CIVL 309

WATER AND WASTEWATER

TREATMENT
Nana Ackerson, Ph.D.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana

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Water Quality
• Water quality has to do with the description of given water in terms
of its characteristics.
• Characteristics of water quality: temperature; concentrations of
various kinds of particles; concentrations of dissolved materials; and
parameters such as turbidity, pH, color, conductivity, etc.
• Water quality parameters: temperature, BOD, pH, specific electrical
conductance, UV254 absorbance, etc.
• Water quality criterion is a contaminant concentration level, which
when not exceeded, will not impair a given beneficial use of water. 3
Water Quality
• Contaminant: any material/substance present in water other than
molecular water.
• Pollutant: any foreign substance (organic, inorganic, radiological, or
biological) in water, which tends to degrade its quality so as to
constitute a hazard or impair the usefulness of the water (USPHS,
1962).

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Water Quality Standard
• Water quality standard is a quasi-legal limit for a contaminant
concentration or parameter value. Can be either recommended or
enforced.
• Criterion is the basis for a standard.
• It is dependent not only on effects on uses but on economic and
cultural factors – normative.
• Normative means the norms of a society determine which
contaminants are of concern and at what levels.
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Water Quality Standard
• Water quality standards define water treatment plants’ performance
requirements.
• Treatment trains should be flexible for future stringent standards.

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Water Quality Data Uses
• Preliminary selection of unit processes
• Process control
• Regulatory compliance
• Monitoring of receiving waters
• Laboratory analyses
• Data archiving
• Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems.
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Source Water and Product Water Qualities

• Source water quality and the required product water quality dictate the
design and operation of a treatment train.
• High quality source water needed. If not available, secondary sources
can be used.
• Lower quality source water require increase in number of treatment
options.
• Different source water quality are treated to serve different purpose.
• For whatever source or product water quality characterisation is
needed.
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Category of Water Quality Characteristics

Physical Chemical Microbiological Radiological

Relate to the Microbial agents Deals with

Evidenced by involved
quality of water for radioactive
reactions
domestic use substances
Can modify physic-
chemical quality
Color, turbidity,
Hardness,
temperature, taste, E. coli, salmonella, Radon, gamma
conductivity, etc
odor. etc

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Classification of Impurities in Water
Suspended Impurities
• They develop colour.
• High turbidity.
• They develop taste.
• They serve as surfaces for
microorganisms.
• They are macroscopic or can be
microscopic
• E.g., sand, silt, algae
• Removed by sedimentation,
chemical treatment
Colloidal Impurities
• Their size is between µm to nm.
• Not removed by sedimentation
• Develop charges (anions)
• Cause colour in water and these
impurities cause epidemics.
• Have much less weight
• They come in motion due to
repulsion.
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Dissolved Impurities
• Dissolved impurities make bad taste, hardness and alkalinity.
• The concentration is measured in ppm (parts per million) or mg/l
• E.g., HCO3-, CO32-, SO42-, Cl-, heavy metals, gases (O2, H2S)

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Physical Characteristics
• Colour:
❑Caused by dissolved organic material and certain inorganic matter.
Occasionally, excessive blooms of algae or the growth of aquatic
microorganisms.
❑Often the color is apparent color from a colloidal suspension.
❑Objectionable aesthetically not health.
• Taste and Odour:
➢Caused by organic compounds, inorganic salts, or dissolved gases from
domestic, agricultural, or natural sources e.g., algae.
➢Can result as a byproduct of chlorine disinfection. 12
Physical Characteristics
• Temperature
➢The temperature of water affects some of the important physical properties
of water: thermal capacity, density, specific weight, viscosity, surface
tension, specific conductivity, salinity and solubility of dissolved gases and
etc.
➢Chemical and biological reaction rates increase with increasing temperature.
• Turbidity
❑It is the presence of suspended material such as clay, silt, finely divided
organic material, plankton, and other particulate material in water
❑Unit is nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU)
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Chemical Characteristics
• Arsenic:
❑Occurs naturally in some geologic formations.
❑It is widely used in timber treatment, agricultural chemicals (pesticides),
and the manufacture of computer chips, glass, and alloys.
❑Arsenic in drinking water linked to lung and urinary bladder cancer.
• Chloride:
➢Caused by the leaching of marine sedimentary deposits or by pollution from
sea water, brine, or industrial or domestic wastes.
➢Chloride concentrations >250 mg/L usually produce a noticeable taste.
➢Domestic water <100 mg/L of chloride is considered palatable. 14
Chemical Characteristics
• Fluoride
➢Occurs naturally in water with health benefits at optimum levels
➢Excessive fluoride in drinking water supplies may produce fluorosis
(mottling) of teeth.
• Iron
❑In geologic materials.
❑Imparts a reddish color to the water, stains bathroom fixtures and laundered
goods with a yellow to reddish-brown color, and affects the taste of
beverages such as tea and coffee.

