND MAKE THE COMPENSATION.
3. MEASURE THE TEMPERATURE OF THE COLD JUNCTION
IF YOU DON’T ADJUST THE COLD JUNCTION TEMPERATURE LIKE IN THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE, YOU CAN
ANYHOW MEASURE THE TEMPERATURE OF THE COLD JUNCTION WITH A TEMPERATURE PROBE. YOU CAN
THEN COMPENSATE THE COLD JUNCTION EFFECT, BUT THE COMPENSATION IS A LITTLE BIT MORE
DIFFICULT AS YOU NEED TO MEASURE THE COLD JUNCTION TEMPERATURE ALL THE TIME, AND KNOWING
YOUR THERMOCOUPLE TYPE, MAKE CALCULATIONS TO KNOW THE EFFECT OF THE COLD JUNCTION.
LUCKILY, MANY TEMPERATURE CALIBRATORS PROVIDE A FUNCTIONALITY TO USE A TEMPERATURE

PROBE TO MEASURE THE COLD JUNCTION TEMPERATURE AND THE DEVICE MAKES ALL THE
COMPENSATIONS AND CALCULATIONS AUTOMATICALLY.
4. AUTOMATIC ON-LINE COMPENSATION IN THE MEASURING DEVICE
AS MENTIONED THAT THE PREVIOUS EXAMPLE WAS DIFFICULT AS YOU NEED TO CALCULATE THE
COMPENSATION AT ALL TIMES, BUT YOU COULD LEAVE THAT TO THE MEASURING DEVICE TO DO IT
AUTOMATICALLY. THE MEASURING DEVICE (BEING A TRANSMITTER, DCS INPUT CARD OR TEMPERATURE
CALIBRATOR) CAN BE MEASURING THE TEMPERATURE OF THE COLD JUNCTION ALL THE TIME AND
AUTOMATICALLY PERFORM AN ON-LINE COMPENSATION OF THE COLD JUNCTION ERROR. SINCE THE
MEASURING DEVICE ALSO KNOWS THE THERMOCOUPLE TYPE (YOU SELECT THAT IN THE MENU), IT CAN
MAKE THE COMPENSATION AUTOMATICALLY AND CONTINUOUSLY.
THIS IS NATURALLY THE EASIEST AND MOST PRACTICAL WAY TO COMPENSATE THE COLD JUNCTION IN
NORMAL MEASUREMENTS AND CALIBRATIONS, AS YOU DON’T NEED TO WORRY ABOUT THE COLD
JUNCTION AND LEAVE FOR THE EQUIPMENT TO TAKE CARE OF. YOU JUST PLUG IN THE THERMOCOUPLE
WIRE INTO THE DEVICE.
Applications:
• These are used as the temperature sensors in thermostats in offices, homes,
offices & businesses.
• These are used in industries for monitoring temperatures of metals in iron,
aluminum, and metal.
• These are used in the food industry for cryogenic and Low-temperature
applications. Thermocouples are used as a heat pump for performing
thermoelectric cooling.
• These are used to test temperature in the chemical plants, petroleum plants.
• These are used in gas machines for detecting the pilot flame.
ADVANTAGES:
• Accuracy is high
• It is Robust and can be used in environments like harsh as well as high
vibration.
• The thermal reaction is fast
• The operating range of the temperature is wide.
• Wide operating temperature range
• Cost is low and extremely consistent
DISADVANTAGES:
• Nonlinearity
• Least stability
• Low voltage
• Reference is required
• least sensitivity
• The thermocouple recalibration is hard
E. THERMISTOR TEMPERATURE SENSOR
• A Thermistor is a type of resistor used to
measure temperature changes, relying on
the change in its resistance with changing
temperature.
• Thermistor is a combination of the words
thermal and resistor
Working Principle:
A Thermistor does not actually “read”
anything, instead the resistance of a
thermistor changes with temperature. How
much the resistance changes depends on the
type of material used in the thermistor.
Unlike other sensors, thermistors are
non-linear, meaning the points on a graph
representing the relationship between the
resistance and temperature will not form a
straight line. The location of the line and how
much it changes is determined by the
construction of the thermistor.
Types of Thermistor:
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)
•With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises. An NTC is
commonly used as a temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an
inrush current limiter.
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC)
•With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises. PTC
thermistors are commonly installed in series with a circuit, and used to
protect against overcurrent conditions, as resettable fuses.
Note: NTC Types are used for Temperature
measurement
Advantages:
• Small size and light in weight
• Inexpensive
• Very high sensitivity (Select range)
• Fast response
• Standard two wire connection system
• Made to be waterproof and bomb proof
Disadvantages:
• Not easily interchangeable
• Non linear
• It is not suitable for large temperature range
• Susceptible to self-heating errors
Applications:
• Microwave
For those who have used a microwave, you have used a thermistor. They are used in these
machines to determine and maintain internal temperature. Without the resistor in the
microwave, there is a possibility of overheating in the unit. This could lead to potential fires.
• Circuit Protector
If you have a power supply or surge protector in your home or office then you are also using a
