＿

└＿
＿＿
＿＿
＿＿
＿—
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
r＿ :孔跑阮 劦
ㄙ r.U
竹唧
〦 ㏑ 出 叭噎

EΨ 幽 UJUgv犰 BjUJUgjε aJPc spθ εtjvθ

MARKR.RUSENZWEIGANDKENGCHENLIANG

4.1 THEScUPEANDAIMsUΓ BIULUGIcALPSYCHULUGY 54

4.2 RELATIUNSBETwEENBIULUGICALANDSUCIAL
PsYcHULUGY 56
4.3 BUDILYSYsTEMSBASIcTUBEHAvIUR 57
4.4 Ⅳ IETHUDULUGYINBIULUGIcALPSYcHULUGY 62
4巧 Ⅳ IUTURBEHAvIUR:REΓ LExEs,、 IUvEMENTsAND
AcTIUNs 68
4K SUMEMAINPRINCIPLEsUFBIULUGICALPSYcHULUGY 73

4.l THEScUPIEANDAIMSUFBIULUGIcAL 一 andasnewncldswereintrUduced一 including

PsYcHULUGY
genetics and endUchnU1Ugy 一 the designatiUn
‘
physiU1Ugy’ becaIIlc tUU n缸 UW, SU the mUre
‘ became
inclusive te⊥Il一 biUlUgical psychUlUgy’
PsychU1Ugy is bUth a biUlUgical and a sUcial mUre apprUpriate. Utherte1ll工 s SUm° timcs used
science, as Chapter l pUints Uut. The pfesent fUruisfieldinclude ‘ physiUlUgyandbchaviUr’
chapter emphasizes the biUlUgicral aspects Uf and ‘bchaviUralneurUscieIlce’ .

psychU1Ugy,justasChapter3empha血 zesthc Thedevc1UpmentUfneurUscienceasan inte-

sUciaI aspects. BUtll aspects must be taken
intUaccUuntfUracUmprehensiveviewUfpsy-
chU1Ugy,andatSUmepUints iIlthisch年 pterwe
nUteinterac位 UnsbetwcenbiU1Ugical and sUclⅡ
V田巨ablcs in dcterI1.lning behaviUr and expaΠ -
ence. Therelevance UfthebiUIUgica1 ●pprUach
fUrmallynelds UfpsydhU1Ugyis demUnsiated
bytllcfactthatuU1UgcalbasesUfbehaviUrare
inentiUnedin mUstUfthefUl1U、 位ngcha.pters.
The neld that studies biUlUgical aspects Uf
psychU1UgyandbiU1UgicalcUn伯 ﹂bu位 Uns tUpsy-
chU1Ugy has bcen givcn several narncs. U五 g-
inallyitwas called ‘physiU1Ugical psychU1Ugy’
‘
when wasusedtUdesignatewhat
physiUlUgy’
wenUwc㏕ 19Ume&c鈕 sc兌 nces.ASspeci㏕ Led
且 elds brUke Uff 打 Um physiUlUgy
biUchclIllStl9,iIImunU1Ugy,aⅡ dneurUcheIIllstrY
gratedbutmulj山 sc虹 。ina呼 neldin thelast
qu田 比er Ufthe twentleth centuξ y benefited biU-
lUgical psychUlUgy (behaviUral neurUscience).
ThrUugh the prUgress Uf neufUScience, biU-
1Ugical psychUlUgystrengthenedits tiesandintcr-
acjUnSWithneighbU五 ngsciencesandadvanced
its prUgralmUfrese缸 ChandappIicatlUnS.
BiU1Ugical psychU1UgyiscUncerIledV庄 thbUth
siIIlllaIljes and d」 fercnces amUng individuals.
The anth1.UpU1Ugist Clyde KluckhUhn UbScn℃ d
thateachpersUn is in sUmewaysⅡ keallUther
peUple, in sUmc ways l伙 e sUme UthcrpeUple,
andin sUmeways likenUUth“ perSUⅡ .Wecan
extend thiS UbservatiUn tU the much brUader
fallgcUfaⅢ ma1life.InsUmewaySeachpersUn
一 including iSlike直Ⅱ UtheraIlimals(c.g.,weal1needtU
ingestcUlllpleXUrgalllcnutΠ ents),in sUlneways
 P∫ vε 9IUtUgviKB′ UJUgt‘ a了 Pe.∫pε εr加 ε 5＿b

like a1l Uthervertebrates (e.g” having a spina1 Life一 spandeVe1UpmentUfthebr虹 nand

cUlumI19,in sUmewaySlikeaⅡ UtIlelmalIllmals behavlUr.
(e.g.,nursingasababy),andin sUmeways lke Jfa1l a9-ftrao刀 σθVε Jφ pη 3θ Kta99σ ε9.Ia99gε
直Ⅲ Utll田 primates(e.g.,havingahandwithan Uvθ r屁 ε好 t罵paη 紹切 rε σㄌ tε 九avjUr?
UppUSablethumbandarelatiVelylarge,cUlllpleX
brain).ThesesⅡ Ⅱila丘 tieSanddifferences lllake 3 Sen母 UryprUcessesandperceptiUl1.
it instI-uctiVetUcUlIlparespecicsandindiViduals GeneralphnciplesUfsensUryprUcess-
in reg缸 d tU bChaviUr and biU1Ugy, as we wi1l lng.
ⅡUtein sUmeexamples.Tlis isalsUathcmeUf N貥atI,rj9xπ pJε ∫咖 jUK′
Kε 〞 KgaKσ toU-
Chapter19. ㄌ g沁 aJ,,Jε ε几aη 沁 99I∫ 九UJσ ˊVraJJFtK∫ Uη
9J9UtaJ好 滮∫?

TheScUpeUfBiUlUgicaIPsychU1Ugy PrUcessing in the d」ferent senSUry

mUdali位 es: TUuch and p缸 n, hearing,
TheScUpeUfbiUlUgical psychUlUgyis indicatcd veStibu1ε 【 perceptlUn, taSte and Smc1l,
bythefU11UwinglistUfsUmeUftheInainflelds it visiUn.
cncUmpasseS.FUreachm旬 Urneld,wes位 比ea Ⅵ仇 araK∫ Ja己φ
U,,Tε φㄏ t九 θ ∫rr切 σ 切牊 -
ques位 UntUindicateits relevance.SUmeUfthese rrftㄉ K∫ t几 〞 εKa例 ε 〞舜 KKr∫ tη∫U〞
tUpics 砬1lbediscussedlater ill iischapterUr 〞 ε色pㄉ 付 ㄌ 〃 EpUKtㄌ 〞舜 J-eKr幼 K46
、
kcnupiⅡ Utherchapters.
t庄
t“ j999切 o?
1. BiU1UgicalfUundatiUnSUfbehaviUr. 4. MUvementSanda血 Uns.
T1/9Iatj∫ t几 ε t′ UJUgjtaJ‘ r,9aε 九′,Itrv’ UJEW′ 打εJI HUvv aJ-f r9ItK翃 J Ur εUg9,trIvε p9.Ua∫ x∫
ttrIavzUrtε pε K〞∫? t砲 K∫ Jartt′ KtUtε 9fav′ Ur?∫ a∫ ε6tfUK彳 .J.

Γunc位 UnalneurUaΠ 田Umy:ThenervUus 5. Ⅳ IU位 vatiUnandregulajUnUfbehaViUr.

SyStemandbehaviUr.
WF9ata紹 Iθ 9,.a′ K∫ rr“ azK∫ φㄏr9Iε
r’
Sex: EvUlutiUnal,, hUfΠ 1Una1, aⅡ d
Kt〃 U況 ∫ i9V∫ tθ J99 a91〞 九Uvv 9∫ εaε 乃 neufalbaseS.
氿 vU加 εσ Ⅳ 沼 ε妒 εa〃 ,犰 乙ε几a切 Ur? JfUwtU∫ εx九 U〃 ηUK你 乃θ〞 ㄌ U倍 a加 zθ
r9Itε arㄉ tε vε 臣η刃92ε K′ tr/iε Ktη U切 ∫
NcurUphysiU1Ugy: Genera位 Un,cUnduc- V∫ tε J9J?
ε
tiUn, transllllsSiUn, and illtegratiUn Uf
neural sign㏕ s. HUmeUStaSis: Activc regulatiUn Ufin-
Jfp〃 f∫ :啪 rr?tatㄌ Kε Utε 砒 r翔 η∫〃”t彪 ˊ ternal stateS.
aK〞 P石Uε “ ∫θ〞 ′刀 J/1tJIε pUIr∫ ∫v∫ ′ε/99? Ⅵ仇 a〞 沕 εε乃aKt‘ ,999∫ 九εJI,ㄌ 9拖 βptU祊 ㄉ
εUKσ tr′ Uη ∫ ,-r勉 rjvθ ㄉ εUK∫ raKrt“ ra你 U
PSychUphaIllacU1Ugy: NeurUtransIlllt- π凸UK&vε ㄉ ε aJ狋 ˊbraε v〞 V? r′

ters,drtlgsandbehaviUr. 。
〃 Uv9 tU Kε “ U綁
J gKa了 ∫
拋 妳 999jt ∫′ BiUlUgicalrhythms, sleep, and dream-
ε九εJ9zIC.aJ拉 aKt九 Uwε aK物 赤 tθ aθ ㄅε- lng.
′
ttJ乙 vt了 rIrg∫ ? π Uwa〞 var9θ “∫ tU〞 jJl,ˊ 切Kε tjUK∫ ,∫ 切ε九
a∫ 9/IUII9兮 UJ9ε Jε vθ J∫ , ,It切 片a了 aε 〞tvjr刃 aJIt
PsychUneurUendUcrinU1Ugy: HUrmUnes 99iI6ε Jε tU99〞 ∫, n翟 uf了 arθ 〞 ˊ羽rj99g Ⅵ〞
a乃 ε-
andbehav1Ur. ∫
∫ aJ,σ var′ U切 tatε∫∫ ∫ φㄏ ∫
Jtβ p,
rrJKε
〃 U〃 〞U乃 UJ9,iUK絲 aβ ㄅar《 pη σ“επvθ jKε J〃 〞jKgt,留 aF9方 99g?
paKKtaJa9Eσ ∫Uε jattθ /Lav′ Ur?
AffectiUnandaffiliatiUn.
PsychUneurU虹 ⅡmunU1Ugy:TheilIllllune
π U〃 aK〝 eε 〃UKaη t∫ U㎡ aJar勿 ε九-
syStemandbe● aviUr. 刀名εK多 磅 ε彪 〞 tV泛 vε ′∫ φ尸 εtrzujK乃 U戶
HUVVdU郡 rJγ ′
烿 99LIi9iε 秒 肘 ε〃π Ktε raε r J99UK“ ?
。
vv〞乃 r/,t εKdUε roJIε a91〞 Kε n,U況 ∫ Iy&
〞 εr羽 i92′ Kgtε 几av9U9-?
θr99∫ j99ˊ θ′ 6. ErnUtiUnsandmentaldisUrders.
2. EVUlutiUnanddevelUpment UfthenervUuS EInUtiUns,aggreSSiUn,andsiess.
system. Ⅵ仇a′ 〞gjUK∫ pr r几 ε t用 加 a〞 parr沁 芬
〃 Uwˊ Uε ∫aη 卲 U了 ariUKaη η pㄌ aε 九九εJP切 加r〞 jKvUrl,tt jKε ,9IUr加 K∫ ?
aKˊε9-J翃 K〞 i99..乙 ε99av′ U9-?
PsychUpathUlUgy: BiU1Ugical bases Uf
EvUlu位 UnUfbrainandbehaviUr. behavlUrdisUrders.
Jfpw aK Z,9u● K 熾 c〞 ηε綌 aJJ9UKg HUVV a石 θ εε〃aj刀 J99ε 9i〞 aZ tj∫ U9.Jε r∫
sJ,ε c泛 ∫ rθ Ja彪 ˊ ㄌ t舜 昭 Kε ε∫ 加 r/,ε ir rθ Jatt〞 rUa乙 J9UrmaJjr′ θβ U√ traiJ,ε r,t′ 九-
tε /Iav′ θraJε apaε j′ jt∫ ? j∫
:” ar9ˊ aKatUη zV?
56 動 化 〃 昭 πUK㎡ IfaK扔 UU九 tP砂 幽 aUθ

7. CUgnijUn.
BiUlUgical pcfspectiveS Un learIllng
andmemUry.
HUvvaK&羽 g“ jr9腕 用
θη Uvε r廝 εηㄅVaη 昭加πttㄉ ε
jKr9.tKtη U玩 J●V∫ 及η竹 ?
几aKgt∫
氿 gaKtη 2θ F92-
嚚硹 城鬈
撕搬 撕螢
Neural mechanisms Uf lcarning and ㏒芸
普↓ fg營 η
i繴 紫↘ 1尹 :看 f:髫I｝ f甘 罕Fn諾 #
mcmUry. biU1Ugical psychU1Ugy is investigatlllg thebiU-
Ⅵ仇at乃 絲〃UK∫ qㄏ rJlε tπ iKaKj朋 汜 tt

諢玀藩驟i撰 氋
捊鞋
Jl’

切 εUKt加 UK工 Kg? (∫ εε 〞 几t ta∫ tPar〞 t

∫θ εtjUK彳 .〞 .)
LanguageandcUg血 位Un.
Ⅵ仇 〞 tη jK KoUK∫ aKPa九 Kε 切 arㄉ
jKvθ 了vε toK玩 Kg切 agε ?N↘ a多 t石 θat稱 εK你 翌℉途 鷁 嘍£ 葌 幫 器 穿 盤 渽 →
εaKaf〞 紹 CUVε η φ尸 JaKgzagε ˊbJtUⅥ ”Kg and they are icated mUre fu1ly in Chaptcr 8.
a∫ 多7U危εF BiUIUgical research cUmplcmcnts sUcial aIld
cUgni位 verescafchUnle田 ΠingandlnemUη γ .

ElIlUtiUnal aspccts 一ofbehaviUf afeilIlpUrtant

BiUlb≧ icalPsychUlogyhasbeenaM呵 r °
PartUfⅣ IUdernPsychUlogyfronl the。 甘 e::ElI直 :岳 ζ∫【:︴ ξΞ芒ii孟 :會:g苦 f:k珺 :Iξ ∴七全估三
Start teenth cenml, and cUnjnue ac位 vely tUday, as

BiU1Ugical psychU1Ugyhasbcenam旬 UrpaltUf 縲 諾 揣 乳溿 辯驟 造s點

e君 UnemUtiUn.
::∴芒#::::魯 常 〝 ::肯 :糮 基 £ :工 £ 諾 盟 驟 In SUmecaseS SUcialbchaviUriSdeterlmned,
UfbiU1Ugic㏕ psy-
centuη ” FUr abhef】
chU1Ugy, sce RUSeⅡ zweig
山 stU呼
φ UUU). BiU1Ugica1 c煢 t出惢淰 在
兒 」
i:::::i:.佇 ↘ ::子::工 :營:

嬿j群蹣灕嵹繹玁
s澆
拼牡驟t器智 驟 器 i王 攜織
cUuntl1cS,andin sUmeUthcrcUunies.Thereafe
severalcuⅡ cnt textbUUks in thefield; sUme缸 e
listedin theRcsUurceReferenceSUfuischaptcr.
ReVieWs UfadVances inbiU1Ugical psychUlUgy
appearin suchpublicajUnsastheAKKaat死 vttⅥ ′ 1簠
戰翣難
賓琳首
φㄏP秒 ε九Uㄌ gv,Λ KK“ aJRtvjε wφ rⅣ θ兒ㄌ δdε Kε ε
Π eKtJ 加 Ne〃 “ ε′ t.9ε ε, 升 erIt∫ j九 CUgKj打 vε

∫εttKε ε, Bε 九av工 U2石aJ aKtBrajK Scjε Kε ε∫, aⅡ d

,

鰤 檞s識° 換
C說 r紹 乃t‘ V方 Kㄉ K∫ jKΛζ
ε切K乃 ㄉJUgv. 拙詳盡年澤苦 翟
親器咢為
4n RELATIUNSBETWEENBIULUGICALAND
SUcIALPsYcHULUGY 器鼻慹#觾奲音
mmedUn; t㏑ s geneis nUt prcsent in tWUprU一
ThelⅡ fluenccsUfbUthgenejcSandexpenence IIllSCuUuSandlcsSsUcialVUlespecies.Theinves-
jgatUrs then insertedtllepra㏑ evUlegeneintU
Un behaviUr and mental functiUnS (nature and
Ⅲrmre)缸 ediSCusscdinChapter3andwcwi1l hUuseIIllce,V汙 ich釭 enUt扯 ghlysUcialandare
addabit tUthatdiscussiUnhere.TheauthUrs of
Chap依I3nUtetllc1Ung-standinghistUhcalcUn- 幣 茻 瑞君 盟,幫驟 t釜t器 ｜ ::〡i:i｜ ;i:;;

testbetween prUpUncntsUfsUclⅡ andbiU1Ugic㏕ incrcasedthcircUntactWithfemalcs,arcspUnSe

