ECE 422

Basic Electronics

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 INTRODUCTION TO
SEMICONDUCTORS

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 Topic Outcomes
• Describe the structure of an atom
• Discuss insulators, conductors, and semiconductors and how they
differ
• Describe how current is produced in a semiconductor
• Describe the properties of n-type and p-type semiconductors
• Describe how a pn junction is formed

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 Introduction to Semiconductors

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 Introduction
• System nowadays are getting incredibly smaller, current speeds of
operation are very significant and new gadgets are released everyday.
• In almost all areas of technology, fundamental principles change little
over time.
• The first device that will be introduced here is the simplest of all
electronics devices, nevertheless has a range of applications that
seem endless.

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 Introduction
• Electronics devices such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits
(IC) are made of a semiconductive material.
• An important concept presented in this module is a PN junction that
is formed when two different types of semiconductive material are
joined.
• This is also fundamental to the operation of devices such as the solar
cell, the diode and certain types of transistors.
• This module will present the construction, characteristics and models
of semiconductor diodes.

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 Electronics
• RA 5734, Sec. 21 C
• The science that deals with the development and application of devices and
systems involving the flow of electrons in vacuum, in gaseous media, plasma
and in semiconductors.
• RA 9292, Sec. 3 H
• The science dealing with the development and application of devices and
systems involving the flow of electrons or other carriers of electric charge, in a
vacuum, in gaseous media, in plasma, in semiconductors, in solid-state and/or
in similar devices, including, but not limited to, applications involving optical,
electromagnetic and other energy forms when transduced or converted into
electronic signals.

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 Development of Semiconductors

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 Anode
Two-electrode vacuum tube
• Introduced by Thomas Edison and
John Ambrose Fleming in 1904 Filament (heater)
Cathode
• Thomas Alva Edison, the inventor of
the first practical incandescent light
bulb, had also noticed that the direct Vacuum Tube Diode
electric current flowed from a heated Anode
metal filament in the bulb to the other
electrode only when the latter had a
Grid
positive voltage. John Ambrose
Fleming used this effect (known as the
Edison effect) to invent the two-
electrode vacuum tube rectifier, which Cathode Filament (heater)
was soon to play an important role in
the electrical circuits.
Vacuum Tube Triode
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 Vacuum Tube
• Commercial TV began
around 1946.
• First vacuum tube Old TV Set

computer was built in

1943 at the University of
Pennsylvania.

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Vacuum Tube Computer
 Transistor
• Introduced the point-contact transistor on December 23, 1947 by
Walter H. Brattain, and John Bardeen at Bell Telephone Laboratories.
• William Shockley introduced the bipolar junction transistor in 1948.

Schematic Symbol
Transistors today

First Transistor
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 Integrated Circuit
• Jack Kilby of Texas
Instruments invented the The 1st IC
integrated circuit (IC), paving
the way for the
miniaturization of early
microdevices.
• ICs are a complex Silicon Wafer
combination of several kinds
of devices on a common
base, called substrate, or in
any piece of silicon. ICs today Close-up of Dice in Wafer
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 Applications of Electronics
• Communication Electronics – this includes AM and FM radio, television and satellite communication.
• Electric Power – electronics play an important role in the control and monitoring of electrical systems as in
power plants, refineries, etc.
• Digital Electronics – the circuits for digital applications operate with pulse of voltage or current. Example of
digital electronics includes calculators, computers, data processing and data communication.
• Automotive Electronics - applied to cars for changing battery, measuring gauges and monitoring of engine
performances. Important of all is electronic ignition for better timing of the ignition spark.
• Industrial Electronics – includes control of heating and welding processes, the use of elevator’s control,
operating of copying machines, automatic door openers and burglar alarms.
• Medical Electronics – combines electronics with biology, medical research, diagnosis and treatment, all use
electronic equipments. Examples are the electronic microscope and electro-cardiograph (ECG) Machine. In
hospitals, oscilloscope are commonly used as display to monitor the heartbeat of patients in the ICU.

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 The Atom

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 Atom
• The smallest particle of an element that possesses the unique
characteristics of that element.
• All matter is composed of atoms; all atoms consist of electrons,
protons, and neutrons except normal hydrogen, which does not have
a neutron.
• Each element in the periodic table has a unique atomic structure, and
all atoms for a given element have the same number of protons.
• Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons in an atom circle the nucleus
in different obits, similar to the way planets orbit the sun in our solar
system. The Bohr model is often referred to as the planetary model.

