“Critical Pedagogy:

Exploring New Modalities of Teacher-Student

Engagement”

Introduction

Time is experienced, appreciated, and valued in many different ways and by different

people within the socio-economic spectrum. To some, sixty (60) years may seem like an

eternity, a long walk to the middle of the desert searching for an oasis. For others, 60 years

may be appreciated as a period of time to do long investment planning or generational

maneuvering in reconstructing a hierarchy of wealth and power. Within the Anglo-Caribbean

context, sixty (60) years would represent the journey of the emergence of a post-colonial,

independent nation; one with its own cultural, political, social, and environmental educational

underpinnings that are supported by the philosophical ethos of the populace. Jamaica,

throughout her 60 years of independence, has experienced a number of social reforms, most

of which, were centered around the ideology of self-governance and the improvement of the

lives of Jamaican Citizens. Educational reform has been on the agenda for successive

governments, as the nation grapples with underperformance within our schools. Reformers

such as the development of the Early Childhood Commission Act (2003) and by extension

the Early Childhood Commission (ECC), sought to revamp and re-imagine how education

was administered at the pre-primary and kindergarten level. By the same token, the new

National Standards Curriculum (NSC) was also introduced to raise the bar of the quality of

students completing Primary Level Education. With all these new reforms within the
educational sector, one may ask, ‘What can the country show to validate its investments

within the education system?’

In the last Jamaica Education Transformation Commission 2021 report, the following

statistics were reported:

1. Although the country claims to offer ‘universal access to education,’ UNESCO

reports a gross enrolment rate of 85 percent and a net rate of 79% which is well below

those of countries at Jamaica’s level of development and of the other small Caribbean

states. Furthermore, over 17% of primary-age children are not in school, due mainly

to economic factors (lunch money and transportation fare) and boredom.

2. Most students leave secondary school without a certificate--70 percent of the 18-year-

old cohort in 2018. As of 2018, there were 51,684 students at the tertiary level,

attending 18 institutions, of which 3 are universities. The island’s tertiary rate of

enrolment is 27% well below that of countries at its level of development.

With the less than impressive current status of the education system that currently

presides in Jamaica, it antagonizes the issue of ‘What, as a country, are we missing?’ Does it

have to do with funding? Singapore, with arguably one of the most robust education systems

around the globe, in the last World Bank Report, had a budgetary allocation of a little under

3% of their GDP, whilst Jamaica had a budgetary expenditure of approximately 6%

(Government Expenditure on Education, Total (% of GDP) - Singapore | Data, n.d.). It

would then be safe to assume that budgetary allocation may not be the root cause of the issue

facing the Jamaican education sector. Social scientists and theorist purports that education is

not divorced from issues of social justice, democracy, and politics, and to understand how

education functions within a society, one must examine the philosophical framework that

drives society. Understanding the concept of critical pedagogy and its role in educational
transformation may provide the basis on which policymakers can re-imagine education in a

broader context and conceptualize its role in societal advancement.

Background

The multidisciplinary concepts concerning modern education that have come together

to form what we know today as critical pedagogy, are vast and comprehensive. It combines

concepts from various academic fields, including sociology, education, literary and cultural

studies, and philosophy. Jeff Duncan-Andrade and Ernest Morrell (2008) characterize critical

pedagogy as a method of teaching that is based on the experiences of marginalized groups,

critical of racial, institutional, and economic oppression, emphasizes conversation over one-

way transmission of information, and is designed to enable both individuals and groups to act

as social change agents. (p. 183).

A major contributor to the developmental concept of the philosophy of critical

pedagogy is Paulo Freire. In his ideas for educational reform, Freire makes a number of

observations and assessments regarding structural education (Freire, 2000), which would

spark conversations about education and the educator's role in the ensuing decade. In like

manner, in observing the work of Freire, Henri Giroux furthered the literature on critical

pedagogy. As his critical pedagogy developed, Giroux started to concentrate more and more

on themes of difference within a politically transformational framework. He made

connections between them and more significant societal challenges because he was deeply

concerned with how race, class, and gender identities of students and teachers are produced.

