CLASSICAL MECHANICS

UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DO RIO GRANDE DO SUL

INSTITUTO DE FÍSICA

PROFª. DRª. MARIA BEATRIZ GAY DUCATI

LECTURE 6
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties

In many problems a number of first integrals of the equations of motion can be obtained
immediately; by this we mean relations of the type

𝑓 = 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞1ሶ , 𝑞2ሶ , … , 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (2.43)

Let us consider as an example a system of mass points under the influence of forces
derived from potentials dependent on position only. Then

𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 1
≡ − = = σ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑥𝑖ሶ 2 + 𝑦𝑖ሶ 2 + 𝑧𝑖ሶ 2 )
𝜕𝑥ሶ 𝑖 𝜕𝑥ሶ 𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖ሶ 𝜕𝑥ሶ 𝑖 𝜕𝑥ሶ 𝑖 2

𝑚𝑖 𝑥ሶ 𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖𝑥 ,

This result suggests an obvious extension to the concept of momentum.

2
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)
The generalized momentum associated with the coordinate qi shall be defined as

𝜕𝐿
𝑝𝑖 = . (2.44)
𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗

The terms canonical momentum and conjugate momentum are often also used for 𝑝𝑗 .

If 𝑞𝑗 is not a Cartesian coordinate, 𝑝𝑗 does not necessarily have the dimensions of a

linear momentum.

For a velocity-dependent potential, then even with a Cartesian coordinate 𝑞𝑗 the

associated generalized momentum will not be identical with the usual mechanical
momentum.

3
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)
Case 1:
For a group of particles in an electromagnetic field, the Lagrangian is (cf. 1.63)
1
𝐿 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖ሶ 2 − ෍ 𝑞𝑖 ∅ 𝑥𝑖 + ෍ 𝑞𝑖 𝑨 𝑥𝒊 . 𝒓ሶ 𝒊
2
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
(𝑞𝑖 here denotes charge) and the generalized momentum conjugate to 𝑥𝑖 is
𝜕𝐿
𝑝𝑖𝑥 = = 𝑚𝑖 𝑥ሶ 𝑖 + 𝑞𝑖 𝐴𝑥 2.45
𝜕𝑥ሶ 𝑖

The Lagrange equation of motion reduces, for a cyclic coordinate, to

𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝑑𝑝𝑗
=0 or =0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝑑𝑡
which mean that
𝑝𝑗 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 2.46
4
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)

Hence, we can state as a general conservation theorem that the generalized momentum
conjugate to a cyclic coordinate is conserved.

Suppose we have a single particle in a field in which neither Ø nor A depends on x. Then
x nowhere appears in L and is therefore cyclic. The corresponding canonical momentum
𝑝𝑥 must therefore be conserved. From (1.63) this momentum now has the form

𝑝𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥ሶ + 𝑞𝐴𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 2.47

5
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)
Case 2:

• Consider a generalized coordinate 𝑞𝑗 , for which a change 𝑑𝑞𝑗 represents a translation

of the system as a whole in some given direction;
• The partial derivative of 𝑇 with respect to q must be zero;
• Assume conservative systems for which 𝑉 is not a function of the velocities.

The Lagrange equation of motion for a coordinate so defined then reduces to

𝑑 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑉
≡ 𝑝ሶ𝑗 = − ≡ 𝑄𝑗 2.48
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝜕𝑞𝑗

6
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)
In general, the generalized force 𝑄𝑗 is given by Eq. (1.49):

𝜕𝒓𝑖
𝑄𝑗 = ෍ 𝑭𝑖 .
𝜕𝑞𝑗
𝑖

Since 𝑑𝑞𝑗 corresponds to a translation of the system along some axis, the vectors 𝒓𝑖 𝑞𝑗
and 𝒓𝑖 𝑞𝑗 + 𝑑𝑞𝑗 are related as shown in Fig. 2.7.

7
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)
By the definition of a derivative, we have

𝜕𝒓𝑖 𝒓𝑖 𝑞𝑗 + 𝑑𝑞𝑗 − 𝒓𝑖 𝑞𝑗 𝑑𝑞𝑗

= lim = 𝒏=𝒏 2.49
𝜕𝑞𝑗 𝑑𝑞𝑗 →0 𝑑𝑞𝑗 𝑑𝑞𝑗

where 𝒏 is the unit vector along the direction of the translation. Hence,

𝑄𝑗 = ෍ 𝑭𝑖 . 𝒏 = 𝒏 . 𝑭

which (as was stated) is the component of the total force in the direction of 𝒏.