thermistor. Without a thermistor in this product, surges of energy would be uncontrolled. This
could lead to overheating or too much electricity being pushed to whatever is plugged in. This
could lead to some of your electronics shorting out.
• Automotive
Cars, trucks, and buses all use thermistors. They are used to determine the temperature of oil
and coolants. This is how you are able to know if your car is overheating or not. The thermistors
are connected to indicators on the dashboard of the vehicle. Thermistors in cars do not prevent
or regulate. Instead, they are used to gather information. This allows a driver to fix their car or
truck before something serious happens.
Applications:
• Digital Thermometers
Have you ever wondered how digital thermometers are able to accurately gauge someone’s
temperature? This is possible because of thermistors. Just like with cars, these devices used to
gather information rather than helping to maintain temperature.
• Rechargeable Batteries
The ability to recharge a battery is only possible because of the help it gets. When you start
charging batteries, there is a tendency for things to get hot. The low resistance of the thermistor
allows it to stop the charging if things are getting too hot.
E. PYROMETER
Pyrometer also is known as an Infrared thermometer or Radiation
thermometer or non-contact thermometer used to detect the
temperature of an object’s surface temperature, which depends on
the radiation (infrared or visible) emitted from the object.
Pyrometers act as photo detector because of the property of
absorbing energy and measuring of EM wave intensity at any
wavelength.
E. PYROMETER
Types of Pyrometer:
1. Optical Pyrometers
Used to detect thermal radiation of the
visible spectrum. The temperature of the
hot objects measured will depend on the
visible light they emit.
Optical pyrometers are capable of
providing a visual comparison between a
calibrated light source and the targeted
object’s surface.
E. PYROMETER
Types of Pyrometer:
1. Optical Pyrometers
E. PYROMETER
Types of Pyrometer:
2. Infrared Pyrometers
Designed to detect thermal radiation in
the infrared region, which is usually at a
distance of 2-14um. It measures the
temperature of a targeted object from the
emitted radiation.
This radiation can be directed to a
thermocouple to convert into electrical
signals. Because the thermocouple is
capable of generating higher current equal
to the heat emitted.
E. PYROMETER
Applications:
•Suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any
surfaces that cannot be reached or cannot be touched
Application in the areas of:
• Glass Production
• Cement Production
• Metal Production
• Food Production
• Products that are not stationary
E. PYROMETER
Main Components of Pyrometer:
• The Absorption Screen is used to pull in as much radiation energy as possible
into the system. This not only increases the amount of radiations entering
inside but also extends the measuring range of the instrument. The radiations
from the absorption screen are concentrated on a filament lamp.
• The filament lamp or detector is connected to a circuit, which measures the
intensity of radiations. The filament works similar to a thermocouple,
providing the exact temperature using an ammeter calibrated in units of
temperature.
• The monochromatic filter is used to dissect the light into a single color,
usually red, to simplify the filament radiation calibrating process. Thus, the
radiations from the lamp and the heat source are almost the same, and the
calibrated current through the lamp is the measure of temperature of the heat
E. PYROMETER
Main Components of Pyrometer:
E. PYROMETER
Advantages:
• It can measure the temperature of the object without any contact with the
object.
• It has a fast response time
• Good stability while measuring the temperature of the object.
• It can measure different types of object’s temperature at variable distances.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Human errors
• Not useful for measuring temperature of clear glass
• At high temperature filament erodes frequently
END
INDUSTRIAL PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
▫ The Measurement and Control of Pressure is very important in
almost all chemical and Petrochemical Industries, Power Plants
and other Industries. Many of the Processes in these Industries
use liquids, gases, steam, etc. which requires highly accurate
measurement and control of pressure for Trouble Free and
Safety Operation.
▫ Pressure is defined as Force Applied Per Unit Area.