perspec位 ves. Stating that nU Une nUW dcⅢ es
e丘herthathumallbehaViUrhasbiU1Ugic區 lundcf-
pinnings Ur that it is influenccd by enviUn-
men位 Ⅱ eVents,theyclalInthatuis isabUutasf缸
a母 agreementgUes.Herewetakeafulther step,
iⅡ dica位 nghUwthebiU1Ugical apprUachiShelp-
iⅡ gtUunderstandthemeansandIIlechanismsby
w㏑ ch sUme Uf the sUcia1/expe丘 ential factUrs
1nfluencebehav1Ur.
、
nUtsecn in nUli1la1lnalehUuseIIllce.Ilmpressed
thatasinglegcnecanalter,UcialbehaviUr,the
invcs位 gatUrSnUWplantUstudyvallajUnUfthe
diS由 ﹂bujUn UfthevasUpreSSin receptUr amUng
humans, espccl址 ly because mUst psychia句 iC
disUrdcrS are ch缸 aCteΠ zed by abnU」 【泛Ⅱ SUCia1
attachEnents.
In Uther cascS, biUlUgical and sUcial factUrs
cUntinuUuslyinkΥ actand狂 ⅡbCteachUthcr inan
 PΦ K九 UtU8vj,,β
p
。
BiU︳ Ugica︳
factors
Behav︳ Ur BehavIUr
麧
╯
SUc︳ a︳ factUrs
Figure4.l Rε 勉 〞jUK∫ 乙εr1.ε tKtjθ tUg抬 aJ
aK〞 ∫UtaJˊhε 比〃T.t力 εK
ˊhε ㄌ rJ,tε 乃a切 U‘
aπ εUKtjK切 〞 Kε ′ pε ㎡ 〞羽t砲 ε打UK∫ a翻 UKg
I
魔 θ∫c犯 εㄉ rJ
UngUing sehes Uf events aS behaviUr unfUlds.
This is indicatedinFigure4.1.
FUr exal1ple, the IeVel UftcstUstefUne iⅡ a
pelsUn’ s cIculatiUn affects his dU血 nance
behaviUr and aggressiUIl in sUcial grUups. The
dU血 nancemaybeexⅡ bitedin agreatv刉 Πety
Uf sUciaI set位 ngs, raⅡ giⅡ g fi-Um playing chess
tU Physical aggressiUn. In sevcraI studies in
humans andpΠ Inates, the leve1 UftestUstCrUne
cU┘ rclateS pUsitivcly 〝位th the degree UfdUlIll＿
nanceandwiththealllUuntUfaggressionex㏑ b＿
ited.WinningacUntest,whetheragalneUfchess
UrabUxingmatch,r飯 sesthclevelUftcstUster-
Une;1UsingacUnteStlUwers thelcve1UftestUs＿
tcrUne.Thcaltercdleve1UftestUsterUnein tum
isUneUfthofactUrs thatdeter血 nethedisplay
Uf dUⅡinance and aggressiUn i. the sUcia1
grUup,and士 ishaSful-therrepefcussiUns.Thus,
atanymUmcⅡ tthelevelUftcstUsterUneiSdeter-
Ⅱined,in part,byrecentdUΠ inance一 subⅡ 1ssive
sUci扭 expe五 ence, aⅡ dthe leve1 UftestUstCrUne
dete日 “ⅡneS,in pⅢ ,thedegrceUfdU血 nanceand
aggressiUn. Uf cUurse, sUciaVcjltural factUrs
alsUhelp tUdeteΓ ΠⅡnetllefI.equencyUfaggres-
siUn; as Chapter 3 pUints Uut, crUss-cultura1
differenceS in rates Uf aggressiUn exist that
cannUtbecUIelated〝 注thhUmUna1levels, alld
ways Ufexpressing aggressiUn and dUninance
aredete日 “Ⅱnedin p匆 比 bysUciUculturalfactUrs.
Tlle neurUtransΠ旺比tcr scrUtUnin iS allUtller Uf
Several biU1Ugical factUrs cUrI elated with thc
magnitude Uf aggressiUn, but in 任is case the
cUrrelatiUn is negative; that is, tlle greater
the aggressiUn, the 1Uwer the cUncentrajUn Uf
serUtU血 n. SerUtU㎡ n seems tU heIp suppress
aggression. SerUtUnin cUncentratiUn alsUvahes
with sUcial expehence; leVels Uf serUtUΠ in
dccline as theindividuaI’ s pUsitiUn in asUciaI
grUup hscs. FUr further discussiUⅡ and refer-
cnces tU the invUlvemeⅡ t Uf testUsterUne aⅡ d
UtUg。 εaJf毛 〃ㄗ εε〞’vθ 57
SerUtUnin in dU血 nance and ab.gressiUn, See
RUsenzweig, Leilnan, and Breed1Uve (1999,
pp.423-424).
4.3 BUDILYSYsT日 MSBASICTUBEHAvIUR
UnderstaⅡ ding the Up盯 a位 Un Uf tlle bUdy is
esScntialfUrresearchUnbiUlUgicalfUunda位 Uns
Uf psychUlUgy. ㄗVhⅡ e d」I釭 ent Urgans vcre
speculatedtUbethesiteUfthcIIllndUrSUuIin、
ancicnt jmeS,it is nUwwelleStabⅡ shedthatthe
naⅣ Uuss9steln isc巨 jcal incUUrdinajngbehav-
iUrandmentalfuncuUnsbyreccivinginfU工 a- ii一
tiUnfrUmV匆HUuSpaftsUfthebUdy,prUcesSing
incU血ng and stUred infUmaiUn, and sending
Urders tUmusclesandglands.TheneⅣ UussyS-
temdUesIlUtaccUmpliShits taskaIUne;it、 〃UrkS
tUgetller 庄th the endUc五 ne systcm and the
、
lIImunesyStem.
TheNervUusSystem
The ncrVUus systelll is cUmpUsed Uf neurUns,
abUutatl1lliUnUftheIllin thecaseUfthehuman
bUdy,andcxtensiVelyv&巨 cdin mUrphUIUgyand
func位 Un.Atypic㏕ neurUn(Fib.l1re4.2)cUntains
ace1lbUdy, UrsUma, thatSubseⅣ eS theIllaln-
te且 anCe and integrajUn func位 Uns, and alSU
branches, includingmally dend丘 tes, wl注 ch are
invUlvcd in recciving signals, and an axUn,
whichis invUlvedin translIlltungsignals.CUm-
municajUn in theneⅣ UusSystem ishighlycUn-
vergentallddivergent.AneurUnreceiVesmul位 -
ple inputs at its dcndr比 es Ur sUma, alld Sends
Uutput tll1.UughitsaxUntUmuItIpletargct sites.
The axUn terImnals fUI以 l CUnnectiUns v注 tll
dend﹂ ites Ur sUma Ufthe recipient neurUnS by
specialzedstrucmr° Scalledsynapses.Thesmall
gap (2U nanUmeters) between the presynaptic
tc」 【unals andpUstsynaptic Sitesrcquires signal
tranSllllsSiUntUbemediatedbydⅡ ΥⅨ eIltchcm-
icals cΞ 1led neurUtranSⅡ itters. I)士 ect elec㏑ cal
ianSIIllSsiUnaCrUsscertalnSynapSeSalsUexists
atSUmesites in thenefvUusSyStemUfinVerte-
bratesandevenvertebfateS.
WhilcattenjUnhasbeenfUcuscdUnneurUΠ s
in di§ cussing the biU1Ugical bases Uf menta1
func位 Un,thenen′ UusSyStemcUntainsasmany,
or prUbably cven mUre, glial ceIlS, which arc
e$en位 al fUr the V丘 ali呼 and funaiUning Uf
neurUns. Γhey regulate the chelIl1cal enviUn-
「
mentUfneurUns,rcmUVcdebhsalldrepaId釦 m-
ageafteri」 u9.Cer睦泣ntYpesUfgllⅡ cel㏑
(SchwaⅡ nceIlsUrUligUdendI.Ucytes)wraptheir
prUcessesarUundsUmcaxUnStUfUrlnamyelin
sheath, vhichnUtUnlyprUvides prUtec位 Unbut
、
alsU increases the signal cUnductiUn VelUcity
Uf the myeIinated axUn. 】 )egencrajUIl Uf the
58 rI1比 〃 媲 πUK胡 〃 aK扔 UU乃 tP秒 比 θJU..w

(〞 )

I)e血 rites
\

Cell
bUdy

(V)