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 The Bohr Model
• According to the classical Bohr model, atoms have
a planetary type of structure that consists of a
central nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons.
• The nucleus consists of positively charged particles
called protons and uncharged particles called
neutrons. The basic particles of negative charge are
called electrons.
• Each type of atom has a certain number of
electrons and protons that distinguishes it from the
atoms of all other elements.
• The atomic number equals the number of protons
in the nucleus, which is the same as the number of
electrons in an electrically balanced (neutral) atom.

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 Electrons and Shells
• Energy Levels. Electrons orbit the nucleus
of an atom at certain distances from the
nucleus. Electrons near the nucleus have
less energy than those in more distant
orbits.
• Each discrete distance (orbit) from the
nucleus corresponds to a certain energy
level.In an atom, the orbits are grouped
into energy levels known as shells. A given
atom has a fixed number of shells. Each
shell has a fixed maximum number of
electrons. The Maximum Number of
Electrons in Each Shell 𝑁𝑒 = 2𝑛2
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 Valence Electrons
• Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have higher
energy and are less tightly bound to the atom than those closer to the
nucleus. This is because the force of attraction between the positively
charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron decreases with
increasing distance from the nucleus.
• This outermost shell is known as the valence shell, and electrons in
this shell are called valence electrons.

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 Free Electrons
• They are electrons dislodged from the outer shell of an atom.
• Free electrons may exist by themselves such as electrons moving from one
plate to another.
• Free electrons constitute the electric current in a conductor.
• Materials capable of having many free electrons and which could carry
electric current are called conductors.
• Materials capable of having very few free electrons are called insulators.
• Materials capable of having not so many free electrons are called
semiconductors.
• They are also capable of carrying electric current.
• The more free electrons there are in a material, the better it will conduct.
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 Materials Used in Electronic
Devices

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 Insulators
• Possess no free charge carriers and thus are non-
conductive.
• The atomic bond is based on shared electron
pairs of nonmetals. The elements which behave
like nonmetals have the desire to catch
electrons, thus there are no free electrons which
might serve as charge carriers.
Atomic structure of an insulator
• Electric charges do not flow freely in this
material
• Ideal in a sense that they coat or provide a barrier
between conductors to keep electric currents under
control.
• The most effective electrical insulators are
rubber, glass, pure water, oil, air.

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 Conductors
• Materials (e.g. all metallic substances) that
permit electrons to flow freely from particle to
particle
• Allow for charge transfer through the free Al atomic structure
movement of electrons
• In any metal element, it contains less than 4
electrons in its outer shell (less than 4 valence
electrons).
• Aluminum – 3 Valence Electrons
• Magnesium – 2 Valence Electrons
• Copper – 1 Valence Electron
• The best conductors are single-element
materials, such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold
(Au), and aluminum (Al),
Cu atomic structure
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 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are solids whose conductivity
lies between the conductivity of conductors
and insulators. Due to exchange of electrons -
to achieve the noble gas configuration -
semiconductors arrange as lattice structure.
Unlike metals, the conductivity increases with
increasing temperature. Si atomic structure
• Increasing temperatures leads to broken bonds
and free electrons are generated. At the
location at which the electron was placed, a
so-called defect electron ("hole") remains.

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 Semiconductor Materials
• Semiconductor materials can be classified as:
• Single Crystal – has a repetitive crystal structure such as Germanium (Ge),
and Silicon (Si). Single-element semiconductors are antimony (Sb), arsenic
(As), astatine (At), boron (B), polonium (Po), tellurium (Te), silicon (Si), and
germanium (Ge).
• Compound – constructed of two or more semiconductor materials of
different atomic structures such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium phosphide
(InP), gallium nitride (GaN), silicon carbide (SiC), and silicon germanium (SiGe)
which are commonly used.
• The three semiconductors most frequently used are Ge, Si and GaAs.
• Most commonly used semiconductor is Silicon (Si).

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 Band Gap
• The difference in energy between the valence
band and the conduction band is called an
energy gap or band gap. This is the amount of
energy that a valence electron must have in
order to jump from the valence band to the
conduction band.