• Mathematically, pressure is expressed as; P = F/A
• Where P – Pressure, F – Force, A – Area
TYPES OF PRESSURE
1. Gauge Pressure - Pressure above atmospheric pressure. Hence, the
zero of the Gauge Pressure scale depends on the Atmospheric Pressure
at that location.
2. Absolute Pressure – Pressure above the absolute Zero.
3. Atmospheric Pressure or Barometric Pressure
4. Vacuum - Pressure less than atmospheric Pressure.
5. Differential Pressure
UNITS OF PRESSURE
A unit often used for expressing high pressures is
atmospheres, abbreviated atm. A micron, abbreviated, is 0.001
mm of Hg column absolute pressure at 32°F. A pound per
square inch, abbreviated psig for gauge pressures and psia for
absolute pressures, is the common. Common units of pressure
Pascal (N/m2), Bar, kgf/cm2, psi (lb.f/in2), Torr (mm Hg) and
mm H20
MEASUREMENT OF LOW PRESSURES

Pressures, which are less than 1 psi, are normally considered
as low pressure and low pressures are usually calibrated in
inches of water.(1 Psi = 27.7 inches of H20).
PRESSURE CONVERSION TABLE
A pressure conversion table is used for conversion of pressure from one
unit to other.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PRESSURE PRINCIPLES
Pressure is simply the force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings. If it is a gas, then
the pressure of the gas is the force per unit area that the gas exerts on the walls of the container
that holds it. If the fluid is a liquid, then the pressure is the force per unit area that the liquid exerts
on the container in which it is contained. Obviously, the pressure of a gas will be uniform on all the
walls that must enclose the gas completely. In a liquid, the pressure will vary, being greatest on the
bottom of the vessel and zero on the top surface, which need not be enclosed.
Static Pressure
The statements made in the previous paragraph are explicitly true for a fluid that is not moving in
space, that is not being pumped through pipes or flowing through a channel. The pressure in case
where no motion is occurring is referred to as static pressure.
Dynamic Pressure
If a fluid is in motion, the pressure that it exerts on its surrounding depends on the motion. Thus, if
we measure the pressure of water in a hose with the nozzle closed, we may find a pressure of, say,
40 1b per square inch (note : force per unit area). If the nozzle is opened, the pressure in the hose
will drop to a different value, say, 30 1b per square inch. For this reason, a thorough description of
pressure must note the circumstances under which it is measured. Pressure can depend on flow,
compressibility of the fluid, external forces, and numerous other factors.
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PRESSURE PRINCIPLES
Gauge Pressure
In many cases, the absolute pressure is not the quantity of major interest in describing the pressure. The atmosphere of gas that
surrounds the earth exerts a pressure, because of its weight, at the surface of the earth of approximately 14.7 psi, which defines
the “atmosphere” unit. If a closed vessel at the earth’s surface contained a gas at an absolute pressure of 14.7 psi, then there
would be no net pressure on the walls of the container because the atmospheric gas exerts the same pressure from the outside. In
cases like this, it is more appropriate to describe pressure in a relative sense-that is, compared to atmospheric pressure. This is
called gauge pressure and is given by:
Pg = Pabs – Patm
Where: Pg = gauge pressure
Pabs = absolute pressure
Patm = atmospheric pressure
In the English system of units, the abbreviation psig is used to represent the gauge pressure.
Head Pressure
For liquids, the expression head pressure, or pressure head, is often used to describe by the weight of the liquid above the point at
which the pressure is being described. This pressure depends only on the height of the liquid above that point and the liquid density
(mass per unit volume). In terms of an equation, if a liquid is contained in a tank, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is given by
P = ρ gh
where: P = pressure in Pa
ρ = density in Kg/m³
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)
h = depth in liquid in m
METHODS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
1. By Means Of Mechanical Pressure Sensors
2. By Means Of Electrical/ Electronic/ Pressure
Sensors/Elements/ Transducers
TYPES OF PRESSURE SENSOR TO BE DISCUSSED IN THIS CHAPTER
A. Bellow type - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EwwYd1wt3ho
B. Diaphragm type - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b0INptOyCmE
C. Bourdon Tube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uBdTxTp_qLI
D. Piezoresistive Strain Guage - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DBAHlWfBopw
(also video link of diaphragm type 2:05-3:13)
E. Capacitive type - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CceTpFLc1FM
F. Piezoelectric type - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OF7S0-zFBY8
G. Potentiometric – (Unlike a mechanical pressure guage in which the sensor is
connected to a dial, the sensor is instead connected to a potentiometer. So the
result of change in pressure will have an output of change in resistance)
H. Pressure Instrument Accessories
Note: All video links are optional, you may choose to access it or not, but I
believe the videos may help you to best appreciate the lesson.
MECHANICAL
SENSOR
Working Principle
▫ System or line pressure is applied to the internal
volume of the bellows. As the inlet pressure to the
instrument varies, the bellows will expand or
contract. The moving end of the bellows
is connected to a mechanical linkage assembly.
▫ As the bellows and linkage assembly moves,

either an electrical signal is generated or a direct
pressure indication is provided.
▫ The bellows must always be opposed by a spring,

and the deflection characteristics will be the
resulting force of the spring and bellows.
Working Principle
▫ The bellows are used in two forms.

1. Pressure is applied to one side of the
bellows and the resulting deflection is
counter balanced by a spring.
2. The differential pressure is also
indicated.
▫ One pressure is applied to the

inside of one sealed bellow while
the other pressure is applied to the
inside of another sealed bellow.
Relative pressure sensors
▫ The bellows will usually

be used in expansion. The
process pressure is then
introduced to the inside of
the bellows and causes
the bellows to extend.
Absolute pressure sensors
The first one is the reference bellows,
which is provided with a perfect vacuum on
the inside. The second one is the measuring
bellows, which is subjected to the process
pressure.
Absolute pressure sensors are
generally used to measure low pressures, the
bellows are not equipped with calibrated
springs and they are used in expansion. The
bellows will stretch with increasing process
pressure.
Basic construction/ MATERIALS
The bellows are made up of an alloy with high strength and ductility. It should
have very little hysteresis effect. Commonly brass or phosphor bronze is used for
making bellows. For selecting a specific material for bellows, the parameters to
be checked are:
(i) Range of pressure
(ii) Hysteresis
(iii) Fatigue on dynamic operation
(iv) Corrosion
(v) Fabrication ease
(vi) Sensitivity to fluctuating pressures
ADVANTAGES
▫ Its cost is moderate.
▫ It is able to deliver high force.
▫ It is adaptable for absolute and differential pressures.
▫ It is good to low-to moderate range.
▫ It is used to measure absolute & differential pressure.
▫ It is used to measure low or medium pressure rang.
DISADVANTAGES
▫ It needs ambient temperature compensation.
▫ It is unsuitable for high pressures.
▫ The availability of construction metals is limited
▫ It is not useful to measure high value pressure (applications usually less than 30 psi)
▫ Bellows joints can fail catastrophically.
▫ No in place maintenance or repair can be performed – they must be replaced if
damaged.
19
20
The Diaphragm Pressure