AxUn— ——

AxUn
terIrllrLals

Dendr北 eS

Dendrluc
sPlnes

Figure4.2 人 ”pjε aJKε 況竹 K.t力 ε Kε a石 θK(a),-rε t′ vε ∫ ∫fgKaJj.ar由 6ttKσ 刀〞

θ∫ aJ9〞
εε〃 tU′ 9(∫ UJ,La)irJ,ε 〞Vb〞 ,at。 UK打 jKt你 紹 〞tt tV廝 θ aJttUa男 aKtaKU切 〞 玩t
∫tgKaJ′ηavttε UKt此 蛖 σ dUWKrJ,ε axUKtUft∫ tθ r稱 KaJ∫ aKt〃 昭 Kε ttUi9VKap＿,θ ∫ UK
。
U仇 εrKε 切ㄉ K∫ .t力 tpK.vKaptjε 及V999方 KaJ侈 )ε UK翅 ′ K∫ 月昭 匆方 jε Vε ∫jε tθ ∫ 1.1,九 fε 乃 aπ
ˊπ彪 σ wjrJ,用 UJθ εIzJε ∫ 好 Kε 磁η tKK∫ 用
jπ t玎 .W’2tKr/9tKε 班ㄉ 〞K的 ∫羽 工πθrJ9Taε ε切 t∫
(r雩 pK∫ εK佬 σ a∫ 〞U你 jK腕 ε 冼 ag9-a翻
)aK紹 泛 a∫ εσ jKㄉ 斻 θ 秒 KcI9ㄊ fε ε五 託 屁 η 乙j竹 t
rUΠ “γ ptUr,,tUJε εI/rJθ ∫ aKσ εaK∫ 〞t佛切屁羽tUr〞 ′2jt9rr● 1ε pU∫ t∫｝KJf9打 ε Kε 切石UK.
rzAdφ 死 tⅥ 万ZJ2pt〃 tj∫ ∫jUK加 翩 RU∫ εKzwε j&乙 εj聈 aK,&B紹 ε〞 UVε ,f999.)
 PΦ K九 UtUgvjKBjUJUgjε aJPε rΨ εε”vε
myelin sheathduetUautUiIIllnunediseasesmay
leadtUcUnducjUnf孔 ⅡureandasacUnsequence
result in disUrders UfmUtUr behaviUr such as
Iuuljplescl釭 US拍 . the mUtUr pau小 〃ay. The entlrc Uutput Uf the
AlthUughUrganismsarecapableUfreactingtU
stlInuliUfvanUustypes(visual,auditUry,tac位 le,
etc.),thenervUussyStemianSduces● odes)all
thesUrtsUfsjmulusenergiesasasinglefUl li1Uf
signa1: alteratiUn in elec由 ﹂Cal pUtcn位 als acrUss
the neur。 且缸 meInbrane. :Γ he neurUn actiVely
nlalntains a resting pUteh位 a1 UfabUut 7UInV,
thc interiUr Uf the 且CurUn bcing elec由 ΠCa1ly
nega位 Ve in relatiUntU the exteΠ Ur. Thetrans-
ducjUnUfsjmuli iIltUneural signralsdependsUn
exchangc Uf electl1ca1ly charged iUns thrUugh
val91Uus channels (Ur gates) in the nellrUna1
membranecUniU1lingthepe1l1leabilityUfiUns.
LUweriIlgthemembranepUtentiaJUfanaxUntU
its 士ΥeshUld scts Uffan actiUn pUtenja1. t1泣 s
signal is a11-Ur＿ nUne, self-propaga位 ngandnUn一
decfemental,whchrcsultsf1.Umsequenjalacti-
vajUn and deac位 vauUn Uf vUltage-depcndent
sUdiumandpUtassiumchannels. SUmeprUper-
tiesUfneurUnalcUdingarerelatcdtUbehaviUrUf
iUn channels. FUrcxalupIe, because the acjUn
pUtentl扭 is a1l-Ur-nUne, itS amplitude cannUt
cUde the sjmulus intensity. HUwever, sUme
nclwcs cUde the intellsi妙 Uf sjInuli by thei
flhngrate (thefrequeⅡ cyUfac位 UnpUtenjals).
AfteranactiUnpUteⅡ jalthcrcisabfiefabsUl＿
utely refractU呼 pa丘 Ud and then a rcla位 vely
refractU呼 penUd,duhng、〃hchthemembraneis
hypcrpUIarizcd(mUrenega位veinsidetllan in the
resjngState)becau㏄ therec位 且㏄ pUt小 由um
channels re.lnaln Upen. A strUnger SjmuluS is
nceded tU bhng the hypeη Ulanzcd melIlb1.alle
pUtenjaltUtheflΠ ngthreshUld.TheliBhcrthe
stimulus intensiy,thesUUnerthehyperpUlariza-
tiUn Ⅵ紅1lbe UveIcUme. Thus a strUng sjmulus
gcncratesmUrefrequcntfihngUfactiUnpUtcn-
位als thandUeSaWeakS位 mulus.
Neural imPulses reac㏑ ing axUn terImnalS
Upcn calciuIIl chaⅡ nels leading tU a sehcs Uf
biUche血 c㏕ events and eVentually cauSing the
presynapticterImnaltUreleaseⅡ curU士 anSIIlltter
mUIecules, 店ich crUSs tIle synaptic cleft and
、
bindtUspecificprUtein mUleculesc直 lledreccp-
tUrs lUcatedUn tllcpUstsynapticmembranc.Tlle
bindingalters thepemeability UfiUnchannels
d廿 ectlyin sU-cEⅢ ediUnUiUpicreceptUrs Ur in-
d廿 ectly血 UughasecUndmesscngersystenl in
SU-ca1led metabUtrUpic receptUrs. BUth result
1n eXcltatUξ y Ur ln北 dbitU〃 effects Un thepUst-
synapjcneurUn.It isc五 ticaltUnUtethat lnen位 江
ac位 vity is related tU i血 bitiUn as wc1l as tU
eXcitajUnUfncurUns.Γ Urexample,visualexperi-
cnceis induccdbylightiIllpiⅡ gingUn tlleretina
causiⅡ g hyperpU1田﹂ZatiUn and tllus inhibijUn
UfthcrUdrcceptUrs; thcrUdS arenUma1ly de-
pUl生 ΠZedduetU Upening UfsUmepUsi位 ve iUn
59
Unand
channels inda1.hless.LikeWise,genera位
mUdulajUnUfsUmebehaviUrsareduetUi血 bi-
jUn Uf neurUns that exert tUnlc 1血 bitlUn Un
celebelluln is in北 dbitU〃 .It isalsUcriticaltUnUte
thatacjvajUnUfasingleinputral-elyfires tlle
pUStSynapticneurUn.Instead,nhngUfthepUst-
synapjcnellrUn isdecidcdbyspa位 alsuIIllmatiUn
Uf excitatU〃 and i血 bitUfy inputs frUm varl-
Uus sUurcesandtempUralsuIIlmajUnUfinputS
iⅡ玨ing㏑ gWⅢ ㏑ na位 meliIIllt.ThCCUnVergence
Uf muljple synap位 c acjvity in deterlmning
㎞ g Ufa neurUn is the basis Ufthe fact that
prUcessing Uf s位 muh, aS wcll as respUnses tU
theIn,isUftenⅢ UdulatedbyvaΠ UusfactUrsSuch
asarUusa1,attentiUn,emU位 Un,UrIIlUtiVa位 Un.
Thehumann唧 UuSSysteⅡ lcUntalnSaccnia1
and apel1pheral divisiUn. The ceⅡ tfal nefVUus
syStem(CNS) cUnt缸 ns thebr血 nand spin.aI
cUrd,andthepeⅡ pheraldivisiUncUntaInScraniⅡ
andspinalnerVes inn田 a位 nb.penphefaltargets
inclu血 ngsensU,receptUrs,muscles,UrViscⅨ al
Urgans.ⅢUseneⅣ eSc田 【yinginfUnna位 UnfrUm
a且 d tU the viscσ a and invUlved in cUntrUI Uf
thelacuvityfU⊥ mIthe autUnUIIuc n釘 VUuS SyS-
tem(ANS)wh沁 his勤叭herdⅣ ㎡edintUthe
sympathejcandparasylIlpatheticbranchcs.The
acjvity Uf the ANS has been implicated in
mUtivatiUnal and emUtiUnal funcuUns, as diS-
cusSedinChapters1lalldl2,respec位 vely.The
spinalcUrdprUceSScSinfUⅢ a位 UnfrUⅡlsensU〃
receptUrs,deliVers mUtUrUrders tUthemuscles,
andseⅣ esasarelaybetweenthebfainandthe
pcnpheη ” Thc br斑 n cUn位玨nS a Central cUrc
knUwⅡ asthcbr缸 n stcIn includingthemedu1la,
pUns, lIlldbrain, tlla比 Inus, and hypUthalamus.
ArUundthebrain stenlarcthebasalgangliaand
limbic systcm. Al1 these s位 uCtures are largely
cUVercd by the cerebral cUiex, Vhich is mUSt
、
deVelUpedin thehumallbcing;itcanbefurthef
dividedintUthe frUntal, tempUra1,p&Πeta1,and
UccΦ lallUbes ineachhelIusphere.WVhilethe
小〃U Sides Uf thc central nervUus system 缸e
grUssly sylllInetnc㏕ , functiUnal and structural
asyIlIlIle由 ΠeS are demonstrated in the cerebral
cUrtexandUtllerbrain1Uci.Cells in tllecerebfal
cUnex gUup intU layas while thUse in Uther
StlUCtureSgrUup intUaggrcgatiUnscallednuclei.
I江 fferent subdivisiUnsareinVUlVedindifferent
func位 Uns,aSisdiscussedlll relatcdchapters.
SensUry,mUtUr,andmentalfunctiUns缸 erep一
resentedatmanylevelsUfthenervUus system.
E>ifferent types UfinfUrIllatiUn prUcessing may
be undert江 ken by neufal circuits Uf disjnct
levels. Unc type Uf UperatiUn is tU cUmbine
infUrma位 Un fI.UlI9 bUtll sides Uf the bUdy to
de五 veatl山 iddimensiUnUfperceptiUnthatis nUt
natura1lyre且 ectedin thesu㎡ aceUfthereccptUr
Urb.an. An exalnple is lUcalizing auditUry Ur
 6U 而 比 rJ9磁 tUK㎡ 力 4K扔
visualS位 mu上 in theenVirUnment. SUund1Uca1＿
iza位 Un depends Un the diffefence in intensity,
jmeUf破 iVa1,UrphaseUfsUundwavesasthcy
impingethctwUea1.dmms.StereUps抬 (vku㏕
deptll percep位 Ul1,depen函 Unthcf.actthatthe
image Ufa sjmulus falther Urncarer than the
nxajUn pUmt 三赴 s Un nUn-cUⅡ espUⅡ ding pUs-
i位 UnsUfthetwUretinas← ejnaldkp缸 i呼 ).Thc
auditUFy lUcaliza吐 Un mechanisms have been
studiedesp芭 ciallyinU,,lsandbats,aΠ Ⅱnals that
depcnd Ufau山 tUrY 1Uc日 ⅡZa位 Un tU prey in the
daI.k. SUmcauditU,neIUns iⅡ thebr缸 n stcm
receivecUnVⅨ gent inputsf1.Umthe● wUcUchleae.
These neurUnS are able tU detect sUuⅡ d忘 frUm
specinc1UcatiUnsw㏑ chcreatcapar巨 culartem-
pUral delay in ac位 Un pUtenjals fI.Um tlle twU
earS(C缸 &KU㎡ S㏑ ,199U).In tllcv虫 uaIsys-
tem, the cUnvergence Uf bilateral infUmatiUn
dUes nUt take place unjl the prlln呷 visual
cUrtex.HUwever,in㏑ g● erUrderⅥ sualcUr位 c㏕
aleas, there 缸e regiUns in whlch neurUns
specializein detecing visual depth (PUggiU &
PUggiU,1984).
In genera1, the neⅣ Uus system appcars tU
Ubscrve a山 visiUnUflabUr. VaⅡ Uus prUp血 es
inVUlvedinabehaviUralfunctiUnrelyUndiffer-
ent grUupS UfneurUns 技thin each Ieve1. t1泣 S
p巨 ndple㏑ b碄 taieStedbytllemult●
、
levkual
rcpresentatiUnarcasin thecerebfalcUΠ ex.InfUr-
matiUncUnccmingthefU工 工1馬 cUlUr,mUjUn,and
pUsitiUn prUperjesengageSdifferentce1ls in tlle
phm釦 Υ ViSualcUrteX(afeaV1);this infUl1Ⅱ ajUn
is then dispatched tU specinc Ⅱ gher‵ Urder
regiUns Ufthe visual cUrtex. InfUlii⊥ a位 Un
cUn-
ce㏕ ngfUl11landcU1UrⅡ UwsthrUuglI aventra1
SieamUfneuralpa伍 waystUtheinferUtempUra1
cUrteX(tlle‘ what’ pa伍 way),whercasth田 CUn-
ceming mU位 Un andpUsi位 Un flUws dUrsa1ly tU
thCp缸 iCtal1Ubc(the‘ where’ pathway)(如 IisH匕
&UngerleⅡ er,198砂 .ItalsUappe缸 Sthatthe
amUuntUfneural jssuedevUtedtUrepresentin..
afunc位 Un is relatedtUtheIinenessUfdiscΠ In一
inajUnUrcUniUl in任 isfuⅡ cjUn.Thk‘ mUreis
better’pΠ nciple is we11 demUnsiated by the
l缸 gemagnificauUnfactUrlIlthefUvcalascUm-
p缸 edWiththeperΨ heralregionSUfthepE【 n唧
Vlsu㏕ cUItcX.
WhilethegrUssdis廿 ibujUⅡ Ufv引 ΠUuSfunc-
jU且 S in differ° nt p田 比S Uftllc CNS is largely
deteHⅡ ⅡnedbyevUlutiUnalJandgenejcfactUrs,
it is nUwwe1lestabhshcdtllatthefinestlucture
Uftllese representa位 Uns is by nU mcans stajc
alldva巨 esf1.U】 m individuaItUin&Vfdua1.Ⅲ e
anatUmyUfneI㏕ tissue subseⅣ iⅡ gafllnctiUn
is suㄐ ected tU nne＿ tuning by expe五 ence. ΓUr
cxalI,plc,thecUrticalrepresentajUnaItreafUra
speci且 c且ng以 Canbeenlargedbyrepcateduse
inadisc五 lIllna位 vetaskUrshrunkbydeprivingit
Uf sensU呼 input °BuUnUmanU 6乙 〦6erZc血 ch,
1998). T㏑ s expcΠ ence一 dependent plasjc上 y Uf
UU乃 好 P〃 c九 aU〞
the ⅡerVUus syStcm may Serve aS paΠ Uf the
biU1UgicaI basis UfpIsUnality UridiUsyncratic
in山 vidualdifferences.
TheEndUchⅡ eSysteIIl
The endUc五 ne system cUn位 ⅡnS SeVeral endU-
c五 neglands,、 汙ichareinvUlvedin regulatiUnUf
acUnSte1latiUn UfphysiU1Ugical andbehaviUral
funcjUns suchasglucUseu位 lizatiUn,cUnSeⅣ a-
位Un Uf f1ㄩ d and iUns, and faci1丘 a位 ng sexual
maturatiUn and behaviUr. :Γ he cndUcIne Sys-
tem secretes hUrmUnes intU tlle blUUd s甘 eaIn,
血 Uughw㏑ chtheyalecaΠ ΠedtU日 Ⅱ paItsUfthc
bUdy.Thus,incUntrast tUtheS、 泣ftlleSsUfsignal
transⅡ ⅡSsiUnaⅡ dthespecifici妙 Uftargetacjva一
位Un in thenervUussystem,S堆 尹I址 s in thcendU-
cIne systenl iavel at a much S1U、 ver Ve1Ucity
andacjvateamuchwidera【 ayUftargets.
TU affect tllc target tissue, hUIⅢ lUnes must
bind tU specialized receptUr mUlecules. 工江any
hUmUnesbindtUreceptUrsUn tllemembraneUf
talget cells, just aS ⅡeurUtranSlI1ltterS dU, and
they activate a secUnd meSsenger biUchelIllc㏕
caScadetU江 ltermct五 bUIic山 unc位 UnsUfthecelI.
But sterUidhU工 ⅡlUnes (includingthUsereleascd
f1.UmIheadI.enalcUrtcxandsexglands)enterthe
celkbypcneiatlngthrUughtllemeillb1.ancalld
binding tU receptUrs in the cytUplasm. The
hUrInUne-receptUr cUmplex is tranSferl-ed intU
thcnucleus.Inthenucleus,thecUmplexisable
tUregulate expressiUnUfspecific gencs, vhich
、
in tumdiect prUtein syntheSis in tllecytUplasI且
andhcnccchangecellularfuncjUns.Ⅲ us,、汁ile
且elWC ilnpulses induce a relauve shUrt-latency
and b五 ef-dura伍 Un reSpUnsc, hUlIl工 UncS Uften
Ⅱ
inducealUng-latencyand1Ung-las位 ngrcspUnse.
TllefefUre, hUrlnUnes can p五 Ine tIle pehph田 a1
jssueandcreateasuitableintemaIIYlllieuapprU一
p五 atefUrla竹 Υ bHSkactiUnUfneⅢ al signals.
Ac位 vity Uf thc endUchne system is under
㏑ er缸 C㏑ CalcUⅡ trUl, WhichprUvidcsUneexam-
ple UfinkΥ ac位 Uns bctween tlle endUc五 ne and
thencuraIsystems.NeurUns incertain nuclciUf
thehypUtllal江 nuSSecretevanUuSrcleasinghUr-
mUnes lntUthemedian eⅢ nence, whenccthey
缸eSentbytllepUrtalvein systemtUs位 mulate
theante丘 UrlUbeUfthepitui位 【yglandtUsecrete
&fferent女 UpichUrmUncs.Thesein turll regulate
the activity Ufthe adrenaI glands, tlle gUnads
andthethyrUidgland.SterUidhU1Ⅱ IUΠ esSecreted
bythepenphe【 扭endUc五 neglahdsUrthepiuitarY
entcf the CNS and bind tU receptUrs in tlle
hypUth㏕ amusUreIsewhereiⅡ thebrain tUexelt
an inⅡ bitUry feedbackcUntrUl Unthe secretiUn
UfV引 ΠUuSreleasingUriUpichUmUnes.
It is ⅡnpUItant tU nUtc that the acjUn Uf
hUrmUneSis nUt liⅡ ⅡtedtUregula位 nge且 dUCrine
 P,vε 九θtUgv加 BjUJUgjε aJPe↑ p“ tovt
ac位 vity;theyalsUpa比 iCipatcinacUnste1lauUn
UfphysiUlUgicalandbehaviUralfuncjUnS.Recep一
tUrsfUrhUrmUⅡ esaiefUundinwidespfcadbr缸 n
缸eaS and 缸 e aCtivated by hUrmUnes secreted
frUη a perlphera1 Ur centra吐 endUchne ceIls Ur
ⅡeurUnS in nume.rUus b1.缸 n regiUnS that aIsU
cUntain pep位de Ur hypUthalaImc hUrmUⅡ es. In
many caSes theSepep位 dehUIⅢ 1UneS, andUthcr
neurUpep位 des as we1l, cUexist、 泣th tradi位 Una1
ncurUtrallsIIlltterSin thenervete」 【unalsandare
cU-rcleascdwiththelIlfUr transⅡ ⅡSsiUnUrInUdu-
latiUnpurpUses. IIUrmUnes exert Va巨 Uus ㎞ ds
UfeffectUn the nelvUus syStem. FUrcxalIlplc,
seX hUmUnes have been shUwn tU haVe an
Urg血 zauUn㏕ effect and all acjvaiUnaleffect
Un Sex functiUns. The fUrmcrrefers tU thc fact
that eaΠ y
in devclUpment, thc presence Ur
absenceUfthelnalesexhUrmUness、庄tchesthe
grUwth Uf tllc br釭 n smctures intU a male Ur
female mode and fUs“ 】s the deVelUpment Uf
pe五 pheral sex Urgans and secUnda.y sexual
Ch缸 aCtel1sjcs.Theacjva位 Unaleffectrefers tU
the fact that aS the Urg㏕ sm reaches sexual
maturatiUn,thereleaseUfsexhUrmUnesp五 rnes
sexualbehaviUr.
It shUuldbcmentiUnedthat sUmehUrmUnes
haveUtheract1Uns lnadditiUntUendUcrlnefunc-
位Un. FUr example, infusiUn Uf cU」 ﹂cUtrUpin＿
releasing hU工 1llUne (CRII) intU the cerebra1
ventΠ cles causes a Ⅵ江de spectlUrn Uf physiU＿
1Ugical and behaviUral cffects, inclu山 ng in一
cleaSedper● her㏕ sYlmpathe位 cUut且 Uw,in㏑ ㏑ -
位UnUfgastΠ cmUj㏑ yaⅡ dsecre位 Un,hlibiuUn
Uf feeding and scxu㏕ behaviUr, iⅡ creased
grUU血 ng, defensive ╮砬thdrawa1, and st刉 比le
behal7iUr.Suchcffects arepresentafterhypU＿
physectUmy UradrenalectUmy andhenceinde-
pclldent Uf the pitui位 Iy一adrenal axis. These
respUnses reSe血 ble thUsc that Uccurundcrthe
stateUffearUra㏕ etv,leadingtUthesuggestiUn
that CRII may act as a cen句 【吐 anxiUgcnic
(anxiety-illducing)mediatUr(Dunn&BeⅡⅡge,
199U).As nle.n位 Uned in Chapter 8, seVer缸
StleSS-releaSed hUl111Unes such as adrenaline,
glucUcUrticUid, adrenUcU血 cUtrUpin (ACTH),
vasUpressin, alld chUlecystUk上 Ⅱn influeⅡ ce
memUEyinvaIlUusaverSiVcUrappejjvelc砸 -
ingtasks.PUst-ialning adIIllⅡ sia位 Un Ufthese
hUrmUncScanenhancelaterreten位 Un.Theeffect
appears nUttUdcpendUnendUcHnetargct tisSue
because sUme 丑ab.mentS Ur ana1Ugs Uf tllese
hUl工 llUnesdeVUidUfendUcΠ neac位vity缸e斑 sU
effec位 ve. Ithas been prUpUsed tllatthe siess＿
reIeaSedhUrmUnesInayactasendUgenUusInem-
UrY mUduIatUrs tU facilitate stUrage Ufstrcssfu1
experieⅡ ce (McGaugh, 1989). Astress-releaSed
hUrmUnecapablcUfcUping〝 砬thtllesiesSdl1r
ingcUnfrUntatiUnbutalsUengravingLhelesSUn
61
in mcmU,stUragewUuldincrcasesurviValand
be ㏑ ghly adap位 ve ffUm an evUlutiUnary per-
spec位 ve. IIUWeVer, nUt all effects Uf stress一
releasedhUl1l工 UneSarebcnencia1.IⅡ ghlcvclsUf
glucUcUrticUidiⅡ theper● her㏕ 位ssuecauSedby
prU1Unged stress η ayinduce acUnstellatiUn Uf
haΠ mful cffects, w㏑ ch Hans SeIye ca1led the
cxhaus位 UnphascUfthcgene“ iadapta位 Unsyn-
drUme(Selye, 1956).Illad山 位Un,highlevelsUf
glucUcU」 ﹂cUidmayactivatecertain neuralreccp-
tUrs in the㏑ppUcampus and increase the vul-
ncrabiⅡ ty of㏒ pUcalupal ncllrUⅡ s tU pUssible
insults in daily life and thus accel田ate aging
(SapUlsky, 1992).
The㎞ unesysteIIl
MUre and mUre cvideⅡ ce indicat芭 S in位 mate
interac位Uns betwcen mental acjvi● ◤ and the
lIIInunesystem.I1止 ssystemdefendsanUrgan＿
isnlfrUmharlmlfUreignbiU1Ugicalsubstances
intrUduccdintUthebUdy.SU-ca1ledlla虹 a1l巨 1ler
cc1ls, members Uf the linmune syStem, rUaln
afUund the bUdy tU destrUy infected ce11s Ur
cancerce1ls.Inaddi位 Un,cells infectedbyvlruSeS
maysecreteapeptidenaInedin永 IferUntUsup-
press fL1Π her reprUducjUn UftIle VIrLls. TheSe
arc nUnspcciIic ac位 Uns Ufthe ilIlmuIle system.
IIlllmuⅡerespUnsesInayalsUattackSpecinctar＿
gets.Ce1ls lUcatedin tlletllymllsgIand,bUne
Ⅱ1缸 ΥUW, Spleen, and lylIlph nUdes induce
che血 ca1lymediatedandcell-mediatedilIllmune
reactiUnS in dctec位 Un UfinvadingllllcrUUrgan-
kⅡ ls.TheB＿ lymphUcyteS,w㏑ chU五 ginatein the
bUneInarrUw,releaseiIImlunUglUbuIns intUthe
bUdy fluid; these act as antibUdies that bind
specincally tU tlle uniqueprUtein (anjgen) Un
themembraneUfinvadersandresult indesiuc一
位UnUftheinvadingcells.UntheUtllerhand,tlle
T-lymphUcytes, whichUΠ ginatein thethymus,
havean位 bUdyattachedUn山 eimelmbrane;they
d士 cctlyattackthe㏑ va山 ⅡgIlllcrUUrganismsand
deS甘 Uy them Ur enhancc the廿 destructiUn by
Utller cells. Cells in tIle ilImune Systcm cUm-
municate with cytU虹 nes such aS interleu㏑ ns;
thesecheIIllcalSaresynthesizedaodreleasedby
〝汙土teblUUd cclls tU detect SUlublc tUxicprUd-
ucts frUⅡ l invading IIllcrUUrg血 sms and cause
Utherwh丘 ecells tUprUliferate.Ⅲ esccytUkines
may alsU prUvide infU⊥ IliatiUn tU Uther bUdy
SyStemSasexplalnedin thencxtp缸 agraph.
StreSS Ur psychUlUgicaI reactiUns tU it have
prUfUundeffectsUn ilIllllunUac位 vity.EmU位 Unal
distuibanceduetUdepressiUnUrhighlystressful
lifeevcnts,SuchasschUUlcxallllnajUnSUrmar-
丘al山 sl-uptbn,cUlllprUllllsestheabili妙 Ufthe
如羽Enune system aⅡ d increaseS suscep位 bilΠ y tU
52 山竹比 7挽 a多 bK〞
infec位 Uus &scases, autU山 I【nune disUrders, car-
diac disease, and cancer. A㎡ mal studies have
shUwn that enhancement Ur suppressiUn Uf
山田【ⅡuneactiVitycanbeelicitedbycUndi位 Uned
就imuli thlough ac16s比 ㏕ cUndi位 U血 ngprU-
cedurc(Ader&CUhcn,1993).ThcseandUthcr
dataSuggcst thatthcreareth1.ee一 〃ayinteractiUns
amUⅡ gtheneur㏕ ,eIldUcIne, alldiIrlInunesys-
telns.ThecenialIlervUussystcm influencesthe
lI一tlne reSpUnSe thlUugh thc autUnUlIllC Ⅱel-
VUusS於 tcmalldhypUthalaImclituiaryaxk.
Sympathetic nUradrenergic 且bcrs innervate tlle
thvmusaildspIeenandaffect nncjUnsUfthe
ilIununece1ls. ReceptUrS fUrneurUPep位 des are
presentUnthelIlembralleUftheseceⅢ s.Upiate
blUckers antagUniZe the supprcSSiUn Uf tlle
naturalldⅡ ercelIs inducedbyinterImttent shUck
StresS,Sugε es位 ngiuvUlvementUfthe° ndUgenUus
UpiUid system. CRII andglucUcUi沁 Uidhavc a
prUfUund 山田【ⅡunUSuppreSsiUn effect. As nUted
inChap使 江 12UnemUtiUn,amygdralUidneurUns
缸 eaCjVatedbyemojUnalsjmu上 .Thus,through
pr由 cc住 Uns打 Umthecentralamygdal㎡ dⅡ uck斑
tU thCp缸 aVentncularnucleus, stress could en-
hancercIeaSeUfCRII,whichcvcntuallyreleases
glucUcUf└ cUidtUsuppress lImnuIleactivity.Such
effects mayprUvideabiU1Ugicalmech血 smby
w㏑ chsUd㏕ factUrsaffectphy血 UlUg比 alcUndi-
位 Uns, such aS vulnerability tU cUntagiUuS dis一
eaScsUrcarclnUgenlcagcnt§ .
CUnverscIy, cytUk土 lcs relcaSed by Πm【Ⅱune
cellsUrt1leCNS mayactUnthcbr血 n tUaffect
neIalactiⅥ ty(RUthwell&HUp㏑ ns, 1995).
They bind tU hypUthalaIIlJc neWUnS, th1.Uugh
〝汙ichtlleyin且 ucncc SecrejUnUfvalilUushUr-
mUneS, inclu血 ng increased release Uf ACTH,
1Unes but decreased
prUlac位 n, and grUIvthhU1⊥ ⊥
rcleasc Uf luteiniZing hUl1Ⅲ Unes. BehaViUrally,
themUstcUnSpicuUuscffectUfcytUkneSgiven
centra1lyUrpenpher缸 Ⅱyis tUinducefever,and
仕isappe缸 StUbeme山 atedbyreleaseUfCRII.
InaddijUn,cytU虹 nesmayincreasethcamUunt
Ufs1Uw一 waveSlecp.TheseeffectsarepartUfthe
nUrnlal reacjUn tU infcctiUn. It has therefUre
becn prUpUSed that the ilIllnune System may
serVeasasensU〃 channel infUr“ ⅡⅡgtheCNSUf
Uur intemalchcIIllcaIenviUnment.
4.4 METHUDULUCYINBIULUGIcAL
PsYcHULUGY
M句 UraspectsUfmethUdU1Ugyin researchin
biUlUgical psychU1UgywiⅡ flrstbcpresentedand
discusscd. :Γ hen we ╮店l1 Ⅱlustrate these cUn-
sidcra位 Uns byrevie、 庄ng bIefly tlle se缸 Ch fUr
theneuralmccha血 smsUf.lassica1 (Pav1Uvian)
cUnditiUning.
正如zKttUU乃 o√ P抄 ε几㎡ Ugv
BiUIogicalPsychUlUgyStudk洽 BUth
HumansandNUnhumanAniInaIs
BiUlUgical psychUlUgyInanipulatesandUbserVcs
psychU1UgicalvanablesjustaSdUal1Uthernelds
瑰甘 ::盟 E耗 蹣 鍶:翱 轟出 幫舞茫
2. IIUwever, tUdelineatethe sUmatic cUn甘 ibu-
iU且 tUbehaviUrandIncntalfunc位 Uns,biU1Ugica1
psychU1UgyneodstUdrawevidcllcefrUnl studies
cUmbi血 ng methUds UfpsychU1Ugy 〝泣伍 thUsc
UfUther由 sc玒 斑inessuc.hasⅡ eurU㏄ ㏑ nce,ph缸 -
macU1Ugy, iIImtlnUlUgy, and cndUchnU1Ugy.
These metllUds al1Uwthc invcstigatUrtUprUbe
intUrelevantbUdilySystems.Γ urther,incUniast
tU many Uther fields UfpsychUlUgy that fUcus
thei research mainly Un human beings, biU-
1Ugical psychU1Ub.yinvestigatesbUthhumanand
nUnhⅢnan species.StudyUfallim㏕ su● jects k
jus位 nedfUrtwUreasUnS.Γ lstUfa1l,frUman
cvUlutiUn缸y perSpcc位 Ve, tlle bUdily systcms
subseⅣ ingmental acjVity, Ⅱke any UthabiU-
1Ugicalfeatures,areuⅡ derthepressⅢ eUfnatural
SeIec位 Un andhave eVUlved Uvera1UngpeⅡ Ud
Ufjme as a cUnSequence Ufadapta位 Un tU the
cnVirUⅡ ment. BchaviUr缸 funcjUns havc alsU
cvUlved,asSuggestedby6二 h利ΠeSDalwin(1872)
in㏑sbUUk,工 九tE〞 紹∫“UKφ ㄏ屁 ε E約 Ut始 K∫ jK
ntaKaKtA沌 t約aJ∫ . TherefUre, as statedin Sec-
tiUn 4.1, cUIIlInUn cUmpUnents may undcrlie
menui functiUlls Uf bUth humans and Uth以
1lS Uf the士 siuctural bases Ur
spccics in te上 工
UperatiUnalIllechanisms.Inves位 gatlngthebr缸n
func位 Un Uf aIlmals can thcrefUre cUntΠ bute
significantly tU Uur understaIldi且 g Uf that Uf
humans. Ⅲ s expectatiUn is substan位 ated by
numerUusfindingssuggeSjngshafcdbiUlUgical
bases Ufhuman and nUnhumanbehaviUr illus-
竹atedinvanUus chap怡 “ Uf士 isbUUk.Afew
cxamples frUm the Ich literature in Ⅱis 缸 ea
include parallel prUcessing Uf dⅡ ferent Visual
prUp屾 es (e.g., hue, shape, andmUvement9 in
separatebr缸n regiUnS, hUmUnal inΠ ucnces in
scxual devclUpment, and cngagemcnt Uf the
amygd鈕 abyemUtiUnalarUusa1.
The secUnd reasUn fUr enlplUying aima1
stu〔 虹cs is pIclyInethUdU1Ugica1.FUrUne任 ing,
stu&es UfdevelUpmentUrⅡ fe-spanchanges in
behaviUralldneuralmechanisms缸 emUreprac-
tical tU cUnduct in a且 ilnals whUse life spans
are much shUner than Uur Uwn.FUr anUtllcr,
invas∥ emal1● ul工 巨UnUr平 sessmentUfbrain
Ⅱed in human Sub-
functiUns canIlUt be perfU上 工
jec偽 eXceptunder speci汪 clcumstanceS.Inr缸 e
caSeS,huIIlallbUdilysystems maybeperturbed
byⅡ aturalcauscs Ur prUbcdexpenmentallyfUr
thcrapeujcpu卬 Uses(suchas s位 mulatiUnduΠ ng
surgical recjncatiUn UfepⅡ cpsy); the cnsuing
behaviUralsylnptUms maySuggest relatiUnshipS
 UtUgvjKBjUtUg=ε aJP′ 坪Pε εtjvt
P.9,,ε 九
betWeen structure and funcjUn. IⅡ the ㏑ stU,
UfbiUlU..ical psychUlUgy,neurU1UgicalflⅡ 血 ngs
have Uften seⅣ ed as gUUd starting PU㏑ ts in
the㏑ stUryUfbiUlU舒cal psychUlUgy. HUwevⅨ
fU11UW-up aniInal Studies are nccessary tU fUr-
m巨 llytcstandestablishsuchinfercIlcesbecause
dalnage prUducedby natureis seldUm aS wel1
defined as expe五 mental ablajUn Ur InaIllpuIa-
tiUn in alimals. V缸 muS types Uf sUmatic Ur
behaviUral interventiUn can be app上 ed tU ani＿
mals in a humane manncr and alsU precisely
in te1l1一 s Uf 位me and lUcajUn tU uⅢ avel the
relatiUns1」 psbetweenbUdyandbehaviUr.NUⅡ e＿
theless, recently deve1Uped tcchniques such as
funcjUnal brain ㏑ aging and magne位 c bfain
StlInulatiUna1lUwustUme鋁 ureUralterdiectly
humallbr缸 nac位 啣 andclUsethegaps inU1lr
㎞ Uwledge bctwecn brain functiUns in humans
andUther species.
EventhUughm色 ntal fllnctiUnS acrUss species
may iIldecd vaη ◤ with eVoluiUn研 Status, the
cUⅡ espUndencc Uf p㏕ culal- sets Uf behavior
frUmUnespeciestUanUther ish狂 dtUCStablish.
Whentheneural rnechanisⅡ 1UflnentalfuncjUns
is infeIedf1.UlnanimaIstudies,aⅡ imalbehaviUr
is Uften used in the sense Uf a mUdel fUr
the mcntal func住 Un cUncemed. FUr example,
imp五 n位ng behavior may servc as amUdeI fUr
且上al attacllnlcnt, and vaIiUus types Ufaggres-
siUn induccdby different虹 nds UfstimuIi can
mUdelaspectsUfanger.ThemUdclsystembears
siIIlⅡ a巨 jes tU what is bcing mUdcled, butthe
twU need nUt be iden位 c缸 . Such s丘 ni㏑ 位es
cUuldbebasedUndifferent grUunds. SUme Uf
thcnlarebasedUnapparent s山 m㏕ ε tityinbehav一
iUr,suchasselfdrug-adllllnistratiUnbyanilnals
asamUdelUfaddic位 vebehaviUr.SUmeUfthem
be缸 an eSSential tlleUre位 cal cUmpUnent Uftlle
mUdeled functiUn, as maSte五 ng ce」 比Ⅱn taSks
indicatesdecIara吐 vele血 ng.Ufcoufse,inferred
s虹 nⅡ al1jeS muSt ㏕ways bc crUss︻ checked by
independ色nt lnethUdsandbyattempts tUinv缸 Ⅱ-
datethem.
BiUlUgicaIPsychUIUgyUsesaVaHetyUf
Λ pprUaches
TUdelineatetherela位 UnshΦ sbetweenthebU山 ly
systemS and mentaI 血 nc位 UnS, biU1Ugical psy-
chUlUgists may adUpt dⅡ f“ ent apprUachcs in-
cluding sU血 ajC inteⅣ enjUn, behaviUral intcr-
ventiUn,andcUⅡ elajUn(Figure4.3).
In SUma位 c intcrven位 Un, the inVcsjgatUr
ma血 pulates specificp利比SUfabUdⅡ ysysteΠ laⅡd
assesseS the cUnsequence UⅡ ment到ybchaviUr㏕
func位 Uns.Ⅲ egeneraIstrategyUfmanipulating
a bUdily systcm is tU actiVate Ur suppress its
funcuUn.ActivatiUnUfanetlralS位 uCturecanbe
accUll1pIishcdbyapplyingweakcIec臼 ΠccuIentS
63
UfapprUp五 ate intensity Urby lUcaIinfusiUn Uf
drugs stimuIatlngreceptUrs inducing excitatU,
pUStsynap位 cpUtentials(EPSP)Urb1Uctngrecep-
, tUrs iⅡ ducingi血 blU〃 pUstsyⅡ ap住 cpUten位 ㏕ s
(IPSP).LUcal丘 fu血 UnUfdlllgsb1Uc㏑ ngEPSP
Ur inducing IPSP Ⅵ注1l have UppUsite effects.
Ph缸maCUlUgicalmanipula位 Un UftllebiUchem-
ical cascade linked tU receptUrs ㏕sU seⅣ es a
siITularendanda11UwsfurtherdissectiUnUfthe
intrace1lula1.eventsch位 calfUrbehaviUr.Pe工 1Ⅱ a-
nent SuppressiUn of a ncural functiUⅡ can be
ac㏑ evedbydestIUctlUnUfthcjssueWlthVarl-
UuSt｝ TeSUflesiUn.HUwever,adⅡ inistratiUnUf
1Ucal anestlle伍 cS Ur dmgs that blUck sUdium
chaⅡ nelS can causc tempUraFy and reversiblc
lesiUnsUftheaffectedussue.
IntefacjUnsbetvzeenthesUmatic systemand
mentalfunctiUn缸 ebynUmeansunidlectiUnal;
behav㏑ ralexPaΠ encemay● kcrs㏑EturalUr
func位 Unal prUpcIties Ufthe neur㏕ , hUrmUnal,
alldiIllJnunesystems.Sucheffectsarctypica1ly
reVe㏕ ed by behaviUral int田 ╮′ en位 Un in which
bchaviUral㏄ mentalfunctiUnsaremal1● u1飩 ed
aIldcUnsequeⅡ ccs inbUdily systems are detec-
ted. Changes in the braiⅡ may be anatU血 ca1,
physiU1Ugical, Ur ncurUcheInlca1. AnatUlIllCal
changes incIude increase in axUnal branches,
dendIjc a1.bU丘 ZauUn, Ur synap位 c fUrIna位 Un
after expUsure tU an e㏕ ched enviUnment Ur
aftarcertaln typesUfle田“ingexpe五 ence.Physi＿
UlUgical changes maybe expressed as incfeaSe
Uf evUked respUnses tU input sjmuli Ur alter-
atiUnin membrancclec位°tUnicprUper位 estested
eitllefinvivUUr invitrU.Nel1rUcheIIllcalchangeS
may include increases Ur decreases Ufcellul缸
energy u位 lizajUn, feceptUr binding, enzyme
actiVity,releaseUrreuptakein ncurUcheΠ tcalsUr
hU1Ⅲ IUnes,prUtein synthesis,UrgeneexpreS§ iUn.
Smdies iⅡ biUlUgical psychUlUgy may alsU
adUpt the cUIelatiUn㏕ apprUach in which be-
haviUral and sUmatic v田 dables are meaSured
simultaⅡ eUuslyineachUfagrUupUfs山tects,sU
thatthe extent tU Which thetwU measures cU-
v研 canbemeasured.FUrexalllple,theneurU-
physiUlUgicaIactivityUfaspeciIicstructufemay
cUⅡ elate with behaviUral perfUrmance duΠ ng
acquisijUn in a new le乙Πing task. In anUther
caSe, the leve1 Uf andrUgen Ur glucUcUr巨 cUid
maycUrrelate、 注ththesUcia1㏑ erarchical status
UfInUnkeys inacU1Uny.Stmctur缸 Urfunc位 Un㏕
巨bnUrmak位 esmaycUⅡ elateⅥ 店ththeseVe丘 tyUf
mentaldysfllnctiUn in schizUpllrenicpatients.
The intervcnjUn㏕ apprUaches help tU find
psbe小 〃eentheinde-
cause一 and-effectrelatiUnsⅡ
pendentandthedependentva巨 ables.IncUniast,
tllecUⅡ cla位 UnalapprUachcannUtdetcrlIllneany
cauSal relatiUnship betl,een tlle 小〃U meaSureS.
HU、 vever, 任isbynUmeans reduces its impUIt-
anceinbiU1Ugic㏕ psychUlUgyrese缸Ch,because
64 f9,9佬 翻 artUKaJ刀 4η 扔 UU好 好 P月 K几 UtU紗