To prove the other half of the statement, note that with the kinetic energy in the form

1 1
𝑇 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝒓ሶ 2𝑖
2 2
𝑖
8
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)
the conjugate momentum is

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝒓ሶ 𝑖 𝜕𝒓𝑖
𝑝𝑗 = = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝒓ሶ 𝑖 . = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖 .
𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝜕𝑞𝑗
𝑖 𝑖

using Eq. (l.51). Then from Eq. (2.49)

𝑝𝑗 = 𝒏 . ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖
𝑖

which again, as predicted, is the component of the total system linear momentum along
𝒏.

9
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)

Suppose now that the translation coordinate 𝑞𝑗 that we have been discussing is cyclic.
Then 𝑞𝑗 cannot appear in 𝑉 and therefore

𝜕𝑉
− ≡ 𝑄𝑗 = 0
𝜕𝑞𝑗

Now we wish to show that with 𝑞𝑗 a rotation coordinate the generalized force is the
component of the total applied torque about the axis of rotation, and 𝑝𝑗 is the component
of the total angular momentum along the same axis.

The generalized force 𝑄𝑗 is again given by

𝜕𝒓𝑖
𝑄𝑗 = ෍ 𝑭𝑖 .
𝜕𝑞𝑗
𝑖

10
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)
Here the change in 𝑞𝑗 must correspond to an infinitesimal rotation of the vector 𝒓𝑖 ,
keeping the magnitude of the vector constant. From Fig. 2.8, the magnitude of the
derivative can easily be obtained:
𝑑𝒓𝑖 = 𝑟𝑖 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑞𝑗

11
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)

and
𝜕𝒓𝑖
= 𝑟𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝜕𝑞𝑗

and its direction is perpendicular to both 𝒓𝑖 and 𝒏. Clearly, the derivative can be written
in vector form as
𝜕𝒓𝑖
= 𝒏 × 𝒓𝑖 2.50
𝜕𝑞𝑗

With this result, the generalized force becomes

𝑄𝑗 = ෍ 𝑭𝑖 . 𝒏 × 𝒓𝑖 = ෍ 𝒏 . 𝒓𝑖 × 𝑭𝑖
𝑖 𝑖

12
Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties (cont.)
reducing to
𝑄𝑗 = 𝒏 . ෍ 𝑵𝑖 = 𝒏 . 𝑵
𝑖

which proves the first part.

A similar manipulation of 𝑝𝑗 with the aid of Eq. (2.50) provides proof of the second part
of the statement:

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝒓𝑖
𝑝𝑗 = = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖 . = ෍ 𝒏 . 𝒓𝑖 × 𝑚𝑖 𝒗𝑖 = 𝒏 . ෍ 𝑳𝑖 = 𝒏 . 𝑳
𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝜕𝑞𝑗
𝑖 𝑖

Summarizing these results, we see that if the rotation coordinate 𝑞𝑗 is cyclic, then 𝑄𝑗 ,
which is the component of the applied torque along 𝒏, vanishes, and the component of 𝑳
along 𝒏 is constant.
13
Energy Function and the Conservation of Energy

Conservation theorem of total energy: there is another conservation theorem we should

expect to obtain in the Lagrangian formulation is the conservation of total energy for
systems where the forces are derivable from potentials dependent only upon position.

Consider a general Lagrangian, which will be a function of the coordinates 𝑞𝑗 and the
velocities 𝑞ሶ 𝑗 and may also depend explicitly on the time.

The total time derivative of 𝐿 is

𝑑𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝑑𝑞𝑗 𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝑞𝑗ሶ 𝜕𝐿
= ෍ + ෍ + 2.51
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞𝑗ሶ 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑗 𝑗

14
Energy Function and the Conservation of Energy (cont.)

From Lagrange's equations,

𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿
=
𝜕𝑞𝑗 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗

and (2.51) can be rewritten as

𝑑𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝑑 𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝜕𝐿
=෍ 𝑞ሶ + ෍ +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝑗 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑗 𝑗

or

𝑑𝐿 𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
=෍ 𝑞ሶ 𝑗 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝜕𝑡
𝑗

15
 Energy Function and the Conservation of Energy (cont.)

It therefore follows that

𝑑 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
෍ 𝑞ሶ 𝑗 −𝐿 + =0 2.52
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝜕𝑡
𝑗

The quantity in parentheses is oftentimes called the energy function* and will be
denoted by ℎ:
𝜕𝐿
ℎ 𝑞1 , … , 𝑞𝑛 ; 𝑞ሶ 1 , … , 𝑞ሶ 𝑛 ; 𝑡 = ෍ 𝑞ሶ 𝑗 −𝐿 2.53
𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗
𝑗