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Chemical Characteristics
• Lead:
❑Corrosion of lead pipes
❑Lead exposure associated with interference with red blood cell formation,
kidney damage, and impaired cognitive performance.
• Manganese:
➢Naturally occurring in groundwater and anthropogenic sources include
discarded batteries, steel alloy production, and agricultural products.
➢It imparts a dark brown or black color to water and stains fixtures and cloth
washed in it.

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Chemical Characteristics
• Sodium:
➢Home water softeners may be of particular concern because they add large
quantities of sodium to the water.
➢Can affect persons suffering from heart, kidney, or circulatory ailments.
• Sulphate:
❑Caused by the leaching of natural deposits of magnesium sulfate (Epsom
salts) or sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt).
❑Has laxative effects.

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Chemical Characteristics
• Zinc:
❑From Zn ore deposits in Zn-mining areas
❑Can impart undesirable taste, though no health implications
• Toxic inorganic substances
➢Nitrates (NO3-): causes methaemoglobinemia (infant cyanosis)
➢Cyanides (CN-): ties up haemoglobin sites and results in oxygen deprivation.
Causes chronic effects on the thyroid and central nervous system
➢Heavy metals: As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg, Se, Ag.
• Toxic organic compounds:
❖Pesticides, insecticides, solvent, etc. 18
Hardness
• Hardness is a condition where water contains relatively large amounts
of HCO3-, CO32-, SO42-, and Cl- of Ca and Mg dissolved in it.

Types of
hardness

Permanent Temporary
hardness hardness
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Hardness

Permanent
• Due to the presence of sulphates,
chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium.
• Known as ‘non-carbonate hardness’
(NCH).
• Can’t be removed by simple boiling
but requires special treatment of
softening
Temporary
• Due to the presence of CO32- and
HCO3- of Ca and Mg.
• Known as ‘carbonate hardness’ (CH)
• It can be removed by boiling or by
adding lime.
• Causes deposition of Ca scales in
boilers

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 Hardness
• 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻 + 𝑁𝐶𝐻
𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 ∗𝐸𝑞.𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
• 𝑚𝑔/𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑝𝑚 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 =
𝐸𝑞. 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑜𝑛

• Where, ion = Mg, Ca, Sr (Strontium)

• Eq. weight of Mg = 12.2
• Eq. weight of Ca = 20
• Eq. weight of Sr = 43.8
• Eq. weight of CaCO3 = 50

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Effects of Hardness
• Wasteful consumption of soap while washing and bathing.
• Modifies colour if used in dyeing work and washing clothes.
• Produces scale in steam boiler and its pipe which reduces heat transfer and
finally causes leak.
• Causes corrosion and incrustation of pipelines and fittings.
• Scale formation further causes corrosion, caustic brittleness, decreases
efficiency and danger of burst of pipe line and boiler.
• Makes food tasteless, more fuel consumption and causes bad effects to our
digestive system.

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Alkalinity
• Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water.
• It is an aggregate of the sum of all titratable bases in the sample.
• Alkalinity in most natural waters is due to the presence of CO32-,
HCO3-, and OH- anion
[𝐻𝐶𝑂3− ]
• 𝐵𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
1.22
[𝐶𝑂32− ]
• 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
0.6

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Alkalinity
• Alkalinity caused by hydroxides is called hydroxide/caustic alkalinity

• Alkalinity caused by carbonate is called carbonate alkalinity

• Alkalinity caused by bicarbonate is called bicarbonate alkalinity.