▫ Diaphragms are well developed and
Sensor
proven. Modern designs have negligible
uses the elastic deformation of a
hysteresis, friction and calibration
diaphragm (i.e. membrane)
instead of a liquid level to problems when used with smart
measure the difference between instrumentation.
an unknown pressure and a
reference pressure.
21
A typical Diaphragm pressure gauge

contains a capsule divided by a diaphragm,
as shown in the schematic.
One side of the diaphragm is open to the

external targeted pressure, PExt,
and the other side is connected to a known
pressure, PRef,.
The pressure difference, PExt – PRef,

mechanically deflects the diaphragm.
22
There are two main types of construction and operation of diaphragm

sensors.
▫ Motion Balanced
Motion balanced designs are used to control local, direct reading
indicators. They are however more prone to hysteresis and friction errors.
▫ Force Balanced
Force balanced designs are used as transmitters for relaying information
with a high accuracy, however they do not have direct indication capability.
23
▫ They are used extensively on air conditioning plants and for ON/OFF switching applications.
▫ Sanitary processes
(food, pharmaceuticals, etc.) where
allowing process fluid to accumulate in
the pressure port of the sensor would
compromise the purity of the fluid
(such as milk getting into the pressure
port of a pressure gauge and spoiling)
24
▫ Very pure process fluids, where

▫ Pneumatic systems where
the metal surface of the pressure
small changes in pressures
sensor might contaminate the
must be eliminated, such as
fluid (such as copper ions from
those controlling air
brass leaching into ultra pure
bearings.
water.)
25
Provide isolation
from process fluid Wide range
Used to measure gauge,

Good for low atmospheric and
pressure differential pressure
26
Seismic, impact Lower measurement

resistance is not good pressure.
Difficulty in
maintenance
The Bourdon tube is the namesake of Eugéne
Bourdon, a French watchmaker and engineer who
invented the Bourdon gauge in 1849. C-Type
Bourdon Tube works on a simple principle that a bent
tube will change its shape when exposed to
variations of internal and external pressure. It is
known for its very high range of differential pressure
measurement in the range of almost 100,000 psi (700
MPa). It is an elastic type pressure transducer.
Parts and working principle
▫ The pressure input is given to a
socket which is soldered to the tube
at the base.
▫ Tip is connected to a segmental lever
through an adjustable length link. The
lever length may also be adjustable.
▫ A hair spring is used to fasten the
spindle of the frame of the instrument
to provide necessary tension for
proper meshing of the gear teeth.
As the fluid pressure enters the bourdon tube, it
tries to be reformed and because of a free tip available,
this action causes the tip to travel in free space and the
tube unwinds. The simultaneous actions of bending and
tension due to the internal pressure make a non-linear
movement of the free tip. This travel is suitable guided
and amplified for the measurement of the internal
pressure.
This displacement of the free closed end of the bourdon
tube is proportional to the applied pressure. As the free
end of the bourdon tube is connected to a link – section –
pinion arrangement, the displacement is amplified and
converted to a rotary motion of the pinion. As the pinion
rotates, it makes the pointer to assume a new posistion
on a pressure calibrated scale to indicate the appilied
pressure directly. As the pressure in the case containing
the bourdon tube is usually atmospheric, the pointer
indicates gauge pressure.
▫ A lot of compound stresses originate in the tube
as soon as the pressure is applied. This makes
the travel of the tip to be non-linear in nature. The
small linear tip movement is matched with a
rotational pointer movement. It can be adjusted by
adjusting the length of the lever. For the same
amount of tip travel, a shorter lever gives larger
rotation.
Application
▫ C-type tubes are available for measuring pressures up to

6000 bar. A typical C-type tube of 25 mm radius has a maximum
displacement travel of 4 mm, giving a moderate level
of measurement resolution. Measurement inaccuracy is typically
quoted at ±1% of full-scale deflection.
▫ These devices should be used in air if calibrated for air, and in
liquid if calibrated for liquid. Special care is required for liquid
applications in bleeding air from the liquid lines.
▫ This type of pressure measurement is limited in applications
where there is input shock (a sudden surge of pressure), and in
fast moving processes.
ADVANTAGES
▫ Inexpensive • Can be modified to give electrical