｛
a｝ ㄇanipu︳ atingthebUdyrnayaffectbehavior
、
Somat:c︳ ntervent︳ ons Behav︳ orsaffected

卡
千憎巢
算中!中
〝 ::;毀 :一 :

矸﹉﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉

﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉﹉
﹉.﹉
!鏘絲

﹉
﹉﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉

﹉
﹉﹉
﹉
﹉
‥
﹉

﹉
﹉
﹉
‥
﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉

﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉
﹉﹉
(b)巨 ×periencea仟 ects thebody
Somat︳ ceffects Behav︳ ora︳ ︳ntervent︳ ons

c)BUdⅡ yandbehaˇ ︳
｛ Ura｜ rneasu「 escovary

Somat︳ cvar● ab︳ es Behav︳ ora︳ Ψar︳ ab︳ eS

(d｝ Bi。 ｜9ica︳ psycho︳ ogyseeks tounderstanda∥

。
thesere︳ ationships

Figure4.3 D和 耀Kt a9pJ aaε 九“ rU′Kvt∫ rjgatjU99r∫ UJ99a才 jε jJiㄊ

η θKr9Ur,, tt几 avjUraJ
′Krt〃 εrIπU9i,aK′ t/Iε εUr9tta〃 Ur,aJ.pp石 Uaε 几.(RrJ,rUσ vε εσ w′ 腕 pε rr,,打 ∫jUK戶 U用
g,Lθ oJ,IaK, &B昭 εttUVε ,f99乳 f形 g“ 紹 fJ.)
RU∫ tJ,zlt,ε ′
 P∫ vε 九UJUgv犰
thepresenceUfacUrrela位 U且 betWeentwUmeaS-
ures suggests futⅢ e inta╮ ′en位 Un stu山es, and
lackUfcUⅡ elatiUnmayhclp tUlirIllt thedUm缸 n
巳ven when a causa1
fUf further investigatiUn. 〕
relajUnship between twU V血 ables has been
established, cUIclatiUnal stu山 es si11 prUvide
additiUnal infUrmatiUn. Based Un tlle evidence
thatdismpjngthefuncjUnUfasUma位 CStmC-
ture alters a specific type UfbehaviUr, Unecan
cUncludethatthesUmajcstluctufceXeΠ schti-
cal influence Uh thatbehaViUr, butthere is nU
guafantcethatthestrtlctureis nUmallycngaged
whenthebehaviUris perfUrmedin nature.HUw＿
eVcr,ifSUmesUmaticmeasuresin that s位 uCture
cU-VaEyW丘 hthebehaviUralperfUrma,ceunder
namral cUndi位 Uns, it iS mUre hkely that the
S位 uCtuΠΞ iS inherentIyengagedinc唧 in..Uut
the behaviUr. TherefUre, discUve可 y Uf sUmauc
lIlechanismsunde且 yingmentalfuⅡ ctiUns rc上 es
Un cUnVergent eVidence frUln stu&es using
differcnt apprUaches in biU1Ugical psychU1Ugy
reSe缸 Ch.
SomeIssuesInvUlvedin〕 Different
APprUachesandⅣ Iethods
HUW tU reach a speciflc interprctauUn fUr tlle
cffect Ufatreatment is Une Uftlle ΠlaJUr cUn-
cems in biU1Ugical psychU1Ugy rcsearch. <二 Un一
sider,fUrexalnple,theuseUflesiUns tUeValuate
tllerUleUfastl-uctureinafunctiUn.ItappeaI-stU
be str缸 ghtfUΓ ward tU ablate the structure and
Ubservetheeffect. HUwever,remUVingab1Uck
Uf tissue Ur ma㏑ ng electl-Uly位 c Ur radiU ffe-
quencylesiUns deSiUyS nUtUnly the sUmabut
alsUfibersUfpassagefrUmUtherregiUns.Bettcr
specificity may be achieved by eInp1Uying
excitUtUxins that damage Unly cc11 bUdies but
sparethenb㏄ sUfpassage. NeurUtUxins invad-
ing par位 cu1【 I typcS Uf neural elements may
causeselecjvedepIetiUnUfspecifictranslllltt盯 S.
ΓUrexaInple,6＿ hydI.UxydUpalm且 C(‘ -UHDA)必
Uften used tU deplete ccntral dUp&Ⅱ 丘ne fUr
exalIllnatiUnUfits rUlein mUtivatiUna1UrInUtUr
behaviUr Like、 紅se,SideeffectsUfaph往 ΠⅡ aCU-
lUgicalagentUften,ifnUtalways,preventaclcar
inteIpretatiUnUfspecificinfluencesUnbchaviUr.
Speci且 city Ufph缸 maCU1Ugical studics may bc
achieved by adIItlnisiatiUn Uf severaI drugs
Sh孔 丘ngthe§ aIneintendcdacjUnbutwithdiffer-
ent sidceffects,UrbycUunteracjngtheagUnist
effcct、 注tll speci且 cantagUnists.
TUelIlplUytleatlIlentSwithspecincinfluences
Un the neⅣ UuS systeIn dUes nUt nccesSaΠ ly
gu缸anteeacleaf-cut inteφ reta位 UnUftheflnd＿
UfurthersUurccsUfcUmplica位 Unshould
ing.TⅥ ′
be nUted. Une cUmes frUm tlle fact tllat the
bUdilysystenl isdynallllc. ASnUtedin SecjUn
BjUJUoε aπ PeKΨ εε方vθ 65
4.3, stlmc蚯 eS in the nervUus system 缸 e inj一
mately intercUnⅡ ccted 紅th a multitude Uf
、
cUnvergent anddivergentfibers and缸 ehighly
reacjve. PcrturbajUn at Une pUint causes nUt
UnlY1Ucalchangesbut㏕ sUchanges ina由 accnt
Ur eVcn remUte areas. FUr cxalnple, lesiUnS Ur
chelIllc㏕ depletiUnmaycauSeacUnstc1la位 UnUf
cUinpensatUη /reacjUns in theremainingsystem
and tlle IcsuItallt bchaviUral dencit cUuld be
attnbuted e址 her tU lUss Ufthe ablated cUmpU-
nentsUrrcactivechanges in thcsurvivingcUm-
pUnents.In tl1ccaseUfdeplcuUn,replacementUf
thedepletedsubstancemaydiffcren位 atethetwU
pUssibilities,wlicharcrea1lyh缸 dtUrCsUlvein
le血 UⅡ stud㏑ s.S位 mulatiUnUfneural 位ssueby
electncalUrph咖 aCUlUgicalmeans mayaffect
nUtUnlyactivityUfthesimulated缸 eabutalSU
thatUfcUnnectedregiUns.Thus,cautiUnmustbe
used in aSsi..ning any effect, and hence the
func位 Un infeπ cdfrUⅡ lthepresenceUfsuchan
ef先 ct,diectlytUthem咖 ulatedstructure.
ThesecUndcUmplicajUncUmesf1.Umthefact
thatbchaviUrksu切 ecttUmu1位 pIe㏑ nuences,
andquited」fxentundeΠ yingcauseSIⅡ ayresult
in thesameUr sillularchanges inexplicitbehav一
iUr.TUtakestudiesUfleaΠ ingandmemU,as
an exalIlple, treatlllentS giVcnpΠ UrtU leaΠ ing
tasks may affect acquisitiUn pelfUmance by
changing sensU呼 -mUtUr Ur mU位 VajUnal prU-
cesSes inStead Ufle引 Πing abilΠ y. ThuS, in且 u-
ence母 Unpe1.fUmanceshUuldbeImledUutbefUre
acUncluSiUnUnlc㏕ ngpersecanbereached.
ThepUst-trainingtreatlmeⅡ tregLnenmayavUid
such cUⅡ fUunding, and eΠ ℃cts tllus prUduced
cUuldb芭 duetUinfluenceUnStUrageprUcessing
UftheleⅢ edinfUmajUn.SUmejmes,behaviUr
mayinvUlvedifferent phaScSUfprUcessing,each
Uf w㏑ ch may extend Uver a peΠ Ud Uf 位me.
TreatlnentS tllat cause perInanent and LtevcrS-
ibIe effects Unthe nervUus syStemmay nUtbe
abIetU dissecttheneural Stl-uciureS engagedat
different stageS Uf the prUceSs. FUr cxalllple,
pelⅡ Ianent lesiUns made pUst-i缸 ning iⅡ a
stl-uctul-c cannUt disjnguish whether it affects
mclnU=y fU二 11工 atiUn Ur mcInUry rethev缸 . Yet
reVersibleandtclnpUrarylcsiUnsad血 niStercdat
differcnt phaseSrnay、 ve1lservesuchapurpUse.
AnUtllerm勾 UrcUncem in metllUdUlUgyis
hUwtUchUUse,f1.UmawhUle鈕 ΥayUfav缸 lablc
techniques,theapprUp丘 atcUneSthatcaⅡ detect
Uraffecttherelevallt sUmajceVentS,Whichva〃
tremendUuslyinbUththe spatial andtelmpUra1
dhⅢ ensiUns. As nUtcdin SectiUn4.3, thebasic
Stl-uctural and functiUnal u血 t Uf tlle nerVUus
systeIIlis theneurUn.Yet rnent.dlactivitymaybe
rclated tU epiSUdeS Uccu1.l1ng at SubUrdinate
levels,suchas山 esynapSe,intra一 ce1lula1.Urga,-
eIles,andspecificmUlecules,UratsuperUrdinate
levels suchasneuralneti,UrkS, rnaps, systems,
UreVen tlleentleCNS.ThcdimenSiUnSUfthese
66 仇 tε 用 atjUKaJπaK斑 ㄌ U北 tP秒 ε几UtUv