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 Silicon and Germanium

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 Covalent Bonding

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 Covalent Bonding
• Germanium
• Has 32 orbiting electrons
• Has 4 valence electrons (tetravalent)
• Silicon
• Has 14 orbiting electrons
• Has 4 valence electrons (tetravalent)
• Gallium
• Has 31 orbiting electrons
• Has 3 valence electrons (trivalent)
• Arsenide
• Has 33 orbiting electrons
• Has 5 valence electrons (pentavalent)

Atomic Structures of
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Semiconductor Materials
 Covalent Bonding
• In a pure Silicon or Germanium
crystal, the four valence electrons of
one atom form a bonding
arrangement with four adjoining
atoms. Si Crystal Structure
• The bonding of atoms, strengthened
by the sharing of electrons, is called
covalent bond.
• The atoms align to form a pattern
called crystal.
• The outermost shell contains not
more than 8 electrons.
Ge Crystal Structure
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 Covalent Bonding
• In a Gallium Arsenide compound,
there is sharing of electrons
between two different atoms.
• Five electrons are provided by
Arsenide and 3 electrons are
provided by Gallium to form a
covalent bond.
• Even with the presence of
covalent bonds, it is still possible
for the valence electrons to break GaAs Crystal Structure
from its parent atom and assume
the “free” state.
• Natural causes that can break
the bond:
1. Light energy (photons)
2. Thermal energy from
surrounding medium
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 Current in Semiconductors

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 Current in Semiconductors
• Energy band diagram for an atom in a pure
(intrinsic) silicon crystal at it lowest energy
state. There are no electrons in the conduction
band at a temperature of 0 K

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 Conduction Electrons and Holes
• An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient
heat (thermal) energy for some valence electrons to jump the gap
from the valence band into the conduction band, becoming free
electrons. Free electrons are also called conduction electrons.

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 Conduction Electrons and Holes
• When an electron jumps to the
conduction band, a vacancy is left in
the valence band within the crystal.
This vacancy is called a hole. For
every electron raised to the
conduction band by external energy,
there is one hole left in the valence
band, creating what is called an
electron-hole pair. Recombination
occurs when a conduction-band
electron loses energy and falls back
into a hole in the valence band.

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 Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Semiconductors

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 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Intrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor material that has been carefully refined to reduce the number of
impurities to a very low level.
• The free electrons in a material due to external causes are referred to as intrinsic carriers.
• The number of intrinsic carriers vary from one material to another.
• Electric current in a material is dependent on the number of intrinsic carriers and relative mobility of
carriers.
• Relative mobility (𝜇𝑁 and 𝜇𝑃 ) of free carriers in a material is the ability of the free carriers to move
throughout the material.

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 Intrinsic Semiconductor
• A change in temperature of a semiconductor material can increase
the number of free electrons quite substantially.
• Semiconductor materials such as germanium and silicon shows that
the reduction in the resistance with the increase in temperature are
said to have negative temperature coefficient.
• Conductors have positive temperature coefficient.

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 Extrinsic Semiconductor
• A semiconductor that has been subjected to the doping process
• Doping is a process of adding impurities to pure semiconductor material to
provide positive and negative charges.
• Extrinsic Materials:
1. N-type
2. P-type

• Both n-type and p-type materials are formed by adding impurity

atoms into a germanium and silicon base. The elements for doping
generally have an electron valence of either 5 or 3. As a result, the
doped semiconductor has either an excess or a shortage of electrons
in the covalent bond structure.

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 Semiconductor Doping
• Doping means the introduction of impurities into a semiconductor
crystal to the defined modification of conductivity. Two of the most
important materials silicon can be doped with, are boron (trivalent)
and phosphorus (pentavalent). Other materials are aluminum, indium
(trivalent) and arsenic, antimony (pentavalent).
• The dopant is integrated into the lattice structure of the
semiconductor crystal, the number of outer electrons define the type
of doping. Elements with 3 valence electrons are used for p-type
doping, 5-valued elements for n-doping.