Giroux decided to concentrate on the educational terrain of power, knowledge production and

transmission, identity/subjectivity formation, and socialization in relation to the reference of a

radical democracy because of the postmodern preoccupation with historical and social

specificity.
He recognized that new analytical approaches to the politics of education were required as the

pedagogical process expanded into new cultural spaces produced by technology (H. Giroux,

2018).

Literature Review

There have been many scholarly contributions to this debate of educational

reimagination and transformation. In contrast to passive consumers of pre-existing

knowledge, John Dewy believed that education should cultivate thinking, critically reflective,

and socially involved persons. He disapproved of the curriculum-driven, rote-learning

technique that was the prevalent teaching strategy at the time. Importantly, he also opposed

child-centered strategies that blindly catered to kids' irrational urges and interests (Dewey,

1997). Dewey’s radical ideology of progressivism countered the existing ‘reflex arc model’

of his time, which viewed learning as a rigid process measurable by standardized tests, most

times divorced from the understanding of the role of emotion or experiential learning. By the

same token, Bell hooks and Paulo Freire also championed a radical transformative approach

to education through Transgressive pedagogy. In her book Teaching to Transgress, Hook

calls us to reimagine the object and subject that sits at the center of our attention in the

classroom, on the syllabus, and in our curriculum.

The unwillingness to approach teaching from a standpoint that includes awareness of

race, sex, and class is often rooted in the fear that classrooms will be uncontrollable,

that emotions and passions will not be contained. … The experience of professors

who educate for critical consciousness indicates that many students, especially

students of color, may not feel at all “safe” in what appears to be a neutral setting.

(p.39)
 In like manner, another titan in the field of pedagogical reconstruction is Henri

Giroux, who spent most of his academic life examining the teachings formed by the binary

opposition between modernism and postmodernism; paying very close attention to the

rhetoric of the feminists. In order to emphasize the receptive and mediative aspects of the

process, Giroux conceptualized power as a particular collection of actions that create social

forms through which various experiences and subjectivities are produced. Such features, he

realized, indicated the significance of pedagogy not only in educational theory but also in

social theory generally; this discovery would become more and more important to students of

sociology, cultural studies, and education in the 1990s (H. Giroux, 2018).

According to academic sources, critical pedagogy is a "philosophy of education that

has developed and applied concepts from critical theory" (Kincheloe, 1999). It rejects the

idea that knowledge is neutral and insists that social justice and democratic principles are

inextricably linked to the practice of teaching and learning (Giroux 2007). In his book,

‘Pedagogy And The Politics Of Hope,’ Henri Giroux explored three major considerations

central to pedagogy and schooling; i) the culture of positivism and technocratic rationality ii)

the expansion of his theoretical framework for critical pedagogy iii) cultural differences and

how they are affected and influenced by contemporary traditions such as modernism, post-

modernism, and feminism. In his writings, Giroux contends that by emphasizing the notion

that power is not only about the distribution of political and economic resources, but is also

quilted into the fabric of pedagogy had how it is administered within the classroom (H.

Giroux, 2018).

Consequently, although there have been contributions from multiple critical

pedagogues, the pendulum equally swings to the opposite end; where some scholars contend

that through the contextual framework of critical pedagogy may appear plausible, actioning

the concept may prove startling lacking. Jacob Neumann (2003) argues that though the
concept of critical pedagogy remains dominant in a myriad of academic works, “…it remains

essentially invisible and irrelevant within K-12 schools” (p. 143). In the Anglo-Caribbean

context, where most of our schools and structures emerged from a Western pedagogical

structure as a result of colonialism, Neumann’s belligerency hit closer to home than one

would home. "Critical pedagogy is almost completely absent from the debates on schooling

as they take place in institutions of power," (Weiner, 2007) (p. 59). He purported that as an

epistemological framework, critical pedagogy has still not gathered enough momentum to

reach or attract a critical mass other than “individual teachers and researchers who are

distributed among various departments and institutions" (p. 59).

Giroux’s work has come under a lot of scrutiny, both anecdotally as well as in

documented literature. In Robert Yagelski’s review of Radical to many in the educational

establishment (2006), he noted that a lot of the educators he’s worked with, do not easily

digest the notion that the educational system in which they participate, and have sincerely

dedicated themselves, is fundamentally defective in the ways Freire outlines (p. 542).