Bra︳ n

Map
一
日
E︸

Uptica︳ Dye.
Φ N拓

CU︳ umn U Ⅳ啊cro︳ es:onS

D•

Layer -1
﹂

NeurUn
-2 S︳ nq︳ eVn︳ t

Dendrite

Synapse
“
Li9ht∼ 〢crUscUpy

-3 -2 -1 U ﹁ 2 3 5
isecond
MⅡ ︳ Second M:nute HUur Day

Π gu犯 4.4 B砲 jK羽

εa∫ 兒紹 ∫ appraPrja〞 ratV” ?〃 Kt形 旭 〞 及ηηpU翔 J jaJaK〞
σ〞ηεK∫ jUK∫ φ尸 Kθ 兒砲 JPrUε θ∫∫θJ.rAttKvjatㄉ K∫ r五 V也已 tvε Kr＿ π 屁加它tpU比 K打a〞
羽 它 a羽 agKε ㄌ 沼 Kaㄗ 幼 ㄌ gKφ 在片 PEtPU∫ jㄊ 竹 乃 ε沕 j∫ ∫jUKㄉ 羽 Ugrap幼 比)
rRφ ㄉ t切 εεt′ ㄅ 用 C九 磁K吻 加 Kσ &∫ σ KU,t,∫ 乃方 SdencaI98&FtstKJ,Wj庇
pε 乃匆 j甜 加 Kt廝 ε a” 腕 Uπ a翃 Sdence.)

structurcSv田 °/frUIll lU 7tU 1U2IIm.I注 比 rent thephcnUmenUntUbestudied.ImprUvementUf

㏑ ndsUfsignalaΠ sein thesestructureSandmay
lastfUrdⅡ fercnt pqdUds Uftilneval,ing frUm
lIll1IsccUⅡ ds,in tllecaseUfactiUnpUtentials,tU
awhUlelife span, in the cases Ufincreases Ur
decreasesUfneur巨 lelementsUrthecUⅡ sequence
Ufgene muta位 Un. MethUds presently avaⅡ ablc
havecUnstraints inbUththcspa位 alandtempUral
dimenSiUns、 注士歧nⅥ 士uchtheycanbestfunctiUn.
FUrcxample,rccUrdingsingleunitacjviyaccu-
ratelyfU1lUws tlles地 ”alsfrUman in山 vidurdl
neurUn v汪 th a tempUral resUlu位 Un Uf lllllli-
SecUndS, but 任lis tcchnique is inadequate tU
detecttheslU、 KΥ ac位 vitychangesUvcralarger
pUpulajUn UfneurUns. UnthecUn行 a【 y, cvent-
related pUtcn位 als Ur the eleciUenceph㏕ Ugram
σ三EG)犯 Πeamas血 veneIdpUtenthlchaIlges
frUIn all extensivc regibn, but 缸C unable tU
lUcate Ur distinguish the rela位 ve cUn位】butiUn
Uf ne1lral elements 汪tllin that regiUn. Figure
、
4.4shUws tllespajalandtempUraldⅡ ⅡensiUnS
Uf neur㏕ prUcesses apprUp五 ate fUr several
methUds.
It shUuld be nUted that the Siellgth Uf a
tech血 qucmaynUtbean inherent prUpeltYbut
shUuldbejudgcdin relajUntUthed上 ⅡensiUnsUf
techniques in a reduc位 Unisjc directiUn (say,
frUm EEG tU unit ac位 v土y tU patch-clamp
recUrding Ufasingle chaⅡ ncl) has cUn位〕buted
muchtUthcadvancementUfUur knUwledgeUf
ncural basis Uf behaviUr. HUWcvcr, Bu11Uck
(1993)hashghtlyreIIllndedthe且 eldth缸 SUme
aspects Ufbr缸 n functiUn may be iIlbeddcd in
tllei且 tegra位 veaspectsUfneuralac位 vly,Which
ShUuldbebrUughtUutbymethUds、 汪thapprU-
phatespatialandtcmpUralsc㏕ es.
BioIUgicaIPsvchUlUgy〕 Draws
CUncIl1sionsfrUmCUⅡ vergentIh叮 denCe
BasedUnthe缸 bUVediscussiUnUnmethUdU1Ugy,
it isclcarthatbiU1Ugical psychUlUgyhastUrely
Un evidence frUm va巨 Uus lines Uf studies tU
es㏑ bⅡ ShrelatiUnsl曲 玲 betwecnthesUmat沁 sys-
tcm and mental func位 Un. Tllc reasUnS can be
recapⅡ ⅡlatedasfU11Uws.
(a) TheneuralSubstrateunderlyingaIIlental
fuⅡ c位 Un may invUlVe mechaniSms frUm
the mUIeculf tU the system levcls and
 Ps,t九 UtUgvjKBjUJUgjε a〞
engagesUmaticeVents lvⅡ hdiffcrentdura-
tiUns. NU methUd cUuld cUver the whUle
spectrllm Uf nctlr㏕ events. 〝4UreUVer, an
appafently unitaη / behaviUral Ur mental
func位 UnIⅡ ayincludcsub-prUceSsesUfsub-
StageS, each Ufwhich may have 血fferent
neural substrates. Thus, stLKⅡ eS usingd┘ 卜
ferent lIlethUdsyieldfindingsUndifferent
facetsUftherclatiUn, alldUIllyintegra位 Un
Uf 白lI nn血 Ⅱgs can generate the glUba1
picture.
(b) TUachevesPecific丘 yUftheicatmentand
reach valid interpretatiUn Ufthe Ubserved
effect, cUnVcrgcnt cVidcnce frUm smdies
uslng由 fferentIlIethUds ls requIcd.
(c) StudicsadUpjnginteⅣ en位 UnalapuUaches
andthecUⅡ clatiUnalapprUachmaybccUm-
plementa, tU SubStalljate the assertiUn
that a par區 cu上 Υ sUmatic prUcess is nUr-
mallycngagedinamentalfunc位 UnuⅡ der
naturΞ lcUnditlUns.
(d) BblUg沁 ㏕ psychUlUgkts缸 eintereMedin
tlle extent Uf geη eraliza包 Un Uf neural
mechaniSmSunde1.lyingspecificbehaviUral
funcjUⅡ s frUIn Une species tU anUther,
incIudinghumahs.
TheNeuralBasesUfClassicaI
CUndiIoⅡing
The Se缸 Ch fUr neural baSes Uf classical cUn一
ditiUningmaybcusedtUillustratethedepend-
ence Un cUnVergent evidence in biU1Ugica1
psychU1Ugy. Ivan P. Pav1Uv established the
behaviUralphnco玨 esUfcUndi位 UninginaseIes
Ufpubhca伍 Uns thatbegan ncar tlle end Ufthe
nineteenthcentury(e.g.,Pav1Uv, 19U5).HcIater
attelmpted tU accUuntfUrcUnditiUningin teΠm唅
Uf● ypUthe位 calLtadiauUn Ufeleciic缸 ac位 vity
acrUss tllesuΛ在CeUfthecerebralcUrtcX,butthe
土ΥadiatlUnwas infeIedfrUⅡ lthebehaviUrand
WaSnUtbasedUnd丘 ℃ctUbscrVatiUnSanddidnUt
prUvideaSatisfactU〃 explaⅡ ajUn. Laterwork一
erSbrUughtnewertcchniqueStUt1le searchfUr
themecha血 smsandneuralcircuits invUlvedin
cUnditIUnlng.
PsychUIUgist/neurUscienjStmch缸 dF.ThUlllp-
欄 帶贓#戰驧
revicw,seeThUmpsUn&K山 m,1996).Thetask
invUlves pa山 1ng Uf a tUne (the cUndi位 Uned
乩imulus,CS)withanai＿ puff(tlleuncUn山 一
uUnedsⅡ mulus,US)adΠ inistcredtUtheeye;tlle
缸lpuffcausestheuncUnditiUnedrespUnse(UR)
一 bli曲 ngUftheeyeUrclUsureUftheeyelid.An
e孔 dycU月K斑 ajUnal study shUwed gUUdcUrrela-
位UⅡ between actlvity UfneurUns in thc㏑ ppU-
caIllpusandmePerfUlilIanceUfthecUnditiUned
r它 用Pε εt加 ε 67
respUnse (CR9: the acjv丘 y incrcased duhng
acquisitiUnUnlyiftheCS aIldUS werepaied
alldpfedictedthcappe缸 anCCandmamrajUnUf
theCR.AbchaviUral intelⅣ en位 UnStudyshUwed
that tr缸 ningexperienceenhancedsynap位 ceffi-
cacy㏑ theh●pUcampus:a丘 ereyeblinkcU1
dijU血 ng, s位 mulatiUn applied tU the perfUraIlt
pa仕 l(an虹 Ψ吧t tUtheⅡ ppUcampus)UftTained
aIlllnals evUked l缸 ger mUnUsynaptic pUpula＿
位Un spⅡ 《港 in dCntate granule ceIls. Enhanced
respUnSeS in pyraImdal neurUns pcrsisted even
in the hippUcaΠ Iγ Ⅱ sIices taken frUln tr缸 ned
an㏑ als and assessed in vitrU, sugges位 ng that
thcchangeshadbecUmeintnnsictUthehippU-
cal19pus. SlImlar ⅡeurUnal activity mUdel vas
、
alsU dctected ill the cerebe1lum. Unit ac位 vity
changesin thedeepcerebellarnuclei一 especially
the iIlterpUsitus nucleus一 alsU preccded alld
predictedthepefUrmanccUftheCR.
The rUles Uf these 小〃U Stn℃ turcs w釭 e diS-
tinguished by sUma位 c inteⅣ en位 Un studies.
LesiUns Uf thc cerebe1luln Ur thc interpUsitus
nucleusabUlishedacquisitiUll in sinlplcdeIaycd
cIassicalcUndi位 UningbuthadnUeffectUnper-
fUlImance Uftlle ILIR, 汙ichI-uled Uut invUlve-
ment Uf pe1.fUmance 、factUrs and Suggested
a causal rUle Uf dis structure in tlle task. In
cUntraSt,hippUcampa1lesiUnshadlittlceffectUn
acquisitiUn Ur expreSSiUn UfCRin tlle 血 Ⅱ Ψ le
delayedclassicaleyeIdcUnditiUning,suggesjng
thatactivityin thehippUcanlpus〔 上dnUtbcarany
neCeSS鈕 yrUle in CRpafU1l1lance. Yet㏑ ppU-
callpa1 lesiUns did abUlish leaΠ ing in mUre
cUmplex paradigms such as trace cUnditiUning
andcUndi位 UnaIUrrcv田 Saldisc㏕ na位 Unlearn-
ing,sugges位 ngthattheh● pUcanlpussubsⅨ Ves
adifferent rUle thantIle c盯 ebe1lum. The trace
cUnditiUned respUnse has becn cUmpared tU
human decl泛 ΥajVe memU〃 bccause a、 K【 eness
Ufthe CS一 US tempUral cUntinb.cncy is apre-
rcquisitefUrsucceSSfulacquisi位 Unin iacecUn-
di位 Uning(C1鈕 k&Squle,1998).
The circuit and mechanisIn invUlved in the
cUnditiUnedreflexengagingeither s位 uCturewas
fLlrthcr delineated by use Ufa cUnstellatiUn Uf
methUds.FUrexample,in thecerebellarc士 cuitl,,
tempUra, and revelsible lesiUns were used tU
distiⅡ guish between structllIes mediating plas＿
jc丘 yandtllUscme山 ajngtlleUutputfrUm tlle
plasjc site, w㏑ ch cUuld nUt be prUpe1.ly dis-
sUciatedbypermanent lesiUn studies.InhibitU,
che血 calagentsUrlUcalcUUlingwereapplicdtU
e丘 her the ante五 Ur inte卬 Usitus nucleus, 〃hich
、
presumablykam葡 Urs加eUfplasticity,Ul-tUls
effcrent sites such aS thc supe五 Ur cerebel上 【
pedunclealldtllerednucleus.Ⅲ egeneralfind-
ings KΥ e that suppressiUn Ufthe intel-pUsitus
、
nuclcusduΠ ng仔ainingb1UckedperfUⅢ ancein
acquisi位 Unandtheanimals shUwednUtraceUf
retentiUn &丘 er the b1Uckade was lifted and nU
68 勸 死用 atjUKaJHaKdbU此
saving ifsu● jected tU retrai血 ng. Un the Uther
hand,supprcssingsitesefferenttUtheinterpUsitus
nucleusduhngtrainingblUckedperfUIllIanceiⅡ
acquisi位 Un, but the an土 hals shUwed eXce1lent
pcrfUrnlanceiⅡ tes位 ngUncethesuppressiUnwas
lifted, sugges位 ng that thc suppressed site was
nUtessenualfUr plas位 ciytUUccllr.
LUng︻ teπndepressiUn(LTD)Uccu㎡ ngin the
cerebellarPuik上可ece11shasbeen prUpUsedasa
mechanismfUr plas位 citYunde1.lyingslnpleclas＿
sic㏕ cUndijUning. LTD invUlves activajUn Uf
」utamatemetabUiUpicfeceptUrs.ArccentSmdY
the newly deve1Uped gene-knUck-Uut
utilizinε
techniqueprUduccdlll1cewhUdidnUtcxpressa
specific type UfmetabUtrUpic glutalnate recep-
tUrs仍 GJ切Rf).Theresults shUwedthatthcse
mutant IYllce ╮KΥ c deficientbUth in LTD and
eyebIiⅡ kcUndijU血 ng (於dbacta1., 1994), sug一
gcsingacUⅡ elajUnbetweenaneuralmechan-
1smandbchav1Ur.
TheinvUlvementUfthecerebeIluΠ landhippU-
calIlpus inclassicalcUnditiU血 nghas alsUbeen
investigated in human bcings. Studies using
pU盂 trUne血 s㎡ UntUmUgraphy(PET)fUundth飩
cYebⅡ nkcUn山 位U血 ng㏑ humans inσeascd斟 u＿
cUsemetabUⅡ sInUr1UcalcerebralblUUdflUwUf
the cerebe1lar and ㏑ ppUcalIlpal 缸 eaS, amUⅡ g
Utllerre主 U且 S,CUnSi斑eIltWiththc丘 n山 nb.sfI.Um
rabb丘 s (TiΠ IⅡann ct a1., 1996). FurtheHmUrc,
pajents Ⅵ注th uniIateral cerebcllar pathUlUgy
wcrenUtabletUacquIcacUndijUnedeyeblink
respUnsc(Bracha,ZhaU,Wundcrlich,MUrIlssy,
&BlUedel, 1997).IncUntrast,aIIlIlesicpa位 cnts
with damage in the ㏑ ppocaa玨 x汪 缸 Ca CUuld
acquire all eyebhnk cUn山 位Uned reSpUnse in a
delayedcUndijU血 ngp缸 adi..mbutfailedtUdU
sUinatracecUndijU㎡ Ⅱgparadi日m(C上Υk&
Squle, 1998), agaln repIcajngtheflndings in
nUnhumall species. Thus, al1 the results frUm
human and nUnhuman smdies elllplUyingvari-
UuS tec㎞ ques cUnverge in indicating that the
cercbelluIn plays a chtical rUIe in me山 ating
classicalcUⅡ di位 UningUfcer位 垃nsUmajcrefIexes.
45 MUTURBEHAvIUR:REFLExEs,
MUvEMENTsANDACTIUNs
ThebehaviUrUfpeUplcalldUthcra血 mals dis-
plays a great v色 Hety, rallging fi.Um relaively
S山 mΨ le renexes tU cUUrdinatedmUvements and
eXtending tU cUmplcx acts Ur actiUn pattcrns.
tISu巨1lyweareinterestedinactsUrac位 Unpattems
一 cUmplex,sequen位 albehaviUrs,frequentlyUh一
cntedtUw缸 dSagU㏕ 一 butevcnreIIexescante1l
usmuchabUuttheprinciplcsUfbehaviUrandits
bUdilymecha㏕ sms.
An addⅡ Unal reasUn fUr 位泓dng up mUtUr
behaviUrhereis thatIllUstUfthechapters in吐 is
tP.v&UJU緲
bUUkUllllt任 is tUpic,simplyassulⅢ ngthatIllen-
talUrcUgniiveprUcesseswil1betranslatedintU
behavlUr Ur lntU Ⅱ士ibiuUn Ufbehav1Ur. SUme
psychUlUgists aⅡ d inVes位 gatUrs ㏑ related dis-
ciplines,hUwever,haVemadeprUgresSinSmdy-
㏑g hUw activity Uf muscles and glands is
evUkedandcUUrdinated.
ReⅡ exes
Intheseve乎teenthcentu呼 ,thephⅡ UsUpherRen芭
DeSC田 比eS nUtedthat sUmerespUnscs appcartU
UccurautUmaticallytU certain stInu上 . IIe sup一
pUsedthattheneuralenergyUfthestimulus is
cUnductedtUthespinalcUrdandth芭 rerc且 ected
(whence the telIIl ‘ refleX’ ) back Uut tU the
muscles,elici位 ngtherespUnSe.Atthat位me,the
diffe1.cnce between senSUΓ y neⅣ es and mUtUr
nerves hadnUtyetbeenrecUgnized. Tlis was
acⅡ evcd early in the 血ncteenth centu.◤ by
CharlesBe1landΓ rangUisMagendie,anditgave
hsetUthecUnceptUfthercflexarc.Latein the
nineteenth and e田 dy in the twentieth centu呼 ,
inves位 gatUrSSuchasCharleSSh田 ingtUn studied
thela、 vsUfreflexac伍 Un. Sh咖 gtUnandIvan
PavlUvbelievcd thatbehaviUrcUuIdbe under-
stUUdasa。 h血 nUfsuccessiVereflcxes,butthis
viewwaSlatershUwntUbeUvcr-sLmpIe.Rather,
much behaviUr, ranging frUm 1UcUmU位 Un tU
Speech, appe紅 S tU be Ur..anized by plans Ur
prUgramsthataIecStablishedbefUreactSUccl1r,
rath引 Γthan each mUvcment being tllggered by
thepreviUusUne.FUrexample,、 vaⅡ dngisgUv︻
emedin pa㏄ byaprUgraIn integratedatthelevel
Uf the spin㏕ cUrd, as shUwn in studies 位th
an㏑ als inwl注 chthespinalcUrdhasbeenscpar一、
atedsurg比 ㏕玗 frUmthebr血 n(BrUwn,191l).
NUtUnlycansuchanimalswalkUnaieadIIll1l,
buttheycancUn位 nuetUdUsUafteftranscc位 Un
Uf tlle dUrsal rUUts deprives tllelll Uf SensU〃
input. Thus, wa1㏑ ng appe缸 S tU rely Un an
intΠ nsic mUtUr prUgraIn rather than being a
sensU〃 -ins位 gatedre且 ex.
In the casc Uf specch, Ulder explanatiUns in
temsUfsensUry-respUnseunits,each㏑ gganng
the next, have given way tU explanatiUns in
terIns Uf planS in wlich each speech unit is
Ie
Placedinalargerpattem. SUmc位 mesuni“ 〔
Ⅱ止sp㏑ ced,althUughthepattem必 presaⅣ ed:
‘
Uur qucer Uld dean’ , s缸 d EngIiSh clergyman
V而 1上 alnSpUUner,whenhemcant,‘ UurdcarUld
’
queeη . (SpUUner Was sUprUne tU llllX up the
UrderUfsUunds in〕 is sentencesthatthis typeUf
eⅡ Ur is called a spUUnaΠ sm.) Such lIllstakeS
rcVealaplan:thespeaker isanticipa位 ngalatcr
SUund and execujng it tUU sUUn. A chain Uf
rcflcxeSwUuldnUtbesu°jecttUsucheⅡ Urs.
Even in tσ Πns Ufre且 exes, behaviUris mUre
CUlIlplicated tIlan UriginaIly suppUsed. FUr Une
 P”ε九UJθ gv9KBtUtUg比 atJtrk9Pε ε′jvε
thing, reIlexes can be mU血 fled and acquied
thfUugh竹 aLⅡ Ⅱg,a且 dtheCUnceptUfcUndijUⅡ
reflexeshasbeen ilnpUnant,bcgin血 ngearIyin
thetwen位 ethcentu,,aSdeSc五 bedearIk】 in士 is
chapteralldmUrefu1lyinChapter6.FUfanUther,
thereiS,9t厖 ε′工vtPUtε Kt′arjUKUfre且 exesandUf
theunde且 yingneuralcircuits.
SelectivePotentia伎 Un
Selec位 VepUtcntiatiUn referS tU the fact that, at
any givcn d└ Ⅱe, 山 e acjVity Uf ccr位 un nellr㏕
cicuits is cnhal1ced, wh釭 eaS aCtiVity Uf Uthcr
c士 cuits is i血 bited.FUranexalmpleUfUpcra位
Uft㏑ s princlple,cUnsidcrhUWananⅢ al isable
tU walk Uver fUugh, uneve且 terrain. V√ ㏕㏑ ng
i invUlvestwUphases UfmUvement ineachleg:
﹉(1)theswingphasewhenthe比 mbisUfftlle
s出
﹉
器唱驟 者怒 毬
;拷 si:｜
:;i稅
::1:::〡 ︴ 楚
:｜
prUvidingsuppUrt鉏 dprUpulsiUn,㏑ vUlvingthc
｜exteⅡ s㏑ nrencx.NUrIna1ㄅ ,tll㏄ etwUph器 eS缸 e
｜
三響 s品 f丐騽吼點f鈏眾為者蜜
﹉UbstacleisencUulltered?FUrexaIIlple,whathap吋
:pens ifdtlringmUvemelltatapiSdelⅣ eredtU
︳tllefrUntUfthepaw?This is thep田 Π UfthefUUt
﹉tllatis mUst likelytUcncUuntersUme血 ngthat
｜m玷 望lt㎡
pthea㎡ malUrpush丘 sfUUtUutfrUm
﹉under it.
﹉ ExpehInentsUⅡ t㏑ ShaVebeendUnew北 hcats
㏑
﹉ w㏑ chthespin.alcU1.dwassepal缸 edSⅢ gic㏕ lY
﹉f1.Umtheb1.ain.FUrssb田 g,GrⅡ 1ner,andRUssignU1
i(1975)fUuhdthatthesames山
mⅢ ustUthefrUnt
UfthefUUtcUuldevUkee丘 her且 e虹 UnUrexten中
｜
〡s㏑ n,dependingUn tllephaseUfthclegmUv←
｜mentwhen tllctapw小 delⅣ ered.Intheswing
phase,thetapeⅡ ci“ ne蒞 Un㏑ al1thejUin怕 Uf
﹉theleg;任 ishΠ sthelegalldmη al1Uw丘 tU
∴dearanUbstacleth餃 ΠiglltUthelwi㏄ tl1pthe
一C飩 .Ifthes刉 metap isdeliveredasthecat is
﹉
﹉S怕 ft㏑ gthcstancephase,thestilmul飩 ㏑ncl㏑ i你
UrS行 engthens theextensiUnrenex,sUamUving
U切 ectthatrⅢ ghthave§ wept tllecat’ sfUUtUut
frUm under it is less likely tU dU sU. Thus, a
giVen s位 mulus dUes nUt by itself deterIIllne a
re且 exreSponse;therespUnseisdeterlIunedalsU
bytllestateUftllea血 malatthetimcUfs位 mula-
tiUn.ThepΠ ncipleUfselec位 VepUtcn位 atiUncan
㏕ sUbeappliedtUsUmcquesjUnsUfInU位 va位 Un
discussedinChapter11.
As weIl as selecjVe pUtentiatiUn, thcre is
x泛 ε〞jvε jK乃 泌 orjUK. A 勤Π㎡ iar example is tllc
i血bitiUnUfthelimbandneckmuSclesduΠ llg
sleep.SUmetinesthis inhibijUndUesnUtexactly
cUincide、 江thsIeep.、 IanypeUplehavehadthe
ullpleasantexpe五 enceUffeeIingp缸 alyzedjust
befU犯 gdngtUsleep㏄ ju血 aft“ W旅㏑g;a
SurVey Uf thc general pUpula位 Un in G咖 any
69
aIldItaly shUwedtllat abUut 6% haVehad山 北
cd cxpe五 ence (UhayUn, :乙 u1ly, Gui1lelIllnault, 口
交
S屾 c, 1999).ThereisalsUthepathUlU舒 cal
cUndijUn knUwnascataplexyinwhchapσ sUn,
althUugh relllalning cUnsciUus, suddenly 1Uses
muScletUncaIldf缸 l1StUthcgrUundin mUments
Uf emU位 Un, espccially laughter. ηVhile inves-
tiga位 ngca位吜iexy,rescarchers iⅡ theNethcrlands
fUundthatmusclctensiUn in thelegsUfnUma1
su切 ects decⅡ 且ed markcdly duhng laughter
(Uvereem,LaIIlIIlⅨ s,&VanD巧 k,199ㄌ .η ∟ s
may exp㏑ ㏑ why expressiUns hke ‘weak、 位th
laughter’ Uccl1rin manylanε uages.
ChrU血 c selecjve 虹iⅡbi位 Un Uf thc facia1
Un muSculatureiswe1l knUwn inP缸 k㏑ SUn’ s&s-
ease,andrecentIyithasbecnrepUltedfUrpajentS
w丘 h schizUphlellla (Khng, 1999).CUmp缸 ed
泣thnUnpatlents, sc㏑ zUphreniapajentsex㏑ bit
、
fewUutw缸 d血 留唸 UfemUjUn,althUughrecUrd＿
ings f1.UIn facial Illusclcs reveal Vcry smal1,
subtle facial activity characterisjc Uf different
emUjUnS. In rcspUnse tU emU位 U且 ㏕ S伍 muI,
schizUpllrenia pajents repUrt experlencing aS
much emU位 Un as nUnpa伍 ents. Thus tl9e sUcia1
mterac位 UnsUfthepa位 entsareilmpairedbythel
lackUfnU1Ⅲ lalfacialrcspUnses.HereisanUther
caSe where biU1Ugic㏕ cUndijUn 征ⅡbCtS sUcia1
rcIa位 Uns.
VaHe位 esUfⅣ IUtUrBehavior
Table 4.1 presents a claSSificatiUn in which
mUtUrbehaviUr isarrangedinahierarchy,〝 江山
silnple reflexes at the tUp, pfUcecding ncxt tU
mUre cUmplex mUvements, and tllen tU mUre
cUnlpIex acts, ranging frUln 1UcUmUtiUn tU
acqu士 edski1ls.Eventhere且 exescanbernUdined
bycUndijU血 ng,aSwehaVeseen,tUreSpUnsetU
newUralteredstimuli.ThcexaIIlpIeStUw缸 dthe
bUttUmUfthetablerelyleSSandleSsUn innate
reΠ exarcs.
LeveIsofCUⅡ trUIUfⅣ IUtUrBehaviUr
ThecUntrU1UflnUtUrbehaviUris implementedat
SeV研al different levels Ufthe nervUus systeΠ l,
depicted ㏑ simplified fas㏑ Un in Figure 4.5.
MUtUrneurUns
＿ in theventralhUrnUftheSpinal
cUrdUrthebraln stelm sendUutaxUns tUlnner-
vatemuSclcsUfthebUdyandfacere夢 Uns.These
且b田 SgcnerallyreleaSeacetylchUⅡ newhichacts
Un nicU位 血 c receptUrs. 失 mUtUr ncurUn alUng
庄th its 山Ⅲlq╮ πatcd muscle 且b併 S CUnStitutes
、
a mUtUr u血 t. FUr exaImple, muscleS fUr eye
mUvementshavean inn“ vatlUnratiU(axUns tU
muscle fibcrs) UfrUughly Une tU th1.ee, 〃hile
、
thUse in tlle leghave aratiU UfUne tU severa1
hundrcds. The fewer tlle number Uf muscle
fibersamUtUrneurUn inncrvateS,theflneriSthe
7U r,Itθ r,zatjUJ,aJHa,1′ tU滅 tP玾 ε/IUJU紗