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 Semiconductor Doping

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 N-type and P-type materials

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 N-Type Material
• To increase the number of conduction-band
electrons in intrinsic silicon, pentavalent impurity
atoms are added. These are atoms with five
valence electrons such as arsenic (As),
phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and antimony (Sb).
• Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are
called donor atoms.
• This extra electron becomes a conduction
electron because it is not involved in bonding.
Because the pentavalent atom gives up an
electron, it is often called a donor atom
Antimony Impurity in n-type material
• Majority Carriers – Electron
• Minority Carriers – Holes (Thermally
generated)
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 P-Type Material
• To increase the number of holes in intrinsic
silicon, trivalent impurity atoms are added.
These are atoms with three valence electrons
such as boron (B), indium (In), and gallium
(Ga).
• Note that there is now an insufficient number
of electron to complete the covalent bonds or
the newly formed lattice. The resulting vacancy
is called a hole and is represented by a small
circle of positive sign due to absence of
negative charge. Since it’s resulting vacancy will
easily accept a “free” electrons. The impurities Boron Impurity in p-type material
added are called acceptor atoms.
• Majority Carriers – Holes
• Minority Carriers – Electron (Thermally generated)
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 Effect of the Hole Conduction
• If a valence electron acquires sufficient kinetic energy to break its covalent bond
to fill the void created by a hole, then a hole, will be created in the covalent bond
that releases the electron. There is therefore a transfer of holes to the left and
electrons to the right

Electron vs Hole Flow

• Hole current is the same as that of the conventional current (opposite of electron
flow).
• Hole current flows only in p-type semiconductors, likewise, electron flow is the
current in n-type semiconductors and all wire conductors.
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 Semiconductor Doping
• The resulting p-type material is electrically neutral, for the same
reasons as for the n-type material.
• A hole has the same amount of positive charge as proton, equal to
that of an electron but opposite polarity. However, a hole charge is
not a proton.
• A proton is a stable charge in the nucleus that is not free to move. A
hole is a positive charge outside the nucleus present only in
semiconductors because of unfilled covalent bonds.
• Hole charges can be moved by an applied potential difference.

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 Semiconductor Diode

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 Semiconductor Diode
• A semiconductor diode is an electronic component created by “joining” an n-
type material with a p-type material.
• In reality, one part of an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with pentavalent
impurities and the other part is doped with trivalent impurities.

Cathode (K) Anode (A)

Schematic Symbol

Construction of a Semiconductor Diode

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 PN Junction
• At the p-n junction, the negatively charged atoms of the n-type side
are attracted to the positively charged atoms of the p-type side.
• The electrons in the n-type material migrate across the junction to
the p-type material (electron flow).
• Similarly, the ‘holes’ in the p-type material migrate across the junction
to the n-type material (conventional current flow).
• The result is the formation of a depletion region around the junction.

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 Depletion Region
• This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the
depletion region due to the “depletion” of free carriers in the region.

Depletion Region

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 Internal Barrier Potential, Vb
• Once the PN junction is joined, free electrons from the n-type material migrate
across the newly formed junction to the p-type material.
• Similarly, the holes from the p-type material migrate to the n-type material where
a large number of free electrons exist.
• Since electrons have moved from the n-type junction, they leave behind holes
(positively charged) and holes from the p-type junction are filled with electrons
(negatively charged).
• This is known as diffusion and it continues until the number of electrons that
have moved from one junction to another have a large enough electrical charge
to repel or prevent any more charge carriers from crossing over the junction.
• A state of equilibrium then follows which produces the internal barrier potential
Vb.
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 Internal Barrier Potential, Vb

• Vb is an internal contact that cannot be measured directly, its effects can be

overcome by applying an external voltage of 0.3 V for Ge or 0.7 V for Si, in the
correct polarity. The Vb is higher for silicon (in the covalent bonds) junction
because its lower atomic number allows more stability in the covalent bonds.
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 Effect of Temperature
• The values 0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si are at normal room
temperature of 25 °C.
• However, Vb decreases at higher temperature. The reason is that
more minority charge carriers are produced by increased thermal
energy.
• The decrease in Vb is the reason why avoiding high temperature is
important precaution in operations of circuits with NPN or PNP
junction transistors.