* The energy function ℎ is identical in value with the Hamiltonian H. It is given a different name and
symbol here to emphasize that ℎ is considered a function of 𝑛 independent variables 𝑞𝑗 and their time
derivatives 𝑞ሶ 𝑗 (along with the time).
16
Energy Function and the Conservation of Energy (cont.)

and Eq. (2.52) can be looked on as giving the total time derivative of h:

𝑑ℎ 𝜕𝐿
= − 2.54
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

If the Lagrangian is not an explicit function of time, i.e., if 𝑡 does not appear in 𝐿
explicitly but only implicitly through the time variation of 𝑞 and 𝑞ሶ , then Eq. (2.54) says
that ℎ is conserved.

It is one of the first integrals of the motion and is sometimes referred to as

Jacobi's integral.
17
Energy Function and the Conservation of Energy (cont.)

Under certain circumstances, the function ℎ is the total energy of the system. To
determine what these circumstances are, we recall that the total kinetic energy of a
system can always be written as

𝑇 = 𝑇0 + 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 1.73

is a function of is a quadratic
the generalized function of
coordinates only is linear in the the 𝑞′𝑠
ሶ
generalized velocities

18
Energy Function and the Conservation of Energy (cont.)

For a very wide range of systems and sets of generalized coordinates, the Lagrangian
can be similarly decomposed as regards its functional behavior in the 𝑞ሶ variables:

𝐿 𝑞, 𝑞,ሶ 𝑡 = 𝐿0 𝑞, 𝑡 + 𝐿1 𝑞, 𝑞,ሶ 𝑡 + 𝐿2 𝑞, 𝑞,ሶ 𝑡 2.55

𝐿1 is homogeneous of 𝐿2 is a homogeneous
the first degree in 𝑞ሶ function of the second
degree (not merely
quadratic) in 𝑞ሶ

The Lagrangian clearly has this form when the forces are derivable from a potential not
involving the velocities.

19
 Energy Function and the Conservation of Energy (cont.)
Now, recall that Euler’s theorem states that if 𝑓 is a homogeneous function of degree 𝑛
in the variables 𝑥𝑖 , then
𝜕𝑓
෍ 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑛𝑓 2.56
𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑖

Applied to the function ℎ, Eq. (2.53), for the Lagrangians of the form (2.55), this
theorem implies that
ℎ = 2𝐿2 + 𝐿1 − 𝐿 = 𝐿2 − 𝐿0 2.57

If the transformation equations defining the generalized coordinates, Eqs. (1.38), do not
involve the time explicitly, then by Eqs. (l.73) 𝑇 = 𝑇2 . If, further, the potential does not
depend on the generalized velocities, then 𝐿2 = 𝑇 and 𝐿0 = −𝑉, so that

ℎ=𝑇+𝑉 =𝐸 2.58

and the energy function is indeed the total energy.

20
Energy Function and the Conservation of Energy (cont.)

Under these circumstances, if 𝑉 does not involve the time explicitly, neither will 𝐿.
Thus, by Eq. (2.54), ℎ (which is here the total energy), will be conserved.

Then, we can have a set of generalized coordinates such that in a particular problem ℎ
is conserved but is not the total energy. On the other hand, ℎ can be the total energy, in
the form 𝑇 + 𝑉, but not be conserved.

Also note that whereas the Lagrangian is uniquely fixed for each system by the
prescription

𝐿 =𝑇−𝑈

independent of the choice of generalized coordinates, the energy function ℎ depends in

magnitude and functional form on the specific set of generalized coordinates. 21
Energy Function and the Conservation of Energy (cont.)
If the system is not conservative, but there are frictional forces derivable from a
dissipation function ℱ , it can be easily shown that ℱ is related to the decay rate of ℎ.
When the equations of motion are given by Eq. (1.70), including dissipation, then Eq.
(2.52) bas the form
𝑑ℎ 𝜕𝐿 𝜕ℱ
+ = ෍ 𝑞ሶ
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑞ሶ 𝑗 𝑗
𝑗

By the definition of ℱ , Eq. (l.67), it is a homogeneous function of the 𝑞′𝑠

ሶ of degree 2.
Hence, applying Euler's theorem again, we have

𝑑ℎ 𝜕𝐿
= −2ℱ − 2.59
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
If 𝐿 is not an explicit function of time, and the system is such that ℎ is the same as the
energy, then Eq. (2.59) says that 2ℱ is the rate of energy dissipation,
𝑑𝐸
= −2ℱ 2.60
𝑑𝑡 22