Table4.l Aε Ja∫ ∫′ εaπ UKφ ㄏ ｝9IUvε ηKη 你 a9Iσ aε 沁

蛾 ova9Iε 9I你 Exa9,IP/c,∫

Simplerenex Stretch,kneejerk,sneezillg,startle,eyeblink,pupi1la./cUntlactlon
PUStureandpUsturalchanges Standing,real1ng,lying,balancing,sitting,urinatiUnpUsture
SensUryUrientatiUn Headtuming,tUuching,eyenxatiUn,snifnng,ear rnUVement,tasting

Aε r∫
LUcUmot1Un Wa1㏑ ng,creeping,running,crawling,s、 vinlllung,Stalklng,nying,hUpping
Specics-typicalacⅡ UnpatternS
IngestiUn Tasting,chewing,biting,sipping,drinking
CUultshipdisplay Snifnng,chasjng,retrea位 ng
Escapeanddefense Hissing,spitting,subnlissiUn posture,covˊ Cring
GrUUΠ l1ng Was㏑ ng,preeni㎎ ,licking
Gestufes Grilnacing,tailerectlUn,squinting,tUUthbaΠ ng,snliling
Acquiredskills Speech,tUUluSe,dresSing,painting,sculpting,dhvingacal,spUrtS,dancing

∫U“ Ka RUsenzweigeta1., 1999

su● jectedtUmUduIajUnbyexperienceandUther
‥…●rV﹉ ﹉﹉﹉
。 tb一 ●δrt● 〩
㏑δ pSychU1Ugical factUrs. ThiS is accUmplished by
supraSpinal inputs cUnveying Signals tU cUntrUl

｜ °
叫 … r mary
1UcUmUtiUn, UrientatiUn, pUsture and balance,
specieS-sPecinc behaviUr, and SkilIed 1Ⅱ UtUr
σ 涯

motU
。 cUrte× actS. IIUwever, the spinal cUrd ShUuld nUt be
viewed as merely arelay deVice that扛 anSlateS
=引
┐—〢┘

thecentral Urperipheral inputs intUmUtUracts.