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 Conclusions and Concepts
• A semiconductor is a material that has a conductivity level somewhere between that of a good conductor
and that of an insulator.
• A bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons between neighboring atoms, is called
covalent bonding.
• Increasing temperatures can cause a significant increase in the number of free electrons in a semiconductor
material.
• Most semiconductor materials used in the electronics industry have negative temperature coefficients ; that
is, the resistance drops with an increase in temperature.
• Intrinsic materials are those semiconductors that have a very low level of impurities, whereas extrinsic
materials are semiconductors that have been exposed to a doping process .
• An n-type material is formed by adding donor atoms that have five valence electrons to establish a high
level of relatively free electrons. In an n-type material, the electron is the majority carrier and the hole is the
minority carrier.
• A p-type material is formed by adding acceptor atoms with three valence electrons to establish a high level
of holes in the material. In a a p-type material, the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the
minority carrier.
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 DIODES

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 Topic Outcomes
• Develop a clear understanding of the basic operation and
characteristics of a diode in the no-bias, forward-bias, and reverse-
bias regions.
• Be able to calculate the dc, ac, and average ac resistance of a diode
from the characteristics.
• Understand the impact of an equivalent circuit whether it is ideal or
practical.

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 Diode
• A semiconductor device with a single
pn junction that conducts current in
only one direction. Diode Schematic Symbol and Structure

• A modern diode is a two-terminal

semiconductor device formed by two
doped regions of silicon separated by a
pn junction.

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 Diode
• made from a small piece of
semiconductor material, usually Si, in
which half is doped as a p region and
half is doped as an n region with a PN
junction and depletion region in
between.
Diode Schematic Symbol
• The p region is called the anode and is and Structure
connected to a conductive terminal.
• The n region is called the cathode and
is connected to a second conductive
terminal

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 Diode Operating Conditions

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 Diode Operating Conditions
• A diode has three operating conditions:
1. No bias – no applied voltage across the diode
2. Forward bias - established by applying the positive potential to the p-type
material and the negative potential to the n-type material.
3. Reverse bias – established by applying external potential of V volts across
the p-n junction such that the positive terminal is connected to the n-type
material and the negative terminal is connected to the p-type material.

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 No Bias

No Bias Condition

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 No Bias

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 Forward Bias
• When a diode is forward biased, the resistance of the diode is low
and there could be significant current flow across the diode
depending on the applied voltage across the terminals of the diode.

Forward Biased
Semiconductor Diode

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 Forward Bias
• As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the
number of positive ions is reduced.
• As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region
on the other side of the pn junction, the number of
negative ions is reduced. This reduction in positive and
negative ions during forward bias causes the depletion
region to narrow
• Note that minority carrier flow has not changed in
magnitude, but the reduction in the width of the
depletion region has resulted in heavy majority flow
across the junction.
• The magnitude of the majority carrier flow will increase
exponentially with increasing forward bias.
Forward Biased
Semiconductor Diode

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 Forward Bias
• There is a minimum forward bias
voltage (knee voltage) needed to
establish a significant current flow
across the diode .
• For Germanium, the knee voltage is 0.3
volt.
• For Silicon, the knee voltage is 0.7 volt.
• For Gallium Arsenide, the knee voltage is
1.2 volt
• Typically, the voltage across a
forward biased diode is no greater
than 1 volt.

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Si Diode Characteristics
 Forward Bias

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 Reverse Bias
• When the anode of the diode is made negative with respect to the cathode, the diode is said to
be reverse biased.
• The resistance of a reverse biased diode is very high (no reading in the Mohm range).

Reverse Biased
Semiconductor Diode

• The number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of the n-type material will increase due to
large number of “free” electrons drawn to the positive potential of the applied voltage.
• For similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions will increase in the p-type material. The net
effect, therefore, is the widening of the depletion region.
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 Reverse Bias
• The widening of the depletion region
will establish for a great barrier for the
majority carriers to overcome,
effectively reducing the majority
carrier flow to zero.
• The number of minority carriers,
however that find themselves entering
the depletion region will not change
resulting in minority carrier flow
vectors with the same magnitude with
no applied voltage.
• The current that exist under this
condition is called the Reverse
Saturation Current (Is).
• It is seldom more than a few
microamperes in magnitude except for
high-power devices.
• The term “saturation” comes from the
fact that it reaches the maximum
value quickly and does not change Reverse Biased
significantly with increase in the Semiconductor Diode
reverse bias potential.
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 Reverse Bias
• Values of reverse voltage
can be much higher, in the
order of 10 to 20 V or
higher, since there is no
forward current.