▫ Wide operating range outputs.
▫ Simple in construction • Safe even for high pressure
▫ Fast response measurement.
▫ Good sensitivity
• Accuracy is high especially at
▫ Direct pressure high pressures.
measurement
DISADVANTAGES
▫ Primarily intended for • They respond slowly to changes in pressure
indication only
▫ Hysteresis on cycling • They are subjected to hysteresis.
▫ Sensitive to • They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations.
temperature variations
▫ Limited life when • Amplification is a must as the displacement
subject to shock and of the free end of the bourdon tube is low.
vibration
• It cannot be used for precision
measurement.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
▫ The spiral Bourdon tube makes a few windings in one plane around the
fixed shaft of the pointer.
▫ When the tube is being uncoiled by the process pressure, the free end
will have a larger displacement compared to the C-shaped tube. The
more windings, the larger the displacement will be.
▫ A transmission mechanism is therefore no longer necessary. When the
number of windings is correctly determined for a selected measuring
range, a fixed connection between the free end of the Bourdon tube
and the pointer is sufficient for a full deflection on the scale.
▫ Using a fixed link avoids transmission losses due to friction or backlash
in the transmission mechanism. This increases the accuracy and
sensitivity of the pressure gauge. Also, recalibration is no longer
necessary.
▫ Backlash is mainly caused by wear on the teeth of the gears. Vibrations and
pulsations are making it even worse. A pressure gauge with backlash on the gears
will always indicate a pressure which is too low or too high. Subjected to pulsations,
the backlash will cause the pointer to rotate further to the left and right than would
normally be the case without backlash. Having a fixed link is making the spiral
Bourdon tube pressure gauge very resistant to extreme vibration or pulsation.
▫ For low pressure ranges, the spiral is made of a flat oval tube, while round tube is
being used for the high pressure ranges.
▫ The same low pressures can be measured with the spiral Bourdon tube as with the
C-shaped Bourdon tube but the cost for a spiral pressure gauge is higher.
▫ The use of spiral Bourdon tubes is consequently more likely in the high-pressure
ranges which cannot be measured with the C-shaped tube because the wall
thickness of the tube would be too large so that the tip movement is too small to
have sufficient accuracy.
CONSTRUCTION OF SPIRAL TYPE
▫ Spiral Bourdon Tube is made by winding a partially flattened metal tube into a
spiral having several turns instead of a single C-bend arc.
▫ The tip movement of the spiral equals the sum of the tip movements of all its
individual C-bend arcs.
ADVANTAGES
▫ A spiral-type bourdon tube provides more tip movement.
▫ The spiral-type tube works under the same observed
principles as the C-type, but as the applied pressure
increases, the spiral uncoils. Because of the increased tip
movement, mechanical amplification is not normally needed.
This results in an increase in sensitivity and accuracy
because there is no lost motion from loose or sticking links,
levers, or gears.
▫ Increased accuracy and sensitivity
▫ Higher over range protection
Disadvantages
▫ Very expensive
APPLICATION OF SPIRAL TYPE
▫ It is mainly used in low- pressure application.
Working Principle:
▫ Helical is a bourdon tube wound in the form of helix. It allows the tip
movement to be converted to a circular motion.
▫ By installing a central shaft inside the helix along its axis and
connecting it to the tip, the tip movement become a circular motion of
the shaft.
ADVANTAGES
▫ Helical tubes are more sensitive than the C-Type tube. This
means that for a given applied pressure a spiral or helical
tube will show more movement than an equivalent C-Type
tube, thus avoiding the need for a magnifying linkage.
▫ Helical tubes can be manufactured in very much smaller
sizes than the equivalent C-Type tubes. Hence, they can be
fitted into smaller spaces, such as inside recorders or
controller cases where a C-Type would be unsuitable
because of the size.
DISADVANTAGES
▫ They respond slowly to changs in pressure
▫ They are subjected to hysterisis.
▫ They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations.
▫ Ampilification is a must as the displacement of the free end of
the bourdon tube is low.
▫ It cannot be used for precision measurement
TRANSDUCER
Symbol
Principles of Operation
▫ Piezoresistive strain gauges are among the most common types
of pressure sensors. They use the change in electrical
resistance of a material when stretched to measure the
pressure.
▫ These are suitable for a variety of applications because of their
simplicity and robustness. They can be used for absolute,
gauge, relative and differential pressure measurement, in both
high- and low-pressure applications.
▫ The basic principle of the piezoresistive strain gauge is to use a
strain gauge made from a conductive material that changes its
electrical resistance when it is stretched. The strain gauge can
be attached to a diaphragm that recognizes a change in
resistance when the sensor element is deformed. The change in
resistance is converted to an output signal
Change in Resistance of Conductor
▫ The resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length so stretching
increases the resistance
▫ As the conductor is stretched, its cross-sectional area is reduced, which
also increases the resistance
▫ The inherent resistivity of some materials increases when it is stretched
Functionality
▫ Piezoresistive strain gauge measurements are made
using a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
Basic Construction/Materials
▫ One or more strain gauge sensors made from a length of wire can be
attached to the surface of a diaphragm.
Basic Construction/Materials
▫ Semiconducting materials, most commonly silicon, can also be used
to make piezoelectric strain gauge. The characteristics of the sensing
element, particularly the size of the piezoresistive effect, can be
adjusted by doping; in other words by adding carefully controlled
amounts of impurities (dopants) to the semiconductor.
▫ More lightly doped silicon results in a higher resistivity and a higher
gauge factor. However, this also increases the thermal sensitivity of
both the resistance and gauge factor.
Applications
▫ Piezoresistive strain gauges are applied in measuring