一
﹉

asa︳
﹉

Evidence indicates that in vertebrates, spina1

﹉﹉

ang∥ a
cicuits subservcthefunctiUnUfacentfalpattem
｜odu｜ atiUr
generatUrthatengenderS rhythnic Ⅱ1UtUraCⅡ V一
ityfUrlUcUmUtiUn(Gri11nereta1., 1995). Spinal
mUtUr neurUnS thus cUUrdinate their intrinsic
Cer● be∥ ar pattems Uf activity with extIlnsic infUrmatiUn
mUdu︳ ati° n frUlll variUus sUurceS and serve as the nna1
CUllllmUnpathwayUfthemUtUrSyStem.
E>irectcentlal inputs tUspinalmUtUrneurUnS
arise f1.UⅡ1the cerebral cUΠ ex and SUllle brain-
stemnuclei Thesedescendingnber tractsexelt
excitatUfyandinhibitUryinfIuenccsUnthemUtUr
MuscIes ηuscIeS neurUnS. The cUI.ticaI area subserving mUtUr
Ufheadandneck UfbUdy
、 functiUns is mainly 1Ucatedin the frUnta1 lUbe.
The priIⅡ 呷 mUtUr cUfteX ShUⅥ /S ∫U刀 !θ tUξUP′ ε
Figure46 Brat,I∫ rr切 εt切 rθ ∫ j9IvU′ vtJ′ J, U,‘ af打 zarjUK;that is,mUtUrcUntrUlUfa由 acent
〃竹 ㄌ r6Uη r9-pJ.rAiaPrε σ wj功 pa物 j“ bη r,U,,i
bUdy partS iS mapped intU a由 acent regiUns Uf
RU∫ θK‘ wε ′
g,Lθ ′,ta刀 ,&BKε ˊ
〞 the priIllafy mUtUr cUrteX, and the amUunt Uf
JUvθ ,f9夕 p.,
cUrtical tissue devUted tU a specific bUdy part
reflects its fineness UfmUtUr cUntrUl; thus the
且1UtUrcUntrU1.MUtUrneurUns that innervatethe mUtUr repreSenta位 Un Ufparts invUlved in tUUl
SalⅡ e muscle aggregate intU nuclei Ur cUlumns manipulatiUn (hands and fingers) and speech
and may extend Uver seVeral spinal segmentS. (lips and tUngue) aIe disprUpUr位 Unately huge.
SpinalmUtUrncufUnSreceiveinputsfrUΠ 1s㎞ n, The cUrticUspinal tlact (alSU called the pyra＿
jUints, tendUns, and muscleS Such sUlllatU- lllldal tlactduetUitswedgeshapein thcllledulla)
SenSUry infUrmatiUn is capable Uf activajng aHses frUlll pyralIlldal neurUnS in the 1Ⅱ UtUr
spinal reflexes fUr maintaining pUsture (thc cUfteX. :Γ his tract cUntainS ㏑ ge-dianleter and
S竹 etchrcneX),prUtectiUnfI.UⅢ i珀 uryahe且 ex一 fast＿ cUnductingaxUnSandiSinvUlvedin oUntrU1
iUn1:eilex),andsUfUfth.Whilcthesercflcxesare Uf且 nelllUvelllentSin田 ΠmS,handS, and且 ngerS.
mediated tlllUughintra＿ Ur inter一 Segmental cir＿ Damagingthis tractin mUnkeysimpairs lllanuaI
cuitlylinkedbyexcitatUryUr inhibitUrysynapses deXtel1tybutwithUut signi五 canteffectsUnlUcU-
wi仕 in tIle sPinaI cUrd, they are nUnethcless mUtiUn and reaching (Lawrence & KuyPeis,
 P∫ vε 九UJUgv切
1968a).FibersfrUnl thebfainStemnuclei prU-
jec位 ngtU spinal mUtUr neurUns bolUng tU the
cxtra-pyraIl1dalsystem,anddamagein士 is sys-
tenlin mUllkeysleadstUdeficits in lUcUmUtiU且
andpUsture(LaWrence&Kuyp釭 S,19‘ 8b).
BehaviUral neurUscien位 sts bcgaⅡ tU under＿
stand hU、 / the mUtUr cUrtex cUlIllnands mUVc-
mentsbymU㎡ tUringcU」 巨c巨 1neurUn 血 sch缸geS
in mUⅡkeys pe1.fU」 EⅡ ng specific mUtUr acts.
Ac位 VityUfsinglcncurUnsdidnUtbcaraclear＿
cutre㏑jUnsh● withsUme垀 pesUfmUv芭 ments.
In a series Uf studies, GeUI-gUpUulUs (1997)
iaincd mUnkeys tU mak● arm mUvementS in
reac㏑ ng tU dghtpUSSible t缸 get diectiUns eIi-
citedbys玷 乒I址 s in tllUse山 recjUns;herccUrded.
neurUnal iiΠ ng in the pnInarY mUtUr cUrtex
simultaneUuSly with the mUvement. PlUtting
tlle disch缸 gc rat。 s Uf specinc ncurUns ag缸 nst
V田 巨Uus d士 ectiUns Uf mUvements rcVc斑 ed a
dicctiUn一 tuΥ lingcuⅣ ein tllerespUnseUfmany
mUtUr neurUns. That ls, a neurUn altered its
fi五 ng rate accUrding tU the 山 cctiUn Uf the
reach. Each neurUn 且red mUst f1.equently at
Une Ufthe directiUns, aild S1UWed dUwn as tllc
devlatlUn frUm this best dL℃ ct1Un lncreased.
HUWeVcr, thc mUvement was nUt deterImned
sUlely by tlle neurUn cUding the mUvemellt
dtectiUnas itsbestdiecjUn.InStead,apUpula-
tiUn UfneurUns was ac位 vated shUI.tly phUr tU
anddu五 ngtheInUVement,andthevectUrsuⅡ 1Uf
pUpulatioⅡ ac位 vi位 es cUrrelated best
泣th the
、 Keshaven,&Kate句 i,1998).
diectiUnUfmUvement.InafUllUw-up studytU
dis位 nguish whether such activity is mUtUr一
rclated Ur sensU〃 -related, GeUrgUpUulUs and
cU1labUratUrs tr釭 nedthc lmUhkey tU perfUl八 ll a
delayedreacⅡ ngtask.Asign㏕ 9Udegreesaway
frUIntheintendedmUvemcntappearedandSUUn
tumedUf∴ ThemUnkeyhadtU、 〃aitfUrapenUd
afterthesignaltⅡ sappeπedandthenreachin the
intended dicctiUn. RecUrding frUm a pUpula-
tiUnUfcUrticalneurUns shUwedthesuIllmatiUn
VectUrgradllallyshiftingfrUnl thc signaldiec-
tiUn tU the reaching direcjUn duhng thewak一
ing pehUd, siIIlIlar tU a mental rUtauUn Uf
mUvement.
ThenatureUfneuralcUdingfUr rnentalfeaturcs
has been an issue fLlndaInen位 Ⅱ tU research in
biUlUgical psychU1Ugy. The sU-c巨 lled ‘ single
neurUndUctrine’ suggests tllatactiVityUfsingle
neurUns is capable Uf fUrⅡ Ⅱng unitary mental
representatiUns, whereas Uther theU五 es insist
thatrepresentatiUn Ufmcntal acjvity relies Un
ensembles UfneurUns. WVhⅡ ebUth views have
siengthandweakness in guidingresearchand
intelpretingnndings,thcresultsUfGeUrgUpUuIUS
give Unc Uf tlle best exalllples tllat traits Uf
behaviUr (山 recjUn UfmUVement in 仕is case)
缸 e represented by cUlIective activitics in a
pUpulajUnUfneurUns.
BoUZUgjUatPe卬 P“ 〞jvε 71
SUmebralllStructuresdUnUt pr〢 ectdiectly
tU the spinal cUrdbutnUnetheless cxeItaprU-
fUundin且 uellceUnmUtUrfuncjUns; Une set is
the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia cUn位 Ⅱn
several dis位 nct but intercUnnected palts. TⅡ s
S甘uCture rcceives inputs frUm mUSt Uf the
cereb1.al cUrtcx and the th㏕ amus as we1l as
dUpalmnⅨgicpr由 ecjUnSf1.Um tllebr缸 nstem.
UutputUfthebasalganglh,且 UWingtllrUa虫 i於
cUmplicated 上le江n㏕ ClCui㏑ cs, is funneled tU
the ffUntal cUrtex and braInstem. The baS㏕
gangliacicuitl,appe缸 StUmUdulate1㏑ b and
eye mUvement. It may bc invUlvcd in rep-
resentatiUnUfse五 a1UrderUflearnedaⅡ dinnate
mUtUrsequenccs. IntaSks invUlv㏑ g sequeⅡ tial
mUvementS,baSalganglianeurUns nredlUUms
Ur mUre in advance Ufthe activi妙 Ufmuscles
(Kerlna山 &JUseph,1995).NeulUn㏕ dkch缸 geS
in thesupplemental,mUtUrarea,am勾 Urtargct
Uf the basal ganglia, have been shUwn tU be
selecjve tU sequences Uf mUVemcnts V︻ th a
sped丘 cUrder(T缸 心 i&S㏑ lIla,199Φ .P缸 nSUn’ s
㏑
discase invUlves degenera位 Un UfdUpaImnσ gic
丘bers pr句 ecjngtUthebasrdlganglia,山 sl-llpting
func位 Unalbalallcein tllebasalgaⅡ gIiacircuit〃
andresultingin mUvemeⅡ tdifficulties.Pa扛 entS
wih Ubsessive一cUmpulSiVe disUrder 缸 e pre-
Uccupied 泣th recuIent SkΥ eUtypic scquence
Uf bchaviUr、 Ur thUughts. Recent eVidence
shUwsthatthcyhaVc血 ncjUnalabnUlill㏕ iyin,
amUngUtllers,thcbasalgangIia(Saba,Dastur,
WeInen位 Unedthecercbe1lum in theIast part
UfScctiUn4.4in regardtUits rUleincUn&位 Un吽
ing, but the inlpUrtance Uf thc cerebe1lum in
regard tU mUtUr cUn任 Ul WaS recUgnized even
e缸 h㏄ ,becau肥 上」uhestUthecerebellumcause
impaIrnents in mUtUr cUUrdinatlUⅡ . V往 巨Uus
partsUfthecerebe1lumreccivecercbralcUItical
alldUthercentraIinputs tllrUughpUntinenuclei
aswc1laspe… h“ ㏕ inputsf1.Umthesp㏑ alcU1.d
andvestibulafnuclei. Inputs tU tllec“ ebellum
al-e carIled by the mUSsy fibcrs and c1Ⅱ hbing
fib盯 S.ThCSeinputsexcrtcUnVergentexcitatU〃
e【㏄ 必 UnPⅢ ㏑ n” nellrUns,w㏑ ch缸 Cthem苟 Ur
UutputneurUns Ufthe cefebcllarcUrtcx. AxUns
UftllePurh句 cceⅡ sfUnn inljbitUI●zsynap㏄ s
ontU the deep ccrebellar nuclei, wⅡ ch in turn
pr句 eatUthemUtUrcUrtcXandUtllerfl-UIli扭
regiUns andtUmUtUrneurUns in thebr斑 n stem
andspinalcUrd.TheaccessUfthecerebelluIIltU
an in由 ﹂cate set Uf infUrmatiUn and tU bUth
pyfaIIudaIandextl-apyraΠ Ida1lnUtUrsyStemsas
weIl as it忘 Urderly in幻 巨nsic UrganizatiUn haVe
invitedspecula位 UnUn tllefuncjUn it subserves
and山 emechanisnl tUaccUnlplish山 efunc位 Un.
IntheMⅢ andAlbusmUdcl(Albus,1971),山 e
c“ ebelIarPur㏑ 水 cel1witll丘 stwUinPutsfunc＿
tiUnsasaleaming-machinecapablcUfdetecting
andreducingeIUff1.UmapreSetchteriUn.The
72 UKaJ力 匕KttUU北 ↙
仇 比羽 a〞 三
vesjbu1U-Ucularre且 ex(VUR)refeHtUsWift
mUvcmentUftheeyeba1l inad士 ectiUnUppUsite
tU head tu血 ng in Urder tU maintalIl a Stable
visual image. The inVUlvement Ufthe cerebel-
luⅡ l Un UfVUR sup-
in eXPenential mU&fica位
pUrts 血 sidea(ItU,1998).Th6la田 ㏕ng斑 bili垀
mayplay an ilnpUrtant rUle in afullctiUn gen-
erallyatiibutedtUtheccrebe1lulIl:cUUrdina位
UfmUtUr prUga㏕ ng Ur 位血 ng fUr rapid Uf
autUma伍 cmul位 句U上ltcUmpl㏑ atedmUvcment.
GrU、 庄ngevidencehas indicatedthatthecerebe1-
lunl is invUlvednUtUnlyin mUtUrle血 ngbut
㏕ sUinUth㏄ Ⅱ ghercUg血 位vefuncjUnsSuchaS
laI.guagcandve1.balwUitngmcmUry(DesmUnd
&Π ez,1998).
TU StudentS in biUlUgical psychU1Ugy,
mUstchallengingqueS位 UncUncemingthcstudy
Uf｛hemUtUrsystcnl ishUwthebrain iaIlsRIs
cmUtiUn, mUtiVatiUn, visual signals,
instlmctiUns, as well as sclf-generated thUughts
incIu山 ngplaⅡ s, intentiUⅡ , and〝 店ll intU mUtUr
behaviUr.Recentevidencebegins tUaddress t㏑
issue, yet tllepictureis f缸 frUmCle缸 . In rats
alldcatS,tllemidbrain pcⅡ aqueductalgray(PAG)
appears tU mcdiate sUme reactiUns elicitcd by
emUt㏑ halSjlnuli(Balld1釭 &Shipley,199Θ
PartUfits inputde五 vesf1.Unl tlleIimbiccUrtex,
hypU血 alamus, and alnYgdala, a11 UfWlich 缸 e
impIcatedinemU位 Una)functiUns(seeChaptcr
1砂 .S位mulating山 fferent p田 小 UftIlePAG
arUuSeSV田 dUuSkndsUfspecies一 specificdefens-
ive behaviUr. Evidence has shUwn that fibers
pr句 ec位 ngfrUmthcccntr㏕ amygdalUidnudeus
tUt1lecentralgraymediatethefreeZingrespUnse
duΠngfearcUndiuUning(LeDUux, 1995).
AⅡ UthcrcⅡ tical structurein t㏑ sregardis the
basalganglia.AdUrsalpartUfthebasalganglia
° Ursal s色 iamm)appearsφ beaiticaIfUrassU-
ciajnganUp“ allt reSpUnsetUaspecificsjmu-
lusre㏑ fUrccdby犯 W.ards(〕 ⅥcDUn㏕ d&瑪 伍ite,
1993).Ⅳ Iu.hattcnjUnhasrecentlybecnp缸 dtU
thenucleusaccumbeⅡ SlyiⅡ gatthcvcn由 【Ⅱ Side
Ufthebasa1..anglia.tlis s如 CiⅡ ereceives lllulti-
mUdality scnsU, infUmatiUn frUm the liImbic
SyStem.It is inneⅣ atedbybr缸 nsteIlldUpa血 n一
efgic flbers, the ac伍 Vity Uf which haS been
implkX此 edinexpectancyUf㏄ ward(Schultz,
1998). Thenucleus accumbens g血 ns accesStU
mUtUrfunc位 UnbywayUfthefrUnt.alcUrtexand
theeX甘 apyraⅡ 土dal System. 〝I缸狂pula位 ngfunc-
tiUnsUfthenucleusaccumbenshasbcenshUwn
tU alter pcrfUl lliancc in instlmmenta1 lcaΓ ning
tasks including t1lUse using addictivc drugs as
reW缸 d(Kalivas&NakaInⅢ a,1999),suggeSjng
the impUrtance Uf士 Ⅱs Structure in interfacing
mU伍 vatlUnal and mUtUr cicu丘 s (MUrgensUn,
JUncs,&Yim,198U).
HUwthUughts lead tU acts rem缸 ns 1缸 gely a
mystcI-V. The nnding tllat readiness pUtentialS
recUrded fl-Unl humans pelfUming vUluⅡ 位Iy
P砂 ε九θㄌgv
acts precededsu切 ec位 VeawarencSsUfinten&ng
tUmUVeby35UtU4UUms(L山 et,1985)6m缸 ns
mUst intrlguing tU anyUne cUntemplajng tllc
rela位 Unsh● betwceⅡ 土 朮entbnandmUvemellt.
h6Ust, ifnUt 茁l1, UfmUtUrbchaViUr acts Un Ur
reacts tU s位 muli in the envirUnment. Thus,
themUtUrs於 temInustwU1.k illtim缸 elywitll
Un tllesensU=ysystems. ThephlIlal,mUtUrcUrtex
recdves dlrect pr句 ecuUns f1.Um血 e sUmatU-
senSU, cUItex. Ⅳ IUtUr ncurUns respUnsible fUr
mUving a specific Part Uf tlle bUdy rcceive
infUma位 onfrUⅡ lsensUη neufUns respUnsivetU
stimulatiUn in thatpaftUfthebUdy.Theseflbefs
may prUvide rapid feedback dⅢ ing manipula一
jUn alld accUuⅡ t fUrthe findings that atac位 le
山e signal is75lnSfaster inelicijngahandmUvc-
ment thanav必 u㏕ signal(Evarts,1974).mle
Visu㏕ system nUnetheless prUvideS crijcal
ve1.bal Un ingukⅡ ngmUtUractS.I● rcaching,
il1fUl llla位
saccadic eyemUvemcntS andheadtu血 ngprc-
cedethehandmUvcment. Ifthecyes andhead
S 缸 epreVcntcdf1.Urn mUVing,thereachingmUVc一
meIltIIllsSeSthet缸get.TheprcmUtUrcUrteXiSa
cU比㏑alre區 UnthatⅡ esjust rUstraltUthep五 -
ma〃 mUtUrcUrtex; it participates in prepanng
. extcma1ly guided sequenjal mUVementS. Thc
dUrsal part Ufjis regiUn recciVeS iⅡ fUrmatiUn
frUm the par沁 tal cUrtex (Wkc, BUussaUud,
JUhnsUn, & CaIIuniti, 1997), whth receives
tlle dUrsal strealll Uf visual infUlI1latiUn 且Uw
invUlved in detecting spatial cues. It is inter-
esⅡ ngtUnUtethatneurUns in sUmcsectUrSUfthe
p引ΠetalcUrtcxandfrUntalcUrtexShUwrecepjVe
IieldsUfbUthvisualalldsUmatUsenSUη /StⅡ Ⅱuli.
InsUmeneurUnsUftlIcscregiUns,thereccpjve
ficldtU visualcues was shUWn tUbemUdined
byhandmUvements(GrazianU&G1.Uss, 1999.
Reac㏑ ng cannUtrelytUtallyUntherejnUtUpic
cUUrdinatetU1Ucatethetarget. As theheadUr
bUdy turns tU different 山rectiUns, images Uf
U切 ects lUc飩 edatdifferent pUS丘iUns in thespace
may fal1 Un the same spUt Uf the retina. Yet
VisualrespUnscsUfSUmeneurUns in thepadetal
lUbe cUuld bc mUdified by the pUsitiUn Uf
gaze(Andersen,Bracewell,B缸 aSh,Gnadt,&
FUgas血 ,199U):neⅢ Un㏕ 山 sch鉎 getUas位 mulus
at the saIne reunUtUpic pUsitiUn Was differen-
位alIyamplincdas amUnkeynxatcditseyesat
different1UcatiUns in space. SuchampIincajUn
V匆°注ngasafunctiUnUfthegazepUsijUna11Uws
iansfUrIllauUnUfare位 nUtUpiccUUrdinateintUa
head-centered Ur bUdy-centered refercnce and
facilitateSreacbingmUvement.ThusthepaHeta1
regiUnmaybean ilIlpUr位 I朮 regiUn incUUrdinat-
ing scnsUhrnUtUr func位 Un in an extraperSUnal
space.
MUtUrbehaviUrshUuldnUtbevicwedUnlyas
theUutputUfInentaIac位 Vity.ItalsUsUmet上 nes
cUntnbuteS tU enΠ ch mental funcuU且 S. ACjve
manipuhjUnUfaⅡ U切 ectwiththchandSand
 P玾 ε几UJUgvjJ2BjUJUgtε aJPe.時 εεrjl,ε
nngers genera1ly 菣ds Uur percepjUn Uf tlle
shapeandsu1.facetextureUftheU切 ect.Further-
mUre, UrgaⅡ isms frUmhuman infants tU many
UtllerSpecicsshU、 vanatufaltendencytUilIlltate
mUtUrbehaviUrUfUthers.RecentlySUmeneurUnS
in therUSialpa㏄ UfthevcⅡ tlal premUtUrcUrtexin
mUⅡ keyS、 〃erefUundtUdiSch缸 gcnUtUnlywhen
t)lemUnkeygraSpedUfmallΦ tllatedU切 ㏄ts,but
alsU vhenthemUnkey Ubservedthe same actS
、
pe1.fUrmedbyanUther individua1.ItiSprUpUsed
tllatthese sU-ca11cd 牡n山 tUrneurUns’ enable an
UrganiSIl tU detect and underStand tlle menta1
statcsUfcUnspccifics.SuchafunctiUnIⅢ ghtbe
‘
rclatedtUfUrⅡ 止nga theUryUfIllInd’ ,、 v㏑ chis
essen位 al fUrdeve1UplIlentUf㏑ gh UrdercUgni-
jVe SUc㏑ l intaac位UnS (GalIese & GUldman,
1Ω 9S9.As止 ㏕ l缸 lIIrUrsy血 emfUrrecUg血 tbn
UfgeSturehasalsUbeendetectedinhuΠ lansby
pUsitrUn ellllSSiUn tUmUgfaphy fUcusing Un a
regiUn includingBrUca’ salea. ThepresenceUf
such an Ubserva位 Un/executiUn matc㏑ ng func-
位Un in a braiⅡ 缸ea Critical fUr language has
invitedspeculatiUnUn its rUlein theeVUlutiUnUf
thehumancUIIununicatiUnSysten1(只㏑zzUlatti&
Albib, 1998).
4.6 SUMEⅣ IAINPRINcIPLESUFBIULUGICAL
PsYcHULUGY
ⅣIaterial in tllsandUtherchaptersUftllebUUk
i1lustrate SUme main pΠ nciples Uf biUlUgica1
psychUlUgy. We cUncludc and summariZe 任is
chapterbyliStingtheseprincipleshσ e.
CUlIIIlIunicatiUn amUng different parts and
SyStemS UfthebUdy Ucclll sbymeans Uftll1.ee
㏑nds Ufmessages 一 neura1, hUlmUnal (endU-
chne),andiIJlllltlneSystemmessages一 andcUm＿
binatiUnsUfthese匕 ndsUfrnessageSalSUUccur.
〝汪USt neura1, hUmUna1, and iIllmunU1Ugica1
cUnlmunica伍 Un invUIves spccialiZcd receptUr
mUlecules thatfespUnd tU Unlypalticu上 IInes…
SengermUlecules. SUη ereceptUrmUlecules 缸e
lUcatedince1lIllembranesandUthersare1Ucated
insidethece11s.
TherC 缸 e bUtll excitatUry and inhibitUly
meSsageSin theneura1,hUfmUna1, andillllllune
systemS.
The neural, hUmUna1, and hⅢ nunc systems
shUw cyclical changes in ac位 vity ranging in
lengthflUlll less thanaday,abUutaday(circa＿
diail),tUabUutayear(circannua1)UrmUre.
The neura1, hUrmUnal, and lllllntlne SyStenlS
缸 ea11Su切 ecttUmU山ncajUnbycxpel沁nceand
lealming.
Thebr缸 nchangeStll1.UughUut life,asafunc-
tiUn Uf bUth endUgenUus (inthnsic) and exU-
gcnUus(ex幻 ﹂nSiC)factUrsandinΠ uences.
73
ThenervUusSyStenl iscUIllpUSedUfSep缸 ate
ce11sthataredistinct stluctura1ly,metabUlica1ly,
andfunctiUna1ly.
The same stimulus input is represented at
SeVefa1 levels and lUcatiUns in neuraI senSUly
Systems, and different hⅡ dS Uf analyses 缸 C
madeat tlledifferent lcvelsandlUcatiUns.
BehaviUral interventiUⅡ scauSebUthbehaviUral
and sUmatic effects, and sUmatic intervcntiUnS
cauSebUtll sUma位 candbehaviUralcffects.
SUcl址 stimuli affect sUme neural and hUr-
mUnalSyStcms, andsUmeneuralalldhUmUna1
activitiesaffectsUcialbehaviUr.
Therc lS a baslc caScade Uf ⅡeurUchellllcal
eVents that, cUn位 nued tU different lcngths, can
leadtUawhUlesehesUfdifferenteffects,frUm
neural cUnductiUn and behaviUral activky tU
fUrlllatiUnUflUnb.-terln melllUry.FUl1U、 vedfUra
few steps, it ensures neural cUnductiUn aⅡ d
SynaptictranSIlllSSiUn;fUllU、 Vedfu1.ther ityields
prU1Unged alteratiUn in neural functiUn that
underⅡ esphenUmena Such ashabituatiUn; cUn-
tinua位 UntUalater stageyieldsIⅡ emUrystUrage
andlUng-teΠ mpUtentiajUn;fur山 ercUntinuatiUn
canleadtU stlucturalchanges. ThuS tlleneufU＿
cheⅡ icalcascadedealS、 店thprUcesseSthat span
tIle位 InerangefrUm lllllliSecUndstUyearS
NU⊥ llla1lytheentiebrain isactiveallUfthe
time;specincbehaviUralandcUg且 itiVeac伍 vijes
incfeasc Uf decreaSe thc levels and pattems Uf
ac位 vityUfp缸 jCularregiUnsUfthebrain.
E>iffe1.ent neural eventS differwidclyin thel
spatiral andtelllpUfal extentS, SU StudyingtIlem
requies techniques with different Spatial and
tcmpUralreSUluuUns ThediScUVe呼 Ufnewtech＿
niquesandcUmbina位 UnsUftechniques isInahng
it pUssible tU study 汀th increasing adcquacy
、
andaccuracytllebUdilyprUceSSeSthatunderlic
behav1Ur.
Specinc mental functiUns usually invUlve
cUUrdina位 UnUfneuralactivitiesamUngmultiple
brain sitesandareregulatedbymultiplcneurU-
CheIIllcalsystems in山 ebr茁 n
BiUIUgicaIpsychUlUgyandneurUsciellcestudy
nUt Unly the prUcesses and chπ acteriStics that
hUldfUrgrUupS UfpersUnS UraniInalsbutalsU
tl1UsethatInakeindiVidualsunique.
Stable percepts and persUnality traits 缸e
based Un brain prUcesses tllat .nfc dynalIuc in
teΠ ⅡS UfSynaptic cUnnectiUns andbiUcheⅡ licaI
prUcesses.
An evUlutiUnaly perspecjve is essential tU
biU1Ugical pSychU1Ugy. It Uffers 小〃U different
nuityUf
butcUlllplel1.lentaryelll19hases: (1)cUn位
behaviUrandbiU1Ugical prUcessesamUngspecies
because UfcUllllllUn ancesiy, and (2) species︻
specific differences in behaViUr and biUlUgy
that have evUlVed in adapta位 Un tU different
envirUnmentS.
74 rJI彪 〃 IatjU9iatΠa99dbUU好 φㄏ P∫ vε /EUJUgv

′尐n evUlutiUnary apprUach Uften suggests Amderscn,R、 A.,Bracewell,RM.,BaraSh,S.,Gnadt,

hypUthesesthatInay accUuntfUrbehaviUrsand JⅥ 尸
,&Γ gassi,L.(199U) EycpUsiuUneffec怕
。
tllei nlechanisnls,butthesc,Ⅱ keUtherhypUtll＿ Un visua1, rnemUly and saccade-related actlvity in
eSeS, IⅡ uSt be tested thUrUughly against Utller 缸 eaSLIPand7AUfⅣ ㏑ caque.JaI.翔 aJ。 rNc,〞 紹 -

hypUtheseSbefUretheyareacceptedUrr句 ectcd. ∫ε′εr9ε ε,iU, 1176-1196.