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Si Diode Characteristics
 Reverse Bias

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 Reverse Breakdown
• Also called Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown
• Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be
neglected. However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is
increased to a value called the breakdown voltage, the
reverse current will drastically increase.
• The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free
minority electrons so that as they speed through the p
region, they collide with atoms with enough energy to
knock valence electrons out of orbit and into the
conduction band.
• The newly created conduction electrons are also high in
energy and repeat the process. If one electron knocks
only two others out of their valence orbit during its travel Reverse Biased
through the p region, the numbers quickly multiply. Semiconductor Diode
• As these high-energy electrons go through the depletion
region, they have enough energy to go through the n
region as conduction electrons, rather than combining
with holes.
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 Reverse Breakdown
• The multiplication of conduction electrons just
discussed is known as the avalanche effect, and
reverse current can increase dramatically if steps
are not taken to limit the current.
• When the reverse current is not limited, the
resulting heating will permanently damage the
diode.
• Most diodes are not operated in reverse
breakdown, but if the current is limited (by
adding a series-limiting resistor for example),
there is no permanent damage to the diode.

Diode Characteristics

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 Diode Characteristic Curve
• The general characteristic curve of a semiconductor diode can be
defined by:
𝑉𝐷 𝑞𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 −1 = 𝐼𝑠 (𝑒 𝑛𝑘𝑇 − 1)
Where:
𝐼𝐷 = current flowing through the diode
𝐼𝑠 = reverse saturation current
𝑒 = Euler’s constant, ≈2.71828
𝑉𝐷 = applied forward bias voltage across the diode
𝑛 = ideality factor
n=1 for indirect semiconductors (Si, Ge, etc.)
n=2 for direct semiconductors
𝑘𝑇
𝑉𝑇 = thermal voltage =
𝑞
𝑘 = Boltzmann’s constant, 1.38064852 × 10-23 𝐽/𝐾
𝑇 = absolute temperature in kelvin = 273 + temp in °𝐶
𝑞 = electric charge, 1.602 × 10-19 C (Coulomb)

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 Diode Characteristic Curve
• The diode equation
applies when the diode is
forward or reverse
biased except when the
diode enters the Zener
region (diode current
rises abruptly).

Diode Characteristic Curve

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 Resistance Levels
As the operating point of a diode moves from one region to another
the resistance of the diode will also change due to the nonlinear shape
of the characteristic curve.

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 DC or Static Resistance
• The application of a DC voltage to a circuit
containing a semiconductor diode will result
in an operating point on the characteristic
curve that will not change with time.
• The resistance of the diode at the operating
point can be found simply by finding the
corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown:

𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝐷 = Determining the DC resistance
𝐼𝐷

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 AC or Dynamic Resistance
• If a sinusoidal rather than a dc input is
applied, the situation will change
completely.
• The varying input will move the
instantaneous operating point up and
down a region of the characteristics
and thus defines a specific change in
current and voltage as shown below.
• With no applied varying signal, the
point of operation would be the Q –
point (Quiescent point) appearing on
the figure, determined by the applied
dc levels. The designation Q-point is
derived from the word quiescent,
which means “still or unvarying.”

Determining the AC resistance

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 AC or Dynamic Resistance
• A straight line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q -
point as shown in the figure will define a particular change in
voltage and current that can be used to determine the ac or
dynamic resistance for this region of the diode characteristics.
• An effort should be made to keep the change in voltage and
current as small as possible and equidistant to either side of
the Q -point. In equation form,
Δ𝑉𝑑
𝑟𝑑 =
Δ𝐼𝑑
• Using the diode equation, assuming n=1, T = 27 °𝐶 = 300 K
26𝑚𝑉
𝑟𝑑 =
𝐼𝐷
Where ID is the DC (quiescent) current passing through the
diode.

Determining the AC resistance

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 Average AC Resistance
• If the input signal is sufficiently large to
produce a broad swing such as indicated in
the figure, the resistance associated with
the device for this region is called the
average AC resistance.
• The average AC resistance is, by definition,
the resistance determined by a straight line
drawn between the two intersections
established by the maximum and minimum
values of input voltage.

Δ𝑉𝑑
𝑟𝑎𝑣 = ቚ
Δ𝐼𝑑 𝑝𝑡. 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑡.
Determining the average AC resistance
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 Diode Models

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 Ideal Diode Model
• Is a perfect two-state device that
exhibits zero impedance when forward
biased and infinite impedance when Ideal Diode – Forward (a) and reverse (b) bias
reversed biased.
• The semiconductor diode behaves in a
manner similar to a mechanical switch
in that it can control whether current
will flow between its two terminals.
• Ideally, if the semiconductor diode is to
behave like a closed switch in the
forward-bias region, the resistance of
the diode should be 0 Ω. In the reverse-
bias region its resistance should be ∞ Ω Ideal Diode Characteristics
to represent the open-circuit equivalent.