Criticism of the "opaque language" frequently used in critical pedagogy is another example of

this gap (Foley et al., 2015, p. 121). This observation is corroborated by Neumann (2013),

who questions "how much transformational potential does a critical pedagogy rooted in

Marxist language and ideas, in revolution, and in political activism genuinely and practically

have if its language turns people away" (p. 135). One may argue, that these observations and

criticisms can easily be appreciated in a context such as Jamaica. According to new research

conducted by the Statistical Institute Of Jamaica (STATIN), (Campbell, 2021) noted that

about 65% of Jamaicans who are in the prime working age group of 25 to 54 years had no

examination passes. The report further stated that only about 11.7% had a form of post-

secondary or tertiary qualification. Undoubtedly, this grim picture painted by the STATIN
report, only exacerbates the issue of the encoding of the language and rhetoric purported by

critical pedagogues.

Conversely, whilst there have been many critics of the concept of critical pedagogy,

there have also been some successful implementations within the classroom. A very clear

example of this is pragmatism. Pragmatism is an educational philosophy that says that

education should be about life and growth. That is, teachers should be teaching students

things that are practical for life and encourage them to grow into better people  (Taylor et al.,

2008). As mentioned in the aforementioned paragraph, John Dewey dedicated a lot of his

scholarly years as a pragmatist. The ideology that critical pedagogy is a uni-dimensional

concept that can only work if it subverts an already existing model, even if the model is

working, is flawed. (Duncan-Andrade & Morrell et al, 2008) defines effective, practical

applications of critical pedagogy in the classroom as those that also adapt to and suit the

needs of the teacher, community, and students. Additionally, the knowledge that may be

applied from these articles needs to be emphasized. Although the reasoning, rationale, and

topics included in those curricula can be transferred throughout grade levels, geographic

regions, and communities, units and lesson plans often cannot.

It's also crucial to note that, particularly if the reporter is an educator, reports about what goes

on in teachers' classrooms may not match what actually occurs there.

There are many pieces of scholarly literature that corroborate the pragmatic concept

of critical pedagogy purported by (Duncan-Andrade & Morrell et al, 2008). Adelina Alegria

(2014) details her effectiveness in integrating critical pedagogy and her students' local

narratives into a secondary biology classroom for English language learners. In order to help

her pupils better understand themselves, she emphasizes the "value of connecting academic

subject to her students' own personal life experiences" (Alegria, 2014, p. 111). Later, Alegria

(2014) highlights how crucial it was to "create curricula that drew on the cultural resources
students bring to the classroom—their languages, their histories, and their experiences" (p.

112). Interestingly, some scholars have found ways of amalgamating critical pedagogy within

already established philosophies of education, such as perennialism and essentialism. Jeff

Duncan-Andrade and Ernest Morrell (2008) in their book ‘The art of critical pedagogy: The

promise of moving from theory to practice in urban schools,’ highlighted that they “were able

to honor the existential experiences of our students and to work toward the development of

academic literacies by complementing the canonical literature with popular cultural texts

from music, film, mass media, and sports” (p. 186). One may postulate that what was more

valuable to them, was the fact that the curricular was able to be driven by a critical pedagogy

that was “explicitly aware of issues of power, oppression, and transformation, that honored

the non-school cultural practices of the students, and that included the students in authentic

dialogue” (p. 186-87).

Application

The aforementioned literature examined the concept of critical pedagogy as a

rejection of the rhetoric that knowledge is neutral; but rather, insists that social justice and

democratic principles are inextricably linked to the practice of teaching and learning (Giroux

2007). Conversely, (Foley et al., 2015, p. 121) describe the language as "opaque" and

purported that it promotes a culture of exclusion rather than a shift to reimagine pedagogy.

Whilst there is merit to both arguments, the lack of a consensus on which side of the coin to

rest has left Jamaica, as well as other Caribbean countries, In shambles of how to move the

engine forward. Over the years, successive administrations have tried adapting other

international curricula in an attempt to rectify the matter of education that the country faces,

but to no avail. Hook, in her book Teaching to Transgress (1994), highlighted that critical

pedagogy must first be activated at the individual level, especially for people of African

descent who were inadvertently colonized under a Western regime and ideology of education.
Hook further stated, “While personal subjective changes do contribute to concrete changes in

the objective material structure of society, a better strategy for educators would be to teach

why and how to change the material structure” (p.12). Evidence of this can be seen in the

government of Jamaica’s recent move to reintroduce civics within the NSC. In a recent

newspaper publication, it was stated that the Civics syllabus will focus on: health, family life,

and soft-touch programs geared towards making the nation’s youth better equipped with their

decision-making skills. One may argue that is a similar pedagogical reimagination purported

by (H. Giroux, 2018).