acceleration, force, torque, pressure, and vibration
▫ Silicon strain gauges provide a much larger output signal, making
them well-suited to low-pressure applications, down to around 2
kPa.
▫ Can be used as a knock sensor in automotive engine
management systems for noticing knock of the engine.
▫ The load of the engine can be determined by calculating diverse
absolute pressure, that can be done by using these transducers
as the MAP sensor in fuel injection systems.
Advantages
▫ Piezoresistive strain gauge pressure sensors have the advantage of
being robust. Their performance and calibration is also stable over
time.
▫ Metal film sensing elements have the advantage of simple construction
and durability. They also have a higher maximum operating
temperature (up to about 200°C) than silicon strain gauges, which are
limited to below 100°C.
▫ Can be made much smaller than metal wire sensors and can be
integrated with electronics for signal processing, which can control for
non-linearity and temperature dependence.
Disadvantages
▫ Temperature Variation – This can be one of the major causes of error
in a strain gauge. It can easily change the gauge resistance and cause
differential expansion between the gauge and the test piece, causing
variation in the measurable strain.
▫ Humidity – Humidity can affect the accuracy by the breakdown of
insulation between the gauge and the ground point. It also causes
electro-chemical corrosion of gauge wire due to electrolysis.
▫ Small errors could be caused due to thermoelectric effect.
What is the Capacitive Pressure Transducer?
▫ It is a pressure measurement device, which converts

applied pressure into a current signal, like 4-20mA.
Capacitive type pressure transmitter is differential pressure
type sensor.
▫ Capacitive pressure transmitter works under the principle of
differential capacitance. Capacitive pressure measurement involves
sensing the change in capacitance that results from the movement of
a diaphragm.
▫ A linear change in capacitance with changes in the physical position
of the moving element, may be used to provide an electrical indication
of the element’s position. Generaly the capacitance is defined by the
equation:
C = Aε/d
C – Capacitance between two conductors
A – Area of overlapping between those conductors
d – Distance separating the conductors
ε – Dielectric permittivity of the insulating medium
▫ The permittivity of the medium and the area of overlapping will be
constant in this case, the only varying parameter, in this case, is the
distance between the conductors which varies when the pressure
varies, which changes the capacitance. So the pressure variation
results in the capacitance variation.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
▫ Inaccuracy 0.01 to 0.2% ▫ Temperature sensitivity
▫ Linearity ▫ Stray capacitance problem
▫ Fast response ▫ Vibration
▫ Range of 80Pa to 35MPa ▫ Limited overpressure
capability
▫ Cost
What are Piezoelectric Transducers?
Piezoelectric transducers are a type of
electroacoustic transducer that convert the electrical
charges produced by some forms of solid materials into
energy. The word "piezoelectric" literally means electricity
caused by pressure.
Piezoelectric Transducer Working
Piezoelectric Transducer works with the principle of piezoelectricity.
The faces of piezoelectric material, usual quartz, is coated with a thin layer of
conducting material such as silver. When stress has applied the ions in the
material move towards one of the conducting surface while moving away from
the other. This results in the generation of charge. This charge is used for
calibration of stress. The polarity of the produced charge depends upon the
direction of the applied stress. Stress can be applied in two forms as
Compressive stress and Tensile stress as shown below.
Piezoelectric Transducer Formula
The orientation of the crystal also effects the amount of
voltage generated. Crystal in a transducer can be arranged
in longitudinal position or transverse position
 In the longitudinal effect, the charge generated is given by
Q=F*d
Where F is the applied forced is the piezoelectric coefficient of the crystal.
Piezoelectric coefficient d of quartz crystal is around 2.3 * 10-12 C/N.
 In the transverse effect, the charge generated is given by

Q = F * d * (b/a)
When the ratio b/a is greater than 1 the charge produced by transverse
arrangement will be greater than the amount generated by longitudinal
arrangement.
Types of Piezoelectric Materials
Some of the types of piezoelectric materials are:
 Naturally Available Ones: Quartz, Rochelle salt, Topaz, Tourmaline-

group minerals, and some organic substances as silk, wood, enamel,
bone, hair, rubber, dentin.
 Artificially manufactures piezoelectric material are Polyvinylidene

difluoride, PVDF or PVF2, Barium titanate, Lead titanate, Lead zirconate
titanate (PZT), Potassium niobate, Lithium niobate, Lithium tantalate, and
other lead-free piezoelectric ceramics.
Not all piezoelectric materials can be used in piezoelectric transducers. There
are certain requirements to be met by the piezoelectric materials to be used as transducers.
▫ frequency stability
▫ high output values
▫ insensitive to the extreme temperature and humidity conditions and which can be
available in various shapes
▫ should be flexible to be manufactured into various shapes without disturbing their
properties.
Unfortunately, there is no piezoelectric material which has all these