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Organic Contaminants in Water
• 3 groups of organic contaminants in water (Randtke, 1988):
❑Natural organic matter (NOM): Humic substances, microbial
exudates, animal wastes, and products of degraded tissue.
❑Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs): Pesticides, volatile organic
chemicals (VOCs), and other chemicals produced commercially or as
waste products of manufacturing.
❑Chemical by-products and additives: Substances that enter or are
formed during treatment or in the distribution system
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Natural Organic Matter (NOM)
• It is comprised mostly of humic and fulvic acids; products of decaying
vegetative organic matter
• It is a source of colour in water.
• It is a precursor of disinfection byproducts (DBPs)
• Residual NOM after treatment may serve as substrate for bacterial
growths in the distribution system.

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Microbiological Characteristics
• Water for potable use should be free from pathogens.
• Bacteria
• Helminths
Pathogens (worms)
• Protozoa
• Viruses

• Faecal discharge
Faecal from infected
people
Origin • Faecal discharge
of animals
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Microbiological Characteristics
• The most widely used test estimates the number of microorganisms of the
coliform group.
• This grouping includes two genera: Escherichia coli and Aerobacter
aerogenes.
• E. coli are common inhabitants of the intestinal tract.
• Aerobacter are common in the soil, on leaves, and on grain; on occasion
they cause urinary tract infections. The test for these microorganisms, called
the Total Coliform Test.
• Examination of E. coli as indicator of biological contamination???.
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Why Total Coliform Test is Selected
• The coliform group of organisms normally inhabits the intestinal tracts of
humans and other mammals, thus presence is faecal contamination
• Even in acutely ill individuals, the number of coliform organisms excreted
in the feces outnumber the disease-producing organisms by several orders
of magnitude.
• The coliform group of organisms survives in natural waters for relatively
long periods of time but does not reproduce effectively in this environment.
• The coliform group of organisms is relatively easy to culture.

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Microbiological Characteristics
• The two protozoa of most concern are Giardia lamblia and
Cryptosporidium parvum.
• Both pathogens are associated with gastrointestinal illness.
• The dormant Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts are carried in
animals in the wild and on farms.

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Radiological Characteristics
• The use of atomic energy as a power source, the mining of radioactive
materials, naturally occurring radioactive materials, are sources of
radioactive substances in drinking water.

• Drinking water standards have been established for alpha particles,

beta particles, photons emitters, radium-226 and - 228, and uranium.

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Raw Water Characteristics
• Source water and finished/treated water qualities are basis for selecting
treatment processes to achieve treatment efficiency.
• Soft water target: the dissolve cations and anions as well as alkalinity,
carbon dioxide, pH, and total hardness
• If softening is not needed: sodium, alkalinity, conductivity, pH, and total
organic carbon
• Groundwater composition not variable: annual grab sample will suffice
• Surface water composition is variable: more extensive time dependent data
are desirable.
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Raw Water Characteristics
• The ability of a selected design to consistently meet regulatory and client
water quality goals is enhanced when the range of the source water quality
is within the range of quality that the plant can successfully treat (Logsdon
et al., 1999).
• Sanitary survey should be conducted.
• Sanitary survey is a field investigation that covers a large geographic area
beyond the immediate area surrounding the water supply source.
• The aim of the sanitary survey is to detect potential health hazards and
assess their present and future importance.

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Ghana Water Quality Standards – Physical

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Ghana Water Quality Standards – Chemical

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Ghana Water Quality Standards – Microbial

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Disinfectants/Disinfection by-Products (DBPs)
• Disinfectants are used to destroy pathogens.
• Its reaction with organic matter forms disinfection by-products (DBPs)
• DBPs are of health concerns and some are regulated
• The two main classes that are regulated are trihalomethanes (THMs) and
haloacetic acids (HAAs).
• THMs – CHCl3, CHBrCl2, CHBr2Cl, CHBr3.
• HAAS – CCl3COOH, CHCl2COOH, CH2ClCOOH, CH2BrCOOH,
CHBr2COOH
• Other regulated DBPs – bromate, chlorite,

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