Research in biU1Ugical pSychU1Ugy can be Bandler, R., & Shipley, M.T.(1994).CUlumnaf
appliedtUprUblelns Ufhumanhealthand、 vell- UrgalmzatiUn in the ㏕ dbrain paΠaqueductal gray:
being, and attempts tU make Such applicajUns mUdulesfUfemot1onalexpressiUn.T9它 JI〞 ∫ I,,Ne磁 石U-

alSU benent rese缸 Ch by prUviding tests Ufthe ∫εfθ Kε ε,I7,379-389.

adequacyUfcⅢ Υentfin血 nb.SandcUnclusiUns. Bracha, V, ZhaU, L.,Wunderlich, DA., MU㎡ ssy,
S.J.,&BlUede1,J.R.(1997)Patientsw丘 hcerebel-
1.nl lesiUnscannUtacquiebutaleabletUretaincUn＿
REsUURcEREFERENCES ditiUnedeyeblilllLre且 excs.Bra二 I9,I＿’U,14U1— 1413.
BrUwn,T.G.(1911)Theintrinsic伍 ctUrs in t)leaaUf
prUgressiUn in themallllua1.P石 UaX〞 jη ε∫ q√ RUvaJ
Feldman,R.S.,lIeyer,J.S.,&Quenzer,LΓ (1997).
∫Uε 泛” (LUndUn),8〞 ,3U8-319
Pr9KcVJ句 t刀 ε切η pfvε /lφ p九 ar瓶aε U了 Ugv Sunder-
Bu1lUck, TH (1993).IntegratlVe SysteⅡ ls reSealch
land,M八 :Sinauof
Un tlle brain: Resurgence and new oppUrtunitles
Gazzanig孔 M.S. (Ed.) (2UUU) T/lt ,9ε l1, εUg,,′ rfvε
人刀刀Va′ Rε vjε wtΛ 砭跖J。 ∫ε泛Kε ε,I6,l-15
ηε翃U∫ εjtKε t∫ (2nd ed).Cambridge, MA: MIT
PIess
BuUnUmanU, D.V, & Merzelllch, MM (1998)
CUr巨 cal plasuclty: f1.Unl synapsestUmapS.人 rJ,,vaJ
MUuntcastle,V.B.(妙 98).Bθ Kri,r1.aπ aη δεjtKε θr ,Eθ
εKε t,2f,149-186
Rε vtθ 11.tΛ tv石 U∫ ε●
TJ昭 aKZ9巧 a了 εUπ a.CambΠ dge,MA:H缸 V缸 dUni一
versityPress.
C缸 , CE, & Ko㎡ s㏑ ,M.(199Φ Acic㎡ tfUr
detectlUnUfinteraural timedifferenceSin thebrain
Pamksepp,J (1少 Ω8).A∫色ε打vε Kθ v′U∫ εftKε θfF/Jt╯ b〞 ,,-
乃v,,,aKaη σ a〃 f,i.θ ′ tJ,,UrfU刀 ∫
stemUftlleb缸 nUWlJaI翃 甜 orⅣ ε切玿 ㏄ 渤 “ ,iU,
〞aroUη ∫ 好 NeWYa火
3327-3246
:

UxfUrdU㎡ versityPress.
CaΠ er,C.S (1998) NeurUendUchneperspecuVes on
RUScnzweig, M.R., Leiman, A.L., & Breed1ove,
sUciaIattachmentand1UVe r、 ε/IUη ε切西Uθ KtU刀 KUJ-
S.Ⅳ【.(1998a).P” ε91Ut9UJUgt召 .LUuVain〕 a-Neuve,
Bel虫 um:DeBUeckUniVers丘 爸.(Γ renchtranslatiUn
Ugv,2J,779-818.
UfnrstU.s edltiUn, 1996)
Clark,R.E,&Squie,LR (1998) Clas蕊 c缸 cUn-
ditiUningandbrain systems:「 ΓherUleUfaw缸 eneSS
RUsenzwe㎏ , M.R., Leinlan, A.L., & BreedlUve,
Sε 泛ηεε,28U,77-81,
S.M. (妙 98b) P∫ UJ㎎ ′a ttUt㎎ j銘 .
jε
Milan, Italy:
Casa EditⅡ ce 較n】 brUsiana. (Itauan tr.nllsladUn Uf
Dalwin,C.(1872)T/,θ 幻φ紹“ 切 tr/Eε 召999UrtU刀 ∫沕
J9翃 Ka99′ a乃 f〃 2a你 LUndUn:Ⅳ Iulray
nrstU.s° dltiUn,1996.)
RUsenzw由 g, MR., Leiman, A.L., & BreedlUVe, Desmond,JE,&F怡 z,JA (1998) NeurUimaong
studies Ufthecerebellulll: Language, leallungand
S.M. (1999) B● UJUg′ εaJP∫ vε 方UJUgv∵ J2lr石U〞 liε 〞UK
memo.” 物 II〞 ∫ frICUg9Ijr′ vθ ∫εfε 刀εε∫ ,2,355-361.
rU tt乃 avtUra了 , εUg99ot● vθ , aK〞 ε〞πoε aJ刀 ε切巧U∫ Cjε η6θ
(2nded.).Sunderland,公 4A: Sinauer Dunn,A.J.,&Be血 dge,CⅥ / (199U) PhysiU1Ugical
andbchaviUralrespUnsestUcUrticUtrUpin-feleasing
RUsenzwdg, M.R., Leiman, AL, & Breed1Uve,
S.M. (In press, 2UUU) P“ εUJUgfa tfUJU8fε a. factUradIninisiatiUn:IsCIuFamediatUrUfanxiety
or StreSS reSpUnScs? BratK Rε ∫εarc乃 Rε vjε w, i＿9,
Ba﹂ celUna: 細 e1 (Spanish tfanslatiUn Uf sccUnd
U.S editiUn, 1999)
71-1UU
Zigmond,M.J,B1UUm,FE.,Landis,S.C,RUbe丘 S, EValts, EV.(1974) SensUΠ mUtUr cU五 eX aCtlV丘 y
aSSUciated with mUvements triggeredby visual as
J.L.&Squire,L.R.(1999).F澎 刀品羽99ε ηtaJKε 切η -
cUmpaIedtUsUmeSthetlcinputs.InF.U.SchIIl1tt︼
∫ε昭r9ε ε.SanDiegU:AcademcPress
丸

EG WUrdcn (Eds.), 刀 泛 99ε 切石U∫ ε9ε Kε ε∫: t′ π

′〞

∫r方兩 f,紹 g砌 99f lpp327-337) Cambhdge, MA:

ADDITIUNALLITERATt9RECITED
MITΠ ㏄ s.
FUrssberg,H.,Ghl1ner,S.,&RUssignUl,S.(1975).
Phase dependent renexreversal duringwalking in
Ader,R.,&CUhen,N.(lp93) PsychUneurU丘 ⅢmunUr clllUnicspinalcats B石 af99Rε ∫taK九 ,8＿9, 1U3-1U7
Ugy: CUndltioning and §tess A〞 9Ilraˊ Rtv● ε11.φ √ Gallese,V.,&GUldman,A (1998)M由 .or neurUns
PΨ 乃UJUgv,彳 彳,53＿ 85 andthesilllulatiUntheUryUfllund一 reading T,erl〞 ∫
Aiba,A.,KanU,M.,Chen,C.,StaIltUn,M.E,FUx, 99Iε Ug9lfrovε Sε 99ε ε,2,493-5Ul
9ε

G.D.,Hellllp,K.,Zwingman:TA.,&TUnegawa, GcUfgUpUu1Us, AP (1997) VUlunt缸 y mUVement:

S.(1994) Dencientcerebellar1Ung-telllldepressiUn cUmputa位 Un缸 phnclplesandneur缸 mecha血 sms
and illlpaired mUtUr lealning in mGluRl mutant In MD.Rugg (Ed.), CUgπ jr●
vt 刀t〃 ㄌ ∫ε比ηεε
nice Cε J/,79,377-388. A:ⅣⅡTPress
(pp131一 168).Calllbridge,Ⅳ 【
Albus, J.S. (1971). A the。 ry Ufcerebc1lar functiUn. Gfa五 anU,MS.A,&GrUss,C.G.(1995) Therep-
ntar9Iε 羽 arj● 一aJBfU&＿ ●ε Kε ε ,iU,25一 61 resentatiUnUfextrapersUnal space: z較 pUssiblerUle
 P.‘ /9UJUgv′ r,BjUJUgiε aJPe9si,ε εtjvε 7D

Udal visual-tactile neurUns In M S GaZ-

﹉ fUr bin】 Uv”eem, S, LalmllerS, G.J., & van D巧 k, J.G.
zaniga(Ed),T几 召εUg,ltrfvε ,沼 切石U∫ ε●
ε9tε ∫(pp、 1U21＿ (1999) WeakM位 thIaughter 乙a,,ε tr,JJ彳 ,838
﹉ 1U42) Camb由 dge,MA:MITPrcss Pav1Uv,I.P (19U6) ThescientificinvestigatiUnUfthe
GΠ 11ner,S,Delia虫 na,T,Ekeberg,U.,elⅣ Iania,A,
﹉ psychical faculties Ur prUceSses in the higher ani-
﹉ Hil1,RH.,Lansner,A,Urlovsky,GN,&Wallen, malS ∫ε′ ε9昭 t,2〞 ,613一 619.
’5)NeuralnetwUrks tllatcUUr山 nate】 UcU- PUggiU, G:Γ , &PUggiU,T. (1984).Theanalysis Uf
｜ P.(1’
nandbUdyUhentatiUn in lanlprey TIe9I〞
rln。 ti。 ∫ jK StereUpSiS.A,2η 切a了 Rε vtθ 〃 好 Ⅳ θ切ㄌ ∫εjε 99ε θ, 7,
﹉ Ne〞 9r溶 εtε 9昭 θ∫,】 8,27U-27。 . 379-412
﹉
一
ItU,Ⅳ I.(1998).Cerebe11.nl lealIlingin thevestibu1U＿ RizzUlatti, G., & Arbib, VIA (1998) Language
Ucl1lal renex.乃 曶η4jjKCUgKjrj妱 ∫ε′
銘 a,2, M/ithin Uur grasp. Π eJt你 ”π Ne磁 石U∫ tε 9Iε ε∫, 21,
● 313-321. 188-194.
｜K缸 has,P.W.,&Nakamum,M(1999).Neuml sy, RUsenzweig,M R.φ UUU).BiUlUgical psychUIUgy.In
一 tenlsfUrbehaviUralacuva位 Unandreward.C磁 rrθ 99r AE.Kazdin (Ed), E,Iε Vε t●pε 〞滋 q p∫ vε 乃UtU&,
; U〞 ,iIUK加 Ⅳ εv紹 加 況 q〞 ,夕 ,223-227. 下乙J f(pp42U┤ 25) Ⅵ伍ShingtUn,DC:American
一
:KermadJ,I,&JUscph,J.P (1995).Activi垀 in the PsychUlogicaIAssUciationandNewYUrk:UxfUrd
caudatenucleusUfmUnkeyduhngspatialsequenc- RUtl1welI,NJ.,&HUpHns,S.J.(1995) CytUklnes
.Up乃
! ing JU〞 rKa↙ UrNe跖 ｜ UJU8v,
v∫ ● 74,911-933 andthenervUussystelnII:ˊ 0ctiUnsandmechanisms
!Khllg,AM(199ㄌ .EmUt㏑ n㏑ sc㏑ 豹p1llenh:Uld UfactiUn. Π eη d∫ f,INev石 U∫ dε 9,ε ε∫, f8, 13U﹂ 136
一
! mystery,newund㏄ 就andng.ε vr〞 η rD′ 紹εr必 K∫ 加 Saba,P.R.,Dastur, K, Keshavan,M.S, &Kate〢 1,
i Pη ε乃列Ugjε rIJ∫ dε η
“ ,8,16U-163 MA (1998) Ubsessive-cUmpulSive disUrder,
｜Lawlence,DG,&Kuype心 ,GJM (1968ω .The TUurette’ s syndrome, andbasal gangliapa山 UlUgy
●ftlnctiUn㏕ o㎎ anizdtiUnUftllemUtUlsystem㏑ tlle UnMRI 乃 〞翔 尉 好 Ⅳθ〞η p渺 ε乃jarη &ε Z加 5〞
lnUnkey. I. Thc effects Uf bilateral pyranlidal Ne9● 石U∫ ε′
●,9π θ∫, fU, 116-117.
lesiUnsB石aj9I,夕 i,l-14. SapUlsky, R.〝 π. (1992) ∫r石 θ∫∫, r/,ε agj刀 g tratK aJlσ
Lawrence,DG.,&Kuypers,GJM (1968b).The r乃 ε 991ε ε几aη 心99I∫ t刀 εV矽 η 〞εa助 Cambhdge,MA:
functiUna1 organizatiUnUftllen1otUrsyStcnl in the WIITPress
mUnkey II. Γhe effects Uf lesiUns Uf descending Schultz, W. (1998) Predictive reward signa1 Uf
「
brain-sten】 pathv/ays.Bra′ K,9′ , 15-36. dopaII9lneneurUnS.人 們 ε′5a9lJaf〃 名a了 t,rP/1,∫ iU了 Ugv,
LeDoux,JE (1995)EmUⅡ Un:Cluesf1Umthebr茁 n 8U, 1-27
A腳 Jra了 Rc,1,oε 〞 ‘yP印 ε方UJUgv,彳 6,2U9-235 Selye, H.(1956) Γhe ∫化 “ 好 切● New YUrk:
Libet, B. (1985) UncUnsciUus cerebraIiniuativeand McGlaw-Hi1l
the rUle Uf cUnsciUuS will in vUluntary actiUn. Ta〢 i,J,&S㏑ ma,K(1994).RUlefUrsupplementaly
ε99ε ε∫,8,529-566
Bε Jlθ v9Uv沒 〞 a99〞 Bra′ η ∫ε才 motUr alea cel1s in planning several mUVementS
McDUnω d,RJ., &Ⅵ hte,NM (1993) Athple ahead.Nar跖 〞 ,J/J,413-416
n Uf nlemUry systems: rIipp° campus,
dissUciati° TiIlunann,D,Kolb,FP‵ ,BaJcr,C,R巧 ntJes,Ⅳ I.,
amygdala and dUrsal sthatum Bθ 乃avrUra了 Nev石 U一 Mu1ler,S.P,Dien釘 ,HC.,&Weil】 er,C.(1996).
∫ε′
.,9,ε θ,iU7,3-22. Cerebe1laractivation during classical cUndi由 Uning
McGaugh,J.L (198幻 .InvUlvementUfhUmUnaland Ufthehuman nexiUn renex: aPET Study. Ne〞 rU＿
neurUmUdulatUrySystelll in theregulatiUnUfInem- 9ci’Urr, 7,2U56＿ 2U6U.
UrystUraε e.人 K刀 切aJRε V● ε1.,φ 尸 ε切石U∫ C● ε刀εt,f2,
Λζ ThUmpsUn,R.Γ ,&Kim,J.J (1996) Ⅳ kmUrysys一
255-287 tems in the brain and lUcalizatiUn Uf a melnUry
Mish㎞ n,M,&UngeHelder,L.(1982)CUntlibutlUnUf P9r9ε ε
tσ jη g∫ orr/Iε Λ竹r′ U9IatAε aσ ε
′,,1,‘ 了∫εja?ε ε
∫ t
S位〕ateinputs tUthevisuUspatialfunctiUnSUfpahctU＿ r/iε 乙ㄋ”化V∫ 尥 rε ‘
96ˊ 人〞θr′ ‘a,夕 J,13438一 二3444.
preUccipitalcUrtexin mUnkeys Bε /,avjU〞 raJB,t】 j,I Wlsc, S.P, BUussaoud, D, JUhnsUn, P.B, &
Rθ ∫εaㄏU/I,6,57＿ 77 Caminiti,R.(1997).PfemUtUrandpa1.letalcUItex:
MUrgensUn,G,JUnes,DL.,&Yim,C.Y.(198U) CUrticocUrtical cUnnectiVity and cUmbinatU五 aI
IiUm mUuvaⅡ Un tU actlUn: FuncⅡ Unal interface cUmputauUns.Aη ηv胡 Rε v泛 w.,rⅣ εv紹 ∫ε泛 刀εθ,2U,
be小 〃een the Ii】 i9bic systcm and the mUtor system. 25-42.
P沒乃Vt∫ ∫j9lN.’ 跖石 UtUgv,J彳 ,69一 97
Uㄋ ● Young,LJ.,Nllsen,R,Ⅵ 怕ymie,KG.,NIacGfegUr,
UhayUn, M.M, Zully, J., GuillelIllnault, C., & GR.,&Insel,T.R (1999).Increasedafmiative
Snliille, S. (1999) Pfevalence and pathUlUgical reSpUnsetUVaSUpreSsin in llliceexpressingtheVla
aSsUciatiUnsUfslccpp缸 alysis in thegeneralpUpu- feccptor frUm a mUnUgamUus vUle 〝ar切 η乳 彳UU,
latiUn Nε v石UJUgv,＿ 2, 1194-2UUU
,
766-768.

CU〃 2,η zrr,iε ar9U〞 ∫ εU91ε ε99打 9Ig山 心 ε/%φ 5r∫ /IU切 σ t.,add石 θ∫∫召ˊ rU一 PrUfessUrM缸 kR RUSenz、 veig,Dep芻 rtmentUf
PSychUlUgy＿ k始 U,π JniversityUfCalifUrnia,321UTUln】 anHa11,Berkeley,CA9472U-k始 U,ITSA