properties. Quartz is a highly stable crystal which is naturally available but it has small
output levels. Slowly varying parameters can be measured with quartz. Rochelle salt gives
the highest output values but it is sensitive to environmental conditions and cannot be
operated above 1150F.
Advantages and Limitations of Piezoelectric Transducers
Advantages:
▫ Self-generating
▫ Accessible
▫ High-frequency response
▫ Flexibility
Limitations:
▫ Small electric charge
▫ Affected by various environments and conditions
▫ Naturally low output
Principle of Operation
▫ The principle of the potentiometric pressure measurement
is based on the change in resistance of a potentiometer.
▫ The wiper of the potentiometer is mechanically connected
to a pressure-sensitive element, such as a Bourdon tube, a
bellows, a capsule or a diaphragm. The deflection of the
pressure-sensitive element determines the position of the
wiper on the potentiometer.
▫ As a result, the resistance value changes between the
wiper and one end of the potentiometer. This resistance
value is a measure of the pressure applied to the sensing
element.
Basic Construction/ Materials
▫ It started with a Bourdon tube attached to
a potentiometer, creating the first
potentiometric pressure transducer. A few
years later followed by the unbonded and
bonded strain gauges. The change in
electrical resistance that is due to
pressure changes, was always the basic
principle.
▫ A potentiometer mainly consists of a
resistance element having a connection
terminal at each end, a sliding track that is
connected to the third terminal, a wiper,
and the housing.
Application
▫ Potentiometric pressure transducers can be used to measure
absolute, relative or differential pressure depending on how the
pressure sensor is built.
▫ They are used for industrial and military purposes as oil
pressure gauges for display on the dashboard, flow
measurement of air supply to combustion engines, or pressure
measurements for ground support equipment at airports.
▫ In addition to pressure measurement applications, the
potentiometric transducer is also used for many other
applications such as positioning, displacement, level, flow rate
measurement, etc.
Advantage
▫ Simple technology or simple instrumentation , have
high electrical efficiency and are inexpensive
▫ Easily customizable to application
▫ High output signal
▫ High range and have high ruggedness
Disadvantage
▫ Sensitive to vibration
▫ Short lifespan
▫ Low accuracy
▫ Poor frequency to response and have tendency to
develop noise
ACCESSORIES
PRESSURE SNUBBER
▫ A pressure snubber is a device used to suppress excessive
pressure or rapid movement in mechanical systems.
▫ The pressure snubber are designed to dampen the effect of
pressure pulses and spikes to ensure longer life and readability of
pressure gauges in difficult applications.
▫ It is offered in a selection of porous, piston or regulating designs;
.
TYPES OF PRESSURE SNUBBER
1. Porous disk snubber:
• At the low cost end of the damping spectrum is
the type of porous disk (also known as the “filter
type”).
• The fixed disc creates a semipermeable barrier
between the incoming pressure and the
manometer hole.
• The pressure is with that disk and has its force
distributed through the metal mesh, decreasing
it so that it does not damage the meter.
• The pressure increases gradually, so that the
meter does not jump a gear or explode a
bourdon tube.
2. Piston type snubber:
• A piston-type damper has a slightly more
advanced design that is often self-cleaning.
• Often designed in two pieces, the piston inside
the shock absorber moves freely, acting as a
barrier to the rapid increase in pressure.
• When the pressure increases too quickly, the
piston is forced against the hole that leads to
the manometer, stopping the flow for
milliseconds.
• The diameter of the piston and its free space
inside the snubber determine the speed of
“damping” that occurs.
3. Adjustable snubber:
• Adjustable snubber takes that fine
adjustment to another level.
• Many use a combination of a control ball to
block surges and a kind of throttle valve to
soften the flow of material in the meter.
• The control of the ball acts much like the
piston-type damper, since it is a passive
element until a rapid change of pressure
puts it into action.
A small orifice in an
adapter fitting dampens
shock and fluctuating
pressure effects by limiting
the rate at which flow
enters. The smaller the
orifice, the greater is the
dampening effect.
ADVANTAGES
• Cost effective solution to protect expensive sensors and
gauges used in pressurized application.
• Improves gauges readability smoothing out pressure spikes,
surges, and pulsation.
DISADVANTAGE
• Some type of pressure snubber can become clogged,
depending on the process being measured.
OIL-FILLED
▫ In a liquid-filled pressure gauge, usually the case is filled with a non-
aqueous fluid that effectively dampens vibration, pulsation and
pressure spikes.
Types of Liquid-Filled Gauges:
• Glycerin. Glycerin-filled gauges are a good value and provide good
vibration dampening for applications at room temperature. These
gauges work well in temperatures between -4°F and +140°F (-20°C and
+60°C).
• Silicone. Have lower viscosities even at very low temperatures; better
for applications with extreme temperature variations, especially in colder
climates and when icing may be expected. Their working temperature
range extends from -40°F to +140°F (-40°C to +60°C).
• Halocarbon. Better suited to applications that involve oxidizing agents
such as chlorine, oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. They work within the
same temperature range as glycerin-filled gauges, that is from -4°F to
+140°F (-20°C and +60°C).
ADVANTAGES
• the liquid absorbs vibration and pressure spikes
• the dampening action of the liquid enables the operator to take
readings during conditions of rapid dynamic loading and vibration
• the liquid lubricates all moving elements, dramatically reducing
wear in the movement
• because most liquid-filled gauges are filled with non-aqueous
liquid and hermetically sealed, they perform in corrosive
environments and are immune to moisture penetration and icing,
and shock effects are lessened
• Liquid-filled gauges enhance the reliability and integrity of the
measuring system for long periods under extreme operating
conditions.
DISADVANTAGES
• Discoloration (darkening or yellowing) of glycerin over time
due to exposure of UV rays or extreme temperature
changes
• Standard Glycerin is really only good down to 20 degrees
Fahrenheit. It is not recommended for cold environments
• Risk of leakage
• Pressure can build up in the case due to expansion and
contraction of fluid from temperature changes (usually
small, 1 PSI or so) affecting the accuracy of the reading as
well as bring the needle off of zero
WATER TRAPS/PIGTAILS/SIPHONS
▫ Many industrial processes utilize high-pressure steam for direct heating,
performing mechanical work, combustion control, and as a chemical reactant.
Measuring the pressure of steam is important both for its end-point use and its
generation (in a boiler).
▫ One problem with doing this is the relatively high temperature of steam at
the pressures common in industry, which can cause damage to the sensing
element of a pressure instrument if directly connected.
▫ A simple yet effective solution to this problem is to intentionally create a “low” spot
in the impulse line where condensed steam (water) will accumulate and act as a
liquid barrier to prevent hot steam from reaching the pressure instrument.
▫ The principle is much the same as a plumber’s trap used underneath sinks,
creating a liquid seal to prevent noxious gases from entering a home from the
sewer system. A loop of tube or pipe called a pigtail siphon achieves the same
purpose.
Pressure Gauge Syphons
▫ Pressure gauge siphons are used to protect
the pressure gauge from the effect of hot
pressure media such as steam and also to
reduce the effect of rapid pressure surges.
The pressure medium forms a condensate
and is collected inside the coil or pigtail
portion of the siphon.
▫ The condensate prevents the hot media from
coming in direct contact with the pressure
instrument. When the siphon is first installed,
it should be filled with water or any other
suitable separating liquid.
Pressure Gauge Syphons
▫ Coil Siphon - used primarily for horizontal installations
▫ Pigtail Siphon - used primarily for vertical installations
95
Applications:
▫ Used to protect the pressure gauge from the effect of hot