In like manner, as one examines the literature on critical pedagogy, one is forced to

re-examine their own individual approach to teaching and learning. Through this process of

reflection, one must ask themselves ‘Is my purpose as a pedagogical facilitator, to regurgitate

knowledge and skills necessary to maintain the current power structure? Or is it to impart the

concept of ‘how to learn’ within our selective subject areas?’ If it is the latter, more work

must be done on the individual and sectoral level to aggravate the current structure, forcing

policymakers to re-engage the mechanics of what drives the educational sector. In his book

Education and Development: Policy Imperatives for Jamaica and the Caribbean (2020),

Thompson (2020) argued that a very important component of development in the Anglo-

Caribbean context is the exercise of power by citizens, “who are expected to hold their

leaders to account and take actions that are necessary to safeguard the interest of the country”

(p. 7).

On a more personal note, I also find myself at a crossroads in my own pedagogical

and andragogical journey. Should I accept the notion that pedagogy is not divorced from the

social construct of power and politics, a seemingly untenable paradigm will be created within

my reality. Having appreciated the concept of capitalism, and how it has, for the most part,

worked in many jurisprudence such as Australia, Switzerland, Ireland, parts of the United
Kingdom, Canada, and Denmark, I have never really questioned why the education system in

Jamaica was the way it was, and the larger role it played within the social construct. Why are

some schools labeled as ‘Traditional High Schools?’ Why do many private schools teach

international curriculums such as the International Baccalaureate and the International Middle

Years Curriculum, as opposed to the locally developed curriculum? Why is it that though

Jamaica has an average of about 71% enrolment at the secondary level, only 11% translate to

the Tertiary level? These are some of the questions that keep popping, up the more the

literature is explored.

The Covid-19 pandemic provided an opportunity for policymakers to reimagine pedagogy

and how it was administered in the country. In fact, at the rate at which institutions were

upskilling their teachers and students alike in becoming functional ICT navigators, one would

have thought that the much-needed revolution in the education sector was almost realized.

However, as the country recovers from the pandemic, many of the gains achieved as a result

of the same, slowly began to dissipate.

If critical pedagogy is to matter as we move toward the second decade of the twenty-first

century . . . then it must meet several contemporary challenges . . . In an era when open-

access publishing on the Internet is a compelling issue in the politics of education, I

contend that open-access writing and speaking about critical pedagogy are also

profoundly important. Such a populist form of criticality does not in any manner

undermine our intellectual rigor and theoretical sophistication; instead, it challenges our

pedagogical ability to express complex 15 ideas in a language that is understandable and

germane to wide audiences. ( Rorabaugh, 2012b, para. 6)

As opposed to trying to reinvent the wheel, policymakers can take a page out of their own

book in reimagining education. The model was already created as a result of the pandemic,

where the development of the digital classroom radically shifted the canons of pedagogy,
unearthing the reality of asynchronous learning and learners as well as the use of ICT

throughout the teaching and learning process. Some schools, such as the one that I teach,

have used the opportunity to appoint a full-time digital learning pedagogical coach to help

teachers and students to transitions fully into the digital pedagogical era. Curricula are

practical tools that teachers may find helpful in the classroom but which are also missing

from the Digital Pedagogy Lab. Many teachers have incorporated web content into their

lesson plans, stealing concepts or even presenting entire classes that were inspired by the

Internet. Teachers must use the world around them to educate the world around them. The

practical goal of this heuristic should be to quickly determine the tone of critical pedagogy-

based curricula available online given the abundance of digitally accessible curricula.

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Campbell, C. (2021, April 20). 65% Of Jamaicans Aged 25-54 Have No Examination Passes

at Secondary Level, According to Survey. Nationwide 90FM.

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passes-at-secondary-level-according-to-survey/

Civics returns to the classrooms. (2022, December 14). News | Jamaica Gleaner.

https://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20221213/civics-returns-classrooms

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