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 Ideal Diode Model
• The figure shows the ideal Si diode to a
real-world Si diode.
• The only major difference is that the
real-world diode rises at 0.7 V rather
than 0V.
• When a switch is closed, the resistance
between the contacts is assumed to be
0 Ω.
• In an ideal diode, the voltage across the
diode is 0V at any current level which
means the resistance is 0 Ω.
• On the horizontal line, the resistance is Ideal vs Real world Si Diode
considered infinite ohms (open circuit)
at any point on the axis since current is 0
mA.
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 Practical or Actual Diode (Piecewise Linear
Model)
• One technique for obtaining an
equivalent circuit for a diode is to
approximate the characteristics of
the device by straight-line segments.
• The resulting equivalent circuit is
called a piecewise-linear equivalent
circuit

Components of the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit

Piecewise –Linear Segments
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 Simplified Equivalent Model
• For most applications, the resistance rav is
sufficiently small to be ignored in comparison to
the other elements of the network.
• Removing rav from the equivalent circuit is the
same as implying that the characteristics of the
diode appear as:

Simplified equivalent model

Simplified equivalent circuit characteristic plot

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 Comparison of Diodes

Comparison of Ge, Si and GaAs Diodes

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 Diode Specification Sheets

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 Diode Specification Sheets
• Data on specific semiconductor devices are normally provided by the manufacturer in one of two forms.
• Most frequently, they give a very brief description limited to perhaps one page.
• At other times, they give a thorough examination of the characteristics using graphs, artwork, tables, and so
on.
• In either case, there are specific pieces of data that must be included for proper use of the device. They
include:
1. Forward voltage1 VF
2. Maximum forward current 2 IF
3. Reverse saturation current 3 IR
4. Reverse voltage rating 2 (PIV or PVR or V(BR) , where BR is breakdown)
5. Maximum Power dissipation 2 , PD = VFIF
6. Capacitance levels
7. Reverse recovery time
8. Operating temperature range
1 at a specified current and temperature
2 at a specified temperature
3 at a specified voltage and temperature
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 Diode Specification Sheet

IF
PIV
VF

IR

Operating
temperature
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 Diode Specification Sheet

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 Typical Diode Packages

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 DO-203AB
TO-220A

Diodes
DO-14

DO-21

SOD-123
SOT-23 SOD-323
194-04 SMA/DO-214AC

339-02
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 Diode Testing
• The condition of a diode can be determined quickly using a:
1. Digital display meter (DDM) / Digital Multimeter (DMM)
2. Ohmmeter section of a multimeter
3. Curve Tracer

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 Diode Testing

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 Curve Tracer

Curve Tracer Output

Agilent Curve Tracer

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 Conclusions and Concepts
• The characteristics of an ideal diode are a close match with those of a simple switch except for the important fact that an ideal diode can conduct in
only one direction.
• The ideal diode is a short in the region of conduction and an open circuit in the region of nonconduction.
• The region near the junction of a diode that has very few carriers is called the depletion region.
• In the absence of any externally applied bias, the diode current is zero.
• In the forward-bias region the diode current increases exponentially with increase in voltage across the diode.
• In the reverse-bias region the diode current is the very small reverse saturation current until Zener breakdown is reached and current will flow in the
opposite direction through the diode.
• The reverse saturation current IS will just about double in magnitude for every 10-fold increase in temperature.
• The dc resistance of a diode is determined by the ratio of the diode voltage and current at the point of interest and is not sensitive to the shape of
the curve. The dc resistance decreases with increase in diode current or voltage.
• The ac resistance of a diode is sensitive to the shape of the curve in the region of interest and decreases for higher levels of diode current or voltage.
• The threshold voltage is about 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V for germanium diodes.
• The maximum power dissipation level of a diode is equal to the product of the diode voltage and current.
• The capacitance of a diode increases exponentially with increase in the forward-bias voltage. Its lowest levels are in the reverse-bias region.

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 End

ECE 421