pressure media, temperature above 65°C
▫ Used to reduce rapid pressure rise, which can affect the
gauge.
▫ Used at the inlet and outlet steam flow measurement of
boiler

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Chapter 1

It’s as large as life, and twice as natural.

1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems

A sensor is often defined as a “device that receives and responds to a signal or

J. Fraden, Handbook of Modern Sensors, 1

The purpose of a sensor is to respond to some kind of an input physical property

accordance with the converted information. An example of an active sensor is a

1.2 Sensor Classification

Table 1.1 Sensor Sensitivity Stimulus range (span)

Table 1.2 Sensor material Inorganic Organic

Table 1.3 Detection means Biological

Table 1.4 Conversion Physical Thermoelectric

Table 1.5 Field of Agriculture Automotive

Table 1.6 Stimulus Stimulus

Table 1.7 SI basic units

1.3 Units of Measurements

55 ft=s2 0:3048 ¼ 16:764 m=s2

Similarly, to convert electric charge of 1.7 faraday, it must be multiplied by

1:7 faraday 9:65 1019 ¼ 1:64 1020 C

1. SENSOR TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK (J. WILSON)

Signal conditioning system enhances the quality of signal coming

3. Right level of the signal

1.1 Low Pass Filter

1.2 High Pass Filter

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMPS)

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMPS)

PREPARED BY: DBA

1. INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS CHARACTERISTICS - HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=8IZSKUMBGKM&T=2116S

2. SENSOR TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK (J. WILSON)

3. HANDBOOK OF MODERN SENSORS (J. FRADEN)

1. TO GAIN UNDERSTANDING OF DIFFERENT

*How close are we to the true value?

*Capability to give the same result

Non linear Sensor

Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental

*Minimal change in input is necessary to produce a detectable

Normally, stimulus s is unknown while the output signal S is measured. An inverse

(Physical Quantity) Voltage

(Physical Quantity) Voltage

Theoretical Errors - Theoretical errors are caused by simplification of the model

Sensors can be approximated to Zero, First or Second Order

A zero order system is the one in which output

Damping Ratio is dimensionless parameter which describes how an

The natural frequency is the rate at which an object vibrates when it is

The measurement for level

The level of liquid is

Single Point Type

Sensor A and Sensor

Calibration Range - refers to the set of

Upper Range Value (URV) is the highest value

The “normal” status for a switch is the status

Note: LED output

The transmission range, i.e., the distance up to

(8) How to use IR sensor with

The electrons present in the conduction band are not

When the valence electron left the atom, a vacancy is

Fire alarms are found in Offices, Factories, and

Whatever the method of detection is, if the

In urban and suburban areas, landscapes and residential lawns are

An additional application in professional satellite communications

d. PIR Sensor - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Fdrr_1guok

Vibration sensor - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pc2ehkSEAI

9. Laser Sensor - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KX_-MPOJNXY

10. Soil Moisture